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Culture and Time Perception: Implications for Mental Representation and Decisions University of Plymouth PEARL https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk 04 University of Plymouth Research Theses 01 Research Theses Main Collection 2018 Culture and Time Perception: Implications for Mental Representation and Decisions Tan, Siew Hong http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/12834 University of Plymouth All content in PEARL is protected by copyright law. Author manuscripts are made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the details provided on the item record or document. In the absence of an open licence (e.g. Creative Commons), permissions for further reuse of content should be sought from the publisher or author. CULTURE AND TIME PERCEPTION: IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL REPRESENTATION AND DECISIONS By Siew Hong Tan A thesis submitted to University of Plymouth In partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Psychology May 2018 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation from this thesis and no information from it may be published without the author's prior consent. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am immensely grateful to my PhD committee, Dr. Natalie Wyer, Prof. Tim Hollins, and Dr. Michaela Gummerum, who have given me precious guidance along my PhD journey. I would like to express special thanks to Dr. Natalie Wyer and Prof. Tim Hollins, who have been great mentors to me, and provided me with the guidance, support, and freedom to grow intellectually. I am also very thankful to Dr. Ben Whalley, who has reliably provided me with statistical advice and introduced R to me. Lastly and the most importantly, I would like to thank Anthony Mcdonald, who has made my PhD adventure possible, for his love, support, and belief in me. AUTHOR’S DECLARATION At no time during the registration for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy has the author been registered for any other University award without prior agreement of the Doctoral College Quality Sub-Committee. Work submitted for this research degree at the University of Plymouth has not formed part of any other degree either at the University of Plymouth or at another establishment. Word count of main body of thesis: 51,105 Signed: Date: 3 Oct 2018 ABSTRACT Culture and Time Perception: Implications for Mental Representation and Decisions Siew Hong Tan This thesis examines cultural variations in time perception, as well as the possible influences on mental representation and decisions. Building on prior research on cultural differences in time-related perceptions, two main time perceptions were identified and focused on, namely temporal orientation and the use of time metaphor. The temporal orientation line of investigation explores the implications of a stronger future versus past orientation among English and Mandarin-speakers respectively. Based on Construal Level Theory, temporal orientation is expected to be related to psychological distance, which in turn affects the mental representations individuals form. The findings supported a stronger future orientation among English-speakers which is also evident in their mental representations that vary as a function of temporal orientation. However, Mandarin-speakers exhibited neither a strong past nor future orientation. A study examining the possible influence of temporal orientation on value judgment revealed a complex association between culture and value judgment. The time metaphor line of inquiry investigates the use of time metaphors among English and Mandarin-speakers and also the possible implications of such tendencies. Although previous psychological research implies a possible connection between the use of time metaphor and sense of personal control, this relationship is yet to be established. The findings showed supportive evidence of a frequent use of ego and time-moving metaphors among English and Mandarin-speakers respectively. However, studies examining the relationship between the use of time metaphor, perceived personal control, and decisions (optimism bias and risk-taking) revealed little supportive evidence of an association between them. The findings and a range of methodological and theoretical implications are discussed in the closing chapter. LIST OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….III Author’s Declaration ………………………………………………………………….…………………..…………..…………IV Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….V List of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………VI List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………..X List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….XII Chapter 1: Culture and Time Perception …………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 The Cultural Perspective …………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 1.1.1 Defining Culture …………………………………………………………………………………………….……………2 1.1.2 Culture and Cognition …………………………………………………………………………………………………4 Culture and Self-construal ………………………………………………………………………………………….7 Culture and Perception of Control ………………………………………………………………………………8 1.2 Culture and Time Perception …………………………………………………………………………………………………11 1.2.1 Metaphorical Time Representation ………………………………………………………………………….12 Ego-moving vs. Time-moving Metaphorical Representation of Time …………………..……15 Metaphor: More Than a Conceptual Representation ……………………………………………….19 1.2.2 Temporal Orientation ……………………………………………………………………………………………….21 Temporal Orientation and Psychological Distance ……………………………………………………22 Psychological Distance and Mental Representation ………………………………………………….24 Mental Representation & Temporal Value Asymmetry …………………………………………….26 Mental Representation & Culture …………………………………………………………………………….29 1.3 Summary: Culture and Time Perception ……………………………………………………………………………….31 1.4 Overview of Present Research ………………………………………………………………………………………………32 Chapter 2: Cultural Differences in Time Perception………………………………………………….34 2.1 Culture and Temporal Orientation ………………………………………………………………………………………..34 2.2 Culture and Time Metaphor ………………………………………………………………………………………………….38 2.2.1 Time, Language, and Perceived Control ……………………………………………………………………38 2.2.2 Culture and Perceived Control ………………………………………………………………………………….41 2.3 Study 1: Cultural Differences in Time Perception and Perceived Control ………………………………46 2.3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46 2.3.2 Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….49 Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….49 Materials ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….50 Procedure …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………52 2.3.2 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………53 2.3.3 Discussion of Study 1 …………..……………………………………………………………………………………57 Chapter 3: Temporal Orientation: Implications for Mental Representation and Value Judgment ………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………62 3.1 Temporal orientation, Psychological Distance, and Mental Representation ……………….…………62 3.2 Imagination and Memory ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..63 3.3 Phenomenological Characteristics of Mental Representation ………………………………………….……66 3.4 Study 2: Temporal Orientation, Culture, and Mental Representation I …………………………….……72 3.4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……72 3.4.2 Method ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………75 Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………75 Materials …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……75 Design ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………76 Procedure …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………78 3.4.3 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………81 3.4.4 Discussion of Study 2 ………………………………………………………………………………….….…………88 3.5 Study 3: Temporal Orientation, Culture, and Mental Representation II ……………..…………………94 3.5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………94 3.5.2 Method ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…95 Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95 Materials ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….96 Design ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………96 Procedure …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………97 3.5.3 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………98 3.5.4 Discussion of Study 3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………106 3.6 Study 4: Temporal Orientation, Culture, and Value Judgment …………………………………………….111 3.6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………111 3.6.2 Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..118 Participants …………………………………………………………………………………………………….………118 Design and Procedure ……………………………………………………………………………………….……119 3.6.3 Results ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………120 3.6.4 Discussion of Study 4 ………………………………………………………………………………………………122 3.7 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………125 Chapter 4: Time perception: Implications for Judgment and Decision- making ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...128 4.1 Study 5: Time Metaphors, Perceived Control, and Unrealistic Optimism …………………………….134 4.1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………134 4.1.2 Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………136 Participants …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….136 Materials ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…137 Procedure …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…139 4.1.3 Results ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………139 4.1.4 Discussion of Study 5 ………………………………………………………………………………………………146 4.2 Study 6A & 6B: Relationship between Time Metaphors, Perceived Control, and Risk-taking Tendency ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………152
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