a Grace Notes course

The Acts of the Apostles

Chapters 22 to 28

Compiled by Warren Doud

Grace Notes Web Site: http://www.gracenotes.info E-mail: [email protected]

ACTS - compiled by Warren Doud Chapters 22 to 28 Contents Acts 22 ...... 3 Acts 23 ...... 17 Acts 24 ...... 37 Acts 25 ...... 51 Acts 26 ...... 62 Acts 27 ...... 97 Acts 28 ...... 129

against him, of speaking ill of the people of the The Acts course is published in four parts, with Jews, the law of Moses, and of the temple, and seven chapters in each part. The files are titled: in order to clear himself of these imputations, ACTS_chap1-7, ACTS_chap8-14, ACTS_chap15- and vindicate his character and conduct. 21, and ACTS_chap22-28. ACTS 22:2. And when they heard that he spoke in the Hebrew tongue to them, (see Gill ACTS 22 on “Acts 21:40”). ACTS 22 TOPICAL STUDIES they kept the more silence; it being their There are topical studies in categorical mother tongue, and which they best doctrine, history, biography, geography, and understood; and which the captain and the word studies accompanying each chapter of Roman soldiers might not so well under stand; Acts. They should be studied along with the and chiefly because the Hellenistic language verse by verse commentary. was not so agreeable to them, nor the Hellenistic Jews, who spoke the Greek language, To read these files, view or download them from the Grace Notes Topics Library: and used the Greek version of the Bible; and such an one they took Paul to be, besides his https://www.gracenotes.online/topics/ being a Christian; wherefore when they heard him speak in the Hebrew tongue, it conciliated Ananias (of Damascus) their minds more to him, at least engaged their Baptism attention the more to what he was about to say: Hellenists and Hebrews and he said; the Syriac and Ethiopic versions Jewish Teaching – Talmud add, “to them”, as follows. Persecution in the Early Church ACTS 22:3. I am verily a man which am a Jew, By birth, a thorough genuine one; an Hebrew of Priesthood of the Jews the Hebrews, both by father and mother side, Repentance both parents being Jews, and so a true ACTS 22:1. Men, brethren, and fathers, A descendant from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: common form of address used by the Jews; (see born in Tarsus, a city in Cilicia; (see Gill on Acts 7:2) but that the apostle should introduce “Acts 21:39”). his speech to these people in this manner, after yet brought up in this city; the city of they had treated him so inhumanly, as to drag Jerusalem; though Tarsus was the place of his him out of the temple, and beat him so birth, he had his education at Jerusalem: unmercifully, is remarkable, and worthy of observation, when they scarcely deserved the at the feet of Gamaliel; of whom (see Acts name of “men”; and yet he not only gives them 5:34) it was the custom of scholars among the this, but calls them “brethren”, they being his Jews, to sit at the feet of their masters, when countrymen and kinsmen according to the instructed by them; (see Deuteronomy 33:3) flesh; and fathers, there being some among hence that saying of Jose ben Joezer; “let thy them, who might be men in years, and even house be an house of resort for the wise men, members of the Sanhedrin, and elders of the and be thou dusting thyself, , “with the dust of people, that were now got among the crowd: their feet”:” which by one of their this shows how ready the apostle was to put up commentators is interpreted two ways, either with affronts, and to forgive injuries done him: “as if it was said that thou shouldst walk after them; for he that walks raises the dust with his hear ye my defense, which I make now unto feet, and he that goes after him is filled with the you; in opposition to the charges brought dust which he raises with his feet; or else that

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thou shouldst sit at their feet upon the ground, consented to their death, as he did to Stephen’s; for so it was usual, that the master sat upon a and whenever it was put to the vote, whether bench, and the scholars sat at his feet upon the they should die or not, he gave his voice against floor.” them; so that he was a most bitter enemy, and This latter sense is commonly understood, and an implacable persecutor of them; which shows adapted to the passage here, as illustrating it; how very averse he was to this way, and how though it may be, that the sense may only be great his prejudices were against it; wherefore this, that the apostle boarded in Gamaliel’s it must be a work of divine power, and there house, ate at his table, and familiarly conversed must be the singular hand of God in it, to with him; which he modestly expresses by reconcile him to it, and cause him to embrace being brought up at his feet, who was a man and profess it: that was had in great reverence with the Jews; binding and delivering into prisons, both and this sense seems the rather to be the sense men and women: (see Acts 8:3, 9:2). of the passage, since his learning is expressed in ACTS 22:5. As also the high priest doth bear the next clause; and since; till after Gamaliel’s me witness, Either Annas, or Caiaphas, who time. was at that time high priest; and it should seem It was not usual for scholars to sit when they by this, that he was still in being; or else that learned; for the tradition is , that “from the the apostle had preserved his letter, written times of Moses to Rabban Gamaliel, they (the with his own hand, which he was able to scholars) did not learn the law but standing; produce at any time, as a testimony of the truth after Rabban Gamaliel died, sickness came into of what he had said, or was about to say; since the world, and they learned the law sitting; and he speaks of him (as now) bearing him witness, hence it is said, that after Rabban Gamaliel died, or as one that could. the glory of the law ceased.” It follows, and all the estate of the elders; the whole [and] taught according to the perfect law of Jewish Sanhedrin, for this character respects the fathers; not the law which the Jewish not men in years, but men in office, and such fathers received from Moses, though Paul was who were members of the high court of instructed in this, but in the oral law, the judicature in Jerusalem; “Mishna”, or traditions of the elders, in which from whom also I received letters unto the he greatly profited, and exceeded others, brethren; some render it “against the (Galatians 1:14). brethren”, as if the Christians were meant; And was zealous towards God; or “a zealot of whereas the apostle intends the Jews of the God”; one of those who were called “Kanaim”, synagogue at Damascus, whom the apostle calls or zealots; who in their great zeal for the glory brethren; because they were of the same of God, took away the lives of men, when they nation, and his kinsmen according to the flesh; found them guilty of what they judged a capital and, at that time, of the same religion and crime; (see Matthew 10:4, John 16:2). The principles with him; and this is put out of Vulgate Latin version reads, “zealous of the doubt, by the Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic law”; both written and oral, the law of Moses, versions, which render it, “the brethren that and the traditions of the fathers: were at Damascus”: and these letters were to as ye all are this day; having a zeal for God, recommend him to them, and to empower him and the law, but not according to knowledge. to persecute the Christians, and to demand and require their assistance in it; the Ethiopic ACTS 22:4. And I persecuted this way unto version calls them, “letters of power”; and it the death, That is, the Christian religion, and seems from hence, that these letters were the professors of it; whom the apostle breathed received from the whole Sanhedrin, as well as out threatenings and slaughter against, haled from the high priest, and were signed by both: out of their houses, and committed to prison;

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and went to Damascus to bring them which brightness of the sun, and so dazzled his eyes, were there bound unto Jerusalem, for to be that he could not see his way into the city, some punished: with stripes, or with death, as they of his company took him by the hand, and led should be judged worthy; (see Acts 9:2). him: and ACTS 22:6. And it came to pass, that as I being led by the hand of them that were with made my journey, And had almost made an me, I came unto Damascus but not with the end of it: same view he set out with: he took his journey and was come nigh unto Damascus; about a thither, and pursued it, in order to persecute mile from it, as some say, the saints there; but now he enters into it, to be informed by one of them what he must do for about noon; this circumstance is omitted in the Christ, whom he had persecuted. account in (Acts 9:3) and is mentioned here, not so much to inform what time of day it was, that ACTS 22:12. And one Ananias, a devout man Saul came to Damascus, as to observe how according to the law, The Alexandrian copy, extraordinary that light must be, which then and Vulgate Latin version, read only, “a man appeared, as follows: according to the law”; one whose walk, life, and conversation, were agreeable to it: a strict suddenly there shone from heaven a great observer of the law of Moses, both moral and light round about me; and not only about him, ceremonial: he not only lived a holy life and but those that were with him, (Acts 26:13). This conversation, according to the moral law, but must be a great light indeed, to be distinguished he religiously and devoutly attended to the at noon, and to be above the brightness of the rituals of the ceremonial law; and this part of sun, and to have such effect upon the apostle his character the apostle chose to mention, as and his company as it had; (Acts 9:3). what would recommend him to the notice of ACTS 22:7. And I fell unto the ground, And so the Jews he now addressed: for though he was a did those that were with him, (Acts 26:14). disciple, a believer in Christ, yet as many of the And heard a voice, saying unto me, Saul, Saul, believing Jews did, so he strictly observed the why persecutest thou me? (See Gill on “Acts rituals of the law. The Ethiopic version adds, 9:4”). “who was of the apostles”; one of that number, ACTS 22:8. And I answered, who art thou, and in that office, which is nowhere said that he Lord? (See Gill on “Acts 9:5”). was; and had he, it would not have been agreeable to the apostle’s design to have ACTS 22:9. And they that were with me saw mentioned it; and he is said to be one of the indeed the light, For it shone about them, as well as Saul: seventy disciples, and bishop or pastor of the church at Damascus; (see Gill on “Luke 10:1”). and were afraid; the Alexandrian copy, the Of this Ananias, his name and character, (see Vulgate Latin, and Syriac versions, have not this Gill on “Acts 9:10”). clause; but it stands in the Arabic and Ethiopic versions; the suddenness, greatness, and Having a good report of all the Jews that extraordinariness of the light surprised them, dwelt there: that is, at Damascus, as the for it was even miraculous: Ethiopic version reads; the Alexandrian copy, and several other copies; for though he was a but they heard not the voice of him that spoke Christian, yet being not only a man of an to me: they heard the voice of Saul, but not the unblemished life and conversation, but zealous voice of Christ; at least they did not hear it so as and devout in the observance of the ceremonial to understand it; (see Gill on “Acts 9:7”). law, was very much interested in the affections ACTS 22:10. And I said, what shall I do, Lord? and esteem of the Jews. (See Gill on “Acts 9:6”). ACTS 22:13. Came unto me, Being at the ACTS 22:11. And when I could not see for the house of Judas, in that street of Damascus called glory of that light, Which was above the

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Straight, (Acts 9:11) and stood; at the side of fullness, and suitableness as a Saviour; the him, or by him, putting his hands on him: former of these was what many kings, prophets, and said unto me, brother Saul; (see Gill on and righteous men desired: and the latter is “Acts 9:17”). what is inseparably connected with eternal life and salvation. receive thy sight, “or look up”, And shouldest hear the voice of his mouth; and the same hour I looked up upon him; that both his human voice in articulate sounds, is, immediately, directly: for so the phrase, “that when he spoke to him in the Hebrew tongue, as same hour”, is frequently used by the Jews: the in (Acts 22:7) and the voice of his Gospel, of words in (Numbers 16:21) “that I may consume which he appeared to make him a minister; them in a moment”, are rendered by Onkelos, which is a voice of love, grace, and mercy, of “that I may consume them in an hour”; for an peace, pardon, righteousness, and salvation, hour is used for a moment with them. and is very powerful when accompanied by the ACTS 22:14. And he said, the God of our Spirit, and is soul charming, alluring, and fathers hath chosen thee, From all eternity, in comforting. his everlasting purposes and decrees; or “he hath taken thee into his hand”; in order to form, ACTS 22:15. For thou shalt be his witness , Gentiles as well as Jews, an eye and fit, and qualify him for his service; and may unto all men and an ear witness to them; design both his call by grace, and to apostleship. The apostle represents Ananias as speaking of of what thou hast seen and heard; as that he God, as the God of the Jewish fathers, of saw him personally and alive, and so could Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to show that the witness to the truth of his resurrection; for Christian doctrine was not contrary to the faith after he had been seen by all the apostles, he of the one God of Israel; nor did it introduce any was last of all seen of Paul; and also, that he other, or any new deity. The ends of this choice heard him and received from him the Gospel, or separation were, and a mission and commission to preach it; for what he preached he did not receive of man, that thou shouldest know his will; his revealed nor was he taught it by any, but he had it by will, concerning the salvation of men by Jesus revelation from Jesus Christ. Christ, which is no other than the Gospel, of which the apostle had been entirely ignorant; ACTS 22:16. And now why tarriest thou? for though he knew the will of God, as revealed Though it might not be the apostle’s case, yet it in the law, or his will of command, yet not is often the case of many, to procrastinate and spiritually; and he was altogether a stranger, till delay obedience to the commands of Christ, and now, to God’s will, way, and method of saving particularly to the ordinance of baptism: the sinners by Christ, of justifying them by his reasons of which delay are, the strength of their righteousness, and of pardoning their sins corruptions, and the weakness of their graces, through his blood, and of giving them eternal which cause them to question whether they life by him; and the knowledge of this he came have any interest in Christ; as also fears of at by the spirit of wisdom and revelation, in falling away, and so of dishonoring Christ, his consequence of his being chosen and called: Gospel, and ordinance: and in some the reproaches of men; and sometimes such a delay and see that just One: Jesus Christ the is made, waiting for more comfortable frames, righteous, who is both as he is God, and as he is or for a greater fitness; but no such delay, nor man, and also as he is Mediator, having on such accounts, ought to be; for it is a faithfully discharged his office, and performed command of Christ, and ought to be forthwith his engagements; him the apostle saw, both complied with, as soon as a man believes; and with the eyes of his body, when he met him in to obey it is a following of Christ, in which no the way, and called unto him, and with the eyes time should be lost: and the consequences of a of his understanding beholding his beauty, delay are very bad: it is a prevention of the

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glory of Christ, as well as shows ingratitude to which was three years after he came to him, and a bereaving of ourselves of that Jerusalem; (see Galatians 1:17,18) comfort, which might be hoped to be enjoyed; even while I prayed in the temple; the temple and it often induces a carelessness about the was an house of prayer; hither persons ordinance, and even a losing the sense of the resorted for that purpose; and as the apostle duty: had been used to it, he continued this custom, arise, and be baptized; this shows that and during the time of prayer he fell into an Ananias was a Christian, since he directs to an ecstasy: ordinance of Christ, and that he was a preacher I was in a trance: and knew not whether he of the word, and had a right to administer was in the body, or out of the body: whether baptism; for that it was administered by him, this was the time he refers to in (2 Corinthians though not in express terms yet seems to be 12:2) is not certain, though probable. naturally concluded from (Acts 9:18) as also ACTS 22:18. And I saw him saying unto me, this passage shows, that baptism was not That is, the Lord Jesus Christ, that just One, administered by sprinkling, since Saul might whom he had seen in his way to Damascus, and have sat still, and have had some water brought whose voice he had heard, and whose name he to him, and sprinkled on him; but by had called upon at his baptism: immersion, seeing he is called upon to arise, and go to some place proper and convenient for make haste, and get thee quickly out of the administration of it, according to the usage Jerusalem: not because his life was in danger, of John, and the apostles of Christ. but because Christ had work for him to do elsewhere, which required haste; and that he “And wash away thy sins”; or “be washed from might not continue here useless and thy sins”; not that it is in the power of man to unprofitable, as he would have been, had he cleanse himself from his sins; the Ethiopian staid; may as soon change his skin, or the leopard his spots, as a creature do this; nor is there any for they will not receive thy testimony such efficacy in baptism as to remove the filth concerning me; Christ the omniscient God, and of sin; persons may submit unto it, and yet be the searcher of the hearts, knew the hardness as Simon Magus was, in the gall of bitterness, and unbelief of the Jews; and that they would and bond of iniquity; but the ordinance of continue therein, notwithstanding the ministry baptism, may be, and sometimes is, a means of of the apostle; and that they would give no leading the faith of God’s children to the blood credit to any testimony of his, that he saw him, of Christ, which cleanses from all sin; as he went to Damascus, and heard words from his mouth. The Ethiopic version renders it ; the name of calling on the name of the Lord without the negative, “for they will receive thee, the Lord is not only to be used by the my witness concerning me”; as if Christ sent the administrator of baptism in the performance of apostle away in all haste from Jerusalem, lest he it; but it should be called upon by the person preaching there, the Jews should believe and be who submits to it, both before and at the healed; compare with this (Matthew 13:14,15). administration of it, for the presence of Christ Very likely this interpreter might be induced to in it; and this invocation of the name of the Lord leave out the negative, as thinking that the in baptism, signifies an exercise of faith in apostle’s reasoning in the following words Christ at this time, a profession of him, and required such a sense and reading. obedience to him. ACTS 22:19. And I said, Lord, they know, that ACTS 22:17. And it came to pass, that when I I imprisoned, Men and women, that made a , Which was was come again to Jerusalem profession of the Christian religion, (Acts 8:3) three years after his conversion; for he did not immediately return to Jerusalem, but went into and beat in every synagogue them that Arabia; and when he returned to Damascus, believed on thee; in Jerusalem there were

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many synagogues, and in these scourging and and so by a divine mission and commission he beating of offenders were used; (see Gill on became the apostle of the Gentiles, and “Matthew 10:17”). preached the Gospel among them with great ACTS 22:20. And when the blood of thy success, to the conversion of many thousands of martyr Stephen was shed, Stephen was a them, and to the planting of many churches in martyr for Christ, both by confession with his the midst of them. mouth, and by the effusion of his blood; he was ACTS 22:22. And they gave him audience the proto-martyr, or “the first martyr” that unto this word. The Ethiopic version reads, suffered for Christ; and there are copies, as one “and I heard him so speaking unto me”; as if it of Stephens’s, and the Complutensian edition, was to be understood of the apostle hearing which so read in this place; his blood was shed Christ speaking to him concerning his mission by stoning: to the Gentiles; whereas the words refer to the I also was standing by; to see the inhuman Jews attending quietly to the apostle, till he action performed; nor was he an idle and came to that part of his oration. indifferent spectator: They heard him patiently, and did not offer to and consenting unto his death; being pleased molest him, or hinder his speaking, and being and delighted with it, and rejoicing at it; (see heard, till he came to mention his mission to the Acts 8:1). Gentiles: all the rest they either did not understand, or looked upon it as an idle tale, as and kept the raiment of them that slew him; the effect of madness and enthusiasm, at least the accusers of him, and witnesses against him, as containing things they had nothing to do whose hands were first on him, and cast the with; but when he came to speak of the first stones at him, and continued to stone him, Gentiles, and to pretend to a divine mission to until they killed him: these laid their garments them, this they could not bear; for nothing was at the feet of Saul, who looked after them, that more offensive, irritating, and provoking to nobody stole them, and run away with them, them, than to hear of the calling of the Gentiles, whilst they were stoning Stephen; which shows whom they were for depriving of all blessings, how disposed he was to that fact, and how and for engrossing all to themselves; (see much he approved of it: and these things he Romans 10:20). mentions to suggest that surely the Jews would receive his testimony, since they knew what a and then lift up their voices; in a very loud and bitter enemy he had been to this way: and clamorous manner, as one man: therefore might conclude, that he must have and said, away with such a fellow from the some very good and strong reasons, which had earth; take away his life from the earth: this prevailed upon him to embrace this religion they said either to the chief captain, to do it, or against all his prejudices, and so might be as encouraging one another to do it: willing to hear them; and it also shows what an for it is not fit that he should live; he does not affection the apostle had for the Jews, and how deserve to live, he is unworthy of life; it is not much he desired their spiritual welfare, for agreeable to the rules of justice that he should which reason he chose to have stayed, and be spared; it is not convenient, and it may be of preached among them. bad consequence should he be continued any ACTS 22:21. And he said unto me, depart, At longer; he may do a deal of mischief, and poison once from Jerusalem, and out of the land of the minds of the people with bad notions, and Judea: therefore it is not expedient that he should live. for I will send thee far hence unto the ACTS 22:23. And as they cried out, In this Gentiles; to the nations afar off, even as far as furious manner: Illyricum, Pannonia, or Hungary, where the apostle went and preached, (Romans 15:19)

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and cast off their clothes; either like madmen, perhaps the stretching out of the arms to the that knew not what they did, or in order to pillar, and a bending forward of the whole stone him; (see Acts 7:57,58). body, which fitly expresses the stooping and threw dust into the air either with their inclining posture of the person scourged, and hands, or by striking the earth, and scraping it was a very proper one for such a punishment: with their feet, through indignation and wrath, now as they were thus fastening him with like persons possessed, or mad. thongs to the pillar, and putting him in this position, ACTS 22:24. The chief captain commanded him to be brought into the castle, Into the Paul said unto the centurion that stood by; to inside of it; for till now he was upon the top of see the soldiers execute the orders received the stairs, or steps, which led up to it; which from the chief captain: might be done in order to save him from the is it lawful for you to scourge a man that is a rage of the people, and that he might privately Roman, and uncondemned? Though the examine him, and get the true state of his case, apostle puts this by way of question, yet he though he took a very wrong and unjustifiable knew full well what the Roman laws were in method to do it in, as follows: such cases; he did not put this through and bade that he should be examined by ignorance, or for information, but to let them scourging; he gave a centurion, with some know who he was, and to put them in mind of soldiers, orders to scourge and whip him, and these laws, and of their duty; for, according to to lay on stripes more and harder, until he the Porcian law, Roman citizens were not to be should tell the whole truth of the matter, and beaten . confess the crime or crimes he was guilty of, Hence, says Cicero, “it is a heinous sin to bind a which had so enraged the populace: Roman citizen, it is wickedness to beat him, it is that he might know wherefore they cried so next to parricide to kill him, and what shall I say against him; for though he had rescued him to crucify him?” And, according to the Valerian out of their hands, when they would in all law, it was not lawful for magistrates to likelihood have beat him to death; and though condemn a Roman without hearing the cause, he took him within the castle to secure him and pleading in it; and such condemned from their violence; yet he concluded he must persons might appeal to the populace . be a bad man, and must have done something ACTS 22:26. When the centurion heard that, criminal; and therefore he takes this method to The question put by Paul, which strongly extort from him a confession of his crime, for suggested that he was a Roman: which the people exclaimed against him with so he went and told the chief captain; what Paul much virulence. had said: saying, take heed what thou dost; or ACTS 22:25. And as they bound him with “art about to do”; lest some bad consequences thongs, To a pillar, in order to be scourged, should follow; lest he should affront the Roman according to the Roman manner . Nor was the people and senate, and lose his place, if not Jewish form of scourging much unlike, and incur some corporeal punishment: perhaps might be now used, which was this; for this man is a Roman; and it can never be when they scourge anyone they bind both his answered to bind and beat a Roman. hands to a pillar, here and there — and they do ACTS 22:27. Then the chief captain came, and not strike him standing nor sitting, but inclining said unto him, To Paul: ; for the pillar to which he was bound was fixed in the ground, and so high as for a man to lean tell me, art thou a Roman? he had told him upon ; and some say it was two cubits, and before that he was a Jew of Tarsus, and which others a cubit and a half high : and the word was true, and had said nothing of his being a here used signifies an extension, or distension; Roman; wherefore the chief captain desires that

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he would tell him the whole truth of the matter, wherefore he was accused of the Jews; which, whether he was a Roman or not: as yet, he could not come at, some saying one he said yea; that he was one. thing, and some another; and which he ought to have known before he had bound him, and ACTS 22:28. And the chief captain answered, ordered him to be scourged: with a great sum obtained I this freedom, For, it seems, he was not a Roman born, but he loosed him from his bands not from his very likely a Grecian, or Syrian, by his name being bound with thongs to the pillar, that he Lysias; and as all things were now venal at had been loosed from before, but from the two Rome, the freedom of the city was to be bought chains with which he was bound, and held by with money, though a large sum was insisted on two soldiers; (see Acts 21:33,35). for it: this the chief captain said, as wondering and commanded the chief priests, and all the that so mean a person, and who he understood council to appear, the whole Jewish Sanhedrin, was a Jew by birth, should be able to procure which was now very much under the direction such a privilege, which cost him so much and influence of the Romans: and this he the money: rather did, because, though he could not come and Paul said, but I was free born; being born at the certainty of the charge and accusation, he at Tarsus; which, as Pliny says , was a free city, perceived it was a matter of religion, and so and which had its freedom given it by Mark belonged to them to examine and judge of: Antony, and which was before the birth of Paul; and brought Paul down; from the Castle of and therefore his parents being of this city, and Antonia, into the temple, and to the place where free, he was born so. the Sanhedrin sat, which formerly was in the ACTS 22:29. Then straightway they departed chamber Gazith, but of late years it had from him, which should have examined him, removed from place to place, and indeed from By scourging; namely, the soldiers, who under Jerusalem itself, and was now at Jabneh; only the inspection of the centurion, and by the this was the time of Pentecost, and so the chief order of the chief captain, were binding him priests and Sanhedrin were at Jerusalem on with thongs to scourge him, and thereby extort that account: from him his crime, which was the cause of all and set him before them; or “among them”; in this disturbance; but hearing that he was a the midst of them, to answer to what charges Roman, either of their own accord, or rather at should be brought against him. the order of their officers, either the centurion Baptism or chief captain, or both, left binding him, and Introduction went their way: The word baptize is from the Greek word and the chief captain also was afraid after he baptidzo which means to identify or to be ; lest he should be knew that he was a Roman made one with. In early Greek, the word had called to an account for his conduct, and his both religious and secular meanings. In commission should be taken from him: chiefly, general, it refers to the act of identifying one and because he had bound him; not only had thing with another thing in such a way that its commanded him to be bound with thongs to a nature or character is changed, or it represents pillar, in order to be scourged, but he had the idea that a real change has already taken bound him with two chains, when first seized place. him; and, as before observed, (see Gill on “Acts As a reference to identification, baptize means 22:25”); it was a heinous crime to bind a to place a person or thing into a new Roman. environment, or into union with some one or ACTS 22:30. On the morrow, The next day; so something else, so as to alter his or its condition that Paul was kept in the castle all night: or relationship to the previous environment. because he would have known the certainty

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There are seven types of baptism mentioned in The baptism of the Holy Spirit is a real baptism. the Bible. Four of these are real baptisms and When a person accepts Christ as savior, he is three are ritual baptisms. placed into the body of Christ. He is identified Real Baptisms as a believer. The mechanics are given in 1 Cor. 12:13. - The Baptism of Moses The baptism of the Holy Spirit did not occur in - The Baptism of the Cross or Cup Old Testament times. The first occurrence was - The Baptism of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit - The Baptism of Fire placed the new believers into the body of Ritual Baptisms Christ. - The Baptism of John The baptism of the Holy Spirit is the basis for - The Baptism of Jesus positional truth. Believers are placed in Christ, and in this position have access to many kinds - The Baptism of the Christian Believer of privileges and blessings. Ephesians 1 has a These seven baptisms are described in the good description of what it means to have "all sections below. blessings in heavenly places in Him." Real Baptisms The baptism of the Holy Spirit was prophesied A baptism is called real if it involves actually by John the Baptist, Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke identifying a person with something or 3:16. And it was prophesied by Jesus Christ, someone. John 14:16, 17; Acts 1:5. The Baptism of Moses The implications of the baptism of the Holy The baptism of Moses was a double Spirit, for all believers in the family of God, are identification, the children of Israel are given in Gal. 3:26-28. identified both with Moses and with the cloud The principle of retroactive identification with (Jesus Christ) as they passed through the Red Christ is brought out in Rom. 6:3, 4 and Col. Sea. No water involved and remember, they 2:12. went through the sea on dry land when the The baptism of the Holy Spirit is not an waters were parted. 1 Cor. 10:1, 2. experience. It is not accompanied by speaking The Baptism of the Cross or Cup in tongues or any other kind of feeling or Jesus Christ drank the cup filled with our sins. behavior. The things that happen to believers Another way of expressing it is that all the sins at the moment of salvation are accomplished by of the world were put into one cup and poured the Holy Spirit, not by us, and these things are out on Christ while He was on the cross. God not experiences. the Father judged our sins while they were on The Baptism of Fire Christ. Christ was identified with our sin and A judgment is coming at the second coming of He bore our sins on the cross. He was made sin Christ when all nonbelievers are taken from the for us. 2 Cor. 5:21; 1 Pet. 2:24. earth. They will join the rest of the unbelievers In Matt. 20:22 Jesus speaks of the cup he is to in torments also called Sheol, Hades and Hell to drink as he makes a reply to the mother of wait for the last judgment also called the great Zebedee's children. In Matt. 26:39, He prays to white throne judgment described in Revelation the Father to "let this cup pass from me . . ." 20 at the end of the millennium. This removal Nevertheless, He determined to drink from the of unbelievers for judgment is the baptism of cup, as seen in John 18:11, "the cup which my fire. Father has given me, shall I not drink from it?" Fire is a symbol for judgment all through the The Baptism of the Holy Spirit Bible. Examples are the fire which burned the sacrifice on the Hebrew altar and the fire from

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God which burned the watered down sacrifices It represents death to sin, to the old way of life of Elijah and the prophets of Baal. and resurrection to a new spiritual life in Christ The doctrine of the baptism of fire is stated in (Rom 6:3, 4; Col 2:11-12, Titus 3:5). Matt. 3:11, 12; Luke 3:16, 17; and 2 Thess. 1:7- Hellenists and Arameans 9. from Conybeare and Howson, “The Life and The Lord Jesus taught several parables Epistles of St. Paul,” Chapter 2. regarding the end times when believers and We have seen that early colonies of the Jews unbelievers will be separated. The believers were settled in Babylonia and Mesopotamia. are to go into the millennium, the unbelievers Their connection with their brethren in Judea are cast off into fire. These parables are was continually maintained; and they were analogies to the baptism of fire. bound to them by the link of a common Wheat and tares - Matt. 13:24-30, 36-43. language. The Jews of Palestine and Syria, with Good and bad fish - Matt. 13:47-50. those who lived on the Tigris and Euphrates, interpreted the Scriptures through the The wise and foolish virgins - Matt. 25:1-13 Targums, or Chaldean paraphrases, and spoke The sheep and the goats - Matt. 25:31-46 kindred dialects of the language of Aram; and Ritual Baptisms hence they were called Aramean Jews. A baptism is called a ritual baptism, or a We have also had occasion to notice that other ceremonial baptism, when water is used as a dispersion of the nation through those symbol for something else. It is a countries where Greek was spoken. Their representative identification. The individual is settlements began with Alexander’s conquests placed in the water, which means, symbolically, and were continued under the successors of that he is identified with that which the water those who partitioned his empire. Alexandria represents. was their capital. They use the Septuagint The Baptism of John - Matt. 3:6-11 translation of the Bible, and they were Here the water is symbolic of the kingdom of commonly called Hellenists, or Jews of the God which John was preaching. When a person Grecian speech. was baptized by John, he was testifying to his The mere difference of language would account faith in the Messiah and his identification with in some degree for the mutual dislike with Christ's kingdom. The new believer was which we know that these two sections of the identified with the water, but the water Jewish race regarded one another. We were all represented a spiritual identification. aware how closely the use of a hereditary The phrase kingdom of God is a general term dialect is bound up with the warmest feelings of referring to all believers from the time of Adam the heart. And in this case the Aramean until the end of the millennium. At the time of language was the sacred tongue of Palestine. It John the Baptist, all believers were pre church is true that the tradition of the language of the age Christians, although many lived on into the Jews had been broken, as the continuity of their church age which began at the day of Pentecost. political life had been rudely interrupted. The Hebrew of the time of Christ was not the oldest The Baptism of Jesus Hebrew of the Israelites; but it was a kindred When Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River by dialect, and old enough to command a reverent John the Baptist, water was symbolic of God's affections. Though not the language of Moses will in salvation, namely that Jesus would go to and David, it was that of Ezra and Nehemiah. the cross. And it is not unnatural that the Arameans Believer’s Baptism should have revolted from the speech of the Believer's baptism is a symbolic act in which a Greek idolaters and the tyrant Antiochus, a believer proclaims his union with Jesus Christ. speech which they associated moreover with

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innovating doctrines and dangerous prophet Joel (3:6), “The children of Judah and speculations. the children of Jerusalem have ye sold unto the For the division went deeper than a mere Grecians, that ye might remove them from their superficial diversity of speech. It was not only a border,” and we cannot be surprised that even division, like the modern one of German and in the deep peace and charity of the Church’s Spanish Jews, where those who hold earliest days, this inveterate division substantially the same doctrines have reappeared, and that “when the number of the accidentally been led to speak different disciples was multiplied, there arose a languages. But there was diversity of religious murmuring of the Grecians against the views and opinions. This is not the place for Hebrews.” (Acts 6:1) examining that system of mystic interpretation It would be an interesting subject of inquiry to called the Kabbalah, and for determining how ascertain in what proportions these two parties far its origin might be due to Alexandria or to were distributed in the different countries Babylon. It is enough to say, generally, that in where the Jews were dispersed, in what places the Aramean theology, Oriental elements they can into the strongest collision, and how prevailed rather than Greek, and that the far they were fused and united together. subject of Babylonian influences has more In the city of Alexandria, the emporium of connection with the life of St. Peter than that of Greek commerce from the time of its St. Paul. foundation, where, since the earliest Ptolemies, The Hellenists, on the other hand, were Jews literature, philosophy, and criticism had never who spoke Greek, who lived in Greek countries, ceased to excite the utmost intellectual activity, and were influenced by Greek civilization, are where the Septuagint translation of the associated in the closest manner with the Scripture had been made, and where a Jewish Apostle of the Gentiles. They are more than temple and ceremonial worship had been once mentioned in the Acts, where our English established in rivalry to that in Jerusalem, translation names them “Grecians” to there is no doubt that the Hellenistic element distinguish them from the heather or proselyte largely prevailed. But although (strictly “Greeks.” speaking) the –Alexandrian Jews were nearly Alexandria was the metropolis of their all Hellenists, it does not follow that they were theology. Philo was their great representative. all Hellenizers. In other words, although their He was an old man when St. Paul was in his speech and the Scriptures were Greek, the maturity; his writings were probably known to theological views of many among them the apostles; and they have descended with the undoubtedly remained Hebrew. inspired Epistles to our own day. The work of There must have been many who were attached the learned Hellenists may be briefly described to the traditions of Palestine, and who looked as this – to accommodate Jewish doctrines to suspiciously on their more speculative the mind of the Greeks, and to make the Greek brethren; and we have no difficulty in language express the mind of the Jews. The recognizing the picture presented in a pleasing Hebrew principles were “disengaged as much German fiction, which describes the debates as possible from local and national conditions, and struggles of the two tendencies in this city, and presented in a form adapted to the Hellenic to be very correct. In Palestine itself, we have world.” every reason to believe that the native All this was hateful to the Arameans. The men population was entirely Aramean, though there of the East rose up against those of the West. was no lack of Hellenistic synagogues (see Acts The Greek learning was repugnant to the strict 6:9) in Jerusalem, which at the seasons of the Hebrews. They had a saying, “Cursed be he who festivals would be crowded with foreign teacheth his son the learning of the Greeks.” pilgrims, and become the scene of animated We could imagine them using the words of the discussions.

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Syria was connected by the link of language himself as “a Hebrew of the Hebrews” and with Palestine and Babylonia; but Antioch, its when we remember that the word “Hebrew” is metropolis, commercially and politically, used for an Aramaic Jew, as opposed to a resembled Alexandria; and it is probable that, “Grecian” or “Hellenist.” Nor is it unlikely in when Barnabas and Saul were establishing the itself that before they settled in Tarsus, the great Christian community in that city, the family had belonged to the Eastern dispersion, majority of the Jews were “Grecians” rather or to the Jews of Palestine. But, however this than “Hebrews.” In Asia Minor we should at may be, St. Paul himself must be called a first sight be tempted to imagine that the Hellenist; because the language of his infancy Grecian tendency would predominate; but was that idiom of the Grecian Jews in which all when we find that Antiochus brought his letters were written. Though, in conformity Babylonian Jews into Lydia and Phrygia, we with the strong feeling of the Jews of all times, must not make too confident a conclusion in he might learn his earliest sentences from the this direction. We have ground for imagining Scripture in Hebrew, yet he was familiar with that many Israelite families in the remote the Septuagint translation at an early age. districts (possibly that of Timotheus at Lystra) It is observed that when he quotes from the Old may have cherished the forms of the traditional Testament, his quotations are from that version faith of the eastern Jews, and lived uninfluenced and that, not only when he cites its very words, by Hellenistic novelties. but when (as if often the case) he quotes it from The residents in maritime and commercial memory. Considering the accurate knowledge towns would not be strangers to the western of the original Hebrew which he must have developments of religious doctrines; and when acquired under Gamaliel at Jerusalem, it has Apollos came from Alexandria to Ephesus (Acts been inferred that this can only arise from his 18:24), he would find himself in a theological having been thoroughly imbued at an earlier atmosphere not very different from that of his period with the Hellenistic scriptures. The native city. Tarsus in Cilicia will naturally be readiness, too, with which he expressed himself included under the same class of cities of the in Greek, even before such an audience as that West, by those who remember Strabo’s upon the Areopagus at Athens, shows a assertion that in literature and philosophy its command of the language which a Jew would fame exceeded that of Athens and Alexandria. not, in all probability, have attained, had not At the same time, we cannot be sure that the Greek been the familiar speech of his childhood. very celebrity of its heathen schools might not But still the vernacular Hebrew of Palestine induce the families of Jewish residents to retire would not have been a foreign tongue to the all the more strictly into a religious Hebrew infant Saul; on the contrary, he may have heard seclusion. it spoken almost as often as the Greek. For no That such a seclusion of their family from doubt his parents, proud of their Jewish origin, Gentile influences was maintained by the and living comparatively near to Palestine, parents of St. Paul is highly probable. We have would retain the power of conversing with no means of knowing how long they their friends from there in the ancient speech.. themselves, or their ancestors, had been Jews of Mercantile connections from the Syrian coast the dispersion. A tradition is mentioned by would be frequently arriving, whose discourse Jerome that they cane originally from Giscala, a would be in Aramaic; and in all probability town in Galilee, when it was stormed by the there were kinsfolk still settled in Judea, as we Romans. The story involves an anachronism afterwards find the nephew of St. Paul in and contradicts the Acts of the Apostles (Acts Jerusalem (Acts 23:16). 22:3). We may compare the situation of such a family Yet it need not be entirely disregarded, (so far as concerns heir language) to that of the especially when we find St. Paul speaking of French Huguenots who settled in London after

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the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. These To us who have the experience of many French families, though they soon learned to centuries of Christian history, and who can look use the English as the medium of the common back through a long series of martyrdoms to intercourse and the language of their this which was the beginning and example of household, yet, for several generations, spoke the rest, these thoughts are easy and obvious; French with equal familiarity and greater but to the friends and associates of the affection. murdered saint, such feelings of cheerful and Moreover, it may be considered as certain that confident assurance were perhaps more the family of St. Paul, though Hellenistic in difficult. Though Christ was indeed risen from speech, were no Hellenizers in theology; they the dead, His disciples could hardly yet be able were not at all inclined to adopt Greek habits or to realize the full triumph of the Cross over Greek opinions. The manner in which St. Paul death. speaks of himself, his father, and his ancestors, Even many years afterwards Paul the Apostle implies the most uncontaminated hereditary wrote to the Thessalonians concerning those Judaism. “Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they who had “fallen asleep” (1 Thess. 4:13) more Israelites? So am I> Are they the seed of peaceably than Stephen, that they ought not to Abraham? So am I.” (2 Cor. 11:22) “A Pharisee” sorrow for them as those without hope; and and “the son of a Pharisee.” “Circumcised the now, at the very beginning of the Gospel, the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of grief of the Christians must have been great Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews.” indeed, when the corpse of their champion and Persecution of the Early Church their brother lay at the feet of Saul the murderer. Yet, amidst the consternation of from Life and Epistles of St. Paul, by Conybeare some and the fury of others, friends of the and Howson. martyr were found, 1 who gave him all the The death of St. Stephen is a bright passage in melancholy honors of a Jewish funeral, and the earliest history of the church. Where in the carefully buried him, as Joseph buried his annals of the world can we find so perfect an father, “with great and sore lamentation.” (Gen. image of a pure and blessed saint as that which 1:10) is drawn in the concluding verses of the After the death and burial of Stephen the seventh chapter of the Acts of the Apostles? persecution still raged in Jerusalem. That And the brightness which invests the scene of temporary protection which had been extended the martyr’s last moments is the more to the rising sect by such men as Gamaliel was impressive from its contrast with all that has now at an end. Pharisees and Sadducees, priests preceded it since the crucifixion of Christ. The and people, alike indulged the most violent and first apostle who died was a traitor. The first ungovernable fury. It does not seem that any disciples of the Christian apostles whose deaths check was laid upon them by the Roman are recorded were liars and hypocrites. The authorities. Either the procurator was absent kingdom of the Son of Man was founded in from the city or he was unwilling to connive at darkness and gloom. But a heavenly light what seemed to him an ordinary religious reappeared with the martyrdom of St. Stephen. quarrel. The revelation of such a character at the moment of death was the strongest of all The eminent and active agent in this evidences, and the highest of all persecution was Saul. There are strong grounds encouragements. Nothing could more confidently assert the divine power of the new 1 Acts 8:2. Probably they were Hellenistic Jews religion; nothing could prophesy more surely impressed in favor of Christianity. It seems hardly the certainty of its final victory. likely that they were avowed Christians. There is nothing in the expression itself to determine the point.

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for believing that if he was not a member of the great aggravation of his cruelty (Acts 8:3; 9:2; Sanhedrin at the time of St. Stephen’s death, he 22:4). These persecuted people were scourged was elected into that powerful senate soon “in many synagogues.” (Acts 26:10) Nor was after, possibly as a reward for the zeal he had Stephen the only one who suffered death, as we shown against the heretic. He himself says that may infer from the apostle’s own confession.3 in Jerusalem he not only exercised the power of And what was worse than scourging or than imprisonment by commission from the High death itself, he used every effort to make them Priests, but also, when the Christians were put blaspheme that holy name whereby they were to death, gave his vote against them. 2 From this called. 4 His fame as an inquisitor was notorious expression it is natural to infer that he was a far and wide. Even at Damascus Ananias had member of that supreme court of judicature. heard (Acts 9:13) “how much evil he had done However this might be, his zeal in conducting to Christ’s saints at Jerusalem.” He was known the persecution was unbounded. We cannot there (Acts 9:21) as “he that destroyed them help observing how frequently strong which called on this Name in Jerusalem.” It was expressions concerning his share in the not without reason that in the deep repentance injustice and cruelty now perpetrated are of his later years, he remembered how he had multiplied in the Scriptures. In St. Luke’s “persecuted the Church of God and wasted it,” narrative, in St. Paul's own speeches, in his (Gal. 1:13; cf Phil. 3:6) how he had been a earlier and later epistles, the subject recurs “blasphemer, a persecutor, and injurious,” (1 again and again. He “made havoc of the Tim. 1:13), and that he felt he was “not meet to Church,” invading the sanctuaries of domestic be called an Apostle,” because he “had life, “entering into every house;” (Acts 8:3: see persecuted the Church of God.” 5 9:2) and those whom he thus tore from their From such cruelty, and such efforts to make homes he “committed to prison;” or, in his own them deny that Name which they honored words at a later period, when he had about all names, the disciples naturally fled. In recognized as God’s people those whom he now consequence of “the persecution against the imagined to be His enemies, “thinking that he Church at Jerusalem, they were all scattered ought to do many things contrary to the name abroad throughout the regions of Judea and of Jesus of Nazareth. … in Jerusalem … he shut Samaria.” The Apostles only remained (Acts up many of the saints in prison. (Acts 26:9,10; 8:1). cf. 22:3) But this dispersion led to great results. The And not only did men thus suffer at his hands, moment of lower depression was the very time but women also, a fact three times repeated as a of the church’s first missionary triumph. “They that were scattered abroad went everywhere

preaching the word.” (Acts 8:4; 11:19-21) First 2 The word “voice” in the AV should be read “vote.” Acts 26:10. If this inference is well founded, and if 3 the qualification for a member of the Sanhedrin “I persecuted this way unto the death, binding and mentioned in the last chapter was a necessary delivering into prisons both men and women (Acts qualification, Saul must have been a married man 22:4), and when they were put to death I gave my and the father of a family. If so it is probably that his vote against them (Acts 26:10).” wife and children did not long survive; for 4 Acts 26:11. It is not said that he succeeded in otherwise, some notice of them would have causing any to blaspheme. It may be necessary to occurred in the subsequent narrative, or some explain to some readers that the Greek imperfect allusion to them in the Epistles. And we know that if merely denotes that the attempt was made; so in ever he had a wife she was not living when he wrote Gal. 1:23, alluded to at the end of this chapter. his first letter to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 7). It was customary among the Jews to marry at an early age. 5 1 Cor. 15:9. It should be observed that in all these Baron Bunsen has expressed his belief in the passages from the Epistles the same word for tradition that St. Paul was a widower. “persecution” is used.

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the Samaritans and then the Gentiles received did not live without sin in the sight of the that Gospel which the Jews attempted to omniscient God. destroy. Thus did the providence of God begin ACTS 23:2. And the high priest Ananias, This to accomplish, by unconscious instruments, the could not be the same with Annas, the father- prophecy and command which had been given, in-law of Caiaphas, but rather Ananus his son; “Ye shall be witnesses unto Me, both in though this is more generally thought to be Jerusalem and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and Ananias the son of Nebedaeus, whom Josephus unto the uttermost part of the earth.” (Acts 1:8) speaks of. There is one R. Ananias, the sagan of ACTS 23 the priests, often spoken of in the Jewish writings , who lived about these times, and was ACTS 23 TOPICAL STUDIES killed at the destruction of Jerusalem; and in Sanhedrin the times of King Agrippa, there was one Chanina, or Ananias the priest, who was Sects and Parties of the Jews aSadducee ; and from the number of Sadducees Jewish Religious System in this Sanhedrin, who very likely were the ACTS 23:1. And Paul earnestly beholding the creatures of the high priest, one would be council, Fastening his eyes upon them, looking tempted to think he might be the same with wistly and intently at them, and thereby this: who discovering a modest cheerfulness, and a commanded them that stood by him: that is, becoming boldness, confidence, and intrepidity, by Paul, who were nearest to him, some of the as being not conscious of any guilt, and well members of the Sanhedrin; unless they should assured of the goodness of his cause: be thought to be some of the high priest’s said, men and brethren; (see Acts 22:1). officers, or servants, as in (John 18:22) though I have lived in all good conscience before God if they were, one would think they would be so until this day; not only from the time of his called: these he ordered conversion, but throughout the whole of his to smite him on the mouth: or give him a slap life; for though, strictly speaking, there is no on the face, by way of contempt, and as if he good conscience but what is awakened by the had spoken what ought not to be said, and in Spirit of God, and is unprincipled by his grace, order to silence him; the reason of which might and is purged from sin by the blood of Christ; in be, either because Paul did not directly address which sense he could only have a good him, and give him such flattering titles as he conscience, since he believed in Christ; yet expected, or because he set out with such whereas in his state of unregeneracy, and even declarations of his innocence, and spotless while he was a blasphemer, and persecutor, he behaviour, and with so much courage and did not act contrary to the dictates of his boldness. conscience, but according to them, in which his ACTS 23:3. Then said Paul unto him, God view was to the glory of God, and the honour of shall smite thee, Which may be considered his law; he therefore says he lived before God, either as a prophecy of what would be, that God or unto God, in all good conscience, though an would smite him with some judgment here, or erroneous and mistaken one; he thought he with death quickly, or with eternal damnation ought to do what he did; and what he did, he hereafter; taking up his own words, and did with a zeal for God though it was not suggesting that a retaliation would be made, according to knowledge: besides, the apostle and that the measure he meted, would be has here respect to his outward moral measured to him again; or else as an conversation, which, before and after imprecation upon him; for the words may be conversion, was very strict, and even blameless, rendered, “may God smite thee”; the future at least unblemished before men; nobody could tense being often used by the Jews for the charge him with any notorious crime, though he imperative, and that in this very phrase; for

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certain it is, that this is the form of an abrogated, and there were no more high priests imprecation with them: among men of God’s appointing and approving. For it is said, if anyone should say, , “may God ACTS 23:5. Then said Paul, I wist not, smite”, or “so may God smite”; this is , “a curse”, brethren, that he was the high priest, Or I written in the law ; though this instance of the did not know that he was the high priest; and apostle ought not to be drawn into example, the sense is, that he did not really know him, any more than those of other saints, who might either because he had been long absent from be under a direction of the Holy Ghost to Jerusalem; and besides there were new high deliver out such things, which would come to priests made, sometimes every year, and pass in righteous judgment: and if this was sometimes oftener, that it is no wonder he Ananias, the son of Nebedaeus, as is generally should not know him; or because he might not thought, it is remarkable, that five years after sit in his usual place; or chiefly because he was this, in the beginning of the wars of the Jews not, in his habit, an high priest; for the priests, with the Romans, this Ananias, hiding himself both the high priest, and the common priests, under the ruins of a conduit, was discovered, only wore their priestly robes, when they and taken out, and killed : and no doubt but he ministered in their office, and at other times very fitly calls him they wore other clothes, as laymen did, thou whited wall; or hypocrite, in like manner according to (Ezekiel 44:19) which the Targum as Christ compares the hypocritical Scribes and paraphrases thus; “when they (the priests) Pharisees to whited sepulchres, (Matthew shall go out of the holy court into the outer 23:27). court, to be mixed with the people, they shall put off their garments in which they ministered, for sittest thou to judge me after the law; the and lay them up in the holy chamber, and shall law of Moses, which was the rule of judgment in clothe themselves with other garments, that the Sanhedrin, at least professed to be, and they may not be mingled with the people, , “in which was allowed of by the Romans, especially their garments”. in matters relating to the Jewish religion: “For as soon as they had performed their office, and commandest me to be smitten contrary there were servants that attended them, who to law? which condemns no man before he is stripped them of their robes, and laid them up heard, and much less punishes him, (John 7:51) in chests which were in the temple till they and which is contrary not only to the Jewish came to service again, and put them on laws, but to the Roman laws, and all others common garments; for they might not appear founded upon the law of nature and reason. among the common people in their priestly ACTS 23:4. And they that stood by, The garments; which when they were off of them, members of the Sanhedrin that were next to the they were, as Maimonides says , , “as strangers”, apostle; or the servants of the high priest, since or as laymen, like the rest of the people; for they are said to stand, whereas those of that which reason Paul might not know Ananias to court sat: be the high priest: and this points to another said, revilest thou God’s high priest? which sense of these words; for it was a rule with the seems to confirm that the apostle’s words were Jews , that “at the time the priests’ garments not a bare prediction, but an imprecation, since were upon them, their priesthood was upon they are charged with reproaching, reviling, them, but when their garments were not on and speaking evil of him; and the aggravation of them, , “there was no priesthood upon them”; which was not only that the person reviled was for lo, they were as strangers.” a priest, an high priest, but an high priest of And then the sense is, Ananias not being in the God; though this could not have been proved, discharge of his office, nor in his habit, the for there was now no high priest of God but apostle did not know, or own him as an high Jesus Christ; the priesthood was changed and priest, or consider him as in such a station; or

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rather, since the priesthood was changed, and not say, I “was”, but I “am” a Pharisee; for there was no other high priest of God but Jesus whatever distinguished the Pharisee from the Christ, he did not own him as one; had he, he Sadducee, whether in principle, or in practice, should not have spoke to him in the manner he and manner of living, which agreed with did. Moreover, if this was Ananias, the son of Christianity, the apostle still retained; as the Nebedaeus, as is the opinion of many, he had no belief of the immortality of the soul, the right to the office of the priesthood when he resurrection of the dead, and a future state, and was first made an high priest; after which he strict holiness of life and conversation. was sent a prisoner to Rome; during which time The son of a Pharisee; the Alexandrian copy, several succeeded in the priesthood. and some others, and the Vulgate Latin version, At this time not he, though he had got the read in the plural number, “the son of management of affairs in his hands, was high Pharisees”; his father and his mother were both priest, but Jesus the son of Gamaliel; so that the Pharisees; for there were women Pharisees , as apostle’s sense might be, he did not own or well as men; so that he was a Pharisee of the acknowledge him high priest. Some take the Pharisees, as well as an Hebrew of the apostle’s words in an ironical sense; he an high Hebrews; and this is said to show that he was priest, I should not have known him to be an by education of that sect. high priest, he looks and acts more like a Of the hope and resurrection of the dead, I furioso, a madman, an unjust judge, and a am called in question; that is, either for the tyrant, than an high priest, who ought to behave hope of the resurrection of the dead, (Acts in another guise manner. 24:15) or for professing the hope of eternal life, But what follows shows rather that the apostle and happiness in a future state, and the spoke seriously, unless the words can be doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, when thought to be a citation made by Luke, the soul and body will be reunited, and enjoy for it is written, in (Exodus 22:28) “thou shalt endless felicity together: not that these were not speak evil of the ruler of thy people”; which the particular things now charged upon him, the Jewish writers generally understand of the and for which he was now trying and judging; head of the great Sanhedrin, as Ananias might but that these were the ground and foundation be, or of a king . of the hatred and persecution of him, because he preached the resurrection of Christ from the ACTS 23:6. But when Paul perceived that the dead, and the resurrection of men through him, one part were Sadducees, That is, that one and that there was hope of eternal life and part of the Sanhedrin consisted of Sadducees, salvation by him. which wasoften the case; sometimes the high priest was of this sect, as Ananias probably was, And in this the apostle showed the prudence and sometimes the greater part of the and wisdom of the serpent, along with the Sanhedrin were Sadducees, and even innocence of the dove, hereby to divide the sometimes the whole; (see Gill on “Acts 5:17”), assembly, and free himself from them; and it but this Sanhedrin were only part of them was but just and right; for since they would not Sadducees: hear him about to make a fair and open defence of his cause, but ordered him to be smitten on and the other Pharisees; of both these sects, the mouth, it was but justice to throw them into (see Gill on “Matthew 3:7”). confusion, and save himself. he cried out in the council; with a loud voice, , He that he might be heard by all: ACTS 23:7. And when he had so said stopped and made a pause: men and brethren, I am a Pharisee; he was not only brought up in that sect from his youth, and there arose a dissension between the ; about the things and lived according to it before his conversion, Pharisees and the Sadducees which he had spoken of, particularly the but he was still a Pharisee; wherefore he does

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resurrection of the dead; and this was what the agreed with the latter, and are often in apostle intended, so that his end was answered Scripture mentionedwith them, and for them: by the speech he made: however, that part in this Sanhedrin that were and the multitude was divided; that is, the on their side rose up from their seats, members of the Sanhedrin were divided, some and strove; that is, contended, disputed, and being on one side of the question, and some on litigated the point with the Sadducees: the other; for this multitude cannot design the saying, we find no evil in this man; why he multitude of the common people, who were not should be hated, persecuted, and punished: convened together on this occasion. but if a spirit or an angel hath spoken to him; ACTS 23:8. For the Sadducees say that there that is, if the Holy Spirit, as the Ethiopic version is no resurrection, Of the dead, being ignorant reads, has inspired him, or God by an angel has of the Scriptures, and the power of God; (see revealed anything to him, who has to say Matthew 22:23,29). anything against it? This they said in agreement neither angel nor spirit; the Ethiopic version with their own principles, and more for the reads, “nor Holy Spirit”: but the sense seems to sake of establishing them, and in opposition to be, that they did not believe any such species of the Sadducees, than in favour of Paul: beings as angels, nor indeed any spirits let us not fight against God; as in (Acts 5:39). whatever, which were immaterial or immortal; These words are not in the Alexandrian copy, for as for the spirit or soul of man, they took nor in the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic that to be only the temperament of the body, versions. and that it died with it, and did not exist in any ACTS 23:10. And when there arose a great separate state after this life: for so Josephus dissension, When that was come to a very says, that they deny the permanence of the soul, great height, hot words were spoken, and they and rewards and punishments in the invisible were ready to come to blows, and there was state. And, according to the Talmudic writers, like to be a riot and tumult among them: they denied that there was any other world than this: the chief captain fearing lest Paul should be pulled in pieces of them; either of the ; the but the Pharisees confess both Sadducees, whom he had greatly offended and resurrection of the dead, and that there are provoked, or of both Sadducees and Pharisees, spirits, both angels and the souls of men, which the one laying hold on him to preserve him are immortal. Josephus, in the place before from the fury of the other, and the other referred to, says, that they hold that every soul endeavouring to pluck him out of their hands; is incorruptible or immortal; and that they held and the fears of the chief captain were not so the resurrection of the dead, is manifest from much out of affection to Paul, but lest there the Talmud , and other writings of theirs; the should be an uproar, which might issue in Syriac version renders it, “the Pharisees confess sedition, and rebellion against the Roman all these things”; to which agree the Arabic and government, of which the Roman officers were Ethiopic versions. always jealous; and because that Paul was a ACTS 23:9. And there arose a great cry, Or Roman, and should he suffer him to be noise, a loud clamour; they began to be very destroyed in an illegal manner, he must be noisy, and to talk loud, and in high spirits, one accountable for it: wherefore he against another: commanded the soldiers to go down: either and the Scribes that were of the Pharisees’ from the castle of Antonia, or from a superior part arose; there were Scribes in the part of the temple, where he with his guards Sanhedrin, and these were some of them on the were, to hear this cause before the Sanhedrin, side of the Sadducees, and some on the side of to that part where it sat, and Paul was: and the Pharisees; though, generally speaking, they

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take him by force from among them; if they signifying, that he should not die at Jerusalem, refused to deliver him up, to make use of their and giving him a hint that he should appeal to arms: Caesar, which he afterwards did. and bring him into the castle; of Antonia, ACTS 23:12. And when it was day, As soon as where he was before. it was light, very early in the morning: ACTS 23:11. And the night following, The day certain of the Jews banded together; these in which Paul was brought before the very likely were of the sect of the Sadducees, Sanhedrin, and pleaded his own cause before who had been exceedingly irritated and them, and had thrown them into confusion and provoked by what Paul had said the day before division: in the council; these therefore the Lord stood by him; the Lord Jesus Christ gatheredtogether, entered into a conspiracy to appeared in a vision to him, and stood very take away Paul’s life, and trailed in it, as one near him, by the side of him, by the bed or man: couch on which he might lie: and said, and bound themselves under a curse; or be of good cheer, Paul; though he was now a “anathematized themselves”; the Hebrew word prisoner in the castle; and though the high , which answers to “anathema”, is sometimes priest, and the Sadducees especially, were used for an oath, , “Cherem” or “anathema” is enraged against him; and though a plot was “an oath” , a vow made to be punished with an about to be formed to take away his life; for this anathema if not kept; so these men swore to it, exhortation seems to be designed to prepare bound themselves with an oath, or wished they him for further trials, and to prevent might be an anathema, accursed of God, and cut discouragement under them; which shows the off from his people; they imprecated the most great care of Christ over him, his concern for dreadful evils upon themselves: him, and love to him: the word Paul is not in the saying, that they would neither eat nor drink Alexandrian copy, nor in the Vulgate Latin, till they had killed Paul: it was a common form Syriac, and Ethiopic versions; but the calling of a vow or oath with the Jews , , “that I will not him by name seems to express not only singular eat”; sometimes they only vowed abstinence knowledge of him, but greater familiarity and from particular things, and then others were affection; it is in the Arabic version, and in lawful; as for instance, if one vowed that he other Greek copies: would not eat boiled meat, he might eat roast, for as thou hast testified of me in Jerusalem; or that he would not eat flesh, he might eat not only in the Christian church, and before the broth, or that he would abstain from milk, then Apostle James, and the elders, but in the Jewish he might drink whey, ; but this oath and vow Sanhedrin, and before the high priest, Scribes, here were, that they would neither eat nor Pharisees, and Sadducees, where and before drink anything, till they had destroyed Paul: whom, though not particularly recorded, he These were a set of zealots, who in imitation of bore a testimony for Jesus, that he was the true Phinehas, and pretending the glory of God, took Messiah; and that though he died, he was risen upon them to take away the lives of men, from the dead, and was at the right hand of God, without any, judicial procedure, or the and was the only Saviour of men: authority of the civil magistrate; of whom, it so must thou bear witness also at Rome; as he may be asked, what became of this vow? or how had bore a public and faithful witness to the did they get clear of it, since they did not person, office, and grace of Christ at Jerusalem, accomplish the fact? to which it may be the metropolis of Judea; so it was necessary, by answered, that it was a pretty easy thing to be the decree of God, and for the glory of Christ, freed from oaths and vows, among the Jews, that he should bear a like testimony at Rome, whose doctors had a power to absolve men the chief city in the whole world; hereby from them; and in such cases as this, and such a

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vow as this, might be loosed upon more the sect of the Sadducees, whom Paul had so accounts than one, as on account of keeping much offended the day before; and therefore another law, the observing the sabbath and were pleased with what they had done, other festivals, when men were obliged to eat approved of their scheme, and readily fell in and drink. with the following proposal. Thus it is said , “if a man swears that he will not ACTS 23:15. Now therefore ye with the drink wine, or that he will not eat flesh, for so council, The whole Sanhedrin; their sense is, many days, then they say to him, if thou hadst that they would have the Sanhedrin convened known at the time of the oath, that the sabbath by the chief priests and elders, and being met or a feast day were within these days, in which together, then to thou art obliged to eat flesh and drink wine, as signify to the chief captain; or let him know it is said, (Isaiah 58:13) “and call the sabbath a that they were assembled together, upon the delight”; wouldst thou have swore at all? if he affair of Paul, and that they here desirous he says no, they loose his oath:” and likewise it might be brought before them: might be loosed on account of life, which a man that he bring him down unto you tomorrow; is bound to preserve: for so they likewise say , from the castle of Antonia to the place where ``if a man vows that he will not eatanything, the Sanhedrin met; the word “tomorrow” is not woe be to him if he eats, and woe be to him if he in the Alexandrian copy, nor in the Vulgate does not eat; if he eats he breaks his vow, if he Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions; and then it does not eat he sins against his own soul, or life; should seem that they desired him to be what must he do? let him go to the wise men, , brought downforthwith, or otherwise they “and they will loose his vow for him”, as it is must propose to fast all that day, and so long on written, (Proverbs 12:18) but the tongue of the the morrow, till Paul was brought down; but wise is health;” and no doubt but these men that the common reading is right, appears from very easily got their vow loosed, since it was the chief captain’s sending away Paul at the made on such a design. third hour of the night following, to prevent ACTS 23:13. And they were more than forty their designs on the morrow, (Acts 23:23). The which had made this conspiracy. Who met pretence formed for his being brought down is, together, formed this resolution, entered into as though ye would inquire something more this scheme, and bound themselves with this perfectly concerning him; what he had done, oath; the word rendered “conspiracy”, signifies which had occasioned this uproar, what it was an agreement by oath; such a number of them he was charged with, and whether he was guilty banded together, that they might have strength or not: sufficient to take Paul out of the hands of the soldiers, as he was conducted by them from the and we, or ever he come near: where the castle to the temple. Sanhedrin sat; ACTS 23:14. And they came to the chief are ready to kill him; lying in wait in some priests, and elders, Who were members of the private place between the castle and the Sanhedrin, to acquaint them with their designs: temple, from whence they intended to rush out at once upon him, and murder him; far enough and said, we have bound ourselves under a both from the temple and the council, that both great curse, that we will eat nothing until we the one might not be defiled, though they did : these chief priests and elders, have slain Paul not greatly stick at that in those times, and that had they acted according to the character they the other might not be charged with having any bore, on such an information, would have taken hand in his death. up those men, and punished them, at least would have dissuaded them from so vile an ACTS 23:16. And when Paul’s sister’s son action; but they knew the men to whom they heard of their lying in wait, Paul might have a applied, and very likely they were all of them of sister living in Jerusalem; or this her son might

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be there on account of his studies; he might be a for he hath a certain thing to tell him; which pupil to one of the doctors, by which means he was of some moment and importance, and might come at this secret, that such a number of proper for him to know. men were in ambush, in order to take away his ACTS 23:18. So he took him, and brought him uncle’s life: wherefore having got intelligence of to the chief captain, Immediately, without any it, more to do, without curiously inquiring into the he went and entered into the castle; the thing, or examining the young man about it; Alexandrian copy reads, “the synagogue”; but which showed him to be a man of a good Paul was not there, but in the castle of Antonia; disposition, and ready to do a kind office, even the Ethiopic version renders it, “the prison”; to a prisoner: though it is plain that he was not very closely and said, Paul the prisoner called me to him; confined, it was easy to have access to him; the either vocally or by some gesture, beckoned reason might be, not only because he was a him to him: Roman, but because he was uncondemned, nor and prayed me to bring this young man unto was any charge proved against him: thee, who hath something to say unto thee; in and told Paul; what he had heard, that such a which may be observed the apostle’s manner of number of men had entered into a conspiracy address to the centurion, on this occasion; it to take away his life, and lay in wait for him; was by way of entreaty; he asked it as a favour and this was an instance both of duty and of him, to introduce his nephew to the chief affection to his uncle, and worthy of imitation, captain; and the honour and modesty of the whether it proceeded from natural relation, or centurion, he did not seek by any methods to from religion, or both. get the secret out, either of Paul or the young ACTS 23:17. Then Paul called one of the man; but readily undertakes the affair, centurions unto him, For under this chief honourably performs it, acquaints the captain captain there must have been ten of them, if the with the circumstances of it, tells him the young company of which he was captain consisted of a man had something to say to him, he could not thousand men, as his title chief captainor tell what, and then departs. chiliarch imports; for a centurion was over an ACTS 23:19. Then the chief captain took him hundred men, as his title signifies; perhaps this by the hand, Some have thought that the might be the same, as in (Acts 22:25,26) reason of this was, that he expected that the and said, bring this young man to the chief young man had brought him a present in his captain: which was a very prudential step, not hand, from Paul; but this is to represent him as to let the centurion into the secret, but to desire a sordid mercenary man, which ought not to be him to introduce the young man to the chief said, without sufficient proof; rather this should captain; for had he trusted the centurion with be considered as an instance of civilityand it, he might not have acquainted his officer with humanity, and what showed him to be a man of it, but have informed the liers in wait of it: now breeding and good manners; and might be done though the apostle was assured by Christ that partly out of respect to Paul, and partly to he should not die at Jerusalem, but should bear encourage the young man to use freedom in the witness of him at Rome, and though he did not account he was about to give him: distrust the truth of Christ’s words, but most and went with him aside privately; concluding firmly believed them; yet he thought it his duty by his coming from Paul, and perceiving by the to make use of the means, which providence account of the centurion, that he had a secret to had put in his way, for his preservation and communicate to him; wherefore it was acting a safety; the Ethiopic version reads, “bring this wise and prudent part to take him into a private young man by night to the chief captain”; that room, and hear what he had to say: so he might not be seen, and observed to have carried any intelligence to him:

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and asked him, what is that thou hast to tell was prudently said; it was a right and wise me? thereby giving the young man an thing to conceal this matter, that the men might opportunity, and encouraging him to relate the go on with their designs, and an opportunity be secret to him. taken to convey Paul away, before the time ACTS 23:20. And he said, the Jews have came fixed by them to execute them; for agreed to desire thee, By the Jews are meant, otherwise, should it have been known that their the Jewish Sanhedrin, for the young man had plot was discovered, they would have entered not only intelligence of the conspiracy, and upon new measures. lying in wait of the forty men or more; but also ACTS 23:23. And he called to him two of the agreement which the Sanhedrin at the centurions, Who had each of them an hundred motion of these men were come into, to make soldiers under them: the following request to the chief captain; saying, make ready two hundred soldiers to which seems to confirm the above conjecture, go to Caesarea; which was formerly called that this young man might be a student under Strato’s tower, a sea port town, where Felix the the president of the council, or one of the Roman governor now was; it was six hundred doctors, whereby he came at the knowledge of furlongs, or seventy five miles from Jerusalem: these things: these two hundred soldiers were foot soldiers, that thou wouldst bring down Paul tomorrow as appears by their being distinguished from into the council, etc. (See Gill on “Acts 23:15”). horsemen in the next clause, and were just the ACTS 23:21. But do not thou yield unto them, number that the two centurions had the Or be persuaded by them, to bring Paul down command of; the making of them ready, was from the castle to the Sanhedrin; this must not their seeing to it, that they were properly be imputed to the young man’s pride and clothed, and accoutred with arms and vanity, in taking upon him to give advice to the ammunition, and with sufficient provision for chief captain; but to his great affection for his their journey: uncle, which moved him to entreat, rather than and horsemen threescore and ten; the to direct him, for which he gives a good reason: Ethiopic version reads, “a hundred”; but for there lie in wait for him more than forty without support from any copy: “and spearmen men, which have bound themselves with an two hundred”; who carried spears in their right oath, that they will neither eat nor drink till hand; the word used signifies such who receive, they have killed him; lay hold on, or hold anything in their right hand: some think it designs such who were and now are they ready; to execute their employed in the militia, to lay hold on guilty designs, being met together, and lying in persons, and hold them; the Alexandrian copy ambush in some place, between the castle and reads, , “those that cast with the right hand”; the place where the Sanhedrin met: and so reads the Syriac version, to which the looking for a promise from thee; that when Arabic agrees, which renders it “darters”; such the Sanhedrin should apply to him, he would as carried darts in their hands, and did not promise them to bring Paul down according to shoot out of a bow, but cast darts with their their request;and for the making and hands: now these being got ready, were performing of this promise, these men were ordered to march, waiting. at the third hour of the night; at nine o’clock ACTS 23:22. So the chief captain then let the at night, that they might go out unobserved, and young man depart, After he had had the before the petition from the Sanhedrin was account from him, and was master of the whole presented to him. affair: ACTS 23:24. And provide them beasts, and charged him, see thou tell no man that Horses or mules; the Syriac version reads in the thou hast showed these things to me; which

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singular number, “a beast”: and one being ones are added, in the Vulgate Latin version, sufficient for Paul, here may be a change of “for he was afraid lest perhaps the Jews should number; the Arabic and Ethiopic versions leave take him by force and kill him, and afterwards out these words, but the following clause makes he should bear the reproach, as if he had took them necessary: money”; but they are not to be found in any that they may set Paul on; on the beast, or on Greek copies. one of the beasts provided; if more than one ACTS 23:25. And he wrote a letter after this were provided, they might be for his manner. The chief captain wrote a letter to companions, to go along with him: Felix the governor, the form and sum of which and bring him safe unto Felix the governor; were as follows; this letter he sent by one of the this man, of a servant, was made a freed man by centurions to him. Claudius Caesar , and by him appointed in the ACTS 23:26. Claudius Lysias, unto the most room of Cumanus governor of Judea ; he was excellent Governor Felix, This is the the brother of Pallas, who had the chief inscription of the letter, and by it we learn the management of affairs under the emperor; and name of the chief captain, so often spoken of in this Felix married three persons successively, this and the two preceding chapters, which was that were of royal families; hence Suetonius Claudius Lysias; the first of these names is a calls him the husband of three queens; one of Roman one, and which he might take from the these was Drusilla, afterwards mentioned in Emperor Claudius, for he was not a Roman (Acts 24:24) who was sister to King Agrippa. born; and the latter seems to be a Greek name, Tacitus calls him Antonius Felix which name he and was his proper name, and, he himself very had from Antonia the mother of Claudius’, likely was a Greek, since he purchased his whose servant he was; Josephus calls him freedom with money; one of this name was Claudius Felix, which name he took from the Archon of Athens ; and another is reckoned by Emperor Claudius, who from so low and mean Cicero , among the famous orators of Greece, condition raised him to such honour and and is often cited by Harpocratian ; one of dignity; his name Felix signifies “happy”: Antiochus’s noblemen, and who was of the according to Tacitus , when Felix was first sent blood royal, and acted as a general against the into Judea, the government was divided Jews, was of this name. “So he left Lysias, a between him and Cumanus; Felix had Samaria, nobleman, and one of the blood royal, to and Cumanus the other part, which was called oversee the affairs of the king from the river the nation of the Galilaeans; but Josephus takes Euphrates unto the borders of Egypt:” (1 no notice of any such division, he says , that Maccabees 3:32) The chief captain calls Felix Cumanus was banished; and after that Felix the governor was sent by Caesar, governor of Judea, of the most excellent, which was a title of honour Galilee, Samaria, and Peraea; and so he seems that belonged to him as a governor; the same is to be governor of the whole country at this given to Theophilus, (Luke 1:3) sendeth time; he was now at Caesarea, and it is plain greeting; or wishes all health and prosperity. that Judea was under his government. ACTS 23:27. This man was taken by the Jews, Since Paul, a prisoner at Jerusalem, is sent Meaning Paul, who was presented by the down unto him; and in this his government he centurions to the governor, and was in his continued during the life of Claudius; and when presence when the letter was opened and read, Nero became emperor, and added four cities to and who was taken by the Jews in the temple, the kingdom of Agrippa, he constituted Felix and from thence dragged out and beaten by governor of the rest of Judea ; which character them: he bore till he thought fit to remove him, and and should have been killed of them; and put Festus in his room, of whom mention is would have been killed, had it not been for the made hereafter: after these words the following

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chief captain; he was very near being killed by And when it was told me, As it was by Paul’s them, he was nigh unto death: sister’s son, then came I with an army and rescued him; how that the Jews laid wait for the man; had he came with the Roman band, which he had formed a conspiracy to take away his life, and the command of, perhaps a thousand soldiers; laid a scheme in order to it, and at least for such a number he should have under him by intended, if they were not actually in ambush, his title; with these he came upon the Jews on a to seize him as he should be brought from the sudden, as they were beating Paul, and took castle to the Sanhedrin: him out of their hands, and saved him: I sent straightway to thee; the prisoner Paul, having understood that he was a Roman; but under a guard of soldiers; this he did directly, this he did not know till afterwards, after he as soon as ever he heard of the design of the had bound him with two chains, and after he Jews; and he sent him to Felix, as being had ordered him to be bound with thongs, and governor, to whom the judgment of this affair examined by scourging; all which he covers and properly belonged, and who was best qualified hides from the governor, and suggests that it for it, at least in the chiefcaptain’s account; and was his great concern for the Roman name, and who doubtless consulted his own honour and for a Roman citizen, which put him upon this safety, lest he should incur blame and disgrace, enterprise. should a Roman have been slain through any ACTS 23:28. And when I would have known neglect or want of care in him: the cause, Or crime, he was guilty of: and gave commandment to his accusers also, wherefore they accused him: which they to say before thee what they had against him; charged him with, and for which they beat him it is reasonable to conclude, that he said almost to death: nothing of this to them, though he might have determined he would, till after Paul was sent I brought him forth into their council; their away; otherwise the affair would have been court of judicature, the great Sanhedrin. discovered, which he desired might be ACTS 23:29. Whom I perceived to be accused concealed: of questions of their law, As about the ; which is the conclusion of the epistle, resurrection of the dead, and a future state, farewell and is a wish of health and happiness. which some in the council denied, and some asserted, which with this heathen man were ACTS 23:31. Then the soldiers, as it was idle and foolish questions; or about the defiling commanded them, took Paul, Out of the of the temple, and speaking contemptibly of the castle, and put him upon a beast, as the chief law of Moses, the people of the Jews, and the captain had ordered the centurions, and they holy place, which was the cry of the populace had directed the soldiers to do: against him, and were things the captain knew and brought him by night to Antipatris: they little of: set out from Jerusalem at the third hour, or but to have nothing laid to his charge worthy about nine o’clock at night, and travelled all of death, or of bonds: by the laws of the night, and by break of day came to Antipatris; a Romans; and yet he himself had bound him city which lay in the road from Jerusalem to with two chains at the first taking of him, and Caesarea: it was built by Herod the great, in the afterwards ordered him to be bound with best soil of his kingdom, enriched with rivers thongs, and scourged, of which he says nothing, and woods ; and was so called by him, in being convinced of his error, and willing to hide memory of his father Antipater; it before went it; however, he bears a full testimony to the by the name of Chabar Zaba , or Capharsaba; innocence of the apostle. the Jewish writers place it in the utmost borders of the land of Judea ; hence that phrase ACTS 23:30. so often used by them, from Gebath to

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Antipatris , in like sense as from Dan to pulled down, which Herod called after his Beersheba, these two places being the utmost father’s name; and from thence to Lydda, now borders of the land. Diospolis, famous for the resurrection of Here it was that Simon the just, with some of Dorcas, and the healing of Aeneas. the principal inhabitants of Jerusalem, met Antipatris is, by Ptolemy , placed at the west o f Alexander the great, who travelled all night, as Jordan, and is mentioned along with Gaza, these soldiers with Paul did, and came to Lydda, and Emmaus; some take it to be the Antipatris at sun rising . same with Capharsalama, mentioned in: It was forty two miles from Jerusalem. It was in “Nicanor also, when he saw that his counsel the road from Judea to Galilee, as appears from was discovered, went out to fight against Judas the following canon of the Jews, concerning beside Capharsalama:” (1 Maccabees 7:31) and divorces ; “if a husband says to his wife, lo, this others say, it is the same that is since called is thy divorce, if I do not come thirty days Assur or Arsuf, a town on the sea coast, which is hence, and he goes from Judea to Galilee, and not likely, since it does not appear that comes to Antipatris and returns, it becomes Antipatris was a maritime city. The apostle void:” the way from Jerusalem to Caesarea lay could not now stay to preach the Gospel in this through Nicopolis, Lydda, Antipatris, and place, nor do we elsewhere read or hear of a Betthar; from Jerusalem to Nicopolis, according Gospel church state in it, until the “fifth” to the old Jerusalem Itinerary , were twenty two century; when it appears there was a church miles; from thence to Lydda, ten miles; and here, and Polychronius was bishop of it, who from Lydda to Antipatris ten more (which make was present at the council of Chalcedon, held in forty two miles, as before observed); and from the year 451; and in the “eighth” century there Antipatris to Betthar ten miles, and from thence were many Christians dwelt here, for in the to Caesarea, sixteen more: so that when the year 744 there were many of them killed by the apostle was at Antipatris, he had twenty six Arabians. miles more to go to Caesarea; and hence it ACTS 23:32. On the morrow they left the appears, that the length of the journey from horsemen to go with him, That is, the two Jerusalem to Caesarea was sixty eight miles; hundred soldiers, and the two hundred though Josephus makes the distance to be six spearmen, who were all on foot, left the seventy hundred furlongs, or seventy five miles: and horsemen to conduct Paul to Caesarea; for that the way from the one to the other lay being come to Antipatris, all danger from the through the places before mentioned, may be Jews was over: illustrated from what the same writer says, of and returned to the castle; the castle Antonia some persons travelling from Caesarea to in Jerusalem, from whence they set out. Jerusalem. ACTS 23:33. Who, when they came to So he relates , concerning Quadratus governor Caesarea, The seventy horsemen: of Syria, that from Tyre he came to Caesarea, and delivered the epistle to the governor; to from Caesarea to Lydda, and from Lydda to Felix, governor of Judea, who was now at Jerusalem; and of Cestius the Roman general, he Caesarea; namely, the letter which Claudius says , that from Caesarea he came to Antipatris, Lysias, the chief captain, sent to him; the form and from Antipatris to Lydda, and from Lydda and contents of which are before given: to Jerusalem, which clearly seems to be the same road the apostle went; and so Jerom , in these presented Paul also before him; the account he gives of the journey of Paula, concerning whom, and whose affairs, the letter says, that she came to Caesarea, where she saw was. the house of Cornelius, the cottage of Philip, and ACTS 23:34. And when the governor, had the beds of the four virgin prophetesses; and read the letter, Which he doubtless opened from thence to Antipatris, a little town half and read as soon as he had received it, not

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knowing what important business might be interpret it a prison; and so it seems was this contained in it, or of what dangerous judgment hall of Herod’s. consequence a neglect of reading it might be; Sanhedrin this showed care and diligence in him: The rise of this great council of the Hebrews he asked of what province he was; since he took place in the time of Greek supremacy, perceived by the letter he was a Roman, and though there has been some attempt to trace its that he might know whether he was under his origins to the council of seventy elders named jurisdiction, and whether the hearing of his by Moses. The first mention of the Sanhedrin is case belonged to him; and it should seem that it in the time of Antiochus the Great (223-187 rather belonged to the governor of Syria; but B.C.) It was evidently an aristocratic body, with that the crimes he was charged with were the high priest acting as president. When the committed in Judea, particularly that of Roman order was introduced by Pompey, the profaning the temple. high priest still retained the position of And when he understood that he was of governor of the nation, making it likely that the Cilicia; which was a Roman province, in which Sanhedrin was carrying on. Tarsus was, where Paul was born free; (Acts Herod the Great began his reign by ordering the 21:39, 22:3). whole of the Sanhedrin put to death, appointing ACTS 23:35. I will hear thee, said he, The his own council of elders in their place. Under Arabic and Ethiopic versions read, “we will the Roman pro-curators, the internal hear”, which is a grand courtly way of speaking: government of the country was in the hands of when thine accusers are come; which Lysias, the Sanhedrin to a much greater extent. And in in his letter, informed him that he had ordered the time of Christ and the apostles, the them to come; which shows the governor to Sanhedrin is frequently mentioned as being the have some sense of justice and integrity, being supreme Jewish court of justice. The Sanhedrin desirous to hear both sides before he judged of was abolished after the destruction of the affair, though there was so much said in the Jerusalem in 70 A.D. chief captain’s letter in favour of Paul’s The Organization of the Sanhedrin innocence, and against his enemies. The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 priests who And he commanded him to be kept in Herod’s served for life and who were selected from the judgment hall; or palace: this was a place built following: by Herod the great at Caesarea, of whose • The acting high priest presided over the magnificent buildings here Josephus gives a council; all former high priests were members. large account. For besides the famous haven or • Male members of the high priestly families port which he made here, he adorned the place with splendid palaces, he built a theatre, and an • Scribes, legal assessors, bureaucrats amphitheatre, and a “forum” , whichwas either • Pharisees and Sadducees a market place, or a court of judicature; and if • Elders - tribal and family heads the latter, perhaps the same that is here meant, Criminal judges were members of the in a part of which, or in a place adjoining to it, Sanhedrin, and twenty-three of them sat in the apostle was put. Here he was kept by a judgment, with two clerks to record votes for guard of soldiers, but not in close confinement; acquittal and conviction. In capital cases, he had much liberty, and his friends and argument for acquittal was heard first, then acquaintance had leave to come to him; (see those in favor of conviction. Anyone who had Acts 24:23). We read of , which some interpret spoken in favor of the accused could not then “the chamber of the judges of Caesarea”; or the speak against him; but one who had spoken place where they sat in judgment, and may be against the accused could change his testimony the same that is here meant; though others in his favor. Sentence for acquittal could be

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pronounced immediately; but sentence for Everywhere you would see the Scribe as the conviction was reserved for the next day. mouthpiece and representative of the people; In voting, each member stood, beginning with he pushes to the front, the crowd respectfully the youngest. A simple majority was sufficient giving way and eagerly listening to his for acquittal; but a majority of at least two votes statements as those of a recognized authority. was required for conviction. More members of The great respect paid to Scribes is reflected in the Sanhedrin would be brought in two at a the title of honor "my master", in Hebrew time to vote whenever there was a majority of rabbi. From this respectful address the title only one for conviction. When all 71 had voted, Rabbi was formed, probably beginning as such the person was acquitted if there was still a in the time of Christ. In John 3, Nicodemus, who majority of only one. was a Pharisee, addressed Christ as "rabbi", a form of respect for a recognized teacher. Jesus appeared before the Sanhedrin on a charge of blasphemy (Matt. 26:65; John 19:7). In New Testament Greek the words nomikos, Peter and John were charged with being false "learned in the law; jurist" (Matt. 22:35; Luke prophets and deceivers of the people (Acts 4 7:30; 10:25; 11:45,52; 14:3), and and 5), Stephen with being a blasphemer (Acts nomodidaskalos, "teacher of the law" (Luke 6:13 ff), and Paul with being guilty of 5:17; Acts 5:34) are used. transgressing the Mosaic law (Acts 23). The period of the Sopherim, Scribes, began The Sanhedrin had the right of ordering arrests officially with the return of the Jews from by its own officers; of finally disposing of such captivity. Ezra was both a priest and a scribe; cases as did not involve capital punishment. A and the law read by Ezra (Neh. 8-10) was the sentence of death had to be ratified by the Pentateuch essentially as we have it now. And Roman procurator. from that time the Pentateuch was acknowledged by Jews as the binding rule of Jewish Religious System life. The office of scribe had its origin The religious life of the Jews in the time of somewhat earlier than this official beginning, Christ was controlled by the members of the however. Jewish priesthood, composed of the high priest The scribe of the Greek state ( and his family, the members of the supreme grammateus) was more than a mere writer; he was also the council, the Sanhedrin, and the local priest, or keeper and registrar of public documents (acc. rabbi, who presided over the synagogue. to Thucydides, iv. 118; vii, 10; and also in Acts Among the religious leaders there were many 19:35). Three men are mentioned as holding factions; and these factions had grave and the office of scribe under Kings David and fundamental differences in doctrine and Solomon (2 Sam. 8:17; 20:25; 1 Kings 4:3). practice. These were the king's secretaries, writing his This paper contains a description of each of the letters, drawing up orders and decrees, and main elements of the Jewish religious managing royal finances. At a later period, the hierarchy, namely: the Scribes, the Pharisees, word "scribe" is connected with the numbering the Sadducees, and the Sanhedrin. There is also of the military forces of the country (Jer. 52:25; a discussion of the doctrinal differences Isa. 33:18). between the Pharisees and Sadducees; and King Hezekiah brought together a group of men there is a description of the Jewish Talmud, whose work it was to transcribe old records which comprised the written and oral and to put in writing what had been handed scriptures and traditions of the Jews. down orally (Prov. 25:1). So the new The Scribes significance of the title “Scribe” probably dates In New Testament times the Scribes formed a to this time, no longer referring only to an small and exclusive class, holding absolute officer of the king's court, but to a class of spiritual supremacy over the people.

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students and interpreters of the law, boasting completion of the Babylonian Talmud, About in their wisdom (Jer. 8:8). 500 A.D.) See below regarding the Halachah. The Law had been handed to Moses by God at • The Saboraim (from Hebrew:” to think or to Mt. Sinai, and the writings of Moses, the discern”): teachers of the law after the Pentateuch, was the chief body of Scripture for conclusion of the Talmud, 500 to 657 A.D., who the Jews after the exile. Later, however, the determined the law from a careful examination inspired writings of the prophets and historians of all the considerations urged by the Amoraim were added to the authoritative canon of in their controversies on divine, legal, and ritual scripture. At a still later period, a third questions contained in the Talmud. collection of writings was begun which over • The Gaonim, the last doctors of the law in many generations became for the Jews just as the rabbinic succession, from 657 A.D. to 1034. authoritative as the inspired writings. This The Employment of the Scribes body of work was the writings of the Scribes of decisions and interpretations of the Pentateuch, In the time of Christ, the rabbis required from prophetical, and historical writings. their students absolute respect, even greater than the honor due to parents. "If a man's As the law became more complicated and father and teacher have lost anything, the comprehensive, more scientific study and teacher's loss should have the precedence, i.e., professional interpretation was required. The he must first be assisted in recovering it; the many details and applications to everyday life burden of a teacher is to be born in preference involved patient study. In the time of Ezra, and to that of a father, a teacher must be ransomed for several generations thereafter, this study from captivity before one's own father." The and teaching was the job of the priesthood. But rabbis in general everywhere claimed the first the higher the law rose in the estimation of the rank (Matt. 23:6,7; Mark 12:38; Luke 11:43; people, the more its study and exposition 20:46). become an independent activity. Thus the scholar class, the Scribes, was formed. The main task of the Scribes was the theoretical development of the law. They developed the The priests had somewhat abdicated their God- general precepts of the law; and where the given position as teachers of the congregation written law made no direct provision, they of Israel because, under Greek influence, the created an application, either by establishing a higher strata of priests, applied themselves to precedent that was followed thereafter, or by the study of heathen cultures, and more or less inference from previous legal decisions. In this neglected the law. The Scribes appeared as the way, up to the time of Christ, Jewish law zealous and single-minded guardians of the became an extensive and complicated science. law, and became the real teachers of the people, Very great study was needed to gain even a over whose lives they had control. general acquaintance with it. The history of the Scribes is divided into five The Scribes assumed that it was their special periods, indicated by the names given to task to improve what was already binding by Scribes during successive times: developing more and more subtle • The Sopherim (see above): lasting from the sophistication in reasoning. To develop a return from Babylon and ending with the death system of law binding on everyone, it was of Simon the Just, from about 458 to 300 B.C. necessary to come as near to a consensus as • The Tanaim (“repeaters”, or “teachers” of possible. So the whole process of systematizing the law): in New Testament times. the law was carried on by oral discussion, the • The Amoraim (Hebrew: “the expounders”) acknowledged authorities instructing the "wise men" and "doctors" of the law, who alone students and debating legal questions with each constituted the authorized recorders and other, for centuries. expositors of the Halachah (220A.D. to the

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This made it necessary that the chief among the and artificial method of exegesis; or added to it, Scribes live in certain central places, and until by way of amplification and for safety's sake; 70 A.D. Jerusalem was the main headquarters or, finally, legalized customs. They provided for of the Scribes, after that at Jamnia and Tiberias. every possible and impossible case, entered Gradually, the theories of the Scribes became into every detail of private, family, and public valid law; the rules developed by them were life; and with iron logic, unbending rigor, and recognized in practice as soon as the various most minute analysis pursued and dominated schools were in agreement. The Scribes were, man, turn whither he might, laying on him a in fact, legislators, especially after the yoke which was truly unbearable. The return destruction of the Temple, for then there was which it offered was the pleasure and no civil court of justice under the Sanhedrin distinction of knowledge, the acquisition of (see below). righteousness, and the final attainment of The second task of the scribes was teaching the rewards." law. Every Israelite was supposed to have a Scheurer, in Jewish People, Div. II, Vol I, pp. 339 thorough knowledge of the law. As a ff, states that the Haggadah "is an amplification consequence, the famous chief rabbis gathered and remodeling of what was originally given, about them large numbers of students. Because according to the views and necessities of later parts of the oral law were never committed to times. It is true that here also the given text writing, constant repetition was required to forms the point of departure, and that a similar make it stick in the minds of the learners. treatment to that employed in passages from Questions were directed to the students for the the law takes place in the first instance. The decision, while pupils also questions the history is worked up by combining the different teachers. Because all knowledge of the law was statements in the text with each other, strictly traditional, the student had only two completing one by another, setting the duties - to keep everything in memory, and to chronology, etc. Or the religious and ethical teach only what had been given to him. parts are manipulated by formulating dogmatic There were special locations for this propositions from isolated prophetic instruction, "houses of teaching" (synagogues), utterances, by bringing these into relation to and the Temple itself among the colonnades or each other, and thus obtaining a kind of other spaces in the outer court (Matt. 21:23; dogmatic system. " 26:55; Mark 14:49; Luke 2:46; 20:37; John The Pharisees 18:20). The word "Pharisee" is from Greek by way of The third duty of Scribes was to pass sentence the Aramaic word for "separated". The name in the court of justice. Obviously, men so well Separatist is thought by some to be derived versed in the law would be asked to be judges. from that separation which took place in the We know that scribes were members of the time of Zerubbabel, and then again in the time Sanhedrin (see below). After the fall of the of Ezra, when Israel separated from the Jewish state in 70 A.D., scribes were both heathen dwelling in the land and from their legislators and judges. uncleanness (Ezra 6:21; 9:1; 10:11; Neh. 9:2; The Writings of the Scribes 10:29). In the development and writing of the law there However, the name probably has a stricter evolved two main bodies of written work, the meaning, coming to the Pharisees as a result of Halachah and the Haggadah. their extremely strict view of the idea of pollution, not only from the uncleanness of the Edersheim, in Life and Times of Jesus, Vol. I, heathen, but also from that pollution with p.98, states that the Halachah contained "either which they thought the majority of Israelites simply the laws laid down in Scripture, or else were likewise affected. They might have been derived from or traced to it by some ingenious called "separatists" by some in praise, and by

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others in blame. It is unlikely that they took the sway over the masses was so absolute that they name for themselves because they called could obtain a hearing even when they said themselves the haberim, those who "associate", anything against the king or the high priest; this term referring to one who associates consequently, they were the most capable of himself with the law in order to observe it counteracting the designs of the kings. Hence, strictly in opposition to the encroachments of too, the Sadducees, in their official acts, the heathen world culture. adhered to the demands of the Pharisees, The priests and scribes (see above) formed the because otherwise the multitude would not inner structure of Jewish religion after the have tolerated them." captivity. These two groups became more and Teachings of the Pharisees more separated until, in the Maccabaean Concerning immortality, the Pharisees taught period, two parties, sharply at odds with each "that every soul is imperishable, but that only other, were developed from them, the Pharisees those of the righteous pass into another body, from the Scribes, and the Sadducees from the while those of the wicked are punished with ranks of the priests (see below). The eternal torment" (Josephus, Wars of the Jews, II, characteristic feature of the Pharisees arose 8, 14). "They hold the belief that an immortal from the legal tendency, while that of the strength belongs to souls and that there are Sadducees came from the social position. beneath the earth punishments and rewards for During the Greek period, the chief priests and those who in life devoted themselves to virtue rulers of the people took an increasingly more or vileness, and that eternal imprisonment is negative attitude toward the law; so the appointed for the latter, but the possibility of Pharisees united themselves more tightly into a returning to life for the former" (Josephus, group that kept to a strict observance of the Antiquities of the Jews, XVIII, 1,3). law. In the time of John Hyrcanus, they were in The Pharisees also taught the existence of hostile opposition to the Maccabees, because angels and spirits, while the Sadducees denied the Maccabees chief objective was no longer the them (Acts 23:8), and this also represented the carrying out the law but maintaining and general standpoint of later Judaism. extending political and economic power. Concerning divine providence and human The stress which the Pharisees laid on the freedom, the Pharisees "make everything religion of the people won the majority of the depend on fate and on God, and teach that the nation to their side, and Queen Alexandra, to doing of good is indeed chiefly the affair of man, keep civil peace, gave the power into the but that fate also cooperates in every Pharisees' hands. It was consistency with transaction" (Josephus, Wars, II, 8, 14). principle which gave them spiritual supremacy "They assert that everything is accomplished by and kept people on their side. Although the faith. They do not, however, deprive the human Sadducees were at the head of the Sanhedrin, will of spontaneity, it having pleased God that the whole conduct of internal affairs was in there should be a mixture, and that to the will Pharisee hands; they completely ruled the of fate should be added the human will with its public life of the nation, and this continued virtue or baseness" (Josephus, Antiquities, essentially throughout the time of Christ and XVIII, 1,3). the apostles. Concerning politics, the standpoint of the From Scheurer, , Div. II, Vol. II, p. Jewish People Pharisees was looking at civil affairs from a 28, "They had the bulk of the nation as their religious point of view. They could be content ally, and women especially were in their with any government as long as religion was control. They had the greatest influence upon not hindered; but they became, in a sense, a the congregations, so that all acts of public political party when they rose to oppose a worship, prayers, and sacrifices were performed according to their injunctions. Their

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government that interfered with the practice of men, were instead made to contract and debase the law. the ideas of morality. Practices of the Pharisees While it was the aim of Jesus to call men to the All Israelites avoided, as far as possible, all law of God itself as the supreme guide of life, physical contact with the heathen, in order to the Pharisees multiplied minute precepts and avoid being defiled. The Pharisee, in addition, distinctions to such an extent that the whole life avoided physical contact with any non- of Israel was hemmed in and burdened on Pharisees, even among other Jews. The fact every side by instructions so numerous and that the Pharisees found fault with Jesus' trifling that the law was almost lost sight of contact with publicans and sinners agreed (Matt. 12:1–13; 23:23; Mark 3:1-6; 7:2–4; Luke exactly with this point of view (Mark 2:14–17; 13:10–17; 18:12). Matt. 9:9–13; Luke 5:27–32). It was Christ's leading aim to teach men that In the Talmud, seven kinds of Pharisees are true piety lay not in outward forms, but in described (from Delitzsch, Jesus und Hillel): substance; not in small details, but in great rules of life. The whole system of Pharisaic • The Shechemite Pharisee, so-called because piety led to the exact opposite. Under its he keeps the law for what he can profit from it, influence "the weightier matters of the law, as Shechem submitted to circumcision to obtain judgment, mercy, and faith" (Matt. 23:23; Luke Dinah (Gen. 34:19). 11:42) were undervalued and neglected. • The Tumbling Pharisee, who, to appear Religion in the heart was ignored (Luke 11:38– humble, hangs down his head and is in danger 41). The most sacred obligations were evaded of falling down. (Mark 7:11). Vain and trifling questions took • The Bleeding Pharisee, who is often injured the place of serious inquiry into the great because he walks around with his eyes closed principles of duty (Matt. 19:3). Even the most so as not to see a woman. solemn truths were handled as mere matters of • The Mortar Pharisee, who wears a cap curious speculation or means to entrap an shaped like a mortar to cover his eyes so as not adversary (Matt. 22:35; Luke 17:20). to see impurities or indecencies. Christ taught compassion for the degraded and • The "What-Am-I-Yet-To-Do" Pharisee, who, friendless; liberality to the poor; holiness of because he doesn't know much about the law, heart; universal love; a mind open to the truth. says "Tell me what my duty is now, and I will do The Pharisees shunned lower classes and it." pushed from themselves such as the Savior • The Pharisee From Fear, who keeps the law would have gathered into his arms (Luke 7:39; because he is afraid of future judgment. 15:2; 18:11; John 7:47,48). They made a prey of the friendless (Matt. 23:13). With all their • The Pharisee From Love, who obeys the pretence, they were really avaricious, sensual, Lord because he loves him with all his heart. and dissolute (Matt. 23:25; John 8:7). They A Comparison of Pharisaism and Christianity devoted their energies to making converts to It was Jesus Christ's great effort to make clear themselves (Matt. 23:15). the principles of the Laws of the Old Testament The Sadducees dispensation and to carry them to their The Hebrew word by which the Sadducees legitimate conclusions, to "fulfill the law", not to were called is tsaddiqim, "the righteous ones". confirm the law as many have thought. The If we only look at the points of differences Pharisees taught such a slavish adherence to between them and the Pharisees, we get a the letter of the law that its true character, distorted picture of the Sadducees; but each which pointed to something higher than its party had its strong characteristics, that of the letter, was completely overwhelmed; and its Pharisees being a rigid realism, while the moral precepts, which were intended to elevate

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Sadducees were aristocratic. According to The Sadducees denied that there were angels or Josephus, "they gain only the well-to-do; they spirits, independent spiritual beings besides have not the people on their side." The high God. Even the soul, they said, was only refined priestly families, for example, were almost all matter and would perish with the body. Sadducees. It is not surprising that the Sadducees laid great Beliefs of The Sadducees stress on human free will. With a strong The Sadducees accepted only the written law insistence on personal liberty there came a and prophets as binding. They rejected the decrease of the religious motive. They insisted entire traditional interpretations and the that man was at his own disposal, and they further developments of the Scribes. "The rejected the idea that a divine cooperation Sadducees say only what is written is to be takes place in human actions. The Pharisees thought of as legal...what has come down from accentuated the divine to the verge of fatalism, tradition of the fathers need not be observed." and insisted on absolute preordination of every (Josephus, Antiquities, XIII, 10,6). event in its smallest detail. The Sadducees opposed notions like these. In legal matters the Sadducees were very rigid in judging offenders, while the Pharisees were The Sanhedrin much milder. "They saw in the tradition of the The rise of this great council of the Hebrews elders an excess of legal strictness which they took place in the time of Greek supremacy, refused to have imposed upon them, while the though there has been some attempt to trace its advanced religious views were, on the one origins to the council of seventy elders named hand, superfluous to their worldly-mindedness, by Moses. The first mention of the Sanhedrin is and on the other, inadmissible by their higher in the time of Antiochus the Great (223-187 culture and enlightenment" (Scheurer, Jewish B.C.) It was evidently an aristocratic body, with People, Div. II, Vol. I, p. 41). A more thorough the high priest acting as president. When the discussion of legal matters among the Roman order was introduced by Pompey, the Sadducees can be found in Unger's Bible high priest still retained the position of Dictionary, pp. 952,953. governor of the nation, making it likely that the In ritual, the only important differences of Sanhedrin was carrying on. Sadducees from Pharisees was in respect to Herod the Great began his reign by ordering the laws of cleanness. They derided the Pharisees whole of the Sanhedrin put to death, appointing for the oddities and inconsistences which they his own council of elders in their place. Under had brought into their laws of purity. They did the Roman pro-curators, the internal not reject the idea of Levitical uncleanness, government of the country was in the hands of however, and they demanded a higher degree the Sanhedrin to a much greater extent. And in of cleanness for the priest who made the red the time of Christ and the apostles, the heifer offering than did the Pharisees. Sanhedrin is frequently mentioned as being the Doctrines of the Sadducees supreme Jewish court of justice. The Sanhedrin was abolished after the destruction of The Sadducees did not believe in a resurrection Jerusalem in 70 A.D. of the body or in retribution or reward in a future life. They did not feel bound by any The Organization of the Sanhedrin doctrine which did not proceed from Moses, The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 priests who and there was no assertion by Moses in the served for life and who were selected from the Pentateuch of any resurrection from the dead. following: The Sadducees would have given much more • The acting high priest presided over the weight to Moses' writings than to any of the council; all former high priests were members. prophets or historians, even though they • Male members of the high priestly families regarded those writings canonical. • Scribes, legal assessors, bureaucrats

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• Pharisees and Sadducees in Palestine and Babylonia until the beginning • Elders - tribal and family heads of the Middle Ages.” The Talmud has two main components: the Mishnah, a book of law Criminal judges were members of the ( ), written in Hebrew; and the Sanhedrin, and twenty-three of them sat in halakhah commentary on the Mishnah, known as the judgment, with two clerks to record votes for Gemara, a summary of the discussions and acquittal and conviction. In capital cases, explanations of the Mishnah, written in argument for acquittal was heard first, then Aramaic. those in favor of conviction. Anyone who had spoken in favor of the accused could not then The Talmud is the repository of thousands of speak against him; but one who had spoken years of Jewish wisdom, and the oral law, against the accused could change his testimony “which is as ancient and significant as the in his favor. Sentence for acquittal could be written law (the Torah),” finds expression pronounced immediately; but sentence for therein. It is a collection of law, legend, and conviction was reserved for the next day. philosophy, a blend of logic and shrewd pragmatism, of history and science, anecdotes In voting, each member stood, beginning with and humor. Is it a collection of paradoxes; its the youngest. A simple majority was sufficient framework is orderly and logical, every word for acquittal; but a majority of at least two votes and term is subjected to meticulous editing, was required for conviction. More members of completed centuries after the actual work of the Sanhedrin would be brought in two at a composition cane to an end; yet it is still based time to vote whenever there was a majority of on , a harnessing together of only one for conviction. When all 71 had voted, free association diverse ideas, reminiscent of the modern the person was acquitted if there was still a stream-of-consciousness novel. majority of only one. Here is a comment from Rabbi Steinsaltz’s Jesus appeared before the Sanhedrin on a book, Chapter 15, : “In the most charge of blasphemy (Matt. 26:65; John 19:7). The Sabbath general sense, the numerous Sabbath laws are Peter and John were charged with being false an expanding network of minute details prophets and deceivers of the people (Acts 4 deriving from several basic concepts, which and 5), Stephen with being a blasphemer (Acts eventually create an almost Gothic structure 6:13 ff), and Paul with being guilty of made up of thousands upon thousands of tiny transgressing the Mosaic law (Acts 23). and meticulously fashioned details clustered The Sanhedrin had the right of ordering arrests around the original form. by its own officers; of finally disposing of such cases as did not involve capital punishment. A Sects and Parties of the Jews sentence of death had to be ratified by the from “The Life and Epistles of St. Paul” by W. J. Roman procurator. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, Chapter 2. The Talmud The Sadducees and Pharisees are frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and we are Extracts from “The Essential Talmud,” by Adin there informed of the tenets of these two Steinsaltz. prevailing parties. The belief in a future state The Bible is the chief cornerstone of the Jewish may be said to have been an open question religion, and the Talmud is the central pillar. It among the Jews, when our Lord appeared and is the most important book in Jewish culture “brought life and immortality to light.” We find and is the backbone of creativity and national the Sadducees established in the highest office life, shaping spiritual content and serving as a of the priesthood, and possessed of the greatest guide to conduct. powers in the Sanhedrin; and yet they did not In a formal definition, the Talmud is “the believe in any future state, nor in any spiritual summary of oral law that evolved after existence independent of the body. The centuries of scholarly effort by sages who lived

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Sadducees said that there was “no resurrection, made successful inroads on the territories of neither angel nor spirit.” (Acts 23:8; Matt. the Gentiles. 22:23,24) They do not appear to have held Such were the Pharisees. And now, before doctrines which are commonly called licentious proceeding to other features of Judaism and or immoral. On the contrary, they adhered their relation to the church, we can hardly help strictly to the moral tenets of the Law, as glancing at St. Paul. He was “a Pharisee, the son opposed to its more formal technicalities. They of a Pharisee,” (Acts 23:6), and he was educated did not overload the Sacred books with by Gamaliel, (Acts 22:3), “a Pharisee”. (Acts traditions, or encumber the duties of life with a 5:34) Both his father and his teacher belonged multitude of minute observances. They were to this sect. And on three distinct occasions he the disciples of reason without enthusiasm – tells us that he himself was a member of it. they made few proselytes – their numbers were Once when at his trial, before a mixed assembly not great, and they were confined principally to of Pharisees and Sadducees, the words just the richer members of their nation. quoted were spoken, and his connection with The Pharisees were the enthusiasts of later the Pharisees asserted with such effect that the Judaism. They “compassed sea and land to feelings of this popular party were immediately make one proselyte.” Their power and enlisted on his side. “And when he had so said, influence with the mass of the people was there arose a dissension between the Pharisees immense. The loss of the national and the Sadducees and the multitude was independence of the Jews – the gradual divided … And there arose a great cry; and the extinction of their political life, directly by the Scribes that were of the Pharisees’ part arose, Romans, and indirectly by the family of Herod, and strove, saying, We find no evil in this man.” caused their feelings to really round the Law (Acts 23) and their religion as the only center of unity The second time was when, on a calmer which now remained to them. occasion, he was pleading before Agrippa, and Those, therefore, who gave their energies to the said to the king in the presence of Festus: “The interpretation and exposition of the Law, not Jews knew me from the beginning, if they curtailing any of the doctrines which were would testify, that after the most straightest virtually contained in it and which had been sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee.” (Acts 26) revealed with more or less clearness, but rather And once more, when writing from Rome to the accumulating articles of faith, and multiplying Philippians, he gives force to his argument the requirements of devotion – who themselves against the Judaizers, by telling them that if any practiced a severe and ostentatious religion, other man thought he had whereof he might being liberal in almsgiving, fasting frequently, trust in the flesh, he himself had more: making long prayers, and carrying casuistic “circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of distinctions into the smallest details of conduct Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the – who consecrated, moreover, their best zeal Hebrews; as touching the Law, a Pharisee.” and exertions to the spread of the fame of (Phil. 3:4). And not only was he himself a Judaism, and to the increase of the nation’s Pharisee, but his father also. He was “a power in the only way which was not Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee.” This short practicable – could not fail to command the sentence sums up nearly all we know of St. reverence of great numbers of the people. Paul's parents. If we think of his earliest lift, we It was no longer possible to fortify Jerusalem are to conceive of him as born in a Pharisaic against the heathen; but the Law could be family, and as brought up from his infancy in fortified like an impregnable city. The place of the “straightest sect of the Jews’ religion.” the brave is on the walls and in the front of the His childhood was nurtured in the strictest battle; and the hopes of the nation rested on belief. The stories of the Old Testament, the those who defended the sacred outworks, and angelic appearances, the prophetic visions, to

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him were literally true. The needed no kindled with the burning desire to throw off the Sadducean explanation. The world of spirits Roman yoke from the neck of Israel. Very was a reality to him. The resurrection of the different from them were the Herodians, twice dead was an article of his faith. And to exhort mentioned in the Gospels (Mark 3:6; Matt him to the practices of religion, he had before 22:16; see Mark 12:13), who held that the him the example of his father, praying and hopes of Judaism rested on the Herods, and walking with broad phylacteries, scrupulous who almost looked to that family for the and exact in his legal observances. He had, fulfillment of the prophecies of the Messiah. moreover, as it seems, the memory and And if we were simply enumerating the tradition of ancestral piety; for he tells us in one divisions and describing the sects of the Jews, it of his latest letters (2 Tim. 1:3) that he served would be necessary to mention the God “from his forefathers.” Therapeutae, a widely spread community in All influences combined to make him “more Egypt, who lived even in great seclusion that exceedingly zealous of the traditions of his the Essenes in Judea. The Samaritans also fathers,” (Gal. 1:14) and “touching the would require our attention. But we must turn righteousness which is in the Law, blameless.” from these sects and parties to a wider division, (Phil. 3:6) Everything tended to prepare him to which arose from the dispersion of the Hebrew be an eminent member of that theological people, to which some space has been devoted party, to which so many of the Jews were in the preceding chapter. looking for the preservation of their national ACTS 24 life, and the extension of their national creed. But in this mention of the Pharisees and ACTS 24 TOPICAL STUDIES Sadducees we are far from exhausting the Caesarea subject of Jewish divisions, and far less from Roman Provincial System enumerating all those phases of opinion which ACTS 24:1. And after five days Ananias the must have had some connection with the high priest descended with the elders, From growth of rising Christianity and all those Jerusalem to Caesarea: these five days are to be elements which may have contributed to form reckoned not from the seizing of Paul in the the character of the apostle of the heathen. temple, but from his coming to Caesarea; the There was a sect in Judea which is not Alexandrian copy reads, “after some days”, mentioned in the Scriptures but which must leaving it undetermined how many: the high have acquired considerable influence in the priest, with the elders, the members of the time of the apostles, as may be inferred from Sanhedrin, with “some” of them, as the same the space devoted to it by Josephus and Philo. copy and the Vulgate Latin version read, came These were the , who retired from Essenes down hither; not merely as accusers, by the theological and political distractions of order of the chief captain, but willingly, and of Jerusalem and the larger towns, and founded their own accord, to vindicate themselves and peaceful communities in the desert or in their people, lest they should fall under the villages, where their life was spent in displeasure of the Roman governor, for contemplation and in the practices of ascetic encouraging tumults and riots: the high priest piety. It has been suggested that John the must be conscious to himself that he had acted Baptist was one of them. There is no proof that in an illegal manner, in ordering Paul to be this was the case, but we need not doubt that smitten on the mouth, in the midst of the they did represent religious cravings which council, in the presence of the chief captain. Christianity satisfied. If it had not been for the soldiers, Paul had been Another party was that of the , who Zealots pulled to pieces in the council: and the elders were as politically fanatical as the Essenes were knew what a hand they had in the conspiracy religiously contemplative, and whose zeal was against his life; and they were sensible that this

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plot was discovered, and Paul was secretly The Western text includes as part of Tertullus’s conveyed away; and what the captain had speech a statement summarizing the events of wrote to the governor, they could not tell, and 21:33–36; 22:22–24, 30. (The AV includes it in therefore made the more haste down to him, to the text [24:6b–8a; the RSV and NEB print it in set themselves right, and get Paul condemned: the margin.) Its mention of Lysias as the chief and with a certain orator named Tertullus: captain seems to add authenticity to this this man, by his name, seems to have been a statement, but its omission from most texts Roman; and because he might know the Roman, casts doubt on its originality. If this text is or the Greek language, or both, which the Jews correct, however, it does carry through did not so well understand, and was very well Tertullus’s argument that Paul had tried to acquainted with all the forms in the Roman profane the temple (v 6), noting in particular courts of judicature, as well as was an eloquent that Paul had been arrested in accordance with orator; therefore they pitched upon him, and Jewish law. took him down with them to open and plead The more important charge, however, was that their cause. Paul was a seditious character, an agitator The name Tertullus is a diminutive from among all the Jews (24:5) and a disturber of the Tertius, as Marullus from Marius, Lucullus from peace. While Felix was expected to allow the Lucius, and Catullus from Catius. Jews to enforce their law properly when it was violated, it was the latter charge that would The father of the wife of Titus, before he was hold the Roman government’s attention, and emperor, was of this name ; and some say her undoubtedly the Jews from Asia were most name was Tertulla; and the grandmother of concerned to see Paul sentenced for this charge. Vespasian, by his father’s side, was of this Tertullus contended that were Felix to name, under whom he was brought up . interrogate Paul he himself would conclude This man’s title, in the Greek text, is , “Rhetor”, that Paul was a dangerous enemy, not only of a rhetorician; but though with the Latins established Jewish law and tradition, but also of an“orator” and a “rhetorician” are the state (v 8). distinguished, an orator being one that pleads ; causes in courts, and a rhetorician a professor Who informed the governor against Paul brought in a bill of information against him, of rhetoric; yet, with the Greeks, the “Rhetor” is setting forth his crimes, and declaring an orator; so Demosthenes was called; and so themselves his accusers; they appeared in open Cicero calls himself . court against him, and accused him; for this is From International Standard Bible not to be restrained to Tertullus, but is said of Encyclopedia: the high priest, and elders with him; for, the Tertullus: an orator who traveled with Ananias word is in the plural number, though the Syriac the high priest to Caesarea to plead the Jews’ version reads in the singular, and seems to case against Paul before the governor Felix refer it to the high priest. (Acts 24:1–8; cf. 21:27–36; 23:26–30). Although ACTS 24:2. And when he was called forth, his Roman name has suggested to some that Not Tertullus the orator; for this is not to be Tertullus was a Greek or Roman, his use of the understood of him, and of his being admitted to first person plural (“… we enjoy … we accept … speak, as is thought by some, but the Apostle we have found … we seized,” etc., 24:2–8) Paul; which is put out of doubt by the Vulgate implies that he was a Jew; moreover, it was Latin version, which reads, “and Paul being common for Jews to carry Roman names. His cited”; he was ordered to be brought out of position as the one who brought the charge to custody into the court, to hear his indictment, Felix required that he be well trained and and answer for himself: skilled in rhetoric. His opening flatteries follow the rhetorical mode of the day.

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Tertullus began to accuse him; to set forth his with all thankfulness; as sensible of the crimes, which he introduced with a flattering obligations they were under to him; but this preface to Felix: was all a farce, mere artifice, and wretched saying, seeing that by thee we enjoy great flattery. quietness, and that very worthy deeds are ACTS 24:4. Notwithstanding, that I be not done unto this nation by thy providence; very further tedious unto thee, Suggesting, that he likely he might refer to his purging the country could say a great deal more under this head, of robbers; he took Eleazar, the chief of them, but, for brevity sake, should omit it; and who had infested the country for twenty years, because he would not tire his patience, and and many others with him, whom he sent hinder business going forward: bound to Rome, and others of them he I pray thee, that thou wouldst hear us of thy crucified; and whereas there arose up another clemency a few words; he praises him for his set of men, under a pretence of religion, who humanity and good nature, and for his patience led people into the wilderness, signifying, that in hearing causes, and promises him great God would show them some signs of liberty; conciseness in the account he should give him; these seemed, to Felix, to sow the seeds, and lay and entreats that, according to his wonted the foundation of division and defection, which goodness, he would condescend to hear what showed his sagacity, and which Tertullus here he had to lay before him; all which was artfully calls “providence”. said to engage attention to him. Wherefore, foreseeing what would be the ACTS 24:5. For we have found this man a consequence of these things, if not timely pestilent fellow, Pointing to Paul, the prisoner prevented, he sent armed men, horse and foot, at the bar; the word here used signifies the and destroyed great numbers of them; and “pest” or “plague” itself; and it was usual with particularly he put to flight the Egyptian false orators among the Romans, when they would prophet, who had collected thirty thousand represent a man as a very wicked man, as men together, and dispersed them ; and yet his dangerous to the state, and unworthy to live in government was attended with cruelty and it, to call him the pest of the city, or of the avarice; witness the murder of Jonathan the country, or of the empire, as may be observed high priest, by a sort of cut throats, who were in several places in Cicero’s Orations. connived at by him; particularly by the means And a mover of sedition among all the Jews of Dora his friend, whom he corrupted; and the throughout the world: sedition was severely pillaging of many of the inhabitants of Caesarea punished by the Romans, being what they : so that this was a piece of flattery,used by carefully watched and guarded against, and was Tertullus, to catch his ear, and gain attention, what the Jews were supposed to be very prone and insinuate himself into his affections. unto; and Tertullus would suggest, that the ACTS 24:3. We accept it always, and in all several riots, and tumults, and seditions, places, The sense is, that the Jews observed fomented by the Jews, in the several parts of the with pleasure the provident care the governor Roman empire, here called the world, were took of their nation, and at all times spoke well occasioned by the apostle: the crime charged of him; and wherever they came commended upon him is greatly aggravated, as that not only his conduct, and owned the favours they he wasguilty of sedition, but that he was the received from him, and the blessings they mover of it, and that he stirred up all the Jews enjoyed under his government: and then giving to it, and that in every part of the world, or him his title of honour, empire, than which nothing was more false; the most noble Felix; Tertullus adds, that this the Jews often raised up a mob against him, but he Jews did never rioted them, and much less moved them against the Roman government: and to this charge he adds,

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and a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes; and after he had pleaded his own cause before not Nazarites, as Calvin seems to understand the Sanhedrin; and after the chief captain had the passage; for these were men of great repute had intelligence of the Jews lying in wait to kill among the Jews, and for Paul to be at the head him: Tertullus would insinuate that the captain of them would never be brought against him as was blameworthy, that he hindered a legal a charge: but Nazarenes, that is, Christians, so process against Paul; and that it was owing to called by way of contempt and reproach, from him, that this trouble was given the governor, Jesus of Nazareth; which name and sect being as well as the high priest and elders, who by his contemptible among the Romans, as well as orders came down from Jerusalem to Caesarea; Jews, are here mentioned to make the apostle and that had it not been for him this affair more odious. might have been finished with more dispatch, ACTS 24:6. Who also hath gone about to and less trouble. profane the temple, By introducing a Greek By examining of whom; not the accusers, but into it; (see Acts 21:28,29) which was only a either the chief captain, as some think, or rather supposition and conjecture of the Asiatic Jews, Paul: and was a false and groundless one: thyself mayest take knowledge of all these whom we took; as they did in the temple, and things whereof we accuse him; so impudent dragged him out of it: was Tertullus, and of such effrontery and and would have judged according to our law; assurance, that he feared not to say, that the which was another untruth, for they had him governor, by examining Paul himself, would not before any court of judicature; they brought easily come to the knowledge of the things he no charge in form against him, nor did they was accused of, and plainly see that he was examine his case, and inquire into the truth of guilty of them; so that there would be no need things, or hear what he had to say, but fell upon of their attestations, or of producing witnesses him, and beat him; and if it had not been for the against him. chief captain and his soldiers, would have ACTS 24:9. And the Jews also assented, That destroyed him, so far were they from is, Ananias the high priest, and the elders that proceeding according to their law: it seems by were with him, agreed to what Tertullus said, Tertullus calling the law, “our law”, that he was and confirmed the same. a Jewish proselyte; or else he speaks after the Saying, that these things were so; that Paul manner of lawyers, who call what is their was such a person, and was guilty of the crimes clients, theirs. he had set forth; and that the chief captain had ACTS 24:7. But the chief captain Lysias came taken the steps, and done the things he had upon us, Suddenly, and at unawares, related. immediately, and with great haste, before they ACTS 24:10. Then Paul, after the governor could execute their designs; which were not to had beckoned unto him to speak, Tertullus judge Paul according to law, but to kill him, in having finished his account, Paul was silent to the manner the zealots did: his charge and calumnies, until the governor and with great violence took him away out of beckoned with his hand or head, or made some our hands; for he came with an army, and sign to him to speak for himself; which he might rescued him, (Acts 23:27) Some copies add, not do, until leave was given him; and then he “and sent him to thee”; and so the Syriac answered as follows: version reads. forasmuch as I know that thou hast been of ACTS 24:8. Commanding his accusers to many years a judge unto this nation; some come unto thee, But this was not done till say he was in the thirteenth, others in the tenth after Paul had set forth his case before the year of his government; some copies read a people, upon the stairs leading to the castle: “just judge”; but this does not so well agree

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with the character of Felix; (see Gill on “Acts to dispute in the temple; it was a common thing 24:27”). for the doctors to dispute about matters of I do the more cheerfully answer for myself; religion, in the porches, and courts, and since if he had been such a mover of sedition chambers of the temple, as it may be observed everywhere, he must in this course of years they often did with Christ; but the apostle have known or heard something of it; and mentions this to show, that he was so far from seeing also he could be no stranger to the moving sedition among the people of the Jews, temper of the Jews, that they were given to that he never so much as entered into any envy, revenge, lying, and perjury, and therefore conversation with them, upon any subject would not easily believe all they said, or rashly whatever: true indeed, he was in the temple, take their part, but rather would pity the and was found there, but not disputing with apostle, who had fallen into such hands, and do any, but purifying himself according to the law him justice. of Moses: ACTS 24:11. Because that thou mayest neither raising up the people; stirring them up understand, By what Paul now asserted, and to sedition, and tumult, to rebel against the by the witnesses which he could produce to Roman government: certify the truth of it: neither in the synagogues; where there were that there are yet but twelve days since I the greatest concourse of people, and the best went up to Jerusalem for to worship; that is, opportunity of sowing seditious principles, and from the time that he went up from Caesarea to of which there were many in the city of Jerusalem, to the present time, in which he Jerusalem. stood before Felix, pleading his own cause; The Jews say there were four hundred and which may be reckoned, thus, he came in one sixty synagogues in Jerusalem; some say four day from Caesarea to Jerusalem, (Acts hundred and eighty: 21:16,17) the next day he visited James and the nor in the city; of Jerusalem, in any of the elders, (Acts 21:18) on the third day he purified public streets or markets, where there were himself in the temple, (Acts 21:26) where he any number of people collected together; the was taken and used ill by the Jews; on the apostle mentions the most noted and public fourth day, he was brought before the places, where any thing of this kind might most Sanhedrin, and defended himself, (Acts 22:30) reasonably be thought to be done. on the fifth day forty Jews conspire to take ACTS 24:13. Neither can they prove the away his life, (Acts 23:11), on the sixth day he things whereof they now accuse me. As that came to Caesarea, being sent there by Lysias, he was a pestilent fellow, a mover of sedition, (Acts 23:32) and five days after this, which and a profaner of the temple these things they make eleven, Ananias, and the elders, with could not set forth in any clear light, and bring Tertullus, came down to accuse him; and this testimonies, or give demonstration of; they day was the twelfth, on which his trial came on. could not make them appear to be true, which it And of these twelve days he was a prisoner lay upon them to do, or otherwise in course he nine, and therefore could not have done so ought be acquitted: this was challenging and much mischief, and stirred up so much sedition defying them to make good their assertions. as was insinuated; and in opposition to the ACTS 24:14. But this I confess unto thee, charge of profaning the temple, he observes What was truth he was not ashamed of, but that he came up to Jerusalem to “worship”; ready to own, and bear his testimony for, namely, at the feast of Pentecost. whatever was the consequence of it: ACTS 24:12. And they neither found me in the that after the way which they call heresy; , Either about temple disputing with any man referring to the charge of his being a ringleader civil or religious affairs: not that it was criminal of the sect of the Nazarenes, (Acts 24:5) and

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meaning by the way the Christian religion, or and that there shall be a resurrection of the the doctrines of Christianity, which the Jews dead, both of the just and unjust; agreeably to called heresy; and as early as this were the the doctrine of Christ in (John 5:28,29). Christians, by them, called heretics: so we read In this article the Pharisees of those times were of , “a prayer against the heretics”, which sounder than the modern Jews; for though the Samuel (the little) composed before, or in the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead is one presence of R. Gamaliel the elder, he approving of their thirteen articles of faith, and is a of it; which R. Gamaliel was Paul’s master; and fundamental one, which he that does not some have thought, that Samuel the little, the believe, cannot be said to be of the Jewish composer of this prayer, was Saul himself; so religion; yet they limit it entirely to the that he knew very well that the Christian righteous , and will not allow that the wicked doctrine was called heresy, and the Christians shall rise again: and this notion obtained also heretics, for he had called them so himself in very early; for in their Talmud it is reported, as the time of his unregeneracy; but now he was the saying of R. Abhu, that “the day of rain is not ashamed to profess that way, and walk in it, greater than the resurrection of the dead; the and according to it worship God, as follows: resurrection of the dead is , for the righteous, so worship I the God of my fathers; even but the rain is both for the righteous, and the Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, suggesting, that by wicked.” embracing Christianity, he had not denied, and Though Abarbinel says, that the sense of this gone off from the worship of the one, only, expression is not, that they that are not just living, and true God, the God of Israel. shall have no part in the resurrection, but that There was an entire agreement between the hereby is declared the benefit and reward to be saints of the OldTestament, and the Christians enjoyed at the resurrection; that that is not like of the New, in the object of worship; the Vulgate rain, from whence both just and unjust equally Latin version reads, “so serve I the Father, and receive advantage; whereas only the reward is my God”; that is, God the Father, who is the for the righteous, but not for the ungodly: Father of Christ, and the God and Father of moreover, he observes, that this saying was not believers in him: received and approved of by all the wise men, believing all things which are written in the particularly that R. Joseph dissented, and others law and the prophets; which the Sadducees agreed with him. did not; and strictly adhering to these, and not As for himself, he openly declares, that to the traditions of the elders, as did the Scribes thatassertion, that the just among the Israelites and Pharisees; so that since he believed only shall rise again, is foreign from truth, since whatever was contained in the sacred writings, the Scripture affirms, (Daniel 12:2) “that many he could not be charged justly with heresy; and of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall as he believed, so he taught nothing but what awake”; but if there should be no other than the was agreeably to the Scriptures of the Old righteous in the resurrection, they would Testament. without doubt be very few; besides it is said, ACTS 24:15. And have hope towards God, Of “some to everlasting life, and some to an interest in him, and of enjoying eternal life everlasting contempt”; and Isaiah says, (Isaiah and happiness with him in a future state: 66:24) “and they shall go forth and look upon the carcasses of the men that have transgressed which they themselves also allow; that is, against me”; which shows, that the ungodly some of the Jews, not the Sadducees, for they shall rise again, to receive their due denied what is afterwards asserted; but the punishment: and Manasseh ben Israel , in the Pharisees, who believed the immortality of the last century, argued for the resurrection of both soul, and its existence in a future state: the godly and ungodly, from the same passages of Scripture; and yet he was not of opinion, that

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the resurrection would be general and common the wicked not until they are ended; and in the to all men, only that some of all sorts, good, and means and manner of their rising; they will be bad, and middling, would rise again, and which both raised by Christ, but the one by virtue of he supposed was the sense of the ancients. union to him, the other merely by his power; It is certain the Jews are divided in their the just will rise in bodies not only immortal, sentiments about this matter; some of them and incorruptible, but powerful, spiritual, and utterly deny that any other shall rise but the glorious, even like to the glorious body of just; yea, they affirm , that only the just among Christ; the wicked will rise with bodies the Israelites, and not any of the nations of the immortal, but not free from sin, nor glorious: world shall rise; others say that all shall rise at yea, their resurrection will differ in the end of the resurrection of the dead, excepting the it; the one will rise to everlasting life and glory, generation of the flood ; and others think, that the other to everlasting shame and damnation. only they that have been very bad, or very good, ACTS 24:16. And herein do I exercise myself, shall rise, but not those that are between both; Or because of this; on account of this doctrine but certain it is, as the apostle affirms, that all of the resurrection of the dead, which is a shall rise, both just and unjust. doctrine according to godliness, and promotes The just are they who are made so by the and engages to a holy life and conversation, as righteousness of Christ imputed to them, and the contrary tends to encourage a dissolute and who being created anew unto righteousness sinful manner of living; (see 1 Corinthians and true holiness, live soberly, righteously, and 15:32) The apostle studied, and laboured, and godly; the unjust are they who are destitute of bent himself, and employed his thought, care, righteousness, and are filled with all and time, unrighteousness; and these latter, as well as the to have always a conscience void of offence former, will rise again from the dead; which is toward God and toward man; that is, to clear, not only from the words of Christ, and the discharge every duty which God requires, and writings of the apostles, but from the Scriptures to give to every man what is due to him; so as to of the Old Testament, particularly (Daniel 12:2) please God, and not offend men, neither Jew nor and also from the justice of God, which requires Gentile, nor the church of God; and so as that that they who have sinned in the body, should conscience may be clear of guilt, and may not be punished in the body be defiled with sin, being purged and purified Wherefore it is necessary on this account, that by the blood of Christ. the bodies of the wicked should be raised, that By a “conscience void of offence”, is meant a they with their souls may receive the full and good conversation; which as it respects God, just recompense of reward; and likewise from lies in a carefulness not to offend him, but to do the general judgment, which will include the his will; and as it respects men, a shunning righteous and the wicked, and who must all what may give offence, or be a stumbling to stand before the judgment seat of Christ, to them; and though this cannot be perfectly receive for the deeds done in the body, whether attained to in each of its branches, yet there is good or evil; in order to which there must be a in every good man a concern to have such a resurrection of them; to which add, the account conscience; and the consideration of the the Scripture gives of the punishment of the resurrection of the dead, the general judgment, wicked in hell, which supposes the resurrection and a future state, induce him to it. of the body, and in which the body and soul will ACTS 24:17. Now after many years, Absence be both destroyed. from Jerusalem; it was now about five and Indeed there will be a difference between the twenty years since his conversion, and most of resurrection of thejust and of the unjust, both in this time he spent among the Gentiles; three the time of their rising, the dead in Christ will years after it he went up to Jerusalem, and rise first at the beginning of the thousand years, fourteen years after that, (Galatians 1:18, 2:1)

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but it had now been some years since he had error or heresy, if they were capable of proving been there: anything. I came to bring alms to my nation; the ACTS 24:20. Or else let these same here say, collections which were made among the Gentile They that are present, the high priest and the churches, particularly in Macedonia, for the elders, who were come down to accuse him: poor saints at Jerusalem, ( Romans 15:25-27, 2 if they have found any evil doing in me, while Corinthians 8:1-4). I stood before the council; or “Jewish and offerings; either for the day of Pentecost, Sanhedrin”; when he was brought before them according to the usages of that feast, or the by the chief captain, (Acts 22:30, 23:1) offerings on the account of the vow of the meaning, if any evil was then done by him, or Nazarite, (Acts 21:26). any iniquity proved upon him, let it be The Vulgate Latin version adds, “and vows”; declared; for as for his imprecation, or unless the spiritual and evangelical sacrifices of prophecy, that God would smite the high priest, prayer and praise can be thought to be meant, he excused himself on that head, as not since the ceremonial law was now abrogated; knowing it was the high priest. though it is manifest the apostle did at some ACTS 24:21. Except it be for this one voice, times, and in some cases, comply with the Jews Sentence or expression following, which in the observance of it, in order to gain some. declares his faith about the resurrection; not ACTS 24:18. Whereupon, Or “among which”; that he thought or owned that this was an evil while the apostle was busy about the offerings in him, but that it was the only one, that any of of the Nazarites: them, the Jews, a part among them, namely, the Sadducees, could condemn, or judge to be evil certain Jews from Asia found me purified in in him: the temple; and therefore could not be said to profane it; this he observes in answer to the that I cried, standing among them; whereby charge of his attempting to profane it, and they were thrown into confusion and division acquaints the governor how that was; as that among themselves: and it was this, having joined himself to four men that had a touching the resurrection of the dead I am vow upon them, and being in the temple called in question by you this day; (see Acts purifying himself with them, certain Jews that 23:6). came from Ephesus, in Asia, who knew him ACTS 24:22. And when Felix heard these there, and had a pique against him, found him things, Which were said on both sides, both by here; not profaning the temple, as they plaintiff and defendant, the charges brought pretended, but acting according to the worship against Paul, and his answer to them, as a judge and service of it; and that, ought to do: neither with a multitude; for there were but having more perfect knowledge of that way; four men with him; the Christian religion, which the Jews called nor with tumult; making any noise and riot, or heresy, and Paul had embraced; the sense is, stirring up persons to sedition and rebellion. either that he had a more perfect knowledge of ACTS 24:19. Who ought to have been here it than he had before; and by what Paul had before thee, For they were the only persons said, he saw that it was not contrary to the law, who saw him in the temple, and what he was nor had any tendency to promote sedition and doing; and who by an hideous outcry raised a tumult; or rather, when he should have more mob upon him, who took things upon hearsay perfect knowledge of this new way, called the from them: sect of the Nazarenes, he would determine this cause, and not before: wherefore and object, if they had ought against me; either with respect to sedition, or blasphemy,

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he deferred them; put them off to longer time, who was eaten by worms, (Acts 12:23) and and would make no decision in favour of one sister to King Agrippa, mentioned in the next side or the other: chapter; but though she was born of Jewish and said, when Lysias the chief captain shall parents, and so a Jewess, as she is here called, come from Jerusalem to Caesarea, yet her name was a Roman name, and is the diminutive of Drusus; the first of which name I will know the uttermost of your matters: as took it from killing Drausus, an enemy’s for the way, or religion of the Christians, he general, and who was of the Livian family; and proposed doubtless to consult other persons; the name of the mother of Tiberius Caesar was and as for the profanation of the temple, and Livia Drusilla; Caius Caligula, the Roman especially about stirring up of sedition, he emperor, had also a sister whose name was would inquire of Lysias about that; and when Drusilla. he had got full information of these particulars, then he promised them to bring things to an This name Herod took from the Romans, and issue, and finish the cause. gave to his daughter; though the masculine name is often to be met with in Jewish writings; ACTS 24:23. And he commanded a centurion we frequently read of , “Rabbi Drusai” ; Herod to keep Paul, In custody, to watch and guard Agrippa left three daughters, born to him of him, and look after him, that he went not away, Cypris, Bernice, Mariamne, and Drusilla; and a since he was neither condemned nor acquitted; son by the same, whose name was Agrippa; and therefore must be retained a prisoner, till Agrippa when his father died was seventeen one or other was done: years of age, Bernice was sixteen, and was and to let him have liberty; not to go where he married to her uncle Herod. pleased, or out of the place of confinement, for Mariamne and Drusilla were virgins, but were then there would have been no need of the after promised in marriage by their father; direction, not to prohibit his friends from Mariamne to Julius Archelaus, son of Chelcias, coming to him; but to free him from his bonds and Drusilla to Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus, and close confinement; which was done, partly king of Comagene; but after Herod’s death, he on account of his being a Roman, and partly refused to marry her, being unwilling to because he took him to be an innocent man, and embrace the Jewish religion and relinquish his it may be because he hoped to receive money own, though he had promised her father he from him: would; wherefore her brother Agrippa married that he should forbid none of his her to Azizus king of the Emesenes, who was acquaintance to minister or come unto him; willing to be circumcised; but this marriage was but that they should have free access to him, quickly dissolved; for Felixcoming to the and the liberty of conversation with him; which government of Judea, seeing Drusilla, was layouts granted show that he was inclined to enamoured with her beauty; and by the means the side of Paul, both through the defence that of one of his friends, one Simon a Jew, and a he had made for himself, and through the letter native of Cyprus, who pretended to be a which Lysias sent him, as well as through the magician, he enticed her from her husband, and knowledge he had gained by long observation prevailed upon her to marry him: and experience, of the temper and disposition he sent for Paul, and heard him concerning of the Jews, their priests and elders. the faith in Christ; which he did, chiefly on ACTS 24:24. And after certain days, Some account of his wife, who being brought up in the days after this trial: Jewish religion, had some notion of the Messiah when Felix came with his wife Drusilla, which the Jews expected, and could better understand was a Jewess; to Caesarea, having been to fetch what Paul talked of than he did; who at this her from some other place, or to meet her: this time doubtless showed, that Christ was come, woman was the daughter of Herod Agrippa, and that Jesus of Nazareth was he; that he is

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truly God and man, that he died, and rose again lost hisrighteousness, all his posterity are from the dead on the third day, and that he has destitute of one; and that they are not able to obtained salvation for sinners, and that work out one acceptable to God, and which will whoever believes in him shall be saved; this justify in his sight; that the thing is was the faith in Christ Paul discoursed of, and impracticable and impossible, and that that Felix and his wife heard; but it does not appear which men call a righteousness is not one, at that it was attended with the power of God, to least is not a justifying one. the conversion of either of them; it seems to He might insist upon the unprofitableness of a have been merely out of curiosity, and as a man’s own works of righteousness for such a diversion to them, and to do his wife a pleasure, purpose, by observing the imperfection of that he sent for Paul and heard him. them; and that justification by them is contrary ACTS 24:25. And as he reasoned of to God’s declared way of justifying sinners, is righteousness, temperance, and judgment to derogatory to his free grace, would make null come, The apostle not only discoursed and void the death of Christ, and encourage concerning the doctrine of faith in Christ, but boasting in men; and all this he might reason insisted upon the duties of religion: and about, in order to convince him of the necessity particularly he reasoned upon righteousness; and suitableness of the righteousness of faith in not justifying righteousness, that is only the Christ, he had before been discoursing of. righteousness of Christ, and which rather And very pertinently in the next place did he belongs to the doctrine of faith in Christ; but the insist on “temperance”; or “continence”, and exercise of justice, or the doing of righteousness chastity; since Felix had enticed away another between man and man; which was agreeably to man’s wife, and now lived in adultery with her: the light of nature, to the law of God, and Gospel and who was now with him, whilst hearing this of Christ, and is a virtue highly necessary in a discourse; which concluded with an account of judge. “judgment to come”; how that Jesus Christ is This was greatly wanting in Felix; who, as the appointed the Judge of quick and dead, and that historian says , was guilty of much cruelty and all must appear before him, stand at his bar, injustice throughout this government and and be accountable to him for all their actions, therefore very appropriately did the apostle fall and be judged by him, which will be done in the on this subject: and he might also reason most righteous manner: he might argue this, concerning the necessity of a righteousness, in not only from the Scriptures of the Old order to justify before God, and to appear Testament, of which Drusilla might have some before him with acceptance, and to enter into knowledge, such as (Psalm 96:13, Ecclesiastes heaven: he might show, that it was the loss of 3:17 11:9 12:14 #Daniel 7:9,10). righteousness which was the reason of the first But from reason, from the relation which men man being removed from his place and state of stand in to God, as his creatures, and therefore happiness, in which he was whilst innocent; are accountable to him for their actions; and and that to admit persons into heaven without from the justice of God, which in many a righteousness, is contrary to the pure and instances, in the present state of things, is not holy nature of God, who loves righteousness, manifest: good men are afflicted and suffer and hates iniquity; and particularly would not much, and bad men flourish and enjoy great be agreeable to his justice, which requires a prosperity; wherefore there must be another perfect righteousness. state in which things will have another turn, It would be uncomfortable to holy men and justice will take place: he might from hence themselves, to have ungodly and unrighteous conclude the certainty of a future judgment; persons with them in heaven: he might also and the universality of it, that it would reach to reason upon the want of righteousness, which all men and things, and would proceed is in every man; how that the first man having according to the strict rules of justice, and in

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the most awful manner; and that a true and just ACTS 24:27. But after two years, Not of sentence would be pronounced and strictly Felix’s government, for he had been judge many executed: upon which account of things, years in that nation, but of the apostle’s Felix trembled; his conscience was awakened, confinement at Caesarea: accused him of the injustice and incontinence Porcius Festus came in Felix’s room; was he had been guilty of; and his mind was filled made governor of Judea by Nero in his stead; with horror, at the thought of the awful who having had many and loud complaints judgment he could not escape, which Paul had against him for malpractice, moved him: and so described unto him; nor could he bear him to Josephus says, that Festus succeeded Felix in discourse any longer on these subjects: the government of Judea, and calls him as here, and answered, go thy way for this time, when Porcius Festus; in the Arabic version he is I have a convenient season, I will call for thee; called Porcinius Festus, and in the Vulgate Latin he signifying he was not at leisure now to hear version Portius Festus, but his name was not him anylonger; when he had a spare hour he Portius, from “porta”, a gate, but “Porcius”, a would send for him, and hear him out; but this porcis, from hogs; it was common with the was only an excuse to get rid of him now, and Romans to take names from the brute lull his conscience asleep, and make it quiet and creatures; so Suillius from swine, Caprarius and easy; which he was afraid would be more and Caprilius from goats, Bubulcus from oxen, and more disturbed, should he suffer Paul to go on Ovinius from sheep. preaching in this manner: it is a saying of R. The famous Cato was of the family of the Porcii; Judah , “say not when I am at leisure I will learn, his name was M.Porcius Cato, and came from perhaps thou wilt never be at leisure.” Tusculum, a place about twelve miles from ACTS 24:26. He hoped also that money would Rome, where there is a mountain which still have been given him of Paul, For he observed retains the name of Porcius; we read also of from his own defence, that he came up to Porcius Licinius, a Latin poet, whose fragments Jerusalem to bring alms and offerings; and he are still extant; whether this man was of the perceived by Tertullus’s indictment, that he same family is not certain, it is very likely he was at the head of a large body of men; that he might: his surname Festus signifies joyful and was some considerable person, at least who cheerful, as one keeping a feast; this was a was in great esteem among some sort of people, name common with the Romans, as Rufus and whose life and liberty were valuable: and Festus, Pompeius Festus, and others: he might hope if Paul had not money of his own, and Felix, willing to show the Jews a pleasure, yet his friends would supply him with a left Paul bound; he had done many injuries to sufficiency to obtain his freedom; and it may be their persons and properties, he had greatly that it was with this view that he ordered that abused them, and incensed them against him; they should have free access to him and and now he was sent for to Rome, to answer for minister to him, that so he might have to give to his maladministration; wherefore, to gratify the him: Jews, and to oblige them, in hopes that they that he might loose him; from all confinement, would not follow him with charges and and set him at entire liberty: accusations, at least would mitigate them, and not bear hard upon him, he leaves Paul bound wherefore he sent for him the oftener, and at Caesarea, when it was in his power to have communed with him; but not about religious loosed him, and who he knew was an innocent matters, but about his civil affairs; suggesting person: but this piece of policy did him no he would release him for a sum of money, service, for the persons he had wronged, the which the apostle did not listen to, being chief of the Jews at Caesarea, went to Rome, and unwilling to encourage such evil practices, or to accused him to Caesar; and he was sent by his make use of unlawful means to free himself. successor thither, to appear before Nero, and

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answer to the charges exhibited against him; uncovered, which contained an unusually large and had it not been for his brother Pallas, who statue of the emperor. was in great authority at court, he had been In 1960 the Link Expedition to Israel explored severely punished . and charted the extensive harbor built by Caesarea - Judea Herod the Great. Only the tops of the elaborate from the Thompson Chain Reference Bible stone breakwater protruded here and there above the waters, but undersea explorations Caesarea, the Roman capital of Judea in the went far in confirming Josephus’ description of time of Christ and Paul, was located by the sea, Caesarea’s massive and extensive harbor. thirty-two miles north of Joppa, and some sixty miles northwest of Jerusalem. Herod the Great From the Encyclopedia Britannica began to build the city in 25 BC, and completed it in 13 BC. At the dedication on 12 BC, he Caesarea named it Caesarea, in honor of Caesar Augustus, Hebrew HORBAT QESARI ("Ruins of Caesarea"), and made it the Roman capital of Judea. ancient port and administrative city of It soon became a busy seaport and a great Palestine, on the Mediterranean coast of commercial center. It was one of the most present-day Israel south of Haifa. It is often attractive cities of its day. It was constructed so referred to as Caesarea Palaestinae, or Caesarea well, and on such a magnificent plan, that it was Maritima, to distinguish it from Caesarea frequently called “Little Rome.” Here lived Philippi near the headwaters of the Jordan Philip the Evangelist, and here Paul was River. Originally an ancient Phoenician imprisoned for two years, during which time he settlement known as Straton's (Strato's) Tower, appeared before Felix, Festus, and King it was rebuilt and enlarged in 22-10 BC by Agrippa. Herod the Great, king of Judaea under the The city stood, with varying fortunes, until Romans, and renamed for his patron, the 1256 AD, when Sultan Bibars of Egypt captured emperor Caesar Augustus. It served as a port the city and destroyed its walls and most of its for Herod's newly built city at Sebaste (Greek: buildings. During succeeding centuries it lay in Augusta), the ancient Samaria of central ruins, with only broken pottery, portions of Palestine. Caesarea had an artificial harbor of gates and castles, and fragments of granite and large concrete blocks and typical Hellenistic- marble columns protruding from the sands and Roman public buildings. An aqueduct brought lying half-submerged in the shallow waters of water from springs located almost 10 miles (16 the nearby sea. km) to the northeast. Caesarea served as a base The Department of Antiquity of the for the Herodian navy, which operated in aid of Government of Israel has undertaken the the Romans as far as the Black Sea. excavation of Caesarea. Their larger finds, thus The city became the capital of the Roman far, have included a very splendid Crusader province of Judaea in AD 6. Subsequently, it was castle, the theater, the amphitheater, the an important centre of early Christianity; in the hippodrome, and the pavement of a Jewish New Testament it is mentioned in Acts in synagogue, possibly the very one, or the connection with Peter, Philip the Apostle, and, successor of the one, in which Cornelius once especially, Paul, who was imprisoned there worshipped, and which Philip, Peter, and Paul before being sent to Rome for trial. According visited. In the theater they found an inscribed to the 1st-century AD historian Flavius stone which bore the names of Pilate and Josephus, the Jewish revolt against Rome, Tiberius. This was the first time Pilate’s name which culminated in the destruction of has been found on a stone inscription. A large Jerusalem and the Temple in AD 70, was temple dedicated to Caesar of Rome was touched off by an incident at Caesarea in AD 66. During the Bar Kokhba revolt of AD 132-135,

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the Romans tortured and killed the 10 greatest compared favorably with that of Athens at leaders and sages of Palestinian Jewry, Piraeus, was one of the technological marvels of including Rabbi Akiba. Caesarea was almost the ancient world and helped make Caesarea a certainly the place of execution of Rabbi Akiba major port for trade between the Roman and the others according to tradition (c. AD Empire and Asia. 135). The death of these Ten Martyrs is still The Roman Provincial System commemorated in the liturgy for Yom Kippur from “The Life and Epistles of St. Paul,” by W. J. (the Day of Atonement). Conybeare and J. S. Howson. After this Caesarea became the capital of the From the time when Augustus united the world province renamed Syria-Palaestina by the under his own power, the provinces were emperor Hadrian. Under the Byzantine Empire divided into two different classes. The business it was capital of the province of Palaestina of the first Emperor’s life was to consolidate the Prima. The church historian and biblical imperial system under the show of topographer Eusebius (c. 260/264-c. 340) administering a republic. He retained the served as bishop of Caesarea. The city declined names and semblances of those liberties and under later Byzantine and Arab rule. Its port rights which Rome had once enjoyed. He found and part of the ancient citadel were rebuilt by two names in existence, the one of which was the crusaders; the city was successively taken henceforth inseparably blended with the and retaken by Muslim and crusader forces, Imperial dignity and military command, the until finally it was captured and razed by the other with the authority of the Senate and its Mamluk Sultan Baybars I in 1265. Between civil administration. The first of these names 1884 and 1948 Bosnian Muslims had a was “Praetor,” the second was “Consul.” Both of settlement there. In 1940 the fishing kibbutz of them were retained in Italy, and both were Sedot Yam was founded just south of the reproduced in the Provinces as “Propraetor” ancient site; this settlement has built a jetty and “Proconsul.”6 He told the Senate and people over the Roman and crusader breakwater. It that he would relieve them of all the anxiety of also engages in agriculture and operates a military proceedings and that he would resign resort hotel. to them those provinces where soldiers were Excavations undertaken since 1950 have unnecessary to secure the fruits of a peaceful uncovered a Roman temple, amphitheater, administration. He would take upon himself all hippodrome (which seated 20,000), the the care and risk of governing the other aqueduct, and other ruins of Roman and later provinces, where rebellion might be times. Of particular interest is a Roman apprehended and where the proximity of inscription, found in 1961, which mentions warlike tribes made the presence of the legions Pontius Pilate, Roman procurator of Judaea at perpetually needful. the time of Jesus' crucifixion. This is the first These were his professions to the Senate; but mention of Pilate ever found that can be the real purpose of this ingenious arrangement accurately dated within his lifetime. was the disarming of the Republic and the Further excavations in the 1970s and '80s, both securing to himself the absolute control of the on land and underwater, gave a clearer picture of the artificial harbor built by Herod the Great.

It was probably the first harbor ever 6 constructed entirely in the open sea (i.e., It is important, as we shall see presently, to notice without the benefit of any protective fringing Dio Cassius’s further statement, that all governors of bay or peninsula) and was protected from the the Senate’s provinces were to be called Proconsuls, whatever their previous office might have been, and sea primarily by two huge breakwaters built of all governors of the Emperor’s provinces were to be concrete blocks and filled with stone rubble. styled Legati or Propraetors, even if they had been This spacious harbor, which Josephus Consuls.

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whole standing army of the Empire. 7 The Emperor’s “Procurator” (EPITROPOS), or “High scheme was sufficiently transparent; but there Steward.” The New Testament, in the strictest was no sturdy national life in Italy to resist his conformity with the other historical authorities despotic innovations, and no foreign civilized of the period, gives us examples of both kinds of powers to arrest the advance of imperial provincial administration. We are told by aggrandizement. Thus it came to pass that Strabo, and by Dio Cassius, that “Asia” and Augustus, though totally destitute of the “Achaia” were assigned to the Senate; and the military genius either of Cromwell or Napoleon, title, which in each case is given to the transmitted to his successors a throne guarded Governor in the Acts of the Apostles, is by an invincible army, and a system of “Proconsul.” The same authorities inform us government destined to endure through several that Syria was an imperial province, and no centuries. such title as “Proconsul” is assigned by the Hence we find in the reign, not only of sacred writers to “Cyrenius Governor of Syria,” Augustus, but of each of his successors, from (Luke 2:2) or to Pilate, Festus, and Felix, the Tiberius to Nero, the provinces divided into Procurators of Judea, which was a dependency these two classes. One the one side we have of that great and unsettled province. 9 those which are supposed to be under the Dio Cassius informs us, in the same passage Senate and the people. –The governor is where he tells us that Asia and Achaia were appointed by lot, as in the times of the old provinces of the Senate, that Cyprus was republic. He carries with him the lictors and retained by the Emperor for himself, along with fasces, the insignia of a Consul; but he is Syria and Cilicia. If we stop here, we naturally destitute of military power. His office must be ask the question, and some have asked the resigned at the expiration of a year. He is styled question rather hastily, how it comes to pass “Proconsul” and the Greeks, translating the that St. Luke speaks of Sergius Paulus by the term, call him “anthupatos,” which our English style of “Proconsul.” But any hesitation translators has rendered by the ambiguous concerning the strict accuracy of the sacred word “deputy.” Acts 13:7, “The deputy of the historian’s language is immediately set at rest country, Sergius Paulus.” Or, “Gallio was the by the very next sentence of the secular deputy of Achaia.” Acts 18. historian, in which he informs us that Augustus On the other side are the provinces of Caesar. restored Cyprus to the Senate in exchange for The governor may be styled “Propraetor” or another district of the Empire, a statement “ANTISTRATEIGOS”, but he is more properly which he again repeats in a later passage of his “Legatus” or “PRESBUTEIS” – the work. It is evident, then, that the governor’s representative or “Commissioner” or the style and title from this time forward would be Emperor. He goes out from Italy with all the “Proconsul.” But this evidence, however pomp of a military commander, and he does not satisfactory, is not all that we possess. return until the Emperor recalls him. 8 And to Inscriptions, which could easily be adduced, complete the symmetry and consistency of the supply us with the names of additional system, the subordinate districts or these governors who were among the predecessors imperial provinces are regulated by the or successors of Sergius Paulus.

7 cf Seutonius and Dio Cassius. 9 The word invariably used in the NT is HEIGEMON. 8 All these details are stated, and the two kinds of This is a general term, like the Roman “Praeses” and governors very accurately distinguished in the 53rd the English “Governor”, as may be seen by Book of Dio Cassius, ch. 13. It should be remarked comparing Luke 2:2 with 3:1 and observing that the that EPARXIA (the word still used for the very same word is applied to the offices of subdivisions of the modern Greek Kingdom) is Procurator of Judea, the Legatus of Syria, and the applied indiscriminately to both kinds of provinces. Emperor himself.

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ACTS 25 things to his charge, and very heavily accused him, and endeavoured to prepossess the ACTS 25 TOPICAL STUDIES governor, and prejudice him against him: Berenice and besought him; that he would grant them Felix the following request. Festus ACTS 25:3. And desired favour against him, Herod Agrippa II Paul; they asked what would be a favour to them, and a prejudice to him: or “of him”, that ACTS 25:1. Now when Festus was come into is, of Festus; they asked a favour of him, and the province, Of Judea, which was a Roman province, over which he was made governor by desired it as such, as what would be gratefully accepted and acknowledged by them; which Nero, the Roman emperor, in the room of Felix; sense is confirmed by the Syriac version; the he now being landed in some part of the Arabic version renders it “to”, or “upon them”; province, namely, at Caesarea, and so might be that is, they asked him to grant a favour to said to have entered upon the government of it, them, or bestow one on them, which is as as the phrase will bear to be rendered; follows: after three days he ascended from Caesarea that he would send for him to Jerusalem; that to Jerusalem; he very likely came by sea from his case might be heard before him, and he Italy to Judea, and landed at Caesarea; for though Joppa was the nearest port to might be tried and judged by him, as they pretended: Jerusalem, yet Caesarea was the safest, and most commodious port, being made so by laying wait in the way to kill him; this was Herod; (see Gill on “Acts 18:22”), and besides, it their design, though they concealed it, and seems to have been very much the residence of pretended no other view than that justice might the kings and governors of Judea, (Acts 12:19, take place: their scheme was, that if they could 23:23,33) here Festus stayed three days after have prevailed upon Festus to have sent for his landing, to rest himself after the fatigue of Paul to Jerusalem, from Caesarea, they would the voyage, and then went up to Jerusalem, the have provided men, perhaps the same forty and metropolis of the province of Judea. upwards as before, in (Acts 23:12,13) to have laid in wait for him in the way as he came, and ACTS 25:2. Then the high priest, Ananias, as to have killed him: the whole of this shows the in (Acts 23:2, 24:1) the Alexandrian copy, the malice of these men, the badness of their cause, Vulgate Latin version, and all the Oriental the indefatigableness and diligence to attain versions, read, “the chief priests”, the whole their end, the danger the apostle was in, and the college of the priests: care of Providence over him. and the chief of the Jews; their rulers and elders, the members of the Jewish Sanhedrin; ACTS 25:4. But Festus answered, that Paul should be kept at Caesarea, Or that he was informed him against Paul; they took the first kept there, and was in proper custody, under opportunity of waiting upon him, when he was the care of a centurion, and should continue come to Jerusalem; hoping it might be a there; nor was there any reason why he should favourable one to them, since he was just be removed, especially since he should return entering upon his government, and might be thither speedily, as he adds: willing to gratify the chief of the nation, and gain their affection and esteem, and since as yet and that he himself would depart shortly ; the answer was a very wise and he was not acquainted with their wicked thither prudent one, and the reasons given were just dispositions and artifices; and brought a bill of and strong; as that Paul had been sent to information against Paul, and gave a large Caesarea, was left bound by his predecessor account of him, what a wicked man he was, and there; there he found him, and there he was what evils he had committed; they laid many

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under a proper guard, and there it was right for commanded Paul to be brought; from the him to continue; and besides, he himself should place where he was kept a prisoner, to the make no stay in Jerusalem, but should depart judgment hall where Festus was. for Caesarea in a few days, and therefore it was ACTS 25:7. And when he was come, Into very improper to send for Paul thither. court: ACTS 25:5. Let them therefore, said he, which the Jews which came down from Jerusalem; among you are able, Who are at leisure, can along with Festus, perhaps the high priest with spare time, and to whom it will be convenient, the elders, and Tertullus the orator, as before: without interrupting other business, to take stood round about; either the Apostle Paul, or such a journey; and who are able to bear the the judgment seat; the witnesses and accusers expenses of it, without hurting their families, were to stand, as well as the person accused. and whose health and age will admit of it; and above all, who are masters of this affair, and And laid many and grievous complaints arecapable of forming charges, and of against Paul; which they could not prove; for supporting them with proper proofs and his moral conversation, both before and after evidences: let such conversion,was very strict and conformable to the laws of God and man; and yet as pure and ; from Jerusalem to Caesarea: go down with me inoffensive as he was, he was not exempt from and accuse this man: in proper form, according the calumnies of men; and these many and very to the rules of law, of what he is guilty, and can grievous; but it was his happiness, and to his be proved upon him: honour through the grace of God, that his if there is any wickedness in him; or enemies could not make good anyone thing committed by him, anything that is absurd and against him. unreasonable, notoriously flagitious and ACTS 25:8. While he answered for himself, criminal; that is, contrary to the rules of reason, As he was allowed by the Roman laws to do, he the common sense of mankind, and the laws of pleaded his own cause, and showed the God and men; and especially of the Roman falsehood of the charges exhibited against him; empire, or that is blasphemous or seditious. by observing, that as the crimes alleged against ACTS 25:6. And when he had tarried among him were reducible to three heads, neither of them more than ten days, The Alexandrian them were just and true: copy, and three of Beza’s copies, and some neither against the law of the Jews; the law of others, and the Vulgate Latin version read, “no Moses, whether moral, ceremonial, or judicial; more than eight or ten days”; and the Syriac not the moral law, that he was a strict observer and Ethiopic versions leave out the phrase “no of, both before and since his conversion; nor more”, and read “when he had stayed there”, as the ceremonial law, for though it was abolished, the former; that is, at Jerusalem; or “when he and he knew it was, yet for peace sake, and in had remained among them”, as the latter; the condescension to the weakness of some, and in Jews, chief priests, and others, “eight or ten order to gain others, he submitted to it, and was days”; the historian, not being certain to a day, performing a branch of it, when he was seized expresses himself in this manner: in the temple; nor the judicial law, which he went down to Caesarea; from whence he concerned the Jews as Jews, and their civil came, and where Paul was: affairs: neither against the temple; at Jerusalem, and the next day sitting in the judgment seat; the profanation of which he was charged with, the day after he was come to Caesarea, he sat by bringing a Gentile into it; which was a upon the bench in the court of judicature, to try falsehood, at least a mistake: causes, and particularly the apostle’s, which he nor yet against Caesar, have I offended at all; was very desirous of knowing, for which reason for he was charged with sedition, (Acts 24:5). he so soon took the bench: and Caesar was a common name to the Roman

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emperors, as Pharaoh was to the kings of Egypt; and the Roman senate, should it come to their and which they took from Julius Caesar the first knowledge. of them, who was succeeded by Augustus ACTS 25:10. Then said Paul, I stand at Caesar, under whom Christ was born; and he by Caesar’s judgment seat, Not that here was a Tiberius, under whom he suffered; the fourth seat in the judgment hall built by Herod for was Caius Caligula; the fifth was Claudius, Caesar himself to sit in, should he ever come mentioned in (Acts 11:28, 18:2) and the there, as some have thought; but the seat on present Caesar, to whom Paul now appealed, which Festus sat is called Caesar’s judgment was Nero; and though succeeding emperors seat, because it was in a Roman court of bore this name, it was also given to the second judicature, and because Festus, who filled it, in the empire, or the presumptive heir to it: represented Caesar himself: authors are divided about the original of where I ought to be judged: being a Roman Caesar, the surname of Julius; some say he had citizen, and not at Jerusalem by the Sanhedrin it from the colour of his eyes, which were of the Jews, who had nothing to do with him: “Caesii”, grey; others from “Caesaries”, his fine head of hair; others from his killing of an to the Jews have I done no wrong, as thou elephant, which, in the language of the Moors, is very well knowest; it may be by his called “Caesar”: the more common opinion is, predecessor Felix, who had informed him of that he took his name from his mother’s womb, this case; or by Lysias’s letter, which might being “Caeso”, cut up at his birth, to make way come to his hands; or by the apostle’s answer for his passage into the world; in which manner and vindication of himself, which he now made. also our King Edward the Sixth came into the it may be by his predecessor Felix, who had world. informed him of this case; or by Lysias’s letter, which might come to his hands; or by the ACTS 25:9. But Festus, willing to do the Jews apostle’s answer and vindication of himself, a pleasure, As did his predecessor Felix, (Acts which he now made. 24:27) he being just entered upon his new government, and having met with some ACTS 25:11. For if I be an offender, Against caresses and civilities from the Jews at the law of Moses, or the temple at Jerusalem, or Jerusalem, by whom he had been much pressed Caesar the Roman emperor: and urged about the affair of the apostle: or have committed anything worthy of death; answered Paul, and said, wilt thou go up to by the laws of the Romans, as sedition, murder, Jerusalem, and there be judged of these etc. things before me? meaning by the Jewish I refuse not to die; signifying that he did not Sanhedrin, he Festus being present: this was decline going to Jerusalem, either through any what the Jews had requested of him when he consciousness of guilt, or fear of death; for if was at Jerusalem, that he would send for Paul anything could be proved against him, that was thither, and there let him be judged, and which of a capital nature, he did not desire to escape request he had denied; but having been death; he was ready to die for it; this was no solicited and importuned by the Jews, perhaps subterfuge, or shift, to evade or defer justice: as, they came down together, he was inclined to but if there be none of these things; to be gratify them, and to admit of it that he should found, or proved, and made to appear: be tried at Jerusalem, before the Sanhedrin, he whereof these accuse me; pointing to the Jews, being present. that came down to be his accusers, and had laid Yet he was unwilling to do this without the many and grievous charges against him: prisoner’s consent, he being a freeman of a no man may deliver me unto them; not justly, Roman city; fearing he should be charged with or according to the Roman laws; suggesting delivering up a Roman into the hands of the that Festus himself could not do it legally; Jews, which might be resented by the emperor

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I appeal unto Caesar; to this the apostle was uncle’s; namely, Batanea, Trachonitis, and induced, partly by the conduct of the governor, Gaulanitis, to which he added the kingdom of who seemed inclined to favour the Jews; and Lysanias; ((see Luke 3:1)) and the province partly by the knowledge he might have of their which Varus had; and to these Nero added four intention to lie in wait for him, should he go up cities, with what belonged to them; in Peraea, to Jerusalem; and chiefly by the vision he had Abila and Julias, and in Galilee, Tarichea and had, which assured him that he must bear Tiberias . witness of Christ at Rome, (Acts 23:11). The Jewish writers often make mention of him, ACTS 25:12. Then Festus, when he had calling him, as here, King Agrippa; (see Gill on conferred with the council, Not with the “Acts 26:3”), and so does Josephus . According Jewish Sanhedrin, or any part of it that came to the above chronologer he was had to Rome down on this occasion; but with Roman by Vespasian, when he went to be made Caesar; counsellors, which he had to assist him in and was put to death by him, three years and a judgment, when any difficult matters were half before the destruction of the temple; before him; the Syriac and Ethiopic versions though others say he lived some years after it: render it, “with his counsellors”; and the Arabic and some of the Jewish writers affirm, that in reads in the singular number, “with his his days the temple was destroyed . counsellor”; with these he advised, whether it Agrippa, though he was a Jew, his name was a was proper to admit of Paul’s appeal, or not; Roman name; Augustus Caesar had a relation of and having had their opinion, this name , who had a son of the same name, he answered, hast thou appealed unto and a daughter called Agrippina; and Herod the Caesar? unto Caesar shalt thou go: the Great, being much obliged to the Romans, took question is put, partly for the more certain the name from them, and gave it to one of his knowledge of the thing, that there might be no sons, the father of this king: the name originally mistake in it; and partly on account of the Jews, was given to such persons, who at their birth that they might see that though he was came forth not with their heads first, as is the disposed to do them a favour, it was not in his usual way of births, but with their feet first, and power, because of this appeal; and it may be which is accounted a difficult birth; and “ab with some resentment in himself, since it aegritudine”, from the grief, trouble, and carried in it a sort of reflection upon him, as if weariness of it, such are called Agrippas . he was incapable of issuing this affair, or would Bernice, who is said to be with King Agrippa, is not be just and faithful in it. not the name of a man, as some have supposed, ACTS 25:13. And after certain days, Several because said to sit in the judgment hall with the days after the above appeal made by Paul: king, but of a woman; so called, in the dialect of King Agrippa and Bernice came unto the Macedonians, for Pheronice, which signifies Caesarea to salute Festus: this King Agrippa one that carries away the victory; and this same was the son of Herod Agrippa, who killed James person is, in Suetonius , called Queen Beronice, the brother of John, and of whose death for whom Titus the emperor is said to have a mention is made in (Acts 12:1,2) the Jewish very great love, and was near upon marrying chronologer calls him Agrippa the Second, the her: she was not wife of Agrippa, as the Arabic son of Agrippa the First, the fifth king of the version reads, but his sister; his father left family of Herod: he was not king of Judea, this besides him, three daughters, Bernice, was reduced again into a province by Claudius; Mariamne, and Drusilla, which last was the wife and upon the death of his uncle Herod, king of ofFelix, (Acts 24:24). Chalcis, he was by the said emperor made king Bernice was first married to her uncle Herod, of that place, who afterwards removed him king of Chalcis , and after his death to Polemon, from thence to a greater kingdom, and gave him king of Cilicia, from whom she separated, and the tetrarchy, which was Philip’s, his great lived in too great familiarity with her brother

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Agrippa, as she had done before her second (John 7:51) though Festus, from such an marriage, as was suspected , to which incest application to him by the chief priests Juvenal refers ; and with whom she now was, andelders, might conclude that their manner who came together to pay a visit to Festus, was different, he being ignorant of their laws upon his coming to his government, and to and customs; but their prejudice to the apostle congratulate him upon it. carried them to act such an illegal part, or at ACTS 25:14. And when they had been there least to desire it might be acted: it is one of the many days, Indulging themselves in pleasure, Jewish canons, that it is unlawful for a judge to and spending their time in conversing on hear one of the contending parties, before the various subjects; and in order to carry on the other is come in. conversation, and pass away time, ACTS 25:17. Therefore when they were come Festus declared Paul’s case unto the king; in hither, To Caesarea, namely the chief priests the following manner: and elders of the Jews: saying, there is a certain man left in bonds by without any delay on the morrow, I sat on the Felix; the former governor in Caesarea, judgment seat: that is, the next day after they meaning Paul. came down, Festus went into the judgment hall, and took his place there, in order to hear this ACTS 28:15. About whom, when I was at cause; which circumstance he mentions, to Jerusalem, Quickly after he came to his show how expeditious he was: government: and I commanded the man to be brought the chief priests and elders of the Jews forth: from his place of confinement, to the hall, informed me; brought an accusation to him, to answer for himself. exhibited to him charges against him, presented to him a bill of information, setting forth ACTS 25:18. Against whom when the various crimes he had been guilty of: accusers stood up, As they were obliged to do, whilst they were exhibiting their charges, desiring to have judgment against him; not bearing their testimonies, and producing their barely to have his cause tried, but to have a proofs; (Acts 25:7). sentence of condemnation passed upon him; some copies read “condemnation”, as the They brought none accusation of such things Alexandrian copy, and two of Beza’s; and that as I supposed: for by his being left in bonds, punishment is designed, and even death itself, and by the information of the chief priests and is manifest from the following words. elders, and their violence against him, he imagined he must be chargeable with some ACTS 25:16. To whom I answered, As notorious capital crime. follows: ACTS 25:19. But had certain questions it is not the manner of the Romans to deliver against him of their own superstition, Or any man to die; or to give any man to religion; as about their law, which they said destruction; to pass sentence of death upon Paul had spoke against; and about their temple, him, without hearing his cause, and purely at which they pretended he had polluted; and the request of another, and merely to gratify about the resurrection of the dead, which he him: asserted, and some denied: before that he which is accused have the and of one Jesus which was dead, whom Paul accusers face to face; so as to speak to his face, ; for it seems more was or before him, what they have to charge him affirmed to be alive said on each side, than is recorded by Luke: the with: Jews objected to him among other things, his and have licence to answer for himself, belief in Jesus of Nazareth, whom they traduced concerning the crime laid against him; and as an impostor and deceiver; Paul on the other this was also according to the law of the Jews, hand argued, that he was the true Messiah; and

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in proof of it, affirmed that though they had put ACTS 25:22. Then Agrippa said to Festus, him to death, he was risen from the dead, and After he had given him the above account: so was declared to be the Son of God with I would also hear the man myself; Agrippa power: Festus, it is very likely, had never heard being a Jew by profession, and knowing more of of Jesus before, and therefore speaks of him in these things than Festus did, and very likely had this manner; or if he had, he had entertained a heard much concerning Jesus Christ; and if not contemptible opinion of him, as well as of the of the apostle, yet however of the Christian Jewish religion; and which he expresses, even religion; and therefore he was very desirous, in the presence of the king, who had outwardly not only out of curiosity to see the man, but to at least embraced it. hear him; and get some further information and ACTS 25:20. And because I doubted of such knowledge about the things in dispute, between manner of questions, Or was ignorant of the Jews and Christians, in which Festus was them, and knew not what to make of them, or to very ready to gratify him: say to them, and was at an entire loss what to tomorrow, said he, thou shall hear him: and do in this affair: sooner things could not well be prepared for an I asked him whether he would go to affair of this kind, and for so grand a meeting. Jerusalem, and there be judged of these ACTS 25:23. And on the morrow, when matters; before the Jewish Sanhedrin, who best Agrippa was come, Into the hall, or court of understood them. judicature: ACTS 25:21. But when Paul had appealed to and Bernice; his sister, along with him: be reserved, In custody at Caesarea: with great pomp: in rich dress, with the unto the hearing of Augustus; to have his “regalia”, or ensigns of royalty carried before cause heard, tried, and judged of, by the Roman them, and attended with a large train and Emperor Nero, here called Augustus; for as it retinue of servants: was usual for a Roman emperor to be called and was entered into the place of hearing; the Caesar, from Julius Caesar, the first of them, so causes that were tried in court, that particular to be called Augustus, from Octavius Augustus, part of the hall, which was assigned for that the second emperor: his original surname was purpose; for as there were the proper places for Thurinus, but this being objected to him as a the judge and council, and for the plaintiffs and reproachful one, he afterwards took the name defendants, so for those that came to hear: of Caesar, and then of Augustus; the one by the will of his great uncle, the other by the advice of with the chief captains; or tribunes, who had Munatius Plancus; when some thought he ought the command of the Roman soldiers; and who to be called Romulus, as if he was the founder had each of them a thousand men under them, of the city, it prevailed that he should rather be as their title signifies: called Augustus; not only this surname being and principal men of the city; that is, of new, but more grand, seeing religious places, Caesarea; the magistrates, and chief inhabitants and in which anything was consecrated by of the place: soothsaying, were called “Augusta, ab auctu, vel at Festus’s commandment Paul was brought ab avium gestu, gustuve”, according to Ennius : forth; and became a spectacle to a vast number in the Greek text the name is Sebastos, which of men, as he himself says; and which in part signifies venerable and worshipful. fulfilled what Christ had foretold to his I commanded him to be kept; in Caesarea, by a disciples, that they should be brought before centurion, and not sent to Jerusalem: kings and governors for his sake; (see 1 till I might send him to Caesar: till he could Corinthians 4:9 Matthew 10:18). have an opportunity of sending him to Rome, to ACTS 25:24. And Festus said, King Agrippa, take his trial before the emperor. He addressed himself to him in the first place,

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as being the principal person, and of great and especially before thee, O King Agrippa; as dignity, as well as knowledge: being not only a man of eminence, dignity, and and all men which are here present with us; authority, but of knowledge in such matters, the chief captains, and principal inhabitants of which the Jews accused Paul of; (see Acts the city: 26:2,3). ye see this man the prisoner at the bar, That after examination had; of Paul, and his meaning Paul: case; about whom all the multitude of the Jews I might have somewhat to write; concerning have dealt with me: applied unto him, him, and the charges exhibited against him to interceded with him, and very importunately the emperor. pressed and desired him to give judgment ACTS 25:27. For it seems to me unreasonable against him: to send a prisoner, A man bound as if he was a both at Jerusalem and also here; at Caesarea, malefactor, and guilty of some heinous crimes, whither they came from Jerusalem to accuse to Rome, to be tried before Caesar: him: and not withal to signify the crimes laid crying: in a very noisy and clamorous way: against him; for which he is a prisoner, and for which he is sent to the emperor: it seemed to that he ought not to live any longer; as they Festus an absurd thing, and what might be did before Lysias the chief captain, (Acts 22:22) justly looked upon by his master, a foolish, silly, and so in the hearing of Festus; for it was his and stupid piece of conduct, and void of death they sought, and nothing else would common sense andreason, mere madness and satisfy them. folly; to send him a prisoner, and not signify in ACTS 25:25. But when I found that he had his letter to him, what was laid to his charge; committed nothing worthy of death, Which and yet this was so dark and obscure, that he was a public testimony of the apostle’s could not tell what to make of it, nor what to innocence, to the great mortification of his write to his lord about it; and hoped therefore, enemies, some of whom might be present; a like upon this re-examination of Paul before testimony was given of him by Lysias, (Acts Agrippa, he should come to a more certain 23:29). knowledge of this affair, and be better And that he himself hath appealed unto furnished to give Nero an account of it, to Augustus; the Emperor Nero; (see Acts 25:21). whom the apostle had appealed. I have determined to send him; having had the Herod Agrippa II opinion of his council upon it. from Wikipedia ACTS 25:26. Of whom I have no certain thing, Herod Agrippa II (born AD 27/28), officially No certain crime, charge, or accusation; nothing named Marcus Julius Agrippa and sometimes of any moment or consequence, no particular just called Agrippa, was the seventh and last thing, nothing but a heap of confused notions, king of the family of Herod the Great, the of I know not who or what: Herodians. He was the son of the first and to write unto my lord; meaning the Roman better-known Herod Agrippa, the brother of emperor, under whom he served as governor of Berenice, Mariamne, and Drusilla (second wife Judea: of the Roman procurator Antonius Felix). wherefore I have brought him before you; the whole company then present:

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Herod Agrippa II was educated at the court of priests made him disliked by the Jews. Agrippa the emperor Claudius, and at the time of his failed to prevent his subjects from rebelling, father's death was only seventeen years old. and urged instead that they tolerate the Claudius therefore kept him at Rome, and sent behavior of the Roman procurator Gessius Cuspius Fadus as procurator of the Roman Florus. But in 66 the Jews expelled him and province of Judaea. While at Rome, he voiced Berenice from the city. During the First Jewish- his support for the Jews to Claudius, and Roman War of 66–73, he sent 2,000 men, against the Samaritans and the procurator of archers and cavalry, to support Vespasian, Iudaea Province, Ventidius Cumanus, who was showing that, although a Jew in religion, he was lately thought to have been the cause of some entirely devoted to the Romans. He

disturbances there. On the death of Herod of accompanied Titus on some campaigns, and Chalcis in 48, his small principality of Chalcis, was wounded at the siege of Gamala. After the Syria was given to Herod Agrippa, with the capture of Jerusalem, he went with his sister right of superintending the Temple in Berenice to Rome, where he was invested with Jerusalem and appointing its high priest. In 53, the dignity of praetor and rewarded with he was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, additional territory. who made him governor over the tetrarchies of According to Photius, Agrippa died, childless, at Philip and Lysanias. Herod Agrippa celebrated the age of seventy, in the third year of the reign by marrying off his two sisters Mariamne and of Trajan, that is, 100, but statements of Drusilla. Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian, historian Josephus, in addition to the repeats the gossip that Herod Agrippa lived in contemporary epigraphy from his kingdom, an incestuous relationship with his sister, cast this date into serious doubt. The modern Berenice. scholarly consensus holds that he died before In 55, Nero added the cities of Tiberias and 93/94. He was the last prince of the house of Taricheae in Galilee, and Julias, with fourteen the Herods. villages near it, in Peraea. Agrippa expended It was before him and his sister Berenice that, large sums in beautifying Jerusalem and other according to the New Testament, Paul the cities, especially Berytus. His partiality for the Apostle pleaded his case at Caesarea Maritima, latter rendered him unpopular amongst his possibly in 59. own subjects, and the capricious manner in He had a great intimacy with the historian which he appointed and deposed the high Josephus, having supplied him with information

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for his history, Antiquities of the Jews. Josephus Like his father Agrippa I, and his uncle Herod preserved two of the letters he received from king of Chalcis, Agrippa II had control of the him. vestments of the high priest and had the right From International Standard Bible to appoint the high priests (Ant. xv.11.4 [405– Encyclopedia 407]; xx.1.1–3 ; 5.2 ; 9.4 ). The Romans would consult him on religious matters and this may Agrippa II, the son of Agrippa I and Cypros, be why Festus asked him to hear Paul at daughter of Phasael (Herod the Great’s Caesarea in a.d. 59. Agrippa was accompanied brother’s son) and Salampsio (Herod the by his sister Bernice (Acts 25–26). Great’s daughter), was born in a.d. 27 (Josephus, Antiquities, xviii.5.4). Although In May of 66 the revolution in Palestine began Claudius wanted to make Agrippa II king over (BJ ii.14.4 ). Although Agrippa failed to quell his father’s territories, two freedmen the revolt, he sided with the Romans all persuaded him that a youth of seventeen years through the war of 66–70. After Nero’s suicide of age would not be able to rule such a large on June 9, 68, Vespasian sent his son Titus, with territory with so many diverse elements among Agrippa accompanying him, to pay respects to the population. In a.d. 50, however, two years the new emperor Galba. Before they reached after the death of Agrippa II’s uncle and Rome, however, they received the news of brother-in-law Herod king of Chalcis, Claudius Galba’s murder (Jan. 15, 69) and Titus returned made Agrippa II king of Chalcis (Ant. xx.5.2 ; BJ to Palestine while Agrippa continued to Rome. ii.12.1 ). In 53 Claudius granted Agrippa II the After Vespasian was elected emperor (July 1, tetrarchy of Philip—Abilene (or Abila), 69) by the Egyptian and Syrian legions, Agrippa Trachonitis, and Arca (the tetrarchy of Varus)— returned to Palestine to take the oath of in exchange for the territory of Chalcis (Ant. allegiance to the new emperor (Tacitus Hist x.7.1 ; BJ ii.12.8 ). Shortly after Nero became ii.81). Agrippa sided with Titus, who was in emperor in a.d. 54, he gave Agrippa the Galilean charge of the war in Palestine (Tacitus Hist v.1), cities of Tiberias and Tarichea and their and after the capture of Jerusalem (Aug. 5, 70), surrounding land as well as the Perean cities of Agrippa was probably present at the victory Julias (or Betharamphtha) and Abila and their celebrations in Rome over the destruction of his surrounding land (e.g., Julias had fourteen people (BJ vii.1.2f ). surrounding villages) (Ant. xx.8.4 ; BJ ii.13.2 ). Vespasian confirmed Agrippa in the possession In appreciation for the imperial favor, Agrippa of the kingdom he had previously governed and enlarged his capital city Caesarea Philippi and added new territories that are not recorded. In renamed it Neronias (Ant. xx.9.4 ). Agrippa II a.d. 75 he and his sister Bernice went to Rome now ruled Philip the tetrarch’s territory with where she resumed being Titus’s mistress (as the added toparchies of Galilee and the three she had been during the war of 66–70). This detached territories of Abilene, two middle became a public scandal (Tacitus Hist ii.2). The toparchies of Perea, and Arca. Roman populace was against oriental queens Agrippa II’s private life was not exemplary. His because one of their choicest sons, Mark sister Bernice came to live with him after their Antony, had been destroyed by the lust of the uncle, who was also her second husband, Herod oriental queen Cleopatra. So Titus sent her king of Chalcis, died in a.d. 48. Because of the away. When he became emperor in a.d. 79, rumors of incest, she resolved to marry Polemo Bernice returned again to Rome hoping to of Cilicia, but shortly after this she returned to become the emperor’s wife. But once again her relationship with her brother. This Titus sent her away (Dio Cassius lvi.18), and incestuous relationship became the common she returned to Palestine, fading out of the pale chatter in Rome (Ant. xx.7.3 ; Juvenal Satires of history. vi.156–160). After this time, nothing is known of Agrippa except that he corresponded with Josephus

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about The Jewish War, praised him for his Felix accuracy, and subsequently purchased a copy From International Standard Bible (Vita lxv ; CAp i.9 ). Some theorize that Agrippa Encyclopedia II died in a.d. 93, but it seems more likely to Felix Antonius an- - have been ca a.d. 100. Although the Talmud (TB A Roman procurator of Judea, appointed by the Sukkah 27a) implies that Agrippa had two fēʹliks tōʹni əs wives, Josephus gives no indication of his being emperor Claudius to succeed Cumanus. married or having any children. His death The event that led to the introduction of Felix marked the end of the Herodian family. into the narrative of Acts was the riot at Berenice Jerusalem (Acts 21:27). There Paul, being attacked at the instigation of the Asian Jews for From International Standard Bible alleged false teaching and profanation of the Encyclopedia temple, was rescued with difficulty by Lysias Bernice - Bernikē—‘victorious’] the chief captain. But Lysias, finding that Paul (Acts 25:13, 23; 26:30). The eldest daughter of was a Roman citizen, and that therefore the Herod Agrippabər nēsʹ I and [Gk. sister of Herod Agrippa II. secret plots against the life of his captive might She was born ca a.d. 28. Her life’s story is told entail serious consequences for himself, and by Josephus (cf. also Juvenal Satires vi.156). finding also that Paul was charged on religious Her first marriage was to Marcus the son of rather than on political grounds, sent him on to Alexander Lysimachus the “alabarch” of Felix at Caesarea for trial (Acts 21:31–23:34). Alexandria. After Marcus’ death she married On his arrival, Paul was presented to Felix and her uncle, King Agrippa’s brother Herod, for was then detained for five days in the judgment whom Agrippa was able to procure the hall of Herod, till his accusers could also reach kingdom of Chalcis from Claudius (Josephus, Caesarea (23:33–35). Ant. xix.5.1). This marriage produced two sons, The trial was begun, but after hearing the Bernicianus and Hyrcanus (xx.5.2). After evidence of Tertullus and the speech of Paul in Herod’s death in 48 she became involved in an his own defense, Felix deferred judgment incestuous relationship with her brother (24:1–22). The excuse he gave for delay was the Agrippa II, with whom she listened to the continued absence of Lysias, but his real reason defense of Paul at Caesarea before Festus. In an was to obtain bribes for the release of Paul. He attempt to silence the rumors about her therefore treated his prisoner at first with relationship with Agrippa, she persuaded leniency and pretended along with Drusilla to Polemo king of Sicily to undergo circumcision take interest in his teaching. But these attempts and marry her; but soon after they were to induce Paul to purchase his freedom failed married she left him and returned to her ignominiously; Paul sought favor of neither brother (xx.7.3). Felix nor Drusilla and made the frequent Josephus writes that she was in Jerusalem to interviews that he had with them an perform a vow at the time when Procurator opportunity for preaching to them concerning Florus slaughtered many of the Jews (a.d. 66). righteousness, temperance, and the final She pleaded with him to stop the massacre; but judgment. The case dragged on for two years he refused to listen to her, and she herself was till Felix, upon his retirement, “desiring to do almost killed by his soldiers. During the war the Jews a favor … left Paul in prison” (24:27). that ensued, her palace—as well as that of (According to some MSS, the continued Agrippa—was set on fire by the Jews (ii.17.6). imprisonment of Paul was due to the desire of In later years she and Agrippa took an oath of Felix to please Drusilla.) loyalty to the emperor Vespasian. It appears Felix was the brother of Pallas, the infamous that ca 75 they moved to Rome, where she favorite of Claudius who, according to Tacitus became the mistress of Vespasian’s son Titus. (Josephus, Ann. xiii.14), fell into disgrace in a.d.

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55. Tacitus implies that Felix was joint maladministration bequeathed to Festus the procurator of Judea along with Cumanus before impossible task of restoring order to a province being appointed to the sole command, but embroiled in political strife and overrun by Josephus is silent about this. Both Tacitus and robbers. The Sicarii (Assassins), as the robbers Josephus refer to his succeeding Cumanus, were called on account of the small swords they Josephus stating that it was at the instigation of carried, would come upon a village, plunder it, Jonathan the high priest. There is some doubt set it on fire, and murder whomever they about the chronology of Felix’s tenure of office. wished. Through the use of an impostor, Festus Harnack and Blass, following Eusebius and succeeded in ridding the province of many of Jerome, place his accession in a.d. 51, and the these criminals (Josephus, Ant. xx.8.10 [185– imprisonment of Paul in 54–56; but most 88]). But his procuratorship was too short to modern commentators incline to the dates 52 undo the legacy of his predecessor, and under for his accession and ca 58–60 for Paul’s trial. his successor, Albinus, the situation rapidly Felix was succeeded, after Nero recalled him, by deteriorated once again (BJ ii.14.1 [271–76]). Festus. One of the problems Festus inherited from Felix The testimony of Acts concerning the evil was the question of Paul’s imprisonment. character of Felix is fully corroborated by the Attempting to exploit the new governor’s writings of Josephus (BJ ii.13.2–4; Ant. xx.8.5; cf. inexperience, the Jews requested that Paul be TacitusAnn xii.54). Although he suppressed the sent to Jerusalem for trial, hoping to assassinate robbers and murderers who infested Judea, him on the way (Acts 25:3). Festus at first among them the “Egyptian” to whom Lysias refused their request, and upon his return to refers (Acts 21:38), yet “he himself was more Caesarea he himself examined Paul (v 6). On hurtful than them all.” When occasion offered, finding that the evidence was conflicting, he did not hesitate to employ the Sicarii (see however, and desiring to please the Jews, he Assassins) for his own ends, including the asked Paul if he were agreeable to making the murder of the high priest Jonathan (Josephus journey to Jerusalem (vv 7–9). But Paul, who Ant. xx.8.5). Trading upon the influence of his knew well the nefarious use that the Jews brother at court, his cruelty and rapacity knew would make of the favor Festus was willing to no bounds; during his rule revolts became grant them, made his appeal to Caesar (vv 10f.). continuous, marking a distinct stage in that To this request of a Roman citizen accused on a seditious movement which culminated in the capital charge (cf. v 16), Festus had to give his outbreak of a.d. 66–70 (cf. HJP, II/2, 174–182). consent (v 12). His leaving Paul in bonds was but a final When King Agrippa and Bernice arrived in instance of one who sacrificed duty and justice Caesarea a few days later, Festus sought for the sake of his own unscrupulous Agrippa’s advice on this difficult case. (See selfishness. Herod VIII.) At Agrippa’s request, Paul was Festus brought before him for a private hearing. From International Standard Bible Festus’ reaction to Paul’s testimony betrayed Encyclopedia his Roman mind and his ignorance concerning the Jewish and Christian religions (vv 24–27). Festus PORCIUS Porkios Festus’ friendship with Agrippa is further Phēstos]. The Roman governor or procurator illustrated by Josephus’ account of a dispute who succeededfesʹtəs, Felix Antoniuspôrʹshəs in the [Gk. province between Agrippa and the Jewish priests ( of Judea (Acts 24:27). The only sources of Ant. xx.8.11 [189–196]). When the priests information concerning Festus are the NT and discovered that Agrippa could observe the Josephus. activities in the temple from his portico, they Josephus’ writings picture Festus as a prudent built a wall to obstruct his view. Agrippa and honorable governor. Felix’s objected to this, and Festus sided with him. The

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Jews therefore appealed to Rome, with the nor the governors Felix and Festus, knew result that Nero permitted the wall to stand. anything of the rites and customs of the Jews, The exact dates of Festus’ term in office are and could not tell what to make of the questions uncertain. Eusebius gives the date of his of their law, of which Paul was accused: but it accession as a.d. 56, but this is too early. His was otherwise with Agrippa, he was master of term probably extended from 60 to 62. them, and this the apostle looked upon as a circumstance in his own favour: ACTS 26 because I shall answer for myself this day ACTS 26 TOPICAL STUDIES before thee; not before him as a judge, for Damascus Festus was judge, but in his presence; and he being versed in things of this kind, was capable Jewish Literature of informing, counselling, directing, and Jewish Theological Writings assisting the judge, in what was proper to be Paul’s Missionary Labors done; wherefore it was anadvantage to the Talmud, Origins of the apostle to plead his own cause, and vindicate himself before such a person from the charges ACTS 26:1. Then Agrippa said unto Paul, exhibited against him: After Festus had made the above speech to him, and to all present, and had introduced the affair touching all the things whereof I am accused of Paul, who now stood before them: of the Jews; such as violation of the law, profanation of the temple, contempt of the thou art permitted to speak for thyself; which people of the Jews and their customs, and of a prisoner might not do, until he had leave; and blasphemy, and sedition; all which he was able this leave was granted by Festus the Roman to clear himself from, and doubted not but he governor, who was properly the judge, and not should do it to the entire satisfaction of the Agrippa, though the permission might be by king. both; and so the Arabic and Ethiopic versions read, “we have ordered”, or “permitted thee”, ACTS 26:3. Especially, because I know thee to etc. be expert in all customs, Rites and ceremonies of the Jews, whether enjoined by Then Paul stretched forth the hand; as orators the law of Moses, or by the elders, fathers, and used to do, when they were about to speak; or wise men: else to require silence; or it may be to show the freedom of his mind, and how ready he was to and questions which are among the Jews; embrace the opportunity of pleading his own concerning angels, spirits, and the resurrection cause; being conscious to himself of his of the dead; which were moved and agitated innocence, and relying on the ingenuity and between the Sadducees and Pharisees; and a integrity of his judge; and especially of the king, multitude of others, which were disputed before whom he stood: between the schools of Hillell and Shammai, of which their Misna and Talmud are full, and with and answered for himself; or made an these Agrippa was well acquainted; and to their apology, or spoke in vindication of himself, in rites and customs he conformed, of which we order to remove the charges brought against have some instances recorded in their writings: him. when they went with their firstfruits to ACTS 26:2. I think myself happy, King Jerusalem , “a pipe sounded before them till Agrippa, This was an handsome and artificial they came to the mountain of the house, and way of introducing his defense, and of gaining when they came to the mountain of the house the affection and attention of the king, and yet (the temple), even King Agrippa carried the was not a mere compliment; for it had been his basket upon his shoulder, and went in till he unhappiness hitherto, that his case was not came to the court.” understood; neither Lysias the chief captain,

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So concerning the reading of the law by a king, the more learned and knowing part of them, they give this following account : “a king stands Gamaliel’s pupils, and the wise men and their and takes (the book of the law), and reads disciples: and his course of life must be well sitting; King Agrippa stood and took it, and read known to them, as he says, standing, and the wise men praised him; and this know all the Jews; that had any knowledge when he came to that passage, (Deuteronomy of him, and conversation with him. 17:15) “Thou mayest not set a stranger over ACTS 26:5. Which knew me from the thee”, his eyes flowed with tears; they said unto beginning, From his youth, from his first him, fear not, Agrippa, thou art our brother.” coming to Jerusalem: Some of their writers say , this was a piece of flattery in them: they also elsewhere commend if they would testify; what they know, and him for his modesty and humility ; “according speak out the truth of things, they must say, to the tradition of the doctors, when persons that after the most straitest sect of our attending a funeral met a bride (with her religion I lived a Pharisee; there were three retinue), the former gave way, andboth to a sects of religion among the Jews, the Pharisees, king of Israel, when they met him; but they say Sadducees, and Essenes; the first of these was concerning King Agrippa, that he met a bride, the most exact, and came nearest to the truth of and gave way, and they praised him.” doctrine, and was the strictest as to outward And whereas it was forbidden to eat on the eve holiness of life andconversation, and of this sect of the passover, before the Minchah, though the apostle was; and according to it he lived, ever so little, that they might eat the and that in such a manner, as not to be charged unleavened bread with appetite ; it is observed, with any notorious crime; and indeed in his that even King Agrippa, who was used to eat at own, and very likely in the opinion of others, he the ninth hour, that day did not eat till it was was then blameless. (See Gill on “Matthew dark : so that from hence it appears, that King 3:7”). Agrippa was famous for his exact knowledge (Essenes: A Jewish sect, who, according to the and observance of the customs and manners of description of Josephus, combine the ascetic the Jews, and which was well known, and was virtues of the Pythagoreans and the Stoics with by the apostle: a spiritual knowledge of the divine law. It wherefore I beseech thee to hear me seems probable that the same name signifies patiently; since he was charged with a breach “seer”, or “the silent, the mysterious”. As a sect of the laws and customs of the Jews; and his the Essenes were distinguished by an defence would proceed upon things which aspiration after the ideal purity rather than by Agrippa was not altogether ignorant of. any special code of doctrines. There were isolated communities of the Essenes, which , ACTS 26:4. My manner of life, from my youth were regulated by strict rules, and analogous to That is, his conduct and deportment, his those of the monastic institutions of a later behaviour among men, from the time that he date. was capable of performing religious exercises, and of knowing the difference between one sect All things were held in common, without and another, and of being observed and taken distinction of property; and special provision notice of by men: was made for the relief of the poor. Self-denial, temperance and labour — especially which was at the first among mine own agricultural — were the marks of the outward ; for though he was born in nation at Jerusalem life of the Essenes; purity and divine Tarsus in Cilicia, he was very early brought, or communication the objects of aspiration. sent by his parents to Jerusalem, where he had Slavery, war and commerce were alike his education under Gamaliel; so that the first forbidden. Their best known settlements were part of his life was spent in Jerusalem, the on the north west shore of the Dead Sea. metropolis of Judea, and among the Jews there;

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ACTS 26:6. And now I stand, and am judged, This suggests a reason of the apostle’s use of Before the Roman governor, and in the this phrase, for he here represents the Israelites presence of Agrippa: as a worshipping assembly, serving God for the hope of the promise made of God unto continually, night and day, as they were by their our fathers; either for the hope of representatives, the priests and stationary men righteousness, life, and salvation, by the in the temple; and that with intenseness, Messiah; who was promised to the Jewish ardour, and fervency, as the word rendered fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and others; “instantly” signifies being in a longing and (see Genesis 22:18, 49:10) or for the hope of earnest expectation of the coming of the the resurrection of the dead, and eternal life; of Messiah, and of his world to come, and of the which there are various testimonies in the resurrection of the dead, and a future state of writings of the Old Testament, committed to the happiness. people of the Jews. (Job 19:26,27, Isaiah 26:19, For which hope’s sake, King Agrippa, I am Daniel 12:2) and others; and both these senses accused of the Jews: for preaching that the may be very well joined together, for it was for Messiah, the twelve tribes hope for, is already asserting that the promised Messiah was come, come and that there is salvation in him, and in and that Jesus of Nazareth was he; that he was no other, and that there will be a resurrection risen from the dead, and that all the dead will of the dead, both just and unjust; and that there be raised by him; and that life and is another world and state after this, in which righteousness, salvation, and everlasting glory men will be happy and miserable; and these and happiness, are only by him; for asserting were the charges and accusations, or the sum of these things, I say, the apostle was now a what were exhibited against him. prisoner, and stood at the bar of a Roman judge, ACTS 26:8. Why should it be thought a thing being accused by the Jews. incredible with you, You Heathens and ACTS 26:7. Unto which promise, Of the Sadducees; for the doctrine of the resurrection Messiah, and salvation by him; and of the of the dead was thought an incredible doctrine resurrection of the dead and eternal glory, as by the Heathens in general, and therefore was following upon it: laughed at by the Stoic and Epicurean our twelve tribes, instantly serving God day philosophers at Athens, when preached by the and night hope to come; and enjoy the apostle there; and by a particular sect among Messiah, and all blessings along with him; and the Jews, the Sadducees; and the apostle may be the happy state of the resurrection and eternal thought either to address himself to Festus, the life: the people of Israel were distinguished into Roman governor, and to the chief captains, who twelve tribes, according to the names of the were present, and, being Heathens, disbelieved twelve patriarchs, the sons of Jacob; and though this doctrine; or else toKing Agrippa, who might ten of the tribes had been carried captive, and be a Sadducee, and to such of the Sadducees as had not returned as tribes, yet there were many were in court, and expostulate with them, why of the several tribes, who either were left in the it should be looked upon as a thing by no means land, or returned along with the two tribes, and to be credited, were mixed with them: and this way of that God should raise the dead; which may be speaking here used by Paul, and also by James, understood both of the particular resurrection (James 1:1) is justified by Jewish writers: the of Christ from the dead, which was not Mishnic doctors say , “the twelve tribes bring believed, neither by the Romans nor by the twelve heifers, and for idolatry they bring Jews, and neither by Pharisees nor Sadducees; twelve heifers and twelve goats:” compare with or of the general resurrection of the dead, this (Ezra 6:17, 8:35), yea, they say ``”twelve which was judged from the nature of things to tribes” are called, , “a congregation”, eleven be impracticable, and impossible by the latter, tribes are not called a congregation.” as well as by the Heathens: but since God is

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omniscient and omnipotent, and just and true, Sanhedrin, and voted for the execution of the knows where every particle of a dead body lies, Christians, but he was pleased with the and can gather all together, and inspire with sentence they passed, and approved of it; or he life; which he can as easily do, as to form all joined the zealots, who, without any form of things out of nothing, as he did; and his justice law, seized on the Christians, and put them to and veracity seem to require, that the same death wherever they found them; and this he bodies which have been partners with their assented to, and encouraged: some render the souls in sinning, or in sufferings should share words, “I carried the sentence”; as the Vulgate with them in woe or in happiness; it can neither Latin version; that is, the sentence of be absurd, unreasonable, nor incredible, to condemnation, which the Jewish Sanhedrin suppose that God will raise them from the dead. passed upon the disciples and followers of ACTS 28:9. I verily thought with myself, This Christ: this Saul took, and carried, it may be, seems to be a correction of himself, why he both to the Roman governor, to be signed by should wonder at their ignorance and unbelief, him, and to the officers to put it in execution; so particularly with respect to Jesus being the industrious and forward was he in persecuting Messiah, and his resurrection from the dead, the saints. and expostulate with them about it; when this ACTS 26:11. And I punished them oft in every was once his own case, it was the real synagogue, In Jerusalem, where there were sentiments of his mind, what in his conscience many; (see Gill on “Acts 24:12”); by beating and he believed to be right and just; namely, scourging them there, as the manner was; (see that I ought to do many things contrary to Matthew 10:17). the name of Jesus of Nazareth; to him himself, and compelled them to blaspheme; the Lord to his religion, to his Gospel, and ordinances, Jesus Christ, both to deny him to be the and people; by blaspheming his name, by Messiah, and to call him accursed; as the Jews denying him to be the Messiah, by condemning and Heathens obliged some professors of his religion as heresy, by disputing against his Christianity to do, who were only nominal ones, doctrines, and manner of worship, and by and had not grace and strength to stand against persecuting his followers. their threatenings, and to endure their ACTS 26:10. Which thing I also did in persecutions: Jerusalem, The metropolis of Judea, where he and being exceeding mad against them; full of had had his education, and was well known; malice, envy, and hatred: here he consented to the death of Stephen, and I persecuted them even to strange cities; held the clothes of the witnesses while they particularly Damascus; and of his journey stoned him; and here he haled men and women thither, he gives an account in the following out of their houses, and committed them to verse; or through the violence of his prison, and made havoc of the church of Christ, persecution he obliged them to fly to strange and destroyed the faith, and those that cities, where they were foreigners and professed it, as much as in him lay. strangers; though he himself might not follow And many of the saints I shut up in prison; at them there, since we do not read of his going Jerusalem; (see Acts 8:3). anywhere but to Damascus; whereas they that having received authority from the chief were scattered by the persecution, in which he priests; to take them up, and imprison them. was concerned, travelled as far as Phenice, Cyprus, and Antioch, (Acts 9:19). The phrase And when they were put to death; for it seems may be rendered, “even to cities without”; i.e. there were more than Stephen put to death, without the land of Israel: frequent mention is though we have no account of them: made in Jewish writings of such and such cities I gave my voice against them; not that he sat being , “without the land”. in council, or was a member of the Jewish

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ACTS 26:12. Whereupon as I went to Alexandrian copy, the Vulgate Latin, and Syriac Damascus, Being intent, upon the above said versions read, things, to punish the saints, compel them to I am Jesus whom thou persecutest; the Syriac blaspheme, imprison them, and even put them and Ethiopic versions read, “Jesus of Nazareth”; to death on account of these things; upon this (see Gill on “Acts 9:5”). errand and business he went to Damascus, the ACTS 26:16. But rise and stand upon thy feet, chief city of Syria, where he knew there were This, and what follows in this and the two next many that believed in Christ, who had removed verses, are not in any of the former accounts; from Jerusalem thither, on account of the and these words are used not only because Saul persecution, or were settled there before: was fallen to the earth, and are an with authority and commission from the chief encouragement to rise up, and stand priests; the Jewish Sanhedrin, to bring those of corporeally, but to take heart, and be of good them at Damascus bound to Jerusalem, in order cheer; for though he had acted so vile and cruel to be punished, as in (Acts 9:2, 22:5) and which a part by Christ, and his people, yet he had the Ethiopic version adds here. designs of grace, and good will to him; and this ACTS 26:13. At midday, O king, So in (Acts appearance was not for his destruction, but for 12:6). This circumstance is omitted in (Acts his honour, comfort, and usefulness: 9:3). King Agrippa is called upon by the apostle, for I have appeared unto thee for this to excite his attention to what he was about to purpose; not to take vengeance for past relate, it being very wonderful, and of great offences, but for the ends hereafter mentioned: importance. and this appearance of Christ was real, I saw in the way; that is, to Damascus, when corporeal, and personal, and not imaginary, or near the city; merely visionary and intellectual; and it was to a light from heaven; which descended from this sight of Christ he more than once refers, thence: partly in proof of Christ’s resurrection from the dead, and partly to demonstrate the truth of his above the brightness of the sun; it was a apostleship, (1 Corinthians 9:1, 15:8). greater light than that, or otherwise it could not have been discerned at noon, or have had the to make thee a minister and a witness, both effect it had upon Saul, and his company. This of those things which thou hast seen, and of account of the greatness of the light, is not in those things in the which I will appear unto the other places where this narrative is given: thee; so that he was an apostle, not of men, nor by man, but by Jesus Christ, as he himself says, shining round about me: so in (Acts 9:3, 12:6) (Galatians 1:1). He was a minister, not of man’s and them which journeyed with me; this is not making, but of Christ’s; and they are the only mentioned in the other accounts. true ministers of the Gospel, who are made by ACTS 26:14. And when we were all fallen to Christ, who have their mission and commission, the earth, Saul, and the men that were with their qualifications, gifts, and abilities, their him, for fear of the divine Majesty, who by this doctrine, work, and wages from him: and the extraordinary light was thought to be present: apostle’s work, as a minister, was to be a the other narratives only relate Saul’s falling to witness; it was to testify what he had seen of the earth; how this is to be reconciled to their Christ corporeally; and what knowledge of his standing speechless, in (Acts 9:7), (see Gill on person, office, and grace was now “Acts 9:7”). communicated to him by the spirit of wisdom I heard a voice speaking unto me, etc. (see Gill and revelation; and what should hereafter be on “Acts 10:4”). (see Gill on “Acts 10:5”). made known to him, either mediately by Ananias, or immediately by Christ and his ACTS 26:15. And I said, who art thou, Lord? Spirit; for the apostle had after appearances, and he said, Or “the Lord said”, as the

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visions, and revelations; (see Acts 22:17,18, through preaching of the Gospel, which the 23:11, 2 Corinthians 12:1-4,7). Spirit of God would, and did make use of: ACTS 26:17. Delivering thee from the people, and to turn them from darkness to light; or That is, the people of the Jews, as they are “that they might be turned”, as the Vulgate distinguished from the Gentiles; and so the Latin, and all the Oriental versions render it: by Syriac version, and two of Beza’s copies, and “darkness” is meant, the darkness of nature, the two of Stephens’s, read; for the Lord knew, that darkness of sin, of ignorance, and unbelief, in as soon as ever Saul was converted and which all men by nature are; who are in the professed his name, and preached his Gospel, dark about, and are ignorant of God, and the the people of the Jews would perfections of his nature; and about sin, and the immediatelybecome his implacable enemies, evil there is in it, and that comes by it; and the and seek to destroy him; wherefore he way of peace, righteousness, and salvation by promises him before hand deliverance, and Christ; and the work of the spirit in security from them: regeneration and sanctification upon the heart; and from the Gentiles, unto whom now I send and about the Scriptures of truth, and the thee; to both Jews and Gentiles; to the Jews doctrines of the Gospel, and what will be their first, and then to the Gentiles; which method state and portion in another world; they do not the apostle observed, and which course he know where they are, what they are, nor where steered, until the Jews put away the Gospel they are going: and in the effectual calling this from them; and then he turned to the Gentiles, darkness is in a great measure removed, and to whom he chiefly preached, as their apostle, they are turned to light; to God, who is light and was saved from many dangers among itself, and to Christ, the light of the world, and them, as is here promised. to the light of the word, and to a participation of the light of grace here, in which they see light, ACTS 26:18. To open their eyes, The eyes of and behold the above things, and of the light of their understanding, which were shut, and glory hereafter. darkened, and blind: one copy reads, “the eyes of the blind”; and the Ethiopic version renders This is a phrase used by the Jews, at the time of it, “the eyes of their heart”; and to have them the passover, when they praise the Lord, and opened, is to have them enlightened, to see give thanks unto him for the wonders he their lost state and condition by nature, the wrought for their fathers and for them, as that exceeding sinfulness of sin, the plague of their he had brought them out of bondage to liberty, own hearts, the impurity of nature, the and from sorrow to joy, and , “from darkness to impotence of man to that which is spiritually a great light”. good, the imperfection of obedience, and the Conversion is the goal of the Gospel ministry, insufficiency of a man’s righteousness to justify and illumination is necessary to it; yea, it lies in him before God; and to see where help is laid, a turn from darkness to light, as is here and where salvation is; to behold Christ as the expressed: and this conversion is not a mere only able, willing, complete, and suitable external one, or a reformation of manners; this Saviour; to see that there is life and is indeed sometimes called a conversion, and is righteousness, peace, pardon, grace, and glory a man’s turning from the evil of his ways, from in him; and to have an insight into the doctrines a vicious life and conversation, to a sober way of the Gospel, and a glimpse of the invisible of living, and is often brought about through the things of another world. Now though this is all ministry of the word; but then this may be the work of the Spirit, by whom only the eyes of where true conversion is not, and where there the understanding are enlightened; yet this is is no special illumination of the Spirit, nor any ascribed to the apostle, not as the efficient true spiritual light; and there may be a turning cause, but as the instrument and means again to the former course of life; besides, this external conversion, when it is right and

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genuine, is the fruit and effect of inward which he does by diverting their minds from conversion, or true grace, and is at most but the hearing the Gospel; and whilst hearing it, by evidence of it. filling them with enmity against it. Nor is it a conversion to a doctrine in a Moreover, they are led by him as captives at his professional way; men may be converted in this will; they are in his power, as the bird is in the sense, and remain wicked; they may have the snare of the fowler, and as a prisoner in the form, but not the power of godliness; know the hands of a jailer; and are entirely at his beck doctrine and profess it, and yet be strangers to and command, and do his lusts, and obey his the experience of it: nor does it design a will: and this also may have a particular respect restoration after backslidings; which to the power and authority which he exercised sometimes goes by the name of conversion, over the Heathens, before the Gospel came such as was Peter’s after his fall; but the first among them; Satan usurped a power over the work of conversion is here meant, which is Gentile world, and took upon him to be the god internal, and is a turn of the hearts of men; and of it; and for many hundred of years was is not the work of man, but of God, who has the worshipped in their idols; and he held them fast hearts of all in his hands, and can turn them as bound unto him in the fetters of ignorance, he pleases; and is what man is passive in, he superstition, and idolatry. does not turn himself, but is turned by the Lord; But now the Gospel was sent among them to though ministers may be, and are instruments free them from this power and tyranny of his; in it. It follows, and it was made effectual to the turning of and from the power of Satan unto God: this multitudes of them from him, and subjection to power of Satan regards not his power over the him, which is done in the effectual calling of rest of the devils, whose prince and head he is; every person; not that Satan then has no more hence he is called the prince of devils, and the power over them to tempt and distress them, prince of the power of the air; but his power but not to rule over them, and lead them about over the world of men, which he has by at pleasure, and much less to devour and usurpation, and therefore is called the prince of destroy them: and then also are they turned to the world; but not his power over the bodies of God, to have true knowledge of him, and an men, by possessing them, inflicting diseases, hearty desire after him, which they had not and death itself upon them, nor over their before; and to a love of him, whose hearts estates; all which is only by permission of God, before were enmity to him; and to believe in whenever he exercises it; but over the souls of him, and trust in him as the God of providence, men, in whom he rules as in his own kingdom: and of grace; and to have communion with him; he is the strong man armed, and the hearts of and to be subject to his government, and yield a men are his palaces, which are guarded with cheerful obedience to him, both externally and devils and unclean lusts. internally. When all the goods are kept in peace by him, That they may receive forgiveness of sins: as there is no concern about sin, no inquiry after an act of God’s free grace, through the blood of salvation, no dread of the curses of the law, nor Christ, which was shed for it; and which free fear of hell and damnation, but all in the utmost and full forgiveness of sins is published in the security: and he not only dwells in the hearts of Gospel, that whoever believes in Christ, may by unregenerate persons, but he works effectually faith receive it. This is what every enlightened there; by stirring up their corruptions, putting soul sees it needs, and is desirous of; it is the ill things into their minds, and instigating them first thing it wants, and asks at the hands of against true spiritual and powerful religion, and God; and nothing can be more suitable to its the professors of it: he has power over the case, and welcome to it; and this is the good minds of them that believe not, to blind them, news which is declared in the ministry of the by keeping them in blindness, and increasing it; Gospel: and it is had in a way of receiving; for it

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is not purchased with money, norprocured by but is freely given; belongs only to the children the merits of men; but is a gift of God, which is of God, and is their Father’s free gift unto them, received by the hand of faith into the and is only enjoyed by such who are conscience of the enlightened sinner; the “sanctified”; and it lies among them, and will be consequences of which are peace, joy, and jointly and equally possessed by them. comfort. The heirs of salvation are said to be sanctified And inheritance among them which are in different senses; they are sanctified by God sanctified by faith that is in one: by the the Father in eternal election, being separated “inheritance” is meant, either something from others, and chosen through sanctification enjoyed now, as God himself, who is the portion to it; and they are sanctified “in” and “by” the of his people, and the lot of their inheritance; or Lord Jesus Christ. a part and interest in Christ, who is that good They are sanctified in him representatively, he part and portion, and which shall never be being the covenant head of his people, has all taken away; and the blessings of grace in him, grace, and so all holiness in him for them, which which, besides forgiveness of sins, are peace is perfect and complete; and this is the source with God, a justifying righteousness, and of all that holiness that is inthem, and which adopting grace: or rather eternal glory and they have communicated to them by virtue of happiness hereafter is here designed, which is their union to him; and also they are sanctified called an “inheritance” or “lot”, in allusion to “in” him through the imputation of the holiness the land of Canaan, which was distributed by of his human nature to them, which is a branch lot; not that heaven is a casual thing. of their justification before God. It signifies that every Israelite indeed will have They are sanctified by him meritoriously, or by their share and portion in it. There are many his blood, through which their sins are things which show an agreement between expiated, and fully atoned for; and so in this heaven, and the land of Canaan; that was a sense they are sanctified by it: and they are goodly land, and ready prepared for the sanctified internally by the Spirit of God, who in Israelites; and so heaven is the better country, regeneration produces principles of grace and and the city and kingdom God has prepared for holiness in them, which were not there before; his people from the foundation of the world: a man was originally possessed of a perfect moral wilderness was passed through first, and many holiness, but through sin is become an unholy battles fought before it was possessed; the creature; and in the same state and condition people of God pass through the wilderness of are the children of God by nature, as others, and this world, and fight the good fight of faith, and need the sanctifying influences of the divine then enter into rest: the Israelites were Spirit to make them meet for the undefiled introduced into it, not by Moses, but by Joshua; inheritance: and this inheritance these and saints get to heaven, not by the works of sanctified ones receive by faith now, as they do the law, but by Christ the Saviour, another Jesus the forgiveness of their sins; that is, they now or Joshua: and lastly, Canaan was a place of receive by faith the promise of the inheritance, rest; and so is heaven. and the earnest and pledge of it, and their right Moreover, it may be so called, in allusion to unto it, and claim upon it: for the phrase, inheritances among men, though it vastly by faith that is in me, is not to be connected exceeds all earthly ones, being incorruptible, with the word “sanctified”, but with the word undefiled, which fadeth not away, reserved in “receive”, in the preceding clause; and has the heavens; yet it bears some likeness to them; respect to both benefits, which it receives from it is what is bequeathed to the children of God Christ, the object of it here expressed; for it is by their heavenly Father, and comes to them not any faith, but faith which is in Christ, by through the death of Christ the testator, and is which these blessings of grace are received and for ever: it is neither purchased nor acquired,

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enjoyed: and the whole of this shows the great combination of Chaldean and Hebrew ends and usefulness of the Gospel ministry. languages became the Aramaic language. Jewish Theological Writings Many Jews of the Babylonian captivity had This article is an outline introduction to the adopted the Aramaic language, both in the major lines of Jewish theological literature. You areas of captivity and in Jerusalem itself. The should also study these other topics below. Jewish worship also had shifted from temple- centered worship to several other things: Wikipedia has excellent articles on most of the concepts listed here and is an excellent • Study of the Law in common resource for further study. 10 • Chanting of Psalms, and united prayers Basic listing of Jewish literature The common language used in worship was 1. Torah usually Aramaic. 2. Targums The three basic Targums of the Old Testament are: 3. Talmud 1. The Targum on the Pentateuch, known 4. Mishnah as the Targum of Onkelos, about 70 AD 5. Gemara 2. The Targum on the Prophets, the 6. Midrash Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel, a 7. Halakhah student of the school of Hillel, first half 8. Haggadah of the 1st century AD. 9. Septuagint 3. The Targum on the Writings, or 10. Aquila’s Greek Version Hagiographa; includes Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Chronicles, Esther 11. Apocrypha The oral Targums date back as far as 444 BC, 12. Pseudepigrapha with written Targums being produced from the 13. Philo’s Canons 1st to the 10th centuries AD. The Torah Nehemiah 8:8 describes how the Targums were The Torah is the name given to the canon of communicated. It was a three-fold process: Hebrew scriptures. Originally, the word “torah” 1. they read “distinctly”, they read the Law referred to the first five books, the Pentateuch. in Hebrew Later, the Pharisees and Rabbis expanded the 2. they gave the “sense”, they translated definition to include the poetical and the Hebrew into Aramaic prophetical books of the Old Testament. 3. they caused them to understand the The Jewish scholars also recognized an Oral reading; that is, they interpreted in Torah, which was made up of general Aramaic the meaning of the translation. applications of general principles. Both the written and oral Torahs were considered to The Talmud (see below) gives extensive and have been given to Moses on Mt. Sinai. explicit rules for interpreting the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. There is always a The Targums question, of course, of how carefully individual The Targums were explanations of the teachers follow the rules. Here is a sample of Hebrew, translations and paraphrases of the the rules of interpretation: Hebrew in the Chaldean language, for Jews who The Law was read by the reader, verse by verse, no longer understood Hebrew. The word means and each verse was followed by translation into “explanation” or “interpretation”. A Aramaic and interpretation. In prophetic books, three verses were read 10 http://en.wikipedia.org before interpretation.

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The reader had to keep his eyes on the text Aramaic and completed about 500 AD. The without looking up. The one giving the Babylonian Gemara contains about 6000 pages. translation and interpretation had to do so Midrash looking at the text. This was done to without The Midrash is a less formal explanation and make very clear the difference between the exposition of the Old Testament, from and actual words of the text and the interpretation doctrinal and homiletical point of view. The given in Aramaic. name means “investigation and interpretation”. At first, it was forbidden to write the Targums. It is written in both Hebrew and Aramaic. The Talmud The Midrash differs from the Targums in that it The word “Talmud” means “teaching” or is not a translation, but a commentary. And it “doctrine”. differs from the Talmud in that it deals only The Talmud is a Jewish work which contains with the written Law. There are two parts of the civil and religious laws not found in the the Midrash, the Halakhah and the Haggadah. Pentateuch, with commentaries and Halakhah illustrations of these laws. It represents the The Halakhah is the collection of all Jewish Law, learning, teaching, opinions, and decisions of including the biblical law (the 613 Jewish teachers over a period of about 800 commandments) and later Talmudic and years, from 300 BC to 500 AD. rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions. The Talmud has two parts: (1) The Mishnah, or The Halakhah confines itself to the Pentateuch oral law, and (2) the Gemara, the commentaries and gives explanation and additions to the Law and illustrations. and ritual. It also covers cases which the Law Mishnah does not cover; and it gives decisions of Rabbis The Mishnah was begun by Hillel in the years on controversial subjects. before the birth of Christ; it was called the Halakhah guides not only religious practices Second Law. It’s chain of succession was and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day supposed to be from Moses to Joshua, from life. Halakhah is often translated as "Jewish Joshua to the elders, from the elders to the Law", although a more literal translation might prophets, from the prophets to the men of the be "the path" or "the way of walking". The word Great Synagogue, and from them to their derives from the Hebrew root that means to go successors in the 2nd century AD. or to walk. The Mishnah was divided into six sections, each Haggadah dealing with broad subject matter. The Haggadah covers the entire Old Testament 1. Seeds and includes the historical, prophetical, and 2. Feasts poetical sections. It is popular, and covers history, tradition, stories, legends, parables, 3. Women allegories, beliefs, customs. Much of the writing 4. Damages is fanciful, some of it is good. 5. Sacred Things The Haggadah was used mostly between 100 6. Purifications BC and 300 AD Topics: Organization of the Talmud; Structure Septuagint – What is it? 11 of the Talmud Septuagint (sometimes abbreviated LXX) is the The Gemara name given to the Greek translation of the The Gemara is the part of the Talmud which contains the notes, commentaries, explanations, and illustrations of the Mishnah, along with 11 [published on the Septuagint web site: much other information. It was written in http://www.septuagint.com]

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Jewish Scriptures. The Septuagint has its origin to the Book of Esther, additions to the Book of in Alexandria, Egypt and was translated Daniel, and the Prayer of Manasseh. between 300-200 BC. Widely used among The Apocryphal books were included in the Hellenistic Jews, this Greek translation was Septuagint for historical and religious purposes, produced because many Jews spread but are not recognized by Protestant Christians throughout the empire were beginning to lose or Orthodox Jews as canonical (inspired by their Hebrew language. The process of God). Most reformed teachers will point out translating the Hebrew to Greek also gave many that the New Testament writers never quoted non-Jews a glimpse into Judaism. According to from the Apocryphal books, and that the an ancient document called the Letter of Apocrypha was never considered part of the Aristeas, it is believed that 70 to 72 Jewish canonical Jewish scripture. However, the scholars were commissioned during the reign Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox of Ptolemy Philadelphus to carry out the task of churches include the Apocrypha in their Bible translation. The term “Septuagint” means (except for the books of Esdras and the Prayer seventy in Latin, and the text is so named to the of Manasseh). credit of these 70 scholars. Septuagint - Is it a Reliable Translation? Septuagint – Influence on Christianity Since the Septuagint is a translation, scholars The Septuagint was also a source of the Old speculate if it accurately reflects the Hebrew Testament for early Christians during the first scriptures of the 2nd century BC. A close few centuries AD. Many early Christians spoke examination of the Septuagint and the and read Greek, thus they relied on the Masoretic Text (the early Hebrew text of the Septuagint translation for most of their Old Testament) show slight variations. Were understanding of the Old Testament. The New these errors in translation, or are the Testament writers also relied heavily on the Septuagint and Masoretic Text based on slightly Septuagint, as a majority of Old Testament different Hebrew manuscripts? quotes cited in the New Testament are quoted The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has directly from the Septuagint (others are quoted helped to shed light on this question. from the Hebrew texts). Greek church fathers Discovered in the Qumran region near the Dead are also known to have quoted from the Sea beginning in 1947, these scrolls are dated Septuagint. Even today, the Eastern Orthodox to as early as 200 BC and contain parts of every Church relies on the Septuagint for its Old book in the Old Testament except Esther. Testament teachings. Some modern Bible Comparisons of the Dead Sea Scrolls to the translations also use the Septuagint along side Masoretic Text and the Septuagint show that Hebrew manuscripts as their source text. where there are differences between the What Does the Septuagint Contain Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, The Septuagint contains the standard 39 books approximately 95% of those differences are of the Old Testament canon, as well as certain shared between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the apocryphal books. The term "Apocrypha" was Masoretic text, while only 5% of those coined by the fifth-century biblical scholar, differences are shared between the Dead Sea Jerome, and generally refers to the set of Scrolls and the Septuagint. ancient Jewish writings written during the Does this mean that the Septuagint is unreliable period between the last book in the Jewish and that our Old Testament is wrought with scriptures, Malachi, and the arrival of Jesus contradictory sources? No. It is imperative to Christ. The apocryphal books include Judith, note that these “variations” are extremely Tobit, Baruch, Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), the minor (i.e., grammatical errors, spelling Wisdom of Solomon, First and Second differences or missing words) and do not affect Maccabees, the two Books of Esdras, additions the meaning of sentences and paragraphs. (An

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exception is the book of Jeremiah, in which the The arrangements of the synagogue, as hitherto actual passages are arranged differently.) None described, combined in a remarkable manner of the differences, however, come close to fixedness of order with liberty of the individual. affecting any area of teaching or doctrine. The Alike the seasons and the time of public majority of the Septuagint, Masoretic Text and services, their order, the prayers to be offered, the Dead Sea Scrolls are remarkably similar and and the portions of the law to be read were have dispelled unfounded theories that the fixed. On the other hand, between the eighteen Biblical text has been corrupted by time and "benedictions" said on ordinary days, and the conspiracy. Furthermore, these variations do seven repeated on the Sabbaths, free prayer not call into question the infallibility of God in might be inserted; the selection from the preserving His word. prophets, with which the public reading Although the original documents are inerrant, concluded--the "Haphtarah" (from "patar," to translators and scribes are human beings and "conclude")--seems to have been originally left are thus prone to making slight errors in to individual choice; while the determination translation and copying (Hebrew scribal rules who was to read, or to conduct the prayers, or attest to how exacting scribes were). Even then, to address the people, was in the hands of the the Bible has redundancy built into its text, and "rulers of the synagogue" (Acts 13:15). The anything significant is told more than once. If latter, who were probably also the members of grammatical mistakes were introduced that the local Sanhedrin, had naturally charge of the makes a point unclear, it would be clarified in conduct of public worship, as well as of the several other places in scripture. government and discipline of the synagogues. Septuagint - Dramatic Evidence for the They were men learned in the law and of good Credibility of Messianic Prophecy repute, whom the popular voice designated, but who were regularly set apart by "the laying on The Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls of hands," or the "Semichah," which was done establish a very dramatic piece of evidence for by at least three, who had themselves received Christianity – that the Old Testament ordination, upon which the candidate had the prophecies of the coming Messiah formal title of Rabbi bestowed on him, and was unquestionably predated the time that Jesus declared qualified to administer the law (Sanh. Christ walked the earth. All theories of 1st 13 b). The Divine Majesty was supposed to be Century AD conspiracies and prophecy in the midst of each Sanhedrin, on account of manipulation go out the door when we realize which even that consisting of only three that prophetic scripture like Isaiah 53 and members might be designated as "Elohim." Psalm 22 were fixed in written form at least Perhaps this may have been said in explanation 100 years before Christ, and probably many and application of Psalm 82:6: "I have said, Ye more. Again, despite time, persecution, and the are Elohim; and all of you children of the Most incredibly minor instances of scribal mistakes, High." the Septuagint is just another example of how the Biblical text has remained faithful in its The special qualifications for the office of message and theme. The Holy Bible is truly a Sanhedrist, mentioned in Rabbinical writings, divinely inspired and preserved letter from God are such as to remind us of the directions of St. that is deserving of our time and attention. Paul to Timothy (1 Tim 3:1-10). Jewish Literature A member of the Sanhedrin must be wise, modest, God-fearing, truthful, not greedy of Brief Outline of Ancient Jewish Theological filthy lucre, given to hospitality, kindly, not a Literature gambler, nor a usurer, nor one who traded in from Sketches of Jewish Social Life by Alfred the produce of Sabbatical years, nor yet one Edersheim, 1876 who indulged in unlawful games (Sanh. iii. 3). They were called "Sekenim," "elders" (Luke

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7:3), "Memunim," "rulers" (Mark 5:22), charity, who required to be "men of good "Parnasin," "feeders, overseers, shepherds of repute, and faithful," are thought by many to the flock" (Acts 20:28; 1 Peter 5:2), and have been the model for the institution of the "Manhigei," "guides" (Heb 13:7). They were Diaconate in the early Church. But the analogy under the presidency and supreme rule of an scarcely holds good; nor, indeed, were such "Archisynagogos," or "Rosh-ha-Cheneseth," collectors employed in every synagogue. "head of the synagogue" (Yom. vii. 1; Sot. vii. 7), In describing the conduct of public worship in who sometimes seems to have even exercised the synagogues, reference was made to the sole authority. "meturgeman," who translated into the The designation occurs frequently in the New vernacular dialect what was read out of the Testament (Matt 9:18; Mark 5:35,36,38; Luke Hebrew Scriptures, and also to the "darshan," 8:41,49, 13:14; Acts 18:8,17). The inferior who expounded the Scriptures or else the functions in the synagogue devolved on the traditional law in an address, delivered after "chassan," or "minister" (Luke 4:20). In course the reading of the "Haphtarah," or section from of time, however, the "chassanim" combined the prophets. These two terms will have with their original duties the office of suggested names which often occur in writings schoolmaster; and at present they lead both the on Jewish subjects, and may fitly lead to some singing and the devotions of the synagogue. remarks on Jewish theology at the time of our This duty originally devolved not on any fixed Lord. Now the work of the "meturgeman" * was person, but whoever was chosen might for the perpetuated in the Targum, and that of the time being act as "Sheliach Zibbur," or "legate of "darshan" in the Midrash. the congregation." Most modern writers have * Hence also the term "dragoman." imagined, that the expression "angel of the Primarily the Targum, then, was intended as a Church," in the epistles to the seven churches in translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into the the book of Revelation, was used in allusion to vernacular Aramaean. Of course, such this ancient arrangement of the synagogue. translations might be either literal, or else more But the fact that the "Sheliach Zibbur" or less paraphrastic. Every Targum would also represented not an office but a function, naturally represent the special views of the renders this view untenable. Besides, in that translator, and be interesting as affording an case, the corresponding Greek expression insight into the ideas prevalent at the time, and would rather have been "apostle" than "angel of the manner in which Scripture was understood. the Church." Possibly, however, the writer of But some Targumim are much more the Epistle to the Hebrews may refer to it, when paraphrastic than others, and indeed become a he designates the Lord Jesus "the Apostle and kind of commentary, showing us the popular High-Priest of our profession" (Heb 3:1). theology of the time. Strictly speaking, we have Besides these functionaries, we also read of really no Targum dating from the time of our "Gabaei Zedakah," or collectors of charity, to Lord, nor even from the first century of our era. whom the Talmud (B. Bathra, 8 b) by a jeu de There can be no doubt, however, that such a mots * applies the promise that they "shall be Targum did exist, although it has been lost. Still, as the stars for ever and ever" (Dan 12:3), since the Targumim preserved to us, although they lead many to "righteousness." collated, and having received their present * Zedakah means righteousness, but is also form at later periods, contain very much that used for "charity." dates from the Temple-period, and even before Alms were collected at regular times every that. week, either in money or in victuals. At least Mentioning them in the order of their two were employed in collecting, and three in comparative antiquity, we have the Targum of distributing charity, so as to avoid the suspicion Onkelos, on the five books of Moses; the of dishonesty or partiality. These collectors of

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Targum of Jonathan, on the prophets (inclusive "Book of Jubilees," given to the work. These of Joshua, Judges, and the books of Samuel and "Jubilees" are again arranged into "weeks," each of the Kings); the so-called (or pseudo) of seven years (a day for a year); and events are Jonathan on the Pentateuch; and the Jerusalem classified as having taken place in a certain Targum, which is but a fragment. Probably the month of a certain year, of a certain "week" of latter two were intended to be supplemental to years, of a certain "Jubilee"-period. Another the Targum Onkelos. Late criticism has thrown tendency of the book, which, however, it has in doubt even on the existence of such a person as common with all similar productions, is to trace Onkelos. Whoever may have been the author, up all later institutions to the patriarchal this Targum, in its present form, dates probably period. * from the third, that of Jonathan on the prophets * Although the "Book of Jubilees" seems most from the fourth century. likely of Pharisaic authorship, the views In some respects more interesting than the expressed in it are not always those of the Targumim are the Midrashim, of which we Pharisees. Thus the resurrection is denied, possess three, dating probably, in their present although the immortality of the soul is form, from the first or second century of our maintained. era, but embodying many parts much older. Besides these works, another class of These are--mentioning them again in the order theological literature has been preserved to us, of their antiquity--"Siphra" (the book), a around which of late much and most serious commentary on Leviticus; "Siphri," a controversy has gathered. Most readers, of commentary on Numbers and Deuteronomy; course, know about the Apocrypha; but these and "Mechiltha," a commentary on certain works are called the "pseudo-epigraphic portions of Exodus. writings." Their subject-matter may be But we have even a monument more described as mainly dealing with unfulfilled interesting than these, of the views of the prophecy; and they are couched in language ancient Pharisees, and of their Scriptural and figures borrowed, among others, from the interpretations. Some of the fathers referred to book of Daniel. In fact, they read like attempts a work called "Lesser Genesis," or the "Book of at imitating certain portions of that prophecy-- Jubilees." This had been lost to theological only that their scope is sometimes wider. literature, till again discovered within the This class of literature is larger than those not present century, although not in the original acquainted with the period might have Hebrew, nor even in its first or Greek expected. Yet when remembering the troubles translation, but in an Ethiopic rendering from of the time, the feverish expectations of a the latter. The work, which no doubt dates from coming deliverance, and the peculiar cast of the era of our Lord, covers the same ground as mind and training of those who wrote them, the first book of Moses, whence the name of they scarcely seem more numerous, nor "Lesser Genesis." It gives the Biblical narrative perhaps even more extravagant, than a certain from the creation of the world to the institution kind of prophetic literature, abundant among of the Passover, in the spirit in which the us not long ago, which the fear of Napoleon or Judaism of that period would view it. The other political events from time to time called legendary additions, the Rabbinical ideas forth. expressed, the interpretations furnished, are To that kind of production, they seem, at least just such as one would expect to find in such a to us, to bear an essential likeness--only that, work. One of the main objects of the writer unlike the Western, the Oriental expounder of seems to have been the chronology of the book unfulfilled prophecy assumes rather the of Genesis, which it is attempted to settle. All language of the prophet than that of the events are recorded according to Jubilee- commentator, and clothes his views in mystic periods of forty-nine years, whence the name emblematic language. In general, this kind of

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literature may be arranged into Greek and The "Halakhah" enjoyed not only the same Hebrew--according as the writers were either authority with the law of Moses, but, as being Egyptian (Hellenistic) or Palestinian Jews. explanatory, in some respects was even more Considerable difficulty exists as to the precise highly esteemed. Indeed, strictly speaking, it date of some of these writings--whether was regarded as equally with the Pentateuch previous or subsequent to the time of Christ. the revelation of God to Moses; only the form or These difficulties are, of course, increased when manner of revelation was regarded as different- it is sought to fix the precise period when each -the one being committed to writing, the other of them was composed. Still, late historical handed down by word of mouth. According to investigations have led to much accord on tradition, Moses explained the traditional law general points. successively to Aaron, to his sons, to the Without referring to the use which opponents seventy elders, and to the people--care being of Christianity have of late attempted to make taken that each class heard it four times of these books, it may be safely asserted that (Maimonides' Preface to Seraim, 1 a). their proper study and interpretation will yet The Talmud itself attempts to prove that the be made very helpful, not only in casting light whole traditional law, as well as the writings of upon the period, but in showing the essential the prophets and the Hagiographa, had been difference between the teaching of the men of communicated to Moses, by quoting Exodus that age and that of the New Testament. For 24:12: "I will give thee tables of stone, and a each branch and department of sacred study, law, and commandments which I have written; the more carefully, diligently, and impartially it that thou mayest teach them." "The 'tables of is pursued, affords only fresh testimony to that stone,'" argues Rabbi Levi (Ber. 5 1), "are the truth which is most certainly, and on the best ten commandments; the 'law' is the written law and surest grounds, believed among us. (in the Pentateuch); the 'commandments' are It were, however, a mistake to suppose that the the Mishnah; 'which I have written,' refers to Rabbinical views, extravagant as they so often the prophets and the Hagiographa; while the are, were propounded quite independently of words, 'that thou mayest teach them,' point to Scripture. On the contrary, every traditional the Gemara. From this we learn, that all this ordinance, every Rabbinical institution, nay, was given to Moses on Sinai." every legend and saying, is somehow foisted If such was the "Halakhah," it is not so easy to upon the text of the Old Testament. define the limits of the "Haggadah." The term, To explain this, even in the briefest manner, it is which is derived from the verb "higgid," to necessary to state that, in general, Jewish "discuss," or "tell about," covers all that traditionalism is distinguished into the possessed not the authority of strict legal "Halakhah" and the "Haggadah." The determinations. It was legend, or story, or "Halakhah" (from "halach," to "walk") indicates moral, or exposition, or discussion, or the settled legal determinations, which application--in short, whatever the fancy or constituted the "oral law," or "Thorah shebeal predilections of a teacher might choose to make peh." it, so that he could somehow connect it either with Scripture or with a "Halakhah." Nothing could here be altered, nor was any freedom left to the individual teacher, save that For this purpose some definite rules were of explanation and illustration. The object of the necessary to preserve, if not from extravagance, "Halakhah" was to state in detail, and to apply at least from utter absurdity. Originally there to all possible cases, the principles laid down in were four such canons for connecting the the law of Moses; as also to surround it, as it "Haggadah" with Scripture. Contracting, after were, with "a hedge," in order to render every the favorite manner of the Jews, the initial unwitting transgression impossible. letters, these four canons were designated by the word "Pardes" (Paradise). They were—

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1. To ascertain the plain meaning of a passage Probably most readers would wish to know (the "Peshat"); something more of those "traditions" to which 2. To take the single letters of a word as an our Lord so often referred in His teaching. We indication or hint ("Remes") of other words, or have here to distinguish, in the first place, even of whole sentences; between the Mishnah and the Gemara. The former was, so to speak, the text, the latter its 3. The "Derush," or practical exposition of a extended commentary. At the same time, the passage; and Mishnah contains also a good deal of 4. To find out the "Sod" (mystery), or mystical commentary, and much that is not either legal meaning of a verse or word. determination or the discussion thereof; while These four canons were gradually enlarged into the Gemara, on the other hand, also contains thirty-two rules, which gave free vent to every what we would call "text." kind of fancifulness. Thus one of these rules-- The word Mishna (from the verb "shanah") the "Gematria" (geometry, calculation)-- means "repetition"--the term referring to the allowed the interpreter to find out the supposed repetition of the traditional law, numerical value of the letters in a word--the which has been above described. The Gemara, Hebrew letters, like the Roman, being also as the very word shows, means "discussion," numerals--and to substitute for a word one or and embodies the discussions, opinions, and more which had the same numerical value. saying of the Rabbis upon, or a propos of, the Thus, if in Numbers 12:1 we read that Moses Mishnah. Accordingly, the text of the Mishnah is was married to an "Ethiopian woman" (in the always given in the pages of the Talmud, which original, "Cushith"), Onkelos substitutes instead reproduce those discussions thereon of the of this, by "gematria," the words, "of fair Jewish Theological parliament or academy, appearance"--the numerical value both of which constitute the Gemara. The authorities Cushith and of the words "of fair appearance" introduced in the Mishnah and the Gemara being equally 736. By this substitution the range from about the year 180 BC to 430 AD (in objectionable idea of Moses' marrying an the Babylon Talmud). The Mishnah is, of course, Ethiopian was at the same time removed. the oldest work, and dates, in its present form Similarly, the Mishnah maintains that those and as a written compilation, from the close of who loved God were to inherit each 310 worlds, the second century of our era. Its contents are the numerical value of the word "substance" chiefly "Halakhah," there being only one ("Yesh") in Proverbs 8:21 being 310. On the Tractate (Aboth) in which there is no other hand, the canons for the deduction of a "Halakhah" at all, and another (on the "Halakhah" from the text of Scripture were measurements of the Temple) in which it but much more strict and logical. Seven such rules very rarely occurs. Yet these two Tractates are are ascribed to Hillel, which were afterwards of the greatest historical value and interest. enlarged to thirteen. * On the other hand, there are thirteen whole * It would be beyond the scope of this volume Tractates in the Mishnah which have no to explain these "middoth," or "measurements," "Haggadah" at all, and other twenty-two in and to illustrate them by examples. Those who which it is but of rare occurrence. Very much of are interested in the matter are referred to the the Mishnah must be looked upon as dating very full discussion on Rabbinical exegesis in before, and especially from the time of Christ, my History of the Jewish Nation, pp. 570-580. and its importance for the elucidation of the Little objection can be taken to them; but New Testament is very great, though it requires unfortunately their practical application was to be most judiciously used. The Gemara, or generally almost as fanciful, and certainly as book of discussions on the Mishnah, forms the erroneous, as in the case of the "Haggadah." two Talmuds--the Jerusalem and the Babylon Talmud. The former is so called because it is the

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product of the Palestinian academies; the latter represents the spiritual traditions handed is that of the Babylonian school. The completion down from earliest times, although mixed up, in of the Jerusalem or Palestinian Talmud course of time, with many foreign and spurious ("Talmud" = doctrine, lore) dates from the elements. The "Kabbalah" grouped itself chiefly middle of the fourth, that of the Babylonian around the history of the creation, and the from the middle of the sixth century of our era. mystery of God's Presence and Kingdom in the It need scarcely be said that the former is of world, as symbolised in the vision of the chariot much greater historical value than the latter. and of the wheels (Eze 1). Much that is found in Neither of these two Gemaras, as we now Cabalistic writings approximates so closely to possess them, is quite complete--that is, there the higher truths of Christianity, that, despite are Tractates in the Mishnah for which we have the errors, superstitions, and follies that mingle no Gemara, either in the Jerusalem or in the with it, we cannot fail to recognize the Babylon Talmud. Lastly, the Babylon Talmud is continuance and the remains of those deeper more than four times the size of that of facts of Divine revelation, which must have Jerusalem. Obviously this is not the place for formed the substance of prophetic teaching giving even the briefest outline of the contents under the Old Testament, and have been of the Mishnah. * understood, or at least hoped for, by those who * In Appendix 1 we give as a specimen a were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. translation of one of the Mishnic Tractates; and If now, at the close of these sketches of Jewish in Appendix 2 translations of extracts from the life, we ask ourselves, what might have been Babylon Talmud. expected as to the relation between Christ and Suffice it here to state that it consists of six the men and the religion of His period, the books ("sedarim," "orders"), which are answer will not be difficult. Assuredly, in one subdivided into Tractates ("Massichthoth"), and respect Christ could not have been a stranger to these again into chapters ("Perakim"), and His period, or else His teaching would have single determinations or traditions found no response, and, indeed, have been ("Mishnaioth"). In quoting the Mishnah it is wholly unintelligible to His contemporaries. customary to mention not the Book (or Nor did He address them as strangers to the "Seder") but the special Tractate, the Perek (or covenant, like the heathen. His was in every chapter), and the Mishnah. The names of these respect the continuation, the development, and Tractates (not those of the books) give a the fulfillment of the Old Testament. sufficient idea of their contents, which cover Only, He removed the superincumbent load of every conceivable, and well-nigh every traditionalism; He discarded the externalism, inconceivable case, with full discussions the formalism, and the work-righteousness, thereon. Altogether the Mishnah contains sixty- which had well-nigh obliterated the spiritual three Tractates, consisting of 525 chapters, and truths of the Old Testament, and substituted in 4,187 "Mishnaioth." their place the worship of the letter. The grand There is yet another branch of Jewish theology, spiritual facts, which it embodied, He brought which in some respects is the most interesting forward in all their brightness and meaning; the to the Christian student. There can be no doubt, typical teaching of that dispensation He came to that so early as the time of our Lord a series of show forth and to fulfil; and its prophecies He doctrines and speculations prevailed which accomplished, alike for Israel and the world. were kept secret from the multitude, and even And so in Him all that was in the Old from ordinary students, probably from fear of Testament--of truth, way, and life--became "Yea leading them into heresy. and Amen." This class of study bears the general name of Thus we can understand how, on the one hand, the "Kabbalah," and, as even the term (from the Lord could avail Himself of every spiritual "kabal," to "receive," or "hand down") implies, element around, and adopt the sayings,

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parables, ideas, and customs of that period-- misery of its mistaken hope, we seem to realize indeed, must have done so, in order to be a true with ever increasing force that "The people that man of the period,--and yet be so wholly not of walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that time as to be despised, rejected, and that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, delivered up unto death by the blind guides of upon them hath the light shined." Yes: "unto us His blinded fellow-countrymen. Had He entirely a Child is born, unto us a Son is given: and the discarded the period in which He lived, had He government shall be upon His shoulder: and His not availed Himself of all in it that was true or Name shall be called Wonderful, Counselor, The might be useful, He would not have been of it-- mighty God, The Everlasting Father, The Prince not the true man Christ Jesus. Had He followed of Peace" (Isa 9:2,6). For assuredly, "God hath it, identified Himself with its views and hopes, not cast away His people which He foreknew." or headed its movements, He would not have But "all Israel shall be saved: as it is written, been the Christ, the Son of the living God, the There shall come out of Sion the Deliverer, and promised Deliverer from sin and guilt. shall turn away ungodliness from Jacob" (Rom And so we can also perceive the reason of the 11:2,26). "Watchman, what of the night? essential enmity to Christ on the part of the Watchman, what of the night? The watchman Pharisees and Scribes. It was not that He was a said, The morning cometh, and also the night" new and a strange Teacher; it was, that He (Isa 21:11,12). came as the Christ. Theirs was not an Origins of the Talmud opposition of teaching to His; it was a 4. The Origins of the Talmud contrariety of fundamental life-principles. The name “Talmud” means “teaching” or “Light came into the world, but men loved “study” and refers to the oral law which has darkness rather than light." Closely related as been taught to the children of Israel since the the two were, the Pharisaical Judaism of that time of Moses. and of the present period is at the opposite pole The name “written law” was given to the Old from the religion of Christ--alike as regards the Testament, and “oral law” refers to all the need of man, the purposes of God's love, and teachings of the “sages” consisting of comments the privileges of His children. There was one on the text of the Bible. It has always been the truth which, we are reluctantly obliged to teacher’s duty to explain and comment on the admit, found, alas! scarcely any parallel in the laws and ordinances until the people teaching of Rabbinism: it was that of a suffering understood them thoroughly and knew them by Messiah. Hints indeed there were, as certain heart. The descendants of Aaron, the passages in the prophecies of Isaiah could not priesthood, was commissioned to teach the be wholly ignored or misrepresented, even by Bible to the people. Although there are very few Rabbinical ingenuity, just as the doctrine of historical records to show us how this was vicarious suffering and substitution could not accomplished from the days of Moses until the be eliminated from the practical teaching of the time of the Kingdom, it is apparent that the confession of sins over the sacrifices, when the teaching ministry was unbroken during all worshipper day by day laid his hands upon, and those centuries. transferred to them his guilt. Yet Judaism, except in the case of the few, saw not in all this Figurative interpretation of the Bible began in that to which alone it could point as its real the days when the Great Assembly resolved to meaning: "The Lamb of God, which taketh away keep themselves distinct from the Samaritans, the sin of the world." who adhered to the literal interpretation of the text. This study began to make progress from And now, as century after century has passed, approximately the time of the Greek conquest and the gladsome Gospel message has been of Judea, when the term “Great Assembly” was carried from nation to nation, while Israel is changed to the Greek “Sanhedrin.” In spread still left in the darkness of its unbelief and the

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into every college where prominent teachers After the triumph of the Pharisees over the were charged with leading congregations in Sadducees, the Talmud developed rapidly. The instruction of the Law, of ordinances relating to numbers of scholars and followers of the things clean and unclean, to rights of property, Talmud increased quickly, and the colleges of and to crime. Talmudic study developed steadily, until at the All of the scholars who interpreted the Bible beginning of the Christian Era the schools of passages figuratively were called “Pharisees.” Hillel and Schammai had become important. The Pharisees interpretations began to be Although there were still plenty of enemies codified and collected in the work that arising, such as the Essenes and other sects eventually became the Talmud. who were opposed to particular doctrines, they did not have the power to hinder the progress At the time of Antiochus Epiphanes the high of the Talmud or weaken its influence. priesthood passed from the descendants of Zadok (David’s high priest) to other families, People from all over the world, including many and finally came into the possession of the in high places, came to learn the doctrines and Maccabees, who also were not descendants of morality of the Talmud, which was already the house of Zadok. These leaders began to recognized as having a great moral contrast to differ from the Pharisees in the interpretation the teachings of the priests of the heathen of the Torah (the Bible); and they began to religions. Hillel the Elder received many of explain the texts on the basis of oral tradition. these people with enthusiasm. His grandson, They founded a distinct sect, called “Sadducees” Rabban Gamaliel the Elder, the teacher of Saul (after Zadok). They disputed with the Pharisees of Tarsus, continued the teaching of Hillel in the and with their Talmud; and they persecuted the Talmudic school in Jerusalem. Pharisees to the utmost. Since the Maccabees The period of good fortune was only of short were the nation’s leaders and were men of duration, however, as the time of the power and wealth and held sway in Palestine, destruction of the Temple (70 AD) was near, they joined with the Samaritans in an attempt and the victims of the sword (and of hunger) to eradicate the trend toward figurative were many. Gamaliel the Elder was persecuted, interpretation of the Bible. and his son Simeon ben Gamaliel, was slain. In Antiochus Epiphanes decreed that Pharisees fact, if Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai had not risked who did not discontinue their studies would be his life to petition Vespasian to spare the executed; that circumcision was to be Sanhedrin, who had been compelled during the performed in a manner other than that Roman conquest of Jerusalem to move their prescribed by the Pharisees; that the Sabbath college to Jamnia, there would have remained should not be observed according to the no vestige of the Talmud, since most of those Pharisees’ interpretations, etc. The obvious who cherished it had passed away by the intention was to destroy the Talmud and sword, by hunger, or by plague.. anyone who adhered to it. The study of the Talmud increased after the These persecutions against the Talmud usually destruction of the Temple, but with great ended in favor of the Sadducees until the time difficulty. There were continuous disputes with of Johanan the High Priest. Then, the Pharisees Sadducees and other sects, and undoubtedly triumphed over their enemies and the oral law with Christians. became the absorbing subject of the Sanhedrin. Principal resources for this study are: The Talmud began to be studies in all the Rodkinson, Michael L, “The History of the colleges of Palestine, Egypt, and wherever Jews Talmud”, The Talmud Society, Boston, 1918. lived. Steinsaltz, Rabbi Adin, “The Essential 5. The Talmud of the Time of Christ Talmud”, Jason Aronson Inc., Northvale, NJ, 1992

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Edersheim, Alfred, “The Life and Times of persecution of his apostles, ministers, and Jesus the Messiah” people; and of their trust in, and dependence ACTS 26:19. Whereupon, O King Agrippa, upon, their own righteousness for justification: Having been favoured with this illustrious and the latter of their immoralities, appearance of the Lord and with this superstition, and idolatry; and both not of the declaration and commission from him: outward gross actions of life only, but of inward sins and lusts: and repentance of each of these I was not disobedient unto the heavenly lies in a different sentiment of them; in a vision; to Christ himself, who appeared from detestation and abhorrence of them; in shame heaven in so much light and glory, and spoke and confusion on account of them. unto him, and appointed him what he should be, and do, and declared what use he should be In self-reflections upon them, and humiliation of: he did not disbelieve what Christ said, nor for them; in an ingenuous acknowledgment of was he disobedient to the orders he gave, but them, and turning from them: and this is not a immediately set about the work he called him national repentance which the ministers of the to, without consulting flesh and blood; (see Gospel are to show to men the necessity of; Galatians 1:16). though this is not unworthy of them, when there is a call in Providence to it, and the state ACTS 26:20. But showed first unto them of of things require it; much less a legal one, but Damascus, The Jews at Damascus to whom an evangelical repentance; which has along the apostle first preached; (see Acts 9:20,22). with it faith in Christ Jesus, dealing with his and at Jerusalem, and throughout all the blood and righteousness for the remission of coasts of Judea; observing the order of his their sins. mission, (Acts 26:17) though it was not until Their justification before God; and which after he had been in Arabia, and had returned springs from, and is encouraged and to Damascus, that he went to Jerusalem,and heightened by, a sense of the love of God: and preached there; (see Galatians 1:17,18) now this being a part of the Gospel ministry, compared with (Acts 9:28). does not suppose it to be in the power of men and [then] to the Gentiles; as at Antioch in to repent of themselves, since no man, whilst he Pisidia, at Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra in remains insensible of the evil nature of sin, and Lycaonia; and at Philippi, Thessalonica, and the hardness of his heart continues, which none Berea in Macedonia; and in many places in but God can remove, can repent; and when he Greece and Asia, as at Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, becomes truly sensible, he then prays to God to and others, as this history shows; and indeed he give him repentance, and to turn him: nor does preached the Gospel from Jerusalem round it at all contradict its being a blessing of the about to Illyricum; covenant, a gift of Christ, and a grace of the that they should repent; that is, that they Spirit of God; nor does it suggest, that the should repent of their sins; of sin in general, as preaching of the word is sufficient of itself to it is committed against God, is a transgression produce it; the contrary of which the ministry of his law, and as it is in itself exceeding sinful, of John the Baptist, of Christ, and of his apostles, and in its effects dreadful; and of particular declares. sins, such as men have been more especially The design of its being insisted on in the Gospel addicted to, and of which the Jews and Gentiles, ministry, is to show that men are sinners, and the apostle was sent unto, and to whom he in such a state and condition, that they are in preached, had been guilty: as the former of need of repentance, and that without it they their will worship, and following the must perish; and the rather this is to be quietly commandments and traditions of men, thereby inculcated, since true repentance is unto life, is making void the law of God; of their rejection the beginning and evidence of spiritual life, and and crucifixion of the Messiah; of their issues in eternal life; and since there is a close

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connection between that and salvation, and that ministry, and to be insisted on in their proper without it there is no salvation. It follows, places. and turn to God; this is to be understood, not of ACTS 26:21. For these causes the Jews caught the first work of conversion, which is God’s me in the temple, He means the Asiatic Jews, work, and not man’s act, and in which man is who finding him in the temple, laid hold on him, passive, and which is before repentance, and dragged him out of it: and, as he says, went whereas this follows upon it; though the about to kill me; for no other reason, but for ministers of the word have a concern with this; preaching to the Gentiles, and for preaching the to bring about this is the design and use of their above doctrines to them: what he refers to is in ministrations; their business is to show the (Acts 21:27-31). nature of conversion, what it is, and wherein it ACTS 26:22. Having therefore obtained help lies; to rectify mistakes about it, and to observe of God, Both to preach the Gospel, and escape the necessity of it: but here is designed a danger; for he had delivered him many a time turning to God, in consequence of the grace of both from Jews and Gentiles, according to his first conversion; by an acknowledgment and promise, (Acts 26:17) and particularly from the confession of sin to God, by an application to Asiatic Jews, when they were about to kill him, him for pardoning grace and mercy, by a trust by the means of Lysias the chief captain, who and dependence on him for righteousness, life, rescued him out of their hands; and also from and salvation, and by obedience to his the lying in wait of the Jews to take away his commands and ordinances. It intends a turning life, and the various methods they used both of the Jews from their evil principles and with Felix and Festus to get him into their practices, from the traditions of their elders to power: but the Lord appeared for him, and the law of God, the Gospel of Christ, and the saved him from all their pernicious designs ordinances of it, and of the Gentiles, from their against him; and therefore he could say as idols to the worship of the true and living God: follows, and do works meet for repentance the same I continue unto this day: in the land of the with “fruits meet for repentance”, (Matthew living, though in bonds: 3:8). And such as are particularly mentioned in witnessing both to small and great; to kings (2 Corinthians 7:11) they are they which are and subjects, as now to Agrippa, Festus, the the reverse of the evil actions they have been chief captains and principal inhabitants of guilty of, and which are properly good works. Caesarea, and to the common people And they are they which are done according to assembled; to high and low, rich and poor, bond the will of God declared in his word, this is a and free, male and female, young and old; to requisite of a good work; what is not according persons of every state, age, and sex: to the word of God is not a good work, nor can it be any evidence of repentance; and they are saying none other things than those which also such as spring from love to God, for if they the prophets and Moses did say should come. are done through fear of punishment, or for This he mentions in opposition to the charge sinister and selfish ends, they show repentance against him, as that he spoke against the law of to be a mere legal one: and they are such as are Moses, as well as against the temple, and the done in faith, in the name and strength of people of the Jews; whereas his doctrine was Christ, and to the glory of God by him. All perfectly agreeable to the writings of Moses, external good works are designed, which show and the prophets, concerning the Messiah, they that the inward repentance professed, and that speak of in many places, and the Jews expected. the outward change made in religion and There is an entire harmony and agreement worship, are genuine and sincere: the doctrines between the writings of Moses, and the of internal repentance and outward worship, prophets of the Old Testament, and the apostles and all goodworks, are parts of the Gospel of the New, in all the doctrines of the Gospel

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revelation; in the doctrine of a trinity of that he should suffer in his character, be persons in the unity of the divine essence, and reproached, and accounted a worm, and no of the proper deity of each person; in the man, (Isaiah 53:3, Psalm 22:6, 59:9) and in his doctrines respecting the person, offices, and soul and body, and be put to death and buried, work of Christ; that he is the Son of God, God as the above prophecies referred to show; the and man in one person, and the only Mediator several circumstances leading on to, or between God and man; and that he is prophet, attending his sufferings and death, are priest, and King; and that the great work he was distinctly expressed; as the betraying him by appointed to, undertook, and came about, and one of his disciples, selling him for thirty pieces has fulfilled, is the redemption of hispeople; of silver, his being forsaken by all his disciples, and in the several doctrines of grace concerning his crucifixion between two thieves, the parting the choice of men to salvation, the covenant of his garments, giving him gall and vinegar to made with Christ on account of them, their drink, and the piercing his side with a spear, redemption, justification, and pardon, their (Psalm 41:9, Zechariah 11:12,13) (Zechariah repentance and good works, the resurrection of 13:7, Isaiah 53:12, Psalm 22:18, 69:21 the dead, and a future state: the particular Zechariah 12:10). things instanced in, the apostle preached, and And to this agreed the doctrine of the apostle, Moses and the prophets said should be, and in who taught that Jesus of Nazareth was the which they agreed, are as follow. Christ that was to come, and that he had ACTS 26:23. That Christ should suffer, Great suffered all that Moses and the prophets did say afflictions in soul and body, and death itself; should come upon him: but these were not the this is recorded by Moses, (Genesis 3:15) and is present sentimentsof the Jews, who expected the sense of many of the types, as of the the Messiah to be a temporal Prince and passover, brazen serpent, etc. and of all the Saviour, and to live in great outward prosperity, sacrifices which from God were appointed by and for ever. him, and is the constant account of all the And that he should be the first that should prophets from the beginning to the end; (see rise from the dead: by his own power, and to Psalm 22:1,2,6,7,11-21, Isaiah 53:2-12) (Daniel an immortal life, as Jesus did; and so is the 9:26, Zechariah 9:9, 12:10, 13:6,7). firstborn from the dead, and the first fruits of The sufferer is Christ, or the Messiah, not the them that slept: a type of this, in the deliverance Father, nor the Spirit, but the Word, or Son of of Isaac, is recorded by Moses in (Genesis God, and not in his divine nature, which was 22:12-14) compared with (Hebrews 11:19) and incapable of suffering, but in his human nature; the thing itself is foretold by many of the though sufferings may be ascribed to his whole prophets, (Psalm 16:10, Isaiah 26:19, Hosea person, both natures being united in him: and 6:2). hence they became efficacious to answer the and should show light unto the people, and to purposes for which they were endured; and the Gentiles: in his own person to the people of which he endured, not for himself, nor for the Jews, and by his apostles to the Gentiles. In angels, but for chosen men, sinners, and the writings of Moses he is spoken of as the ungodly persons; in order to make peace and great prophet God would raise up in Israel, to reconciliation for them, procure the pardon of whom they should hearken; and as the Shiloh to their sins, obtain eternal redemption for them, whom the gathering of the people should be, deliver them from all evil, and from all enemies, (Deuteronomy 17:15, Genesis 49:10) and that and bring them nigh to God. he should be a light to both Jews and Gentiles, What he suffered were no other than what had through the ministration of the Gospel, is said been foretold in the writings of the Old by the prophets, (Isaiah 9:2, 42:6, 49:6) and Testament, which all along represent the these were the things which the apostle Messiah as a suffering one; and in particular

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asserted in his ministry, in perfect agreement poetry, or in technical affairs, are inclined to be with those writings. melancholy, and phrenetic. ACTS 26:24. And as he thus spake for himself, ACTS 26:25. But he said, I am not mad, most Asserting the integrity and innocence of his noble Festus, That is, Paul said, as the past life and conversation, in proof of which he Alexandrian copy, and some others, and the appealed to the Jews themselves; setting forth Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic versions the prejudices to the Christian religion he had read: he replied to Festus, to whom he gives his been under; declaring the heavenly vision that title of honour, not out of fear, nor flattery, but had appeared to him, and the divine orders he according to custom; and though he used him in had received; alleging, that in his ministry there such a reproachful manner, as if he was not was an entire harmony between him, and the himself, which he denies; nor did what he had writings of Moses, and the prophets, for which said show anything of that kind, but the the Jews professed a veneration; as he was thus reverse, to which he appeals; vindicating himself, ere he had well finished his but speak forth the words of truth and apology, soberness; which are true in themselves, being Festus said with a loud voice; that all might perfectly agreeable to the Scriptures of truth; hear, and being moved with resentment at what and are what Christ, who is truth itself, had he had heard; and it may be, he was displeased spoken, and of which he is the subject; and with Paul that he took so much notice of which the spirit of truth leads into, and owns Agrippa, and so often addressed him, and and blesses: the Gospel in general, and all the appealed to him, when he scarce ever turned to, doctrines of it, are words of truth; they are true, or looked at him: in opposition to that which is false, there is Paul, thou art beside thyself; not in thy senses, nothing of falsehood in them, no lie is of the or right mind, to talk of such an appearance and truth; and to that which is fictitious, as the vision, and especially of the resurrection of a counterfeit Gospel of false teachers, which person from the dead. This is no unusual thing looks like the Gospel, and has the appearance of for the ministers of the Gospel to be reckoned truth, but in reality is not; and to that which is madmen, and the doctrines they preach but shadow, the Gospel, and the truths of it, are madness and folly: our Lord himself was said to solid and substantial ones; hence the law and be beside himself, and to have a devil, and be truth are opposed to each other, (John 1:17). mad; and so were his apostles, (Mark 3:21, John There are particular doctrines of the Gospel, 10:20 2 Corinthians 5:13) and it is not to be and such as the apostle had been speaking of, or wondered at that natural menshould entertain referred unto, which are called truth, words of such an opinion of them, since what they truth, and faithful sayings; as that Jesus Christ is deliver is quite out of their sphere and reach: the Son of God; that he is God manifest in the Festus added, flesh, or is God and man in one person; that he much learning doth make thee mad; the came into the world to save the chief of sinners; apostle was a man of much learning, both that he suffered, died, and rose again from the Jewish, Greek, and Roman; and Festus dead; that justification is by his righteousness; perceived him to be of great reading by his and that as he is the first that rose from the making mention of Moses, and the prophets, dead, others will rise also; or that there will be writings which he knew nothing at all of. And as a resurrection of the dead by him; (see 1 John this sometimes is the case, that much reading, 2:21,22, 1 Timothy 3:15,16) (1 Timothy 1:15 and hard study, do cause men to be beside 1Corinthians 15:1,3,4, Galatians 3:1 2 Timothy themselves, he thought it was Paul’s case: so 2:18). the philosopher suggests, that men of great wit These are “words of soberness” also; they are and learning, and who are closely engaged in words of the highest wisdom, which contain the study, whether in philosophy, or politics, or wisdom of God in a mystery, even hidden

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wisdom, the deep things of God, and such as ACTS 26:27. King Agrippa, believest thou the could never have been found out by the wisdom prophets? What they have said concerning the of men; they are the means of bringing a man to person, office, sufferings, death, and himself, to his right mind, who before was not resurrection of Christ, and that what they have himself; of causing a man to think soberly of said is fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth? himself, and not more highly than he ought to I know that thou believest; that what the think, even to think of himself, that he is the prophets said were true, and are accomplished. chief of sinners, and the least of saints; and of ACTS 26:28. Then Agrippa said unto Paul, speaking soberly, wisely, and prudently; and of Either seriously or ironically; rather the former, living soberly, righteously, and godly: they are arising from the convictions of his mind, which doctrines, as delivered by the faithful ministers he could not stifle nor conceal: of them, which come from a sound and sober mind, and have a tendency to make wise and almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian; sober; and therefore should be spoken “forth”, to profess faith in Jesus as the Messiah, to openly and boldly, freely and faithfully, embrace his doctrine, and submit to his constantly and continually, as they were by the ordinances, which is to be a Christian, at least apostle, whatever reproaches, calumnies, and externally: and when he says “almost”, or “in a reflections may be cast upon them for so doing, little”, his meaning is, that within a little, or very even though they may be called fools and near, he was of being persuaded to embrace madmen. Christianity; or in a little matter, and in some respects; or rather in a few words, and in a ACTS 26:26. For the king knoweth of these small space of time, Paul had strangely wrought , Something of them, of the sufferings things upon him to incline to the Christian religion; and resurrection of the Messiah, and of his though the first sense, that he was almost, or showing light to Jews and Gentiles, as they are within a little of being a Christian, seems to be spoken of by Moses and the prophets, whose the best, as appears by the apostle’s reply to it: writings Agrippa was conversant with, and of what it is to be a real Christian, (see Gill on these things as fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth; at “Acts 11:26”). least he had heard the report of them, how that they were said to be accomplished in him. An almost Christian is one that has much light and knowledge, but no grace; he may know ; because of Before whom also I speak freely something of himself and of sin, of its being a the knowledge he had of these things: violation of the law of God, and of the bad for I am persuaded that none of these things consequences of it, but has not true repentance are hidden from him; as that Moses and the for it; he may know much of Christ in a prophets have foretold then, and that they have speculative way, concerning his person and had their fulfilment in Jesus; offices, as the devils themselves do, and of the for this thing was not done in a corner: the good things which come by him, as peace, ministry of Jesus was, public, his miracles were pardon, righteousness, and salvation; but has done openly, his suffering the death of the cross no application of these things to himself; he under Pontius Pilate was generally known, and may have a large notional knowledge of the his resurrection from the dead was a well doctrines of the Gospel. attested fact, and the ministration of his Gospel He has no experience of the power, sweetness, to Jews and Gentiles was notorious. The Arabic and comfort of them in his own soul; all his and Ethiopic versions refer this to Paul’s words knowledge is unsanctified, and without and actions, that what he had said and done practice: he is one that has a taste of divine were not private but public, and of which things, but has not the truth of them; he may Agrippa had had, by one means or another, a taste of the heavenly gift, of the good word of full account; but the other sense is best. God, and of the powers of the world to come;

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yet it is but a taste, a superficial one, which he persecutor of his saints, and an injurious has. person; but as he now was, not meaning with He does not savour and relish these things, nor respect to his civil circumstances, as a mean is he nourished by them: he has a great deal of poor man, and a tent maker, or with respect to faith in the historical way, and sometimes a his single state of life, which he elsewhere bold confidence and assurance of everlasting advises to, (1 Corinthians 9:5) or with respect happiness; but has not faith of the right kind, to his ministerial capacity, as an apostle of which is spiritual and special, which is the faith Christ, and a preacher of the Gospel; but as a of God’s elect, the gift of God, and the operation Christian, and in a private capacity. of his Spirit; by which the soul beholds the His sense is, he wished that they were as he, glory, fulness, and suitableness of Christ, under regenerated by the Spirit of God, new creatures a sense of need, and goes forth to him, in Christ, called by the grace of God with an renouncing everything of self, and lays hold holy calling, believers in Christ, lovers of him, upon him, and trusts in him for salvation; and pardoned by his blood, justified by his which works by love to Christ and his people, righteousness, sanctified by his grace, children and has with it the fruits of righteousness: he of God, and heirs of eternal life: and all this he may express a great deal of flashy affectation to wishes for of God, saying, “would to God”, etc. the word, and the ministers of it, for a while, knowing that the whole of this is not of men, but has nothing solid and substantial in him;. but of God; all grace, and every blessing of it, It is one part of the Gospel ministry to persuade which make or show a man to be a Christian men, but this of itself is ineffectual; a real indeed, are from him. Christian is made so by the power of divine This wish is expressive of true grace, which grace. Agrippa was only persuaded, and but desires the good of others, and also of a spirit almost persuaded by the apostle to be a trulygenerous, that is not selfish and Christian, but not by the Lord, nor altogether, monopolizing; and which is concerned for the who persuades Japheth to dwell in the tents of glory of God, the interest of Christ, and the Shem. weakening of Satan’s kingdom: and from the ACTS 26:29. And Paul said, I would to God, whole of this it appears, that a person may This prayer of the apostle’s shows his affection arrive to true satisfaction of his own state; and for the souls of men, and his great desire for that it is an evidence of grace, when the heart is their conversion, and also his sense of the drawn out in desires, after the salvation of power and grace of God, as necessary to it: others; and that altogether Christians are the only desirable ones; and that to be made a real that not only thou, but also all that hear me Christian is the work of God, and to be ascribed this day, were both almost and altogether to him. such as I am; that is, his wish was that not only Agrippa, but that all that were present, were This the apostle wished for, for Agrippa and all not only within a little, or in some low degree, that heard him; as does every Gospel minister but entirely, in the highest and fullest sense, for their hearers, the hearing of the word being Christians, as he was; that they knew as much the ordinary means of believing; and the rather of Christ, and had as much faith in him, and love it is desired by them, because the to him, as he had, and were as ready to serve condemnation of those that hear the word is and obey him. otherwise thereby aggravated: the apostle adds, He does not wish that Agrippa and the rest that except these bonds; which were both heard him were as he had been, a bigot for troublesome and reproachful: not but that he traditions and ceremonies, that trusted in his cheerfully endured them himself, and thought it own righteousness, did many things contrary to the duty of Christians to bear them patiently, the name of Jesus, was a blasphemer of him, a when called to it, but then they were not things

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to be desired and wished for; the exception is embraces a quarter of a century, three great not only Christian like, but humane and genteel. missionary campaigns with minor expeditions, ACTS 26:30. And when he had thus spoken, five visits to Jerusalem, and at least four years These words are omitted in the Alexandrian of captivity in Caesarea and Rome. Some extend copy, the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Ethiopic this period to A.D. 67 or 68. It may be divided versions: into periods, as follows: the king rose up; from the judgment seat; that A.D. 40–44 is, King Agrippa: The period of preparatory labors in Syria and and the governor; the Roman governor, his native Cilicia, partly alone, partly in Festus: connection with Barnabas, his senior fellow- apostle among the Gentiles. and Bernice: the sister of King Agrippa: On his return from the Arabian retreat Paul and they that sat with them; either in council, began his public ministry in earnest at or to hear; the chief captains, and principal Damascus, preaching Christ on the very spot inhabitants of Caesarea. where he had been converted and called. His ACTS 26:31. And when they were gone aside, testimony enraged the Jews, who stirred up the Into some apartment adjoining to the judgment deputy of the king of Arabia against him, but he hall: was saved for future usefulness and let down they talked between themselves; that the by the brethren in a basket through a window common people might not hear their debates, in the wall of the city. Three years after his and the result of them, and what were their conversion he went up to Jerusalem to make sentiments concerning Paul and his case: the acquaintance of Peter and spent a fortnight saying, this man doth nothing worthy of with him. death, or of bonds; according to the Roman Besides him he saw James the brother of the laws; for as yet there were no laws among the Lord. Barnabas introduced him to the disciples, Romans against the Christians as such, or who at first were afraid of him, but when they against their professing and preaching Christ. heard of his marvellous conversion they ACTS 26:32. Then said Agrippa unto Festus, “glorified God” that their persecutor was now As declaring his sense, and by way of advice preaching the faith he had once been laboring and counsel; but not as determining anything to destroy. He did not come to learn the gospel, himself, for that lay in the breast of Festus, the having received it already by revelation, nor to Roman governor and judge: be confirmed or ordained, having been called “not from men, or through man, but through this man might have been set at liberty; from his bonds and imprisonment; for ought that Jesus Christ.” Yet his interview with Peter and appears against him, or any law to the contrary: James, though barely mentioned, must have been fraught with the deepest interest. Peter, if he had not appealed unto Caesar; kind-hearted and generous as he was, would wherefore an inferior judge could not release naturally receive him with joy and him; but so it was ordered in divine Providence, thanksgiving. that he should appeal to Caesar, that he might go to Rome, and there bear a testimony for He had himself once denied the Lord—not Christ; however, this declaration of Agrippa, malignantly but from weakness—as Paul had and what he and the governor and the rest said persecuted the disciples—ignorantly in among themselves, are a considerable proof of unbelief. Both had been mercifully pardoned, the innocence of the apostle. both had seen the Lord, both were called to the highest dignity, both could say from the bottom Paul’s Missionary Labors of the heart: “Lord thou knowest all things; The public life of Paul, from the third year after thou knowest that I love thee.” No doubt they his conversion to his martyrdom, A.D. 40–64,

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would exchange their experiences and confirm difference between the Jewish and Gentile each other in their common faith. branches of the church, Paul undertook, in the It was probably on this visit that Paul received year 51, a second great journey, which decided in a vision in the temple the express command the Christianization of Greece. He took Silas for of the Lord to go quickly unto the Gentiles. Had his companion. Having first visited his old he stayed longer at the seat of the Sanhedrin, he churches, he proceeded, with the help of Silas would undoubtedly have met the fate of the and the young convert, Timothy, to establish martyr Stephen. new ones through the provinces of Phrygia and Galatia, where, notwithstanding his bodily He visited Jerusalem a second time during the infirmity, he was received with open arms like famine under Claudius, in the year 44, an angel of God. accompanied by Barnabas, on a benevolent mission, bearing a collection of the Christians at From Troas, a few miles south of the Homeric Antioch for the relief of the brethren in Judaea. Troy and the entrance to the Hellespont, he On that occasion he probably saw none of the crossed over to Greece in answer to the apostles on account of the persecution in which Macedonian cry: “Come over and help us!” He James was beheaded, and Peter imprisoned. preached the gospel with great success, first in Philippi, where he converted the purple dealer, The greater part of these four years was spent Lydia, and the jailor, and was imprisoned with in missionary work at Tarsus and Antioch. Silas, but miraculously delivered and honorably A.D. 45–50 released; then in Thessalonica, where he was First missionary journey. In the year 45 Paul persecuted by the Jews, but left a flourishing entered upon the first great missionary church; in Beraea, where the converts showed journey, in company with Barnabas and Mark, exemplary zeal in searching the Scriptures. by the direction of the Holy Spirit through the In Athens, the metropolis of classical literature, prophets of the congregation at Antioch. He he reasoned with Stoic and Epicurean traversed the island of Cyprus and several philosophers, and unveiled to them on Mars’ provinces of Asia Minor. Hill (Areopagus), with consummate tact and The conversion of the Roman proconsul, wisdom, though without much immediate Sergius Paulus, at Paphos; the rebuke and success, the “unknown God,” to whom the punishment of the Jewish sorcerer, Elymas; the Athenians, in their superstitious anxiety to do marked success of the gospel in Pisidia, and the justice to all possible divinities, had bitter opposition of the unbelieving Jews; the unconsciously erected an altar, and Jesus Christ, miraculous healing of a cripple at Lystra; the through whom God will judge the world in idolatrous worship there offered to Paul and righteousness. Barnabas by the superstitious heathen, and its In Corinth, the commercial bridge between the sudden change into hatred against them as East and the West, a flourishing centre of enemies of the gods; the stoning of the wealth and culture, but also a sink of vice and missionaries, their escape from death, and their corruption, the apostle spent eighteen months, successful return to Antioch, are the leading and under almost insurmountable difficulties incidents of this tour, which is fully described in he built up a church, which exhibited all the Acts 13 and 14. virtues and all the faults of the Grecian This period closes with the important apostolic character under the influence of the gospel, and conference at Jerusalem, A.D. 50, which will which he honored with two of his most require separate consideration in the next important Epistles. section. In the spring of 54 he returned by way of From A.D. 51–54 Ephesus, Caesarea, and Jerusalem to Antioch. Second missionary journey. After the council at Jerusalem and the temporary adjustment of the

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During this period he composed the two certificate of innocence, to the procurator Felix Epistles to the Thessalonians, which are the in Caesarea. earliest of his literary remains excepting his Here the apostle was confined two whole years missionary addresses preserved in the Acts. (58–60), awaiting his trial before the A.D. 54–58 Sanhedrin, uncondemned, occasionally Third missionary tour. Towards the close of the speaking before Felix, apparently treated with year 54 Paul went to Ephesus, and in this comparative mildness, visited by the Christians, renowned capital of proconsular Asia and of the and in some way not known to us promoting worship of Diana, he fixed for three years the the kingdom of God. centre of his missionary work. He then revisited After the accession of the new and better his churches in Macedonia and Achaia, and procurator, Festus, who is known to have remained three months more in Corinth and succeeded Felix in the year 60, Paul, as a Roman the vicinity. citizen, appealed to the tribunal of Caesar and During this period he wrote the great doctrinal thus opened the way to the fulfilment of his Epistles to the Galatians, Corinthians, and long-cherished desire to preach the Saviour of Romans, which mark the height of his activity the world in the metropolis of the world. and usefulness. Having once more testified his innocence, and A.D. 58–63 spoken for Christ in a masterly defence before Festus, King Herod Agrippa II. (the last of the The period of his two imprisonments, with the Herods), his sister Bernice, and the most intervening winter voyage from Caesarea to distinguished men of Caesarea, he was sent in Rome. In the spring of 58 he journeyed, for the the autumn of the year 60 to the emperor. He fifth and last time, to Jerusalem, by way of had a stormy voyage and suffered shipwreck, Philippi, Troas, Miletus (where he delivered his which detained him over winter at Malta. The affecting valedictory to the Ephesian presbyter- voyage is described with singular minuteness bishops), Tyre, and Caesarea, to carry again to and nautical accuracy by Luke as an eye- the poor brethren in Judaea a contribution from witness. In the month of March of the year 61, the Christians of Greece, and by this token of the apostle, with a few faithful companions, gratitude and love to cement the two branches reached Rome, a prisoner of Christ, and yet of the apostolic church more firmly together. freer and mightier than the emperor on the But some fanatical Jews, who bitterly bated him throne. It was the seventh year of Nero’s reign, as an apostate and a seducer of the people, when he had already shown his infamous raised an uproar against him at Pentecost; character by the murder of Agrippina, his charged him with profaning the temple, mother, in the previous year, and other acts of because he had taken into it an uncircumcised cruelty. Greek, Trophimus; dragged him out of the In Rome Paul spent at least two years till the sanctuary, lest they should defile it with blood, spring of 63, in easy confinement, awaiting the and would undoubtedly have killed him had not decision of his case, and surrounded by friends Claudius Lysias, the Roman tribune, who lived and fellow-laborers “in his own hired dwelling.” near by, come promptly with his soldiers to the He preached the gospel to the soldiers of the spot. imperial body-guard, who attended him; sent This officer rescued Paul, out of respect for his letters and messages to his distant churches in Roman citizenship, from the fury of the mob, Asia Minor and Greece; watched over all their set him the next day before the Sanhedrin, and spiritual affairs, and completed in bonds his after a tumultuous and fruitless session of the apostolic fidelity to the Lord and his church. council, and the discovery of a plot against his life, sent him, with a strong military guard and a

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In the Roman prison he wrote the Epistles to may have reaped the benefit of a general the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and release of Jewish prisoners. Philemon. The martyrdom of Paul under Nero is A.D. 63 and 64 established by the unanimous testimony of With the second year of Paul’s imprisonment in antiquity. As a Roman citizen, he was not Rome the account of Luke breaks off, rather crucified, like Peter, but put to death by the abruptly, yet appropriately and grandly. Paul’s sword. The scene of his martyrdom is laid by arrival in Rome secured the triumph of tradition about three miles from Rome, near the Christianity. In this sense it was true, “Roma Ostian way, on a green spot, formerly called locuta est, causa finita est.” And he who spoke Aquae Salviae, afterwards Tre Fontane, from at Rome is not dead; he is still “preaching the three fountains which are said to have (everywhere) the kingdom of God and teaching miraculously gushed forth from the blood of the the things concerning the Lord Jesus Christ, apostolic martyr. with all boldness, none forbidding him.” His relics were ultimately removed to the But what became of him after the termination basilica of San Paolo-fuori-le-Mura, built by of those two years in the spring of 63? What Theodosius and Valentinian in 388, and was the result of the trial so long delayed? Was recently reconstructed. He lies outside of Rome, he condemned to death? or was he released by Peter inside. His memory is celebrated, Nero’s tribunal, and thus permitted to labor for together with that of Peter, on the 29th and another season? This question is still unsettled 30th of June. As to the year of his death, the among scholars. A vague tradition says that views vary from A.D. 64 to 69. The difference of Paul was acquitted of the charge of the the place and manner of his martyrdom Sanhedrin, and after travelling again in the East, suggests that he was condemned by a regular perhaps also into Spain, was a second time judicial trial, either shortly before, or more imprisoned in Rome and condemned to death. probably a year or two after the horrible wholesale massacre of Christians on the Vatican The assumption of a second Roman captivity hill, in which his Roman citizenship would not relieves certain difficulties in the Pastoral have been regarded. Epistles; for they seem to require a short period of freedom between the first and a second If he was released in the spring of 63, he had a Roman captivity, and a visit to the East, which is year and a half for another visit to the East and not recorded in the Acts, but which the apostle to Spain before the outbreak of the Neronian contemplated in case of his release. A visit to persecution (after July, 64); but tradition favors Spain, which he intended, is possible, though a later date. Prudentius separates the less probable. martyrdom of Peter from that of Paul by one year. After that persecution the Christians were If he was set at liberty, it must have been before everywhere exposed to danger. the terrible persecution in July, 64, which would not have spared the great leader of the Assuming the release of Paul and another visit Christian sect. It is a remarkable coincidence to the East, we must locate the First Epistle to that just about the close of the second year of Timothy and the Epistle to Titus between the Paul’s confinement, the celebrated Jewish first and second Roman captivity, and the historian, Josephus, then in his 27th year, came Second Epistle to Timothy in the second to Rome (after a tempestuous voyage and captivity. The last was evidently written in the shipwreck), and effected through the influence certain view of approaching martyrdom; it is of Poppaea (the wife of Nero and a half the affectionate farewell of the aged apostle to proselyte of Judaism) the release of certain his beloved Timothy, and his last will and Jewish priests who had been sent to Rome by testament to the militant church below in the Felix as prisoners. It is not impossible that Paul bright prospect of the unfading crown in the church triumphant above.

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Thus ended the earthly course of this great years. On the other hand not only radical and teacher of nations, this apostle of victorious skeptical critics, as Baur, Zeller, Schenkel, faith, of evangelical freedom, of Christian Reuss, Holtzmann, and all who reject the progress. It was the heroic career of a spiritual Pastoral Epistles (except Renan), but also conqueror of immortal souls for Christ, conservative exegetes and historians, as converting them from the service of sin and Niedner, Thiersch, Meyer, Wieseler, Ebrard, Satan to the service of the living God, from the Otto, Beck, Pressensé, deny the second bondage of the law to the freedom of the gospel, captivity. I have discussed the problem at and leading them to the fountain of life eternal. length in my Hist. of the Apost. Church, § 87, pp. He labored more abundantly than all the other 328–347, and spin in my annotations to Lange apostles; and yet, in sincere humility, he on Romans, pp. 10–12. considered himself “the least of the apostles,” I will restate the chief arguments in favor of a and “not meet to be called an apostle,” because second captivity, partly in rectification of my he persecuted the church of God; a few years former opinion. later he confessed: “I am less than the least of 1. The main argument are the Pastoral Epistles, all saints,” and shortly before his death: “I am if genuine, as I hold them to be, the chief of sinners.” His humility grew as he notwithstanding all the objections of the experienced God’s mercy and ripened for opponents from De Wette (1826) and Baur heaven. Paul passed a stranger and pilgrim (1835) to Renan (1873) and Holtzmann (1880). through this world, hardly observed by the It is, indeed, not impossible to assign them to mighty and the wise of his age. any known period in Paul’s life before his And yet how infinitely more noble, beneficial, captivity, as during his three years’ sojourn in and enduring was his life and work than the Ephesus (54–57), or his eighteen months’ dazzling march of military conquerors, who, sojourn in Corinth (52–53), but it is very prompted by ambitions absorbed millions of difficult to do so. The Epistles presuppose treasure and myriads of lives, only to die at last journeys of the apostle not mentioned in Acts, in a drunken fit at Babylon, or of a broken heart and belong apparently to an advanced period in on the rocks of St. Helena! Their empires have his life, as well as in the history of truth and long since crumbled into dust, but St. Paul still error in the apostolic church. remains one of the foremost benefactors of the 2. The release of Timothy from a captivity in human race, and the pulses of his mighty heart Italy, probably in Rome, to which the author of are beating with stronger force than ever the Epistle to the Hebrews 13:23 alludes, may throughout the Christian world. have some connection with the release of Paul, Note on Paul’s 2nd Roman Captivity who had probably a share in the inspiration, if The question of a second Roman captivity of not in the composition, of that remarkable Paul is a purely historical and critical problem, production. and has no doctrinal or ethical bearing, except 3. The oldest post-apostolic witness is Clement that it facilitates the defence of the genuineness of Rome, who wrote about 95:, Paul … having of the Pastoral Epistles. come to the limit of the West The best scholars are still divided on the and borne witness before the subject. Neander, Gieseler, Bleek, Ewald, Lange, magistrates (ἐπὶ τὸ τέρμα τη̂ ς Sabatier, Godet, also Renan (Saint Paul, p. 560, whichδύσεως others ἐλθων) translate, “having suffered and L’Antechrist, p. 106), and nearly all English martyrdom under(μαρτυρήσας the rulers”), επὶ τ ω̂departedν ἡγουμένων, from biographers and commentators, as Alford, the world and went to the holy place, having Wordsworth, Howson, Lewin, Farrar, Plumptre, furnished the sublimest model of endurance" Ellicott, Lightfoot, defend the second captivity, (Ad Corinth. c. 5). and thus prolong the labors of Paul for a few

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Considering that Clement wrote in Rome, the time of the first imprisonment which, in his most natural interpretation of “Chronicle,” he misdates A.D. 58, that is, three he extreme west,” is Spain or Britain; years before the actual arrival of Paul in Rome. and as Paul intended to carry theτέρμα gospel τη̂ ς to On the other hand he puts the conflagration of Spain,δύσεως, one “t would first think of that country, Rome two years too late, A.D. 66, instead of 64, which was in constant commercial intercourse and the Neronian persecution, and the with Rome, and had produced distinguished martyrdom of Paul and Peter, in the year 70. statesmen and writers like Seneca and Lucan. 6. Jerome (d. 419): “Paul was dismissed by Nero Strabo (II. 1) calls the pillars of Hercules that he might preach Christ’s gospel also in the and Velleius Paterc. regions of the West (in Occidentis quoque calls Spain “extremus nostri orbis terminus.” partibus). De Vir. ill. sub Paulus. This echoes the Seeπέρατα Lightfoot, τη̂ ς οἰκουμένης; St. Clement, p. 50. of Clement. Chrysostom (d. But the inference is weakened by the absence of 407), Theodoret, and other fathers assert that any trace or tradition of Paul’s visit to Spain. Paulτέρμα went τη̂ ς δύσεωςto Spain (Rom. 15:28), but without Still less can he have suffered martyrdom there, adducing any proof. as the logical order of the words would imply. These post-apostolic testimonies, taken And as Clement wrote to the Corinthians, he together, make it very probable, but not may, from their geographical standpoint, have historically certain, that Paul was released after called the Roman capital the end of the West. At the spring of 63, and enjoyed an Indian summer all events the passage is rhetorical (it speaks of of missionary work before his Martyrdom. The only remaining monuments, as well as the best proof, of this concluding work are the Pastoral laborsseven imprisonments,in the East. ἑπτάκις δεσμὰ Epistles, if we admit them to be genuine. To my 4.φορέσας), An incomplete and proves passage nothing in the for fragmentary further mind the historical difficulties of the Pastoral Muratorian canon (about A.D. 170): “Sed Epistles are an argument for rather than profectionem Pauli ab urbe ad Spaniam against their Pauline origin. For why should a proficiscentis …” seems to imply a journey of forger invent difficulties when he might so Paul to Spain, which Luke has omitted; but this easily have fitted his fictions in the frame of the is merely a conjecture, as the verb has to be situation known from the Acts and the other supplied. Comp., however, Westcott, The Canon Pauline Epistles? The linguistic and other of the N. Test., p. 189, and Append. C., p. 467, objections are by no means insurmountable, and Renan, L’Antechrist, p. 106 sq. and are overborne by the evidence of the 5. Eusebius (d. 310) first clearly asserts that Pauline spirit which animates these last productions of his pen. apostle, after his defence, again set forth to the Damascus ministry“there is aof tradition his preaching (λόγος and ἔχει) having that enteredthe a from “The Life and Epistles of St. Paul” by second time the same city [Rome], was Conybeare and Howson. 12 perfected by his martyrdom before him [Nero].” Damascus is the oldest city in the world. 13 Its Hist. Eccl. II. 22 (comp. ch. 25). But the force of fame begins with the earliest patriarchs and this testimony is weakened first by its late date; continues to modern times. While other cities of the East have risen and decayed, Damascus is “it is said,” and the absence of any reference to oldersecondly, authori by theties vague (usually expression quoted by λόγος Eusebius); ἔχει, thirdly, by his misunderstanding of 2 Tim. 4:16, 17, which he explains in the same connection of 12 Grace Notes: http://www.gracenotes.info a deliverance from the first imprisonment (as if Editor: Warren Doud, [email protected] 13 Josephus makes it even older than Abraham. lastly by his chronological mistake as to the (Antiquities, I.6.3) ἀπολογία were identical with αἰχμαλωσία); and

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still what it was. It was founded before Baalbec of the East,” and onward through its golden and Palmyra, and it has outlived them both. days, when it was the residence of the Ommiad While Babylon is a heap in the desert, and Tyre Caliphs, and the metropolis of the a ruin on the shore, it remains what is called in Mahommedan world, and through the period the prophecies of Isaiah, “the head of Syria.” when its fame was mingled with that of Saladin (Isa. 7:8) Abraham’s steward was Eliezer of and Tamarlane, to our own days, when the Damascus (Gen. 15:2), and the limit of his praise of its beauty is celebrated by every warlike expedition in the rescue of Lot was traveler from Europe. “Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus.” It is evident, to use the words of Lamartine, (Gen. 14:15) How important a place it was in that, like Constantinople, it was a the flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy ‘predestinated capital.” Not is it difficult to we know from the garrisons which David explain why its freshness has never faded placed there (2 Sam. 8:6; 1 Chron. 18:6), and through all the series of vicissitudes and wars. from the opposition it presented to Solomon (1 Among the rocks and brushwood at the base of Kings 11:24). The history of Naaman and the Antilibanus are the fountains of a copious and Hebrew captive, Elisha and Gehazi, and of the perennial stream, which, after running a course proud preference of its fresh rivers to the of no great distance to the southeast, loses itself thirsty waters of Israel, are familiar to in a desert lake. everyone. But before it reaches this dreary boundary it And how close its relations continued to be has distributed its channels over the with the Jews, we know from the chronicles of intermediate space and left a wide area behind Jeroboam and Ahaz and the prophecies of it rich with prolific vegetation. These are the Isaiah and Amos. 14 Its mercantile greatness is “streams from Lebanon” which are known to us indicated by Ezekiel in the remarkable words in the imagery of Scripture (Cant. 4:15); the addressed to Tyre, “Syria was thy merchant by “rivers of Damascus,” which Naaman not reason of the multitude of the wares of thy unnaturally preferred to all the “waters of making; they occupied in this fairs with Israel.” (2 Kings 5:12) By Greek writers the emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine stream is called Chrysorrhoas, or the “river of linen, and coral, and agate. gold.” Damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of This stream is the inestimable unexhausted the wares of thy making, for the multitude of all treasure of Damascus, The habitations of men riches, in the wine of Helbon, and white wool.” must always have been gathered around it, as (Eze. 27:16,18) Leaving the Jewish annals, we the Nile has inevitably attracted an immemorial might follow its history through continuous population to its banks. The desert is a centuries, from the time when Alexander sent fortification round Damascus. The river is its Parmenio to take it, while the conqueror life. It is drawn out into watercourses, and himself was marching from Tarsus to Tyre, to spread in all directions. For miles around it is a its occupation by Pompey, 15 to the letters of wilderness of gardens, gardens with roses Julian the Apostate, who describes it as “the eye among the tangled shrubberies and with fruit on the branches overhead. 14 See 2 Kings 14:28; 16:9,10; 2 Chron. 24:23; Everywhere among the trees the murmur of 28:5,23; Isa. 7:8; Amos 1:3,5. unseen rivulets is heard. Even in the city, which 15 Its relative importance was not so great when it is in the midst of the garden, the clear rushing was under a Western power like that of the of the current is a perpetual refreshment. Every Seleucids or the Romans; hence we find it less dwelling has its fountain; and at night, when the frequently mentioned than we might expect in Greek sun has set behind Mount Lebanon, the lights of and Roman writers. This arose from the building of the city are seen flashing on the waters. Antioch and other cities in northern Syria.

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It is not to be wondered at that the view of Damascus Damascus, when the dim outline of the gardens by Dr. Glenn Carnagey has become distinct, and the city is seen 1. The city's name has been Damascus from gleaming white in the midst of them, should be about 1500 BC until the present. universally famous. Egyptian inscriptions speak of TI-MAS-KU and All travelers in all ages have paused to feast SA-RA-MAS-KI between the 1500's and 1200's their eyes with the prospect; and the prospect BC. has always been the same. It is true that in the Apostle’s day there were no cupolas and no The Arab name is DIMASHK ESH-SHAM or minarets; Justinian had not built St. Sophia, and “DIMASHK of the Left”. The meaning of the caliphs had erected no mosques. But the DIMASHK or Damascus is unknown, but the white buildings of the city gleamed then, as ESH-SHAM means "the Left" and is to be they do now, in the center of a verdant compared to YEMEN or "The Right". inexhaustible paradise. 2. The city is located in the NW corner of the The Syrian gardens, with their low walls and Ghuta, a fertile plain about 2300 feet above waterwheels, and careless mixture of fruits and sea level, East of Mt. Hermon. flowers, were the same then as they are now. The Eastern part of the Ghuta, east of the city, is The same figures would be seen in the green called the "Meadow Land" of Damascus, the EL- approaches to the town, camels and mules, MERJ. The River Barada (Abana) flows through horses and asses, with Syrian peasants and Damascus and waters the plains beyond the Arabs from beyond Palmyra. We know the very city. time of the day when Saul was entering these A few miles south of the city the river NAHR EL- shady avenues. It was at mid-day. 16 The birds AWAJ flows through the plain as well. It is were silent in the trees. The hush of noon was surrounded on three sides by barren hills and in the city. The sun was burning fiercely in the on the east beyond the GHUTA by the desert. sky. The persecutor’s companions were The city is marked by fountains and streams, enjoying the cool refreshment of the shade after orchards and fields, especially in the spring. their journey; and his eyes rested with In Arabic literature Damascus is described as satisfaction on those walls which were the end an earthly paradise. of his mission, and contained the victims of his righteous zeal. The Barada River is the lifeblood of the city, coming out of the hills in a narrow gorge, it spreads out into many streams through the 16 Acts 22:6; 26:13. Notices of the traditional place Ghuta and loses itself into the desert, where it where the vision was seen are variously given both vanishes in the marshes. by earlier and later travelers. The old writer Its beauty can only be appreciated if seen from Quaresmius mentions four theoretical sites: (1) the desert point of view, and especially in the twelve miles south of Damascus, where there is a spring when its fruit trees bloom. (Apricot, stream on the right of the road, with the ruins of a pomegranates, walnuts and many others. church on rising ground; (2) six miles south on the left of the road, where there are traces of a church 3. The Structure of the City. and stones marked with crosses; (3) two miles south The main part of the city runs east to west on the same road; (4) half a mile from the city; and along the south bank of the river. this he prefers on the strength of earlier authorities and because it harmonizes best with what is said of A long street called the Meidan stretches along the Apostle being led in by the hand. It one of these the southern part of the city, passing beyond cases there is an evident blending of the scene of the the city wall and terminating at the Conversion and the Escape; and it would appear BAWWABET ALLAH ("The gate of God"), which from Mr. Stanley’s letter that this spot is on the east is the starting-point of the annual HAJ, the and not the south of the city. annual pilgrimage to Mecca.

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In the Greek and Roman period, a long The city is mentioned one additional time colonnaded street ran through the city. (Acts during Abraham's time, in Genesis 14:15, where 9:11) DERB EL-MUSTAKIM. Abraham is said to have pursued the four kings - Archaeologists have uncovered parts of the of Mesopotamia "as far as Hobah, which is on Street Called Straight the left hand (North) of DAMASCUS." - It runs from east to west with the Jewish 6. Damascus during the time of David. Quarter on the South and the Christian quarter Damascus allied itself with neighboring on the North. Aramaean cities against David. II Sam 8:5ff - On the West end of town the street ends in The center of Aramaic power during David's the SUK EL- MIDHATIYEH, a bazaar built by time was Zobah, whose king Hadadezer, was MIDHAT PASHA, north of which is the Moslem executed by David after the defeat of the allied quarter of the city, in which are the citadel and army. the Great Mosque. Unfortunately, Rezon, ben Eliada, an officer in Part of the city wall has been preserved with a Hadadezer's army escaped and built an army of foundation going back to Roman times, with bandits and ultimately seized the city of Arab rebuilding above it. Damascus, where he ruled as king and built a Biblical sites pointed out to the tourist are powerful kingdom. I Kings 11:23ff spurious. Rezon continued to be a thorn in the side of - Traditional site of Paul's escape over the Solomon. I K 11:25. wall in a basket. II Cor 11:33; Acts 9:25 7. The Aramaean Kingdom. (950-732 BC). - NAAMAN's House. II Kings 5:1ff Rezon may or may not be identical with Biblical 4. Industry associated with Damascus. Hezion, who fathered Tab-rimmon, Who in turn fathered Ben-hadad. I K 15:18 It always was famous for its textile industry, from which the English word "Damask" is Ben-hadad (BIR-IDRI) is the first king after taken. Rezon of whom we have any first-hand knowledge, when he became the nemesis of In the Middle Ages it was famous for the Ahab. "Damascus blades" of the time of the Crusaders. He played Israel against Judah beautifully to the Timur (Tamerlane), the son of Genghis Khan, detriment of both. took the city and ended its armament production by carrying its armorers off to - ASA hired him with a bribe to attack Israel Samerkand, but the city went right on after to relieve him. I K 15:18ff 1399 AD. - Either the above Ben-Hadad I or his 5. Early History of the City of Damascus. successor, Ben-Hadad II, defeated Omri of Israel, annexed several Israelite cities, and The earliest reference to it in Scripture is secured the right to have Aramaic "streets" or Genesis 15:2, in which Abraham complains that Bazaars in Samaria, in about 880 BC. this "Son of possession", BEN MESHEQ, ELIEZER, the DAMESHEQ (Damascus), will Ben-Hadad II, then, campaigned incessantly "inherit his house." against Israel. This would indicate a date for the city of, at the (1) Scripture account of his campaigns oldest, 1800 BC. against the Jews is found in I Kings 20:22. Eliezer the Damascusite was from Damascus (2) He won the first encounter, but later lost and the city name would thus mean something twice to Ahab. on the order of "The one who possesses or has (3) He became a prisoner of Ahab after the possessions." (Based on Aram. relative pronoun Battle of Aphek, but was treated with great DIY + MESHEQ). consideration by Ahab.

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(4) Ahab demanded only the return of his 9. After the Persians took over, the city cities and the reciprocal right of setting up regained its prosperity, though not its "Streets" in Damascus as penalty. command position. (5) Primary enemy was Assyria, who under 10. When the Seleucid kingdom of Syria was Shalmaneser III, attacked a coalition of 10 established in 301BC, its capitol city was states including Israel & Damascus at the Battle Antioch on the coast, and the center of of Qarqar in 854 BC, though the battle was a power shifted west to the seacoast from the draw, neither side winning a decisive victory. interior. (6) The Assyrians attacked Ben-Hadad twice 11. In 111 BC the Syrian kingdom was more, in 842 and 846, with no more decisive divided, and Antiochus Cyzicenus became results than at Qarqar. king of Coele-Syria (Transjordan), and made (7) With the death of Ahab at Ramoth-Gilead Damascus his capitol. the only threat to Damascus other than Assyria - His successors, Demetrius Eucaerus and was ended. Antiochus Dionysus, had problems including In about 844 BC Hazael murdered Ben-Hadad wars with the Parthians and with Alexander and usurped the throne. Jannaeus of the Judahite Hasmonean line as well as with Aretas, the Nabatean, who took (1) He was attacked by the Assyrians in 842 Damascus in 85 BC. and 839, again without any decisive outcome. - Tigranes, the Armenian, ruled thereafter until (2) From then until about 810 BC, the the Romans took the city under Pompey in Assyrians stayed home, allowing the 64BC. Aramaeans a free hand against the Jews. In 803 BC, Mari' (Ben-Hadad III, Son of Hazael) 12. Under Roman Rule its history is obscure, was forced to become a vassal of Ramman- but the Nabateans seem to have gained Nirari III of Assyria. II K 13:3 control of Damascus for long periods of time. This allowed tremendous expansion of Israel - Roman coins indicate that the Romans held it under Jeroboam II. from 31 BC to 33 AD. The Assyrians attacked Damascus again in 773 - Aretas IV, king of Nabatea held it and BC appointed an ETHNARCH to rule the city after Tiglath-Pileser III, (745-727 BC) campaigned in this. II Cor 11:32 the West often, bringing about the payment of - Under NERO it reverted back to Roman rule. tribute by Rezin in 738 BC Rezin joined with Pekah of Israel to force Judah 13. During the Christian era it played a into an anti-Assyrian coalition. II K 15:37; 16:5; minor role in history, though it is obvious Isaiah 7. that Paul's association with the city at his conversion drew some attention to the site. In 734 BC the Assyrians advanced and placed Acts 9:1-25 Damascus under siege, taking the city in 732 - All the NT references to it are to be related to BC. Rezin was executed and the city was that conversion. destroyed. - Under the Emperor of the early Byzantine 8. Subsequent to its destruction by the period the city continued to be an unimportant Assyrians, the city lost most of its city, second to Antioch. prominence and is only incidentally mentioned during the remainder of the OT. - Passed out of Christian control to the Arabs Jer. 49:23ff; Ezek 27:18; 47:16. in 634 AD. - Damascus has been a Moslem city ever since.

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ACTS 27 of Festus were delivered by the centurions, or jailers, in whose custody they had been, ACTS 27 TOPICAL STUDIES unto one called Julius; in the Alexandrian copy Alexandria of the third verse, he is called Julianus; he was Angels either one of the Julian family, or rather was Centurion one that had been made free by some of that family, and so took the name: Cyprus Malta a centurion of Augustus’ band; of a Roman band of soldiers, which belonged to that legion Roman Commerce which was called “Augusta”; for it seems there Roman Law was a legion that bore that name, as Lipsius Ships and Navigation of the Ancients observes, and it may be from Augustus Caesar. Sidon ACTS 27:2. And entering into a ship of , Which was in the port of ACTS 27:1. And when it was determined that Adramyttium we should sail into Italy, The chief city of Caesarea; for from thence they set sail to the which was Rome, the metropolis of the empire, place where this ship was bound, which very where Caesar had his palace, to whom the likely was the place here mentioned; there was apostle had appealed; and his voyage thither a city of this name in Africa, and which was was determined by Festus, with the advice of built upon the sea shore, and is sometimes Agrippa and his council, pursuant to the called Hadrumentum , as this is called apostle’s appeal, and which was founded on the Adramantos, in the Syriac version; and in the will of God; all which concurred in this affair: it Alexandrian copy, and in another manuscript, was the decree and will of God that the apostle “a ship of Adramyntum”; it is mentioned with should go to Rome, which was made known to Carthage, a city in Africa, by Pliny and Solinus ; him. the one calls it Adrumetum, and the other Adrymeto; and the latter says, that it, as well as It was his resolution upon that, to go thither, Carthage, was built by the people of Tyre. wherefore he appealed to Caesar; and it was the determination of the Roman governor, not only Sallust says, that the Phoenicians built Hippo, as to his going there, but as to the time of it, Adrumetum, Leptis, and other cities on the sea which was now fixed: the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, coast; and the name seems to be a Phoenician and Arabic versions, read “he”, instead of “we”; name, “Hadarmuth”, which signifies “the court and the Ethiopic version reads expressly “Paul”; of death”; perhaps it might be so called, either but the Greek copies read we: by whom are from the badness of the air in which it was, or meant the apostle, and his companions; as Luke the dangerousness of its haven. the writer of this history, and Aristarchus the Jerome calls it Hadrumetus, and says it is a city Macedonian mentioned in the next verse, and in Byzacium, a country in Africa; he seems to Trophimus the Ephesian, who was afterwards design another place, the metropolis of the left at Miletus sick, (2 Timothy 4:20) and who Byzacian country, the most fruitful of all the else cannot be said; these were to sail with him parts of Africa, and which in the Phoenician to Italy, not as prisoners, but as companions: language was “Hadarmeoth”; which signifies this resolution being taken, “the court of a hundred”; that is, it was a place so fruitful that it brought forth an hundred fold; they delivered Paul and certain other and agreeably to which is what Pliny says , they prisoners; who very likely had also appealed to Caesar, or at least the governor thought fit to are called Libyphoenicians, who inhabit send them to Rome, to have their cases heard Byzacium, a country so named, in circuit two and determined there; and these by the order hundred and fifty miles, and of such great

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fruitfulness that the land returns to the Gaius as having been seized by the excited husbandmen an hundred fold. Ephesians during the riot stirred up by the The former of these is most likely to be the silversmiths (Acts 19:29). They are designated place here meant; and though we nowhere read “men of Macedonia, Paul’s companions in of the apostle being here, nor of the Gospel travel.” We learn later that he was a native of being preached here in the early times of Thessalonica (20:4; 27:2). They were probably Christianity; yet in the “fourth” century there seized to extract from them information about was a church in this place, and Philologus was their leader Paul, but when they could tell bishop of it, who subscribed at a council held at nothing, and since they were Greeks, nothing Carthage in this century. further was done to them. In the “fifth” century we read of several bishops We do not know when Aristarchus attached of this place, as Aurelius, who was in the himself to Paul, but he seems to have remained Chalcedon council, Flavianus in that at Ephesus, in Paul’s company ever after the Ephesian which was reckoned an infamous one, and uproar. He was one of those who accompanied Helladius, who was in the first Ephesine Paul from Greece via Macedonia (20:4). Having council, and Felix, who was banished by preceded Paul to Troas, where they waited for Gensericus . There was another city of the same him, they traveled with him to Palestine. He is name in Aeolia, or Mysia , and which was next mentioned as accompanying Paul to Rome formerly called Pedasus, and since Landermiti, (27:2). There he attended Paul and shared his and was a seaport, and bids fair to be the place imprisonment. here intended; though since there was an island He is mentioned in two of the letters of the of Lycia called Adramitis , now Audromety, and Roman captivity, viz., Colossians (4:10) and it was at Myra, a city of Lycia, where this ship Philemon (v 24), in both of which he sends stopped, (Acts 27:5) and where the passengers greetings. In the former Paul calls him “my changed their ship, this seems most likely to be fellow prisoner.” According to tradition he was designed: martyred during the persecution by Nero. we launched; in the said ship from Caesarea: ACTS 27:3. And the next day we touched at meaning to sail by the coast of Asia; the lesser Sidon, This was a famous city in Phoenicia, Asia, along by Ephesus and Miletus, as they did; upon the northern border of the land of Israel; for in this last place, as before observed, it was a maritime place, and noted for trade and Trophimus was left sick; the Alexandrian copy navigation; Mela calls it rich Sidon, and the reads, “that was about to sail”; that is, the ship chief of the maritime cities; Jerom calls it the of Adramyttium was about to sail, or just ready ancient city Sidon; and Curtius says it was to sail by the coast of Asia, wherefore the renowned for the antiquity and fame of its company entered, and set forth in it on their founders; it is thought to be built by Sidon, the voyage: firstborn of Canaan, (Genesis 10:15) from whom it took its name. one Aristarchus a Macedonian, of Thessalonica, being with us; the same person Josephus affirms, that Sidonius, as he calls him, that was with the apostle at Ephesus, and built a city in Phoenicia after his own name, and accompanied him into Asia, (Acts 19:29, 20:4) it is called by the Greeks Sidon; some say it was the same went through with him to Rome, and built by Sidus the son of Aegyptus, and named became his fellowlabourer, and fellow prisoner after him: according to R. Benjamin it was a there, (Philemon 1:24) (Colossians 4:10). day’s journey from hence to Tyre; and with others , it was not more than two hundred Aristarchus furlongs, about twelve or thirteen miles, which One of those faithful companions of the apostle was another city of Phoenicia, as this was: Paul who shared with him his labors and Jerom’s account of Sidon is this, “Sidon, a sufferings. He is first mentioned along with famous city of Phoenicia, formerly the border of

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the Canaanites, to the north, situated at the foot In the “sixth” century, mention is made of a of Mount Libanus, and the artificer of glass:” bishop of Sidon, in the acts of the council held at and so Pliny calls it, it being famous for the Rome and Constantinople, and in the same making of glass; and Herodotus speaks of it as century a synod met at Sidon, in the 20th year a city of Phoenicia: Justin the historian says it of Anastasius the emperor : the account of the was built by the Tyrians, who called it by this bishops of Sidon, as given by Reland , is as name from the plenty of fish in it; for the follows; Theodorus bishop of Sidon subscribed Phoenicians call a fish “Sidon”: and indeed in the first Nicene council, in the year 325; Sidon or Tzidon seems to be derived from , Paulus subscribed in the first council at “Tzud”, which signifies “to fish”; and the place is Constantinople, in the year 381; Damianus was to this day called Said or Salt; and so R. in the council held at Chalcedon, in the year Benjamin calls it Tzaida : to this city they came 451; Megas is mentioned in the acts and from Caesarea, the day following that they set epistles subjoined to the Chalcedon council; out on, and here they stopped awhile: Andreas, bishop of this place, is taken notice of and Julius courteously treated Paul; the in a letter of John of Jerusalem. centurion into whose hands the apostle was ACTS 27:4. And when we had launched from delivered, used him with great humanity and thence, From Sidon: civility; he found grace in his sight, as Joseph we sailed under Cyprus, because the winds did in the sight of Potiphar, and as he himself were contrary; that is, they sailed below the had done before with Lysias, Felix, Festus and island of Cyprus; of which (see Acts 4:36, 13:4) Agrippa: whereas if the wind had been right for them, and gave him liberty to go unto his friends to they would have sailed above the island; refresh himself; for as there were disciples at leaving it on the right hand, in a straight course Tyre, (Acts 21:3,4) so it seems there were at to Myra; but now they were obliged to go below Sidon, both which cities were in Phoenicia, and it, leaving it on the left hand, going inpart about are often mentioned together; and the apostle it, through the seas of Cilicia and Pamphylia to was allowed to go ashore, and visit his friends, Lycia, as follows. and be refreshed by them, both in body and ACTS 27:5. And when we had sailed over the spirit, and be provided for by them with things sea of Cilicia and Pamphylia, For these two convenient for his voyage. seas joined, as Pliny says , “mare Pamphylium It is highly probable that there was here a Cilicio jungitur”, the Pamphylian sea is joined to Gospel church, but by whom planted cannot be the Cilician; and in another place he observes, said; our Lord himself was at the borders of this that in the Pamphylian sea were islands of no place, (Matthew 15:21) and the ministers of the note, and in the Cilician sea of the five chiefest word scattered at the death of Stephen, went as was Cyprus (an island mentioned in the far as Phoenicia preaching the Gospel, (Acts preceding verse), and a little after, the sea of 11:19) and that there were brethren there, Cilicia is distant from Anemurius fifty miles: appears from note on: (see Gill on “Acts 15:3”), we came to Myra a city of Lycia; not Limyra in in which country Sidon was: in the “third” Lycia, though that lay by the sea side; for century there was a church in this place, and according both to Pliny and Ptolomy , Limyra Zenobius was presbyter of it, who suffered and Myra were two distinct places in Lycia; martyrdom under Dioclesian ; in the “fourth” which was a country, according to the latter, century there was a bishop of the church here, which had on the west and north Asia; at the synod held at Nice. (according to others, Caria on the west, and In the “fifth” century the bishop of the part of Lydia on the north;) on the east part of Sidonians, in the council of Chalcedon, declared Pamphylia, and on the south the Lycian sea, or, his opinion with others against Dioscorus, as others, the Rhodian sea: much less was this whose name was Damianus. the city of Smyrna, as some have said, which lay

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another way in Ionia, over against the Aegean bishop of it, was in the Nicene synod; and in the sea; and still less Lystra, as the Alexandrian ninth century this place was taken by the copy and Vulgate Latin version read, which was Saracens. in Lycaonia, and in the continent many miles ACTS 27:6. And there the centurion found a from the sea: Lycia was a country of the lesser ship of Alexandria, Alexandria was the chief Asia, and lay between Caria and Pamphylia, and city in Egypt, built by Alexander the great, from so it is mentioned with Caria and Pamphylia, in: whom it took its name; it was situated near the “And to all the countries and to Sampsames, sea, and had a famous haven or port, which R. and the Lacedemonians, and to Delus, and Benjamin calls , “the port of Alexandria”; from Myndus, and Sicyon, and Caria, and Samos, and hence ships were sent into several parts for Pamphylia, and Lycia, and Halicarnassus, and trade and commerce, and one of these Julius Rhodus, and Aradus, and Cos, and Side, and found at Myra: the top sail was a distinguishing Aradus, and Gortyna, and Cnidus, and Cyprus, sign of a ship of Alexandria, for none might and Cyrene.” spread their top sails but ships of Alexandria ; (1 Maccabees 15:23) and the Carians, these were not obliged to strike sail when they Pamphylians, and Lycians, are frequently put came into a port. together in history; and the Lycians are said to The Jewish writers make frequent mention of , be originally of Crete, and to have their name “a ship of Alexandria” ; by which they intend a from Lycus the son of Pandion; though some ship of a large bulk, which had a cistern in it for think that Lycia took its name “a luce”, from fresh water for a long voyage; and by this they light, and of this country Myra was the distinguish ships of bulk from those small ones, metropolis. that were used about their coasts; a ship of Ptolomy calls it Myrra, as if it had the Alexandria with them was a ship that went signification of “myrrhe”; and so Jerom or from the land of Israel to Alexandria; whereas Origen reads it here, and interprets it “bitter”; here it seems to design one that belonged to but Pliny and others call it Myra, as here, and it Alexandria, and went from thence to other signifies “ointment”; and here the apostle parts: and this ship was staying some time, though it cannot be said sailing into Italy; and it was usual for ships to how long, no doubt opened the box of the go from Alexandria to Puteoli in Italy, and from precious ointment of the Gospel, and diffused thence to Alexandria upon trade and business the savour of it in this place; for in the and he put us therein; the centurion removed beginning of the “fourth” century, in Paul and his companions, and the rest of the Constantine’s time, we read of one Nicolaus, a prisoners, with whatsoever soldiers were famous man, bishop of Myra in Lycia, who was under his care, out of the ship of Adramyttium, present at the council of Nice, and there showed into the ship of Alexandria; that is, he ordered the scars and marks upon him, because of his them to remove out of one into the other. constant confession of Christ under Maximinus. ACTS 27:7. And when we had sailed slowly In the “fifth” century there was a bishop of this many days, Because of contrary winds, as in place, whose name was Romanus, and was in (Acts 27:4) or else for want of wind, as two synods, in the infamous one at Ephesus, somethink; the Syriac version renders it, “and where he favoured Eutyches, and in that at because it sailed heavily”; that is, the ship being Chalcedon; in the “sixth” century mention is loaden with goods: made of a bishop of this church in the acts of the synod at Rome and Constantinople; in the and scarce were come over against Cnidus; or “seventh” century, Polyeuctus, bishop of Myra, “Gnidus”, as it is sometimes called; it was a city was in the sixth synod at Constantinople, and in and promontory in Doris, in the Chersonese or this century Myra was the metropolitan church peninsula of Caria, famous for the marble statue of Lycia; in the “eighth” century, Theodorus, of Venus made by Praxiteles ; it was over

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against the island of Crete, and is now called Stephanus is said to be a city of the Cretians, Capo Chio; it was the birthplace of Eudoxus, a and which agrees with this account; famous philosopher, astrologer, geometrician, nigh whereunto was the city of Lasae; there physician and lawgiver ; it is made mention of was a city in Crete called by Solinus Lisson, and in: “And to all the countries and to Sampsames, by Ptolomy Lyssus, which he places on the and the Lacedemonians, and to Delus, and south side of the island; and by Pliny Lasos, Myndus, and Sicyon, and Caria, and Samos, and which comes pretty near to this name, but then Pamphylia, and Lycia, and Halicarnassus, and he places it in the midland part of Crete; who Rhodus, and Aradus, and Cos, and Side, and also makes mention of an island called Lasia Aradus, and Gortyna, and Cnidus, and Cyprus, over against Troezenium, and another that was and Cyrene.” (1 Maccabees 15:23) one of the Cyclades; the Syriac version here Jerome says, it was a famous island over against read, “Lasia”: Jerom says, Lasea is a city on the Asia, joining to the province of Caria; some shore of the island of Crete, near the place think it has its name from the fish “Gnidus”, which is called the Fair Havens, as Luke himself which is taken about this place, and which is of explains it; for which some corruptly read such an extraordinary nature, that when taken “Thalassa”; as do the Vulgate Latin and Ethiopic in the hand, it stings like a nettle; others derive versions; and the Alexandrian copy “Alassa”: it from “hanad”, or “gnad”, which, in the Beza conjectures that it is the same with Eloea, Phoenician language signifies “to join”; because, which Pliny makes mention of in the above as both Pausanias and Strabo say, it was joined cited place, as a city in Crete. by a bridge or causeway to the continent: it had ACTS 27:9. Now when much time was spent, two ports in it, as the last mentioned writer In sailing against the wind, or by staying at the says, but into neither of them did the ship put, Fair Havens; for so the Syriac version renders in which the apostle was; nor do we read of the it, “where we stayed a long time”; and the Gospel being preached here, or of a church in it Ethiopic version, “and there we remained many until the “sixth” century, when mention is made days”: it follows, of a bishop of Gnidus in the acts of the synod at and when sailing was now dangerous, Rome and Constantinople : because the fast was now already past; the the wind not suffering us; to go right forward, Syriac version reads, “the fast of the Jews”; this as the Syriac version adds: was the day of atonement, which was the grand we sailed under Crete; or below it, as in (Acts fast of the Jews, on which day they afflicted 27:4) This is now called Candy; (see Gill on their souls, (Leviticus 23:27) in memory of the “Acts 2:11”), over against Salmone; now called worshipping of the golden calf; on that day they Capo Salamone: this, by Pliny , Ptolomy , and neither eat nor drink, nor do any work, neither Mela , is called Samonium or Sammonium, and do they wash, nor are they anointed, nor do by them said to be a promontory in the island of they bind on their shoes, or make use of the Crete, on the east side of it, over against the marriage bed; nor do they read anything but island of Rhodes; Strabo calls it Salmonion, an sorrowful things, as the Lamentations of eastern promontory of Crete; and Jerom a Jeremiah, until the setting of the sun, and the maritime city of the island of Crete. rising of the stars. ACTS 27:8. And hardly passing it, That is, Hence this day is called by them , “the day of Salmone, with great difficulty, because of the fasting”, and , “the great fast, and the day of the winds: fast of atonement, and the fast of the came unto a place which is called the Fair atonement” : now this day was on the 10th of Havens; called by other writers Cale Acte, or the month Tisri, which answers to the latter the fair shore, and is placed by Ptolomy in part of our September, and the former part of Eubaea, and by Herodotus in Sicily; but by October; so that it was now Michaelmas time, when winter was coming on, and sailing began

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to be dangerous; about this time of the year the so and so move the helm, so and so let down the Pleiades set, which brings on tempestuous sails, etc. in every ship there was a governor, weather, and unfit for sailing: and in larger ones sometimes there were two. Paul admonished them, or gave them some Aelianus says, the Carthaginians had always advice to continue where they were. two governors in a ship: the other word, , is in ACTS 27:10. And said unto them, Sirs, I the glossary rendered “navicularius”, which perceive, Not only by the tempestuous signifies “the owner” of the ship; and so we weather which they had met with, and still render it; though perhaps he is the same with continued, and which they must expect to have, the “proreta”, who governed the prow or head if they continued on their voyage; but by a spirit of the ship, and was the next in dignity to the of prophecy, which he was endued with, by governor, and a kind of a sub-governor; and his which he foresaw, and so foretold, as follows; business was to observe tempests, to explore promontories, rocks and sands, and show them that this voyage will be with hurt, and with to the governor ; and so Isidore says, the owner much damage not only of the lading and ship, of the ship is called Naucleros, because the ship but also of our lives; or of our persons, or is in his lot, “cleros” signifying lot: and as these bodies, that is, of the health of them; for certain best understood naval affairs, Julius gave more it is that it was revealed to the apostle, that not heed to what they said, and rather believed one life should be lost; but yet through the them, shipwreck, what with the fright of it, and being in the water, much damage must accrue to their than those things which were spoken by Paul; persons, as well as the ship and all its freight be by a spirit of prophecy, which he had no notion lost. of; for though he treated him civilly as a man, he had no regard to him as a Christian, or as one ACTS 27:11. Nevertheless the centurion endued with the Spirit of God, which he knew believed the master and the owner of the nothing of. ship, Who were either one and the same person, or if two persons, the one was the ACTS 27:12. And because the haven was not owner, whose the ship was, and the other, he commodious to winter in, Which was called that was at the helm, and steered and directed the “Fair Havens”, (Acts 27:8) which name it it; or the one might be the captain, and the might have by an antiphrasis, it being just the other the pilot. reverse; it might be a good summer haven, but not be fit for winter: perhaps it might be an The master, or “governor”, as he is here called open road or bay, and having nothing to shelter with the ancients, was he who sat on an from the boisterous waves, was a place very eminence in the stern of the ship, at the helm, improper for a ship to be in, in stormy weather; and had the direction of it; he gave the orders, for in open places, as bays and roads, the sea which others executed: what qualified him for tumbles in very violently in bad weather: this his post chiefly lay in three things; in the was a haven fit for fair weather only, and knowledge of the constellations, and winds, of therefore might be so called: the former that he might direct the course of the ship according to them, and by them foresee the more part advised to depart thence also; future tempests, and of the latter, that he might the major part of the ship’s company were of be acquainted with the several points, from the same opinion with the master and owner of whence they blew; also in the knowledge of it, and advised as well as they, to sail from the ports, and places to put into, and of rocks and Fair Havens in quest of a better port; the Syriac sands, that they might be escaped; likewise in version reads, “the most of ours”, of the the knowledge of the use of the helm, and sails ; apostle’s companions; so that they were against for one part of his business, as Seneca him, according to that version, which is not observes, was to give orders after this manner; likely; however, the majority in the ship were for sailing:

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if by any means they might attain to Phenice, frequent, and which may take its name from and there to winter, which is an haven of him, being supposed to be raised by him. Crete, and lieth toward the south west and This wind may very well be thought to be the north west: this place is called in the Syriac same which is called Typhon, and is by writers version Phoenix; and Ptolemy makes mention represented as a very tempestuous one, as a both of the city and haven of Phoenix, as on the sort of whirlwind or hurricane, a violent storm, south side of the island of Crete: and whereas it though without thunder and lightning; and is here said to lie towards the south west and Pliny calls it the chief plague of sailors, it north west, this may be reconciled to that, as breaking their sails, and even their vessels to well as to itself; for the haven considered in pieces: and this may still have its name from general lay towards the south, but having its Typho, since the Egyptians used to call windings and turnings, with respect to them it everything that is pernicious and hurtful by this lay towards both the south west and the north name; moreover, this wind is also called west, and so was a very commodious haven to “Euroclydon”. winter in. The Alexandrian copy reads, “Euracylon”, and ACTS 27:13. And when the south wind blew so the Vulgate Latin version seems to have read, softly, Or moderately, which was a good wind rendering it “Euro-aquilo, the north east wind”. for them: The Ethiopic version renders it, the “north supposing that they, had obtained their wind”; but according to Aristotle , and Pliny the purpose; that things would succeed according wind Typhon never blew in the northern parts; to their wish, and favour their design: though some think that wind is not meant here, loosing thence; from the Fair Havens; the since the Typhon is a sudden storm of wind, Vulgate Latin and Ethiopic versions render it, and soon over; whereas this storm of wind was “loosing from Assos”; which could not be Assos a settled and lasting one, it continued many of Troas, mentioned in (Acts 20:13) which was days; and that it is only called Typhonic, many miles from hence; rather Asum, a town in because it bore some likeness to it, being very Crete, of which Pliny makes mention, though, blustering and tempestuous: it seems by its according to him, it seems to be an inland town; name to be an easterly wind, which blew very wherefore it is best to take the word , to be an violently, ploughed the sea, and lifted up its adverb, and render it “thence”, as we do; or join waves; hence the Arabic version renders it, “a it with the next word, and render it, mover” or “stirrer up of the waves”; which beat against the ship in a violent manner, and they came near, or they sailed close by Crete; exposed it to great danger. along the shore, the wind favouring them, that they were in no danger of being dashed upon it, ACTS 27:15. And when the ship was caught, it being a soft gentle wind. By the wind, snatched up by it, and forcibly carried away: ACTS 27:14. But not long after, They had not been long at sea, but and could not bear up into the wind; and against it, or look it in the face, as the word there arose against it; the ship, or the island of signifies; could not ply to windward, the wind Crete, or both: being so high and the sea so strong: a tempestuous wind, called Euroclydon; in the ; about the sea, at pleasure, it Greek text it is a “Typhonic” wind, so called, not we let her drive being in vain to attempt to get her forward from the name of a country from whence it against the wind, or to direct her course. blew; rather from Typho, the same with Python, an Heathen deity, who is said to be drowned in ACTS 27:16. And running under a certain the lake Serbonis, or in the river Orontes; about island, Or below a certain island and hard by, which places this sort of wind is observed to be it or under the sea shore of it, where the sea

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might be smoother, the wind not being there so sand and slime, and such like things, which strong: made them very dangerous for shipping, and which is called Clauda: by Ptolemy it is called being covered with water, could not be seen Claudus, and was near the island of Crete, and and guarded against, and especially in a storm; now called Gozo. The Vulgate Latin and or from their drawing of vessels into them, Ethiopic versions, and some copies, read which they retain, suck in, and swallow up; and “Cauda”; and there was an island near to Crete, such the mariners might know were not far off. which was called Gaudos , and is thought to be there were two very remarkable ones on the the place here meant: coast of Africa, the one is called the greater we had much work to come by the boat; which “Syrtes”, the other the lesser ; the greater was they had with them to go ashore in, or to betake more to the south than the lesser, and also themselves to in case of shipwreck; and which more to the east, and the lesser was to the west: in this storm was in danger of being dashed to of these “Syrtes”, Jerom says, they are sandy pieces against the ship, or lost; and it was with places in the great sea very terrible, and to be some difficulty that they came at it, and took it feared, because they use to draw all into them; up into the ship. they are near the Egyptian sea; the Lybian sea, which washes the African shore, is by Seneca ACTS 27:17. Which when they had taken up, called from them the “Syrtic sea” : wherefore, When they had got the boat into the ship: they strake sail; let down their sails; so read they used helps; the mariners made use of some manuscripts in New College, Oxford; in other persons, called in the assistance of the the Greek text it is, “they let down the vessel”; soldiers, and passengers, and prisoners; or for not the boat they had taken in, of which we the help of the ship, they made use of cords, read after; nor an anchor, or anchors, which chains, and such like things: would have been improper in a storm; nor the undergirding the ship: with cords and ropes, mast, it can hardly be thought that should be which they drew under the keel of the ship, and the first thing they should cut down, when they so bound both sides of the ship, that it might did not cast out the tackling till the third day; not split and fall to pieces; which may be what the storm was vehement on the first, more is now called “frapping”, and is done by putting vehement on the second, when they lightened large ropes under the keel, and over the the ship, and most vehement on the third, when gunwale; and is used when a ship by labouring they cast out the tackling; and as Scheffer hard in the sea breaks the bolts in her sides, observes, the mast is never cut down before the and this keeps her from parting. loss of other things; wherefore this is to be Horace refers to this use of ropes in tempests, understood of letting down the sail yard, and when he says, “Nonne vides ut — sine funibus contracting the sails; the Syriac version renders vix durare carinae possint imperiosius it, “we let down the main sail”; or, “the sail”, Aequor?” do not you see that without ropes the using the Greek word “Armenon”, which keels can scarcely endure the more imperious signifies “a sail”: sea? Isidorus makes mentionof several sorts of and so were driven; about in the sea, ropes made use of in storms; “spirae”, he says, wheresoever the winds and waves carried are ropes that are used in tempests, which the them; or very likely the ship was driven before mariners after their manner call “curcubae; the wind under her bare poles. tormentum” is a long rope in ships, according to the same writer, which reaches from head to ACTS 27:18. And we being exceedingly tossed , Sometimes being lifted up as stern, by which they are bound faster together: with a tempest it were to the heavens, and then presently and fearing lest they should fall into the sinking down,as if they were going into the quicksands: which were on the African coast, bottom of the sea; such a condition at sea is here called “Syrtes”; either from the conflux of

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described to the life by the Psalmist, in (Psalm whether it shone with equal rays or not, and 107:25-27). whether it was red and fiery, or pale; and the the next day they lightened the ship; of its like observations they made upon the moon, burden, its lading, the goods and merchandise both as to its colour and size; and especially the that were in it; as the mariners did in the ship constellations and stars were of singular use in which Jonah was, (Jon 1:5) the Ethiopic unto them; and above all, the two Bears, the version renders it, “they cast the goods into the greater and the lesser; the Greeks observed the sea”; the Arabic version, the “merchandise”. former, and the Phoenicians the latter; and who are said by Pliny to have first found out the use ACTS 27:19. And the third day, From the time of the constellations in navigation. this storm began, and this tempestuous weather held: Particularly this is ascribed to the famous philosopher Thales,who is said to be a we cast out with our own hands the tackling Phoenician; and from other constellations, as of the ship; by which seems to be meant their Arcturus, Orion, Hyades, etc. they foresaw rains, naval stores and instruments, as sails, ropes, storms, and tempests: and now what made the cables, anchors, etc. and yet we afterwards read case of the apostle and the ship’s company the of their anchors and main sail: it may be more distressing was, that it was not only dark rendered, “the furniture of the ship”; and yet it and cloudy, but very tempestuous, as follows; cannot design the ship’s provisions, at least all were not cast away; for afterwards mention is and no small tempest lay on us; and all this made of casting out the wheat into the sea: continued many days: so Virgil represents many versions render it, “the armament of the Aeneas and his company in a like condition at ship”; and the Ethiopic version adds, “and sea, as not able by the heavens to distinguish arms”; the soldiers’ arms, and others which day from night, nor to direct their course, belonged to the ship, which were brought with neither sun nor stars appearing, and so them to defend themselves against an enemy: wandered about in the sea three days without these, the historian says, “we cast out”; the the sun, and as many nights without a star; and Apostle Paul’s company, Luke and others; but Homer describes Ulysses in a violent storm at not without the leave and order of the sea, and for the space of nine days tossed about, centurion and governor of the ship: the when on the tenth day he got to land; and Sosia, Alexandrian copy, and some others, and the in Terence , is brought in saying, that he had Vulgate Latin version read, “they cast out”: been thirty days in a ship, expecting death which seems most probable. every moment, so boisterous was the storm he was in; and so it was in this case, the winds ACTS 27:20. And when neither sun nor stars blew hard upon them, and the rains fell with in many days appeared, The Syriac version great violence, and everything was adds, “nor moon”; which is an usual description discouraging and distressing; insomuch that of dark, cloudy, and tempestuous seasons; and which was not only uncomfortable to them, all hope that we should be saved was then because they could not see these luminaries, taken away; neither the master and owner of and enjoy their beneficial light and influence; the ship, nor the mariners, nor the soldiers, nor but because they had them not to guide and prisoners, nor the apostle’s companions, had direct them; for the sun, moon, and stars, are any hope of being saved, but all expected to be useful to sailors, to steer their course by; lost. The apostle himself knew indeed, that especially they were to the ancients, before the though the ship would be lost, every man’s life invention and use of the loadstone. would be saved; and yet he could have no hope of this, as to the outward appearance of things, Besides, by these they conjectured what but on account of the revelation which the Lord weather it would be, as mariners still do; they had made to him, and he believed; otherwise, as observed the rising and setting of the sun,

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to all human helps and means, there was no intellectual and cultural centers of the Roman probability of an escape. Empire. ACTS 27:21. But after long abstinence, From The Septuagint version of the Old Testament food, not for want of it, as appears from what (280 to 170 BC) was written at Alexandria, and follows, (Acts 27:36-38) nor in a religious way, here, during the first century, lived Philo in order to obtain the favour of God; but either Judaeus, a brilliant and devout Jew, whose for want of appetite, and a nauseousness and writings on the Logos were in certain respects loathing of food, through the tossing of the ship, similar to those of John the Beloved. fright at the storm, and fears of death; and from Encyclopedia Britannica: chiefly for want of time, being employed for the Arabic AL-ISKANDARIYAH city and urban security of themselves and the ship. muhafazah (governorate), Lower Egypt. Once Paul stood forth in the midst of them; that all the greatest city of the ancient world and a might hear him: centre of Hellenic scholarship and science, and said, sirs, ye should have hearkened unto Alexandria was the capital of Egypt from its me: it would have been better for them to have founding by Alexander the Great in 332 BC to taken his advice, and stayed at the Fair Havens, AD 642, when it was subdued by the Arabs. It is and not have loosed from Crete; or sailed from now the second largest city, the centre of a thence: major industrial region, and the chief seaport of Egypt. It lies on the Mediterranean Sea at the and to have gained this harm and loss; western edge of the Nile River delta, about 114 whereby they would have shunned the injuries miles (183 km) northwest of Cairo. of the weather, the storm and tempest which they had endured, to the prejudice of their Alexandria has always occupied a special place health, and the terrifying of their minds, and in the popular imagination by virtue of its have prevented the loss of the goods and association with Alexander and with Mark merchandise of the ship, and its tackling, Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria also played a utensils, instruments, and arms; the former of key role in passing on Hellenic culture to Rome these is expressed by “harm” or injury, and the and was a centre of scholarship in the latter by “loss”. The apostle addresses them in a theological disputes over the nature of Christ's very courteous manner, and does not use sharp divinity that divided the early church. The reproofs, severe language, or upbraid and insult legendary reputation of ancient Alexandria them, only reminds them of the counsel he had grew through a thousand years of serious given, which had it been taken, would have decline following the Arab conquests, during been to their advantage; and the rather he which time virtually all traces of the Greco- mentions this, that since what he had foretold Roman city disappeared. By the time Napoleon was in part already come to pass, they might invaded Egypt in 1798, Alexandria had been give the more heed to what he was about to say reduced to a fishing village. The modern city to them. and port that flourished on the back of the cotton boom in the 19th century has, therefore, Alexandria little in common with the Alexandria of the from an article in the Thompson Chain past. Reference Bible. The free port status granted Alexandria by the Alexandria the birthplace of Apollos, was Ottoman Turks accentuated the cultural founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC. Its ambivalence inherent in the city's location-- palaces of the Ptolemies, its wonderful extended along a spit of land with its back to museum, its famed library, and it keenly Egypt and its face to the Mediterranean. This intellectual populace of Greeks, Jews, and idea of a free city, open to all manner of men Egyptians made it one of the greatest and ideas, was something the new Alexandria

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had in common with the old. It was a theme the for him), which stands near or on the original Greek writer Constantine Cavafy, drawing site of the Pharos. In 1994 archaeologist Jean- heavily on its legendary past, developed in his Yves Empereur of the Centre for Alexandrian poems of the city. This idea of Alexandria, and Studies (Centre d'Etudes Alexandrines) found Cavafy's take on it in particular, was highlighted many of the stones and some statuary that had by the English writer Lawrence Durrell in his belonged to the lighthouse in the waters off four-part novel, The Alexandria Quartet (1957- Pharos Island. The Egyptian government 60). planned to turn the area into an underwater The city site park to allow divers to see the archaeological remains of the lighthouse. The modern city extends 25 miles (40 km) east to west along a limestone ridge, 1-2 miles (1.6- The Canopic Way (now Al-Hurriyah Avenue) 3.2 km) wide, that separates the salt lake of was the principal thoroughfare of the Greek Maryut, or Mareotis--now partly drained and city, running east and west through its centre. cultivated--from the Egyptian mainland. An Most of the Ptolemaic and, later, Roman hourglass-shaped promontory formed by the monuments stood nearby. The Canopic Way silting up of a mole (the Heptastadium), which was intersected at its western end by the Street was built soon after Alexandria's founding, of the Soma (now An-Nabi Danyal Street), along links the island of Pharos with the city centre which is the legendary site of Alexander's tomb, on the mainland. Its two steeply curving bays thought to lie under the mosque An-Nabi now form the basins for the Eastern Harbor and Danyal. Close to this intersection was the the Western Harbor. Mouseion (museum), the city's academy of arts and sciences, which included the great Library The prevailing north wind, blowing across the of Alexandria. At the seaward end of the Street Mediterranean, gives Alexandria a markedly of the Soma were the two obelisks known as different climate from that of the desert Cleopatra's Needles. These obelisks were given hinterland. The summers are relatively in the 19th century to the cities of London and temperate, although humidity can build up in New York. One obelisk can be viewed on the July and in August, the hottest month, when the banks of the River Thames in London and the average temperature reaches 87 ºF (31 ºC). other in Central Park in New York City. Winters are cool and invariably marked by a series of violent storms that can bring Between Al-Hurriyah Avenue and the railway torrential rain and even hail. The mean daily station is the Roman Theatre, which was temperature in January, which is the coldest uncovered in 1959 at the Kawm al-Dikkah month, is 64 ºF (18 ºC). archaeological site. At the southwestern extremity of the ancient city are the Kawm ash- The city plan Shuqafah burial grounds, with their remarkable Designed by Alexander's personal architect, Hadrianic catacombs dating from the 2nd Dinocrates, the city incorporated the best in century AD. Nearby, on the site of the ancient Hellenic planning and architecture. Within a fort of Rakotis, is one of the few classical century of its founding, its splendors rivaled monuments still standing: the 88-foot- (27- anything known in the ancient world. The pride metre-) high marble column known as of ancient Alexandria and one of the Seven Pompey's Pillar (actually dedicated to Wonders of the World was the great lighthouse, Diocletian soon after 297). Parts of the Arab the Pharos of Alexandria, which stood on the wall, encompassing a much smaller area than eastern tip of the island of Pharos. Reputed to the Greco-Roman city, survive on Al-Hurriyah be more than 350 feet (110 meters) high, it was Avenue, but the city contracted still further in still standing in the 12th century. In 1477, Ottoman times to the stem of the promontory, however, the sultan Qa'it Bay used stones from now the Turkish Quarter. It is the oldest the dilapidated structure to build a fort (named

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surviving section of the city, housing its finest library. In 415 a Christian faction killed the mosques and worst slums. Neoplatonist philosopher Hypatia, and Greek The decline of the Ptolemies in the 2nd and 1st culture in Alexandria quickly declined. centuries BC was matched by the rise of Rome. After the ascendancy of the patriarchate of Alexandria played a major part in the intrigues Constantinople--to which the see of Alexandria that led to the establishment of imperial Rome. answered after the division of the Roman It was at Alexandria that Cleopatra, the last of Empire in 364--the local church adopted the Ptolemies, courted Julius Caesar and Monophysitism (belief in the single nature and claimed to have borne him a son. Her attempts therefore physical divinity of Christ) as a way of at restoring the fortunes of the Ptolemaic asserting its independence. Although dynasty, however, were thwarted by Caesar's Monophysitism was rejected by the Council of assassination and her unsuccessful support of Chalcedon (451), the Alexandrian church Mark Antony against Caesar's great-nephew resisted Constantinople's attempts to bring it Octavian. In 30 BC Octavian (later the emperor into line. An underground church developed to Augustus) formally brought Alexandria and oppose the established one and became a focus Egypt under Roman rule. To punish the city for of Egyptian loyalties. Disaffection with not supporting him, he abolished the Byzantine rule created the conditions in which Alexandrian Senate and built his own city at Alexandria fell first to the Persians, in 616, and what was then the suburb of ar-Raml. then to the Arabs, in 642. Alexandria, however, could not be ignored, The Islamic period since it held the key to the Egyptian granary on The Arabs occupied Alexandria without which Rome increasingly came to rely; and the resistance. Thenceforth, apart from an city soon regained its independence. interlude in 645 when the city was briefly taken St. Mark, the traditional author of the second by the Byzantine fleet, Alexandria's fortunes Synoptic Gospel, is said to have been preaching were tied to the new faith and culture in Alexandria in the mid-1st century AD. emanating from the Arabian Desert. Alexandria Thenceforth, the city's growing Christian and soon was eclipsed politically by the new Arab Jewish communities united against Rome's capital at al-Fustat (which later was absorbed attempts to impose official paganism. Periodic into the modern capital, Cairo), and this city persecutions by various early emperors, became the strategic prize for those wanting to especially by Diocletian beginning in 303, failed control Egypt. Nevertheless, Alexandria to subdue these communities; and, after the continued to flourish as a trading centre, empire had formally adopted Christianity principally for textiles and luxury goods, as under Constantine I, the stage was set for Arab influence expanded westward through schisms within the church. North Africa and then into Europe. The city also The first conflict that split the early church was was important as a naval base, especially under between two Alexandrian prelates, Athanasius the Fatimids and the Mamluks, but already it and Arius, over the nature of Christ's divinity. It was contracting in size in line with its new, was settled in 325 by the adoption of the Creed more modest status. The Arab walls (rebuilt in of Nicaea, which affirmed Christ's spiritual the 13th and 14th centuries and torn down in divinity and branded Arianism--the belief that 1811) encompassed less than half the area of Christ was lower than God--as heresy. the Greco-Roman city. Arianism, however, had many imperial Alexandria survived the early Crusades champions, and this sharpened the conflict relatively unscathed, and the city came into its between the Alexandrian church and the state. own again with the development of the East- In 391 Christians destroyed the Sarapeum, West spice trade, which Egypt monopolized. sanctum of the Ptolemaic cult and what The loss of this trade--which came about after Cleopatra had saved of the great Mouseion the discovery of the sea route to India in 1498

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and the Turkish conquest of Egypt in 1517-- The great city herself was passive, for she had was the final blow to the city's fortunes. Under nothing to export. But the cravings of her Turkish rule the canal linking Alexandria to the luxury, and the necessities of her vast Rosetta branch of the Nile was allowed to silt population, drew to one centre the converging up, strangling the city's commercial lifeline. lines of a busy traffic from a wide extent of Alexandria had been reduced to a small fishing provinces. To leave out of view what hardly village when Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798. concerns us here, the commerce by land from Alexandria, School of the North, some of the principal directions of trade by sea may be briefly enumerated as The first Christian institution of higher follows. The harbours of Ostia and Puteoli were learning, founded in the mid-2nd century AD in constantly full of ships from the West, which Alexandria, Egypt. Under its earliest known had brought wool and other articles from Cadiz leaders (Pantaenus, Clement, and Origen), it a circumstance which possesses some interest became a leading centre of the allegorical for us here, as illustrating the mode in which St. method of biblical interpretation, espoused a Paul might hope to accomplish his voyage to rapprochement between Greek culture and Spain (Rom. 15:24). Christian faith, and attempted to assert orthodox Christian teachings against heterodox On the South was Sicily, often called the views in an era of doctrinal flux. Opposing the Storehouse of Italy, and Africa, which sent School of Alexandria was the School of Antioch, furniture woods to Rome, and heavy cargoes of which emphasized the literal interpretation of marble and granite. On the East, Asia Minor was the Bible. the intermediate space through which the caravan trade passed, conveying silks and Roman Commerce spices from beyond the Euphrates to the From “The Life and Epistles of St. Paul” by W. J. markets and wharves of Ephesus. We might Conybeare and J. S. Howson, Eerdmans extend this enumeration by alluding to the Though the Romans had no natural love for the fisheries of the Black Sea, and the wine trade of sea, and though a commercial life was never the Archipelago. But enough has been said to regarded by them as an honourable occupation, give some notion of the commercial activity of and thus both experience of practical which Italy was the cen.tre : and our particular seamanship, and the business of the carrying attention here is required only to one branch of trade remained in a great measure with the trade, one line of constant traffic across the Greeks, yet a vast development had been given waters of the Mediterranean to Rome. to commerce by the consolidation of the Roman Alexandria has been mentioned already as a Empire. Piracy had been effectually put down city, which, next after Athens, exerted the before the close of the Republic. The annexation strongest intellectual influence over the age in of Egypt drew towards Italy the rich trade of which St. Paul's appointed work was done; and the Indian seas. After the effectual reduction of we have had occasion to notice some indirect Gaul and Spain, Roman soldiers and Roman connection between this city and the Apostle's slave dealers invaded the shores of Britain. The own labours. But it was eminent commercially trade of all the countries which surrounded the not less than intellectually. The prophetic views Mediterranean began to flow towards Rome. 17 of Alexander were at that time receiving an ampler fulfilment than at any former period. The trade with the Indian Seas, which had been 17 There seem to have been two great lines of inland encouraged under the ptolemies, received a trade through Asia Minor, one near the southern vast impulse in the reign of Augustus: and shore of the Black Sea, through the districts opened under the reigns of his successors, the valley of by the campaigns of Pompey, and the other through the Nile was the channel of an active transit the centre of the country from Mazaca, on the trade in spices, dyes, jewels, and perfumes, Euphrates, to Ephesus.

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which were brought by Arabian mariners from were limited. When Vespasian went to Rome, the far East, and poured into the markets of leaving Titus to prosecute the siege of Italy. Jerusalem, “he went on board a merchant ship, But Egypt was not only the medium of transit and sailed from Alexandria to Rhodes,” and trade. She had her own manufactures of linen, thence pursued his way through Greece to the paper, and glass, which she exported in large Adriatic, and finally went to Rome through Italy quantities. And one natural product of her soil by land. And when the Jewish war was ended, has been a staple commodity from the time of and when, suspicions having arisen concerning Pharaoh to our own. We have only to think of the allegiance of Titus to Vespasian, the son was the fertilising inundations of the Nile, on the anxious to rejoin his father, he also left one hand, and, on the other, of the IImltitudes Alexandria in a “merchant ship,” and “hastened composing the free and slave population of to Italy,” touching at the very places at which St. Italy, in order to comprehend the activity and Paul touched, first at Rhegium (28:13), and importance of the Alexandrian corn trade. At a then at Puteoli. later period the Emperor Commodus Ships and Navigation of the Ancients established a company of merchants to convey From “The Life and Epistles of St. Paul” by W. J. the supplies from Egypt to Rome; and the Conybeare and J. S. Howson, Eerdmans commendations which he gave himself for this Before entering on the narrative of that voyage forethought may still be read in the inscription 18which brought the Apostle Paul, through round the ships represented on his coins. manifold and imminent dangers, from Caesarea The harbour, to which the Egyptian corn to Rome, it will be convenient to make a few vessels were usually bound, was Puteoli. At the introductory remarks concerning the ships and close of this chapter we shall refer to some navigation of the ancients. By fixing clearly in passages which give an animated picture of the the mind some of the principal fads relating to arrival of these ships. Meanwhile, it is well to the form and structure of Greek and Roman have called attention to this line of traffic between Alexandria and Puteoli; for in so doing we have described the means which Divine 18 The nautical difficulties of this narrative have Providence employed for bringing the Apostle been successfully explained by two independent to Rome. inquirers; and, so far as we are aware, by no one The transition is easy from the commerce of the else. A practical knowledge of seamanship was Mediterranean to the progress of travellers required for the elucidation of the whole subject; from point to point in that sea. If to this and none of the ordinary commentators seem to enumeration of the main lines of traffic by sea have looked on it with the eye of a sailor. The first we add all the ramifications of the coasting who examined St. Paul’s voyage in a practical spirit was the late Admiral Sir Charles Penrose whose life trade which depended on them, we have before has been lately published (Murray, 1851). His MSS. us a full view of the opportunities which have been kindly placed in the hands of the writer of travellers possessed of accomplishing their this Chapter, and they are frequently referred to in voyages. Just in this way we have lately seen St. the notes. A similar investigation was made Paul completing the journey, on which his mind subsequently, but independently, and more was set, from Philippi, by Miletus and Patara, to minutely and elaborately, by James Smith, Esq. of Caesarea (Chap. 20). We read of no periodical Jordanhill, whose published work on the subject packets for the conveyance of passengers (Longmans, 1848) has already obtained an sailing between the great towns of the European reputation. Besides other valuable aid, Mr. Mediterranean. Smith has examined the sheets of this Chapter, as they have passed through the press. We have also to Emperors themselves were usually compelled express our acknowledgments for much kind to take advantage of the same opportunities to assistance received from Admiral Moorsom and which Jewish pilgrims and Christian Apostles other naval officers.

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vessels, the manner in which these vessels were than a modern seaman in the handling of his worked, the prevalent lines of traffic in the ship, when overtaken by stormy weather on a Mediterranean, and the opportunities afforded dangerous coast. to travellers of reaching their destination by The ship of the Greek and Roman mariner was sea, we shall be better able to follow this comparatively rude, both in its build and its rig. voyage without distractions or explanations, The hull was not laid down with the fine lines, and with a clearer perception of each event as it with which we are so familiar in the competing occurred. vessels of England and America, and the With regard to the vessels and seamanship of arrangement of the sails exhibited little of that the Greeks and Romans, many popular complicated distribution yet effective com~ mistakes have prevailed, to which it is hardly bination of mechanical forces, which we admire necessary to allude, after the full illustration in the East Indiaman or modern Frigate. With which the subject has now received. We must the war ships of the ancients we need not here not entertain the notion that all the commerce occupy ourselves or the reader: but two of the ancients was conducted merely by meanf peculiarities in the structure of Greek and or small craft, which proceeded timidly in the Roman merchantmen must be carefully day time, and only in the summer season, along noticed; for both of them are much concerned the coast from harbour to harbour, and which in the seamanship described in the narrative were manned by mariners almost ignorant of before us. the use of sails, and always trembling at the The ships of the Greeks and Romans, like those prospect of a storm. We cannot, indeed, assert of the early Northmen, were not steered by that the arts either of ship building or means of a single rudder, but by two paddle navigation were matured in the Mediterranean rudders, one on each quarter. Hence “rudders’ so early as the first century of the Christian era. are mentioned in the plural by St. Luke (Acts The Greeks and Romans were ignorant of the 27:40) as by heathen writers: and the fact is use of the compass: the instruments with which made still more palpable by the representations they took observations must have been rude of art, as in the coins of Imperial Rome or the compared with our modern quadrants and tapestry of Bayeux: nor does the hinged rudder sextants 19: and we have no reason to believe appear on any of the remains of antiquity, till a that their vessels were provided with nautical late period in the Middle Ages. charts: and thus, when”'neither sun nor stars And as this mode of steering is common to the appeared,” and the sky gave indications of two sources, from which we must trace our danger, they hesitated to try the open sea. But present art of ship building, so also is the same the ancient sailor was well skilled in the mode of rigging characteristic of the ships both changeable weather of the Levant, and his very of the North Sea and the Mediterranean. We ignorance of the aids of modern science made find in these ancient ships one large mast, with him the more observant of external strong ropes rove through a block at the mast phenomena, and more familiar with his own head, and one large sail, fastened to an coasts. He was not less prompt and practical enormous yard. We shall see the importance of attending to this arrangement, when we enter 19 We have no information of any nautical upon the incidents of St. Paul's voyage (Acts instruments at the time when we read of Ptolemy’s 27:17, 19). One consequence was, that instead mural quadrant at Alexandria; nor is it likely that of the strain being distributed over the hull, as any more effectual means of taking exact in a modern ship, it was concentrated upon a observations at sea, than the simple quadrant held smaller portion of it : and thus in ancient times in the hand, were in use before the invention of the reflecting quadrants and sextants by Hooke and there must have been a greater tendency to Hadley. The want of exact chronometers must also leakage than at present; and we have the be borne in mind. testimony of ancient writers to the fact, that a

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vast proportion of the vessels lost were by of the most remarkable proofs of the truth of foundering. Thus Virgil, whose descriptions of this statement is to be found in the inscribed everything which relates to the sea are marbles dug up within the last twenty years at peculiarly exact, speaks of the ships in the fleet the Piraeus which give us an inventory of the of Aeneas as lost in various ways, some on Attic fleet in its flourishing period; as one of the rocks and some on quicksands, but “all with most remarkable accounts of the application of fastenings loosened:” and Josephus relates that these artificial 'helps' (27:17) in a storm, is to the ship from which he so narrowly escaped, be found in the narrative before us. foundered ~ in “Adria,” and that he and his If these differences between ancient ships and companions saved themselves by swimming our own are borne in mind, the problems of through the night, an escape which found its early seamanship in the Mediterranean are parallel in the experience of the Apostle, who in nearly reduced to those with which the modern one of those shipwrecks, of which no particular navigator has to deal in the same seas. The narration has been given to us, was “a night and practical questions which remain to be asked a day in the deep” (2 Cor. 21:25). The same are these: What were the dimensions of ancient danger was apprehended in the ship of Jonah, ships? How near the wind could they sail? And, from which ”they cast forth the wares that were with a fair wind, at what rate? in the ship into the sea to lighten it”; as well as As regards the first of these questions, there in the ship of St. Paul, from which, after having seems no reason why we should suppose the lightened it the first day, they cast out the old trading vessels of the Mediterranean to be tackling on the second day, and finally “threw much smaller than our own. We may rest this out the cargo of wheat into the sea” (27:8, 19, conclusion, both on the character of the cargoes 38). with which they were freighted, and on the This leads us to notice what may be called a number of persons we know them to have third peculiarity of the appointments of ancient sometimes conveyed. Though the great ship of ships, as compared with those of modern times. Ptolemy Philadelphus may justly be regarded as In consequence of the extreme danger to which built for ostentation rather than for use, the they were exposed from leaking, it was Alexandrian vessel, which forms the subject of customary to take to sea, as part of their one of Lucian's dialogues, and is described as ordinary gear, undergirders, which were simply driven by stress of weather into the Pineus, ropes for passing round the hull of the ship and furnishes us with satisfactory data for the thus preventing the planks from starting 20. One calculation of the tonnage of ancient ships. Two hundred and seventy six souls were on board the ship in which St. Paul was wrecked (27:37), 20 This is what is called “frapping” by seamen in the and the “Castor and Pollux” conveyed them,.in English navy, who are always taught how to frap a addition to her own crew, from Malta to Puteoli ship. The only difference is, that the practice is now (28:11): while Josephus informs us that there resorted to much less frequently, and that modern were six hundred on board the ship from which ships are not supplied with “undergirders” specially he, with about eighty others, escaped. Such prepared. The operation and its use are thus considerations lead us to suppose that the described in Falconer’s Marine Dictionary: “To frap a burden of many ancient merchantmen may ship is to pass four or five turns of a large cable-laid rope round the hull or frame of a ship, to support have been from five hundred to a thousand her in a great storm, or otherwise, when it is tons. 21 apprehended that she is not strong enough to resist the violent efforts of the sea.” In most of the word used by Isidore of Seville for a rope used in European languages the nautical term is, like the this way is tormentum. Greek, expressive of the nature of the operation. In Spanish the word is tortorar: a circumstance which 21 The ship must have been of considerable burden, possesses some etymological interest, since the as we find there were no less than 276 persons

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A second question of greater consequence in run before the wind. In the China seas, during reference to the present subject, relates to the the monsoons, junks have been seen from the angle which the course of an ancient ship could deck of a British vessel behind in the horizon in be made to assume with the direction of the the morning, and before in the horizon in the wind, or to use the language of English sailors evening. Thus we read of passages (who divide the compass into thirty two accomplished of old in the Mediterranean, points), within how many points of the wind which would do credit to a well appointed she would sail? That ancient vessels could not modern ship. Pliny, who was himself a seaman, work to windward, is one of the popular and in command of a fleet at the time of his mistakes which need not be refuted. They death, might furnish us with several instances. doubtless took advantage of the Etesian winds, We might quote the story of the fresh fig, which just as the traders in the Eastern Archipelago Cato produced in the senate at Rome, wnen he sail with the monsoons: but those who were urged his countrymen to undertake the third accustomed to a seafaring life could not avoid Punic war, by impressing on them the discovering that a ship's course can be made to imminent nearness of their enemy. “This fruit,” assume a less angle than a right angle with the he says, “was gathered fresh at Carthage three direction of the wind, or, in other words, that days ago.’ she can be made to sail within less than eight Other voyages, which he adduces, are such as points of the wind these, seven days from Cadiz to Ostia, seven Pliny distinctly says, that it is possible for a ship days from the straits of Messina to Alexandria, to sail on contrary tacks. The limits of this nine days from Puteoli to Alexandria. These possibility depend upon the character of the instances are quite in harmony with what we vessel and the violence of the gale. We shall read in other authors. Thus Rhodes and Cape find, below, that the vessel in which St. Paul was Salmone, at the eastern extremity of Crete, are wrecked, “could not look at the wind,” for so the reckoned by Diodorus and Strabo as four days Greek word (27:1515) may be literally from Alexandria: Plutarch tells us of a voyage translated in the language of English sailors, within the day from Brundusium to Corcyra : though with a less violent gale, an English ship, Procopius describes Belisarius as sailing on one well managed, could easily have kept her day with his fleet from Malta, and landing on course. A modern merchantman, in moderate the next day some leagues to the south of weather, can sail within six points of the wind. Carthage. A thousand stades (or between 100 In an ancient vessel the yard could not be and 150 miles), is reckoned by the geographers braced so sharp, and the hull was more clumsy: a common distance to accomplish in the twenty and it would not be safe to say that she could four hours. And the conclusion to which we are sail nearer the wind than within seven points. brought is, that with a fair wind an ancient To turn now to the third question, the rate of merchantman would easily sail at the rate of sailing, the very nature of the rig, which was seven knots an honr, a conclusion in complete less adapted than our own for working to harmony both with what we have observed in a windward, was peculiarly favourable to a quick former voyage of St. Paul (Chap. 20), and with what will demand our attention at the close of embarked on board her. To afford fair that voyage, which brought him at length from accommodation for troops in a transport expressly Malta by Rhegium to Puteoli (Acts 28:13). fitted for the purpose, we should allow at the rate of The remarks which have been made will a ton and a half to each man, and as the ship we are convey to the reader a sufficient notion of the considering was not expressly fitted for passengers, ships and navigation of the ancients. If to the we may conclude that her burden was fully, or at least nearly double, the number of tons, to the souls above mentioned peculiarities of build and rig on board, or upwards of 500 tons. we add the eye painted at the prow, the conventional ornaments at stem and stern,

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which are familiar to us in remaining works of besides various villages of the interior and the art, and the characteristic figures of Heathen -Aššur- -iddina, “Fort divinities, we shall gain a sufficient idea of an Esarhaddon,” founded by the Assyrians very ancient merchantman. And a glance at the chart newnear city,that KārPhoenicianaḫ city. of the Mediterranean will enable us to realise in The archeological recoveries confirm the our imagination the nature of the voyages that dispersion not only obviously of the were most frequent in the ancient world. With necropoleis (from Phoenician royal tombs of the same view of elucidating the details of our subject beforehand, we may now devote a short space to the prevalent lines of traffic, and to the the 5th cent. at Maġarat ʾablun, to the various opportunities of travellers by sea, in the first ofnecropoleis the sanctuaries of the (theBronze monumental Age at Kafr one Ğarra, of century of the Christian era. Lebeʿa, Quraya, and of- the Roman identification era), but also of Sidon From International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Eshmun at Bustān eš-šillemŠaiḫ, thethat have been whichrecovered) with andʿn ydll of theis demonstrated same city. by the inscriptions of Baʿal AV also ZIDON. A city-state on the The nucleus of this city was, however, on a SIDON.Mediterranean [Heb. ṣîḏôn; coast, Akk. 40 kmṣidunnu; (25 mi) Gk. N Sidōn]; of Tyre, promontory which was joined to a line of rocks that assured protection from the wind. South of explained by the ancients as derived from that the promontory a round little bay was located, theof an modern eponymous city of hero, Ṣaidaʾ. founder The name of the was city (Side possibly used as a landingplace but not serving or Sidon in classical versions of the legend; cf. regularly as a seaport in ancient times; the real also Gen. 10:15, where Sidon is the “first-born” port was north of the promontory, joined to of Canaan); but since Justin the name of the city two internal basins (on the site of the modern has been recognized as the Phoenician word for port) enclosed by a system of man-made jetties, “fish.” Today it is commonly thought that the and a more ample external roadstead. II. History hunt,” also “to fish,” therefore the toponym The earliest attestation of Sidon dates from the signifiesetymology “fish is to market” be sought or something in the root similar; ṣwd, “to or 15th–14th cents B.C. with the Amarna letters: else the name of the king of Sidon, Zimrida, was submissive to cited from which the toponym can be derived. Egypt (as was the entire region at that time), I. Topography andthe ArcheologicalPhoenician deity Ṣid is and was involved in local battles, Sidon being Exploration allied with Arwad and Amurru against Byblos The city sprang up in a small costal plain near and Tyre; in particular Sidon was attempting to the mouth of the Nahr el- take from Tyre all the mainland possessions as a region long known for luxurious gardens and well as a considerable portion of its territories orchards. The topographyʿawali is rather (Bostrenus), complex in to the south (cf. AmTab 147–49). The Akkadian and scattered; the local inscriptions name texts from Ugarit preserve a pair of names of -Addu and Imtu) datable probably on the site of the modern city; šmm to the 13th century. Egyptian texts name the various quarters: Ṣdn ym “Sidon by the sea,” kingscity in of Papyrus Sidon (Yapaḫ Anastasi I (cf. ANET, p. 477) and “powerful heavens,” evidently on the h in the account of Wen-Amon (cf. ANET, p. 27). rmm, “elevated heavens,” or šmm ʾdrm, Egyptian domination came to an end toward uncertain locations; and the mountain ill; ʾrṣ 1200; in the 12th–11th cents Sidon apparently ršp, “land of Resheph”; ṣdn mšl, ṣdn šd, of gained a certain political preeminence, which Likewise the Assyrian texts distinguished a seems necessary to explain the use of the term “Greatsanctuary Sidon” of ʿn (cf. ydll, the “source identical (spring) expression of Yadlal.” in “Sidonians” to indicate the “Phoenicians” in Josh. 11:8 and 19:28) and a “Little Sidon,” general. Perhaps passages such as Josh. 13:4–6 and Jgs. 18:7 imply control by Sidon to the

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Persian, was commanded by the king of Sidon toward the interior as far as Laish. About 1100 (Diodorus xiv.67); the king of Sidon was first in thesouthern Assyrian end Tiglath of ʿAra- pileserS of the I Carmel mentioned and only rank of the vassals of Xerxes (Herodotus Sidon (and not Tyre) as a Phoenician center S of viii.67), and he sailed aboard a Sidonian ship Byblos. But this place of predominence was cut (Herodotus vii.128). The funerary inscriptions off by the establishment of the kingdom of and monuments recovered at Sidon permit the Israel and by the political growth of Tyre reconstruction in part of the local dynastic toward 1000 B.C. In the 9th cent. the inscriptions of (tbnt), Eshmunazar II, Bodashtart (bd Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III tosuccession: be placed Eshmunazar at the end of (ʾšmn the 6th ʿzr) cent. I, Tabnit and in concerning expeditions in Syria show that the first half of the 5th. From Tabnit andʿštrt) are Sidon was an autonomous kingdom alongside Eshmunazar II we have the inscriptions on their of Tyre. On the other hand the situation seems sarcophagi, from Bodashtart inscriptions of the to have been altered by the time of Tiglath- - pileser III (747–727) when there was no constructed by him (see picture in PHOENICIA). kingdom of Sidon and the city was certainly Attemple the same of Eshmun temple at of Bustān Eshmun eš aŠaiḫ statue was included in the territory of Tyre, where Hiram -shillem II reigned with the title of “king of the Sidonians” (Corpus lnscriptionum Semiticarum successively dedicated by Prince Baʿal I, 5). (bʿlšlm) recording the names- of the father - The same situation pertained at the time of shillem,Baʿana (bʿnʾ), all kings of the of Sidongrandfather during Abdemon the the second Sennacherib, who conducted an expedition (ʿbdʾmn),half of the and 5th ofcentury. the great In thegrandfather 4th cent. reportsBaʿal (701) against Luli king of Sidon, whom of classical authors, confirmed in part by Josephus (Ant. ix.14.2 [283f]) called Elulaios numismatic data, give credibility to the and considered king of Tyre. According to the - - - Assyrian texts, Luli fled from Tyre to Cyprus; , of whom Sennacherib replaced the fugitive with the sequenceGreek inscriptions of ʿAbd ʿAshtart [CIG, I, 87]I, Bod recordedʿAshtart, close ʿAbd Assyrophile Tubalu (* Itto- ʿAshtart II (Straton the Philhellene - of Sidon. In 677 the king of Sidon, Abdi-Milkutti, rebelled against the Assyrianbaʿal) Esarhaddon, on the throne who Crucialties and moments assistance of in this Attica), period Tennes, are the ʿAbd anti- intervened, conquered and destroyed Sidon, PersianʿAshtart revoltIII, ranging of Straton between in 362, 400 the and more 332. put Abdi-Milkutti to death, transformed the serious revolt of Tennes in 351, ending with the kingdom of Sidon into an Assyrian province, destruction of Sidon, and finally the submission and founded a new capital (near or on the same to Alexander in 332. sit - In the conflicts between the Seleucids and the Aššur- -iddina (“Fort Esarhaddon”). For the Lagides Sidon was annexed to the latter and eventse of the of 701 destroyed or those city) of 677, with one the might name referof Kār was made part of the Ptolemaic kingdom from to Isa. 22:1aḫ –4, 12–14 (on the destruction of 307 to 197, then of the Seleucid from 197 to 64, Sidon, integrated with vv 5–11 and 15–18 when it became part of the Roman province of relative to Tyre, probably later). Syria. In all this period a municipal government Included thus in the Assyrian empire and then and a certain autonomy (hierá kaí ásylos) were in the Neo-Babylonian, Sidon remained notably preserved, at least from 111 when an era of central, and then received particular impetus dating was initiated “according to the people of by the works of the Achemenids, who made it Sidon”; but in 20 B.C. Augustus brought an end the principal Phoenician center of the 5th–4th to the autonomy of the Phoenician cities, and cents: at Sidon there was a residence of the Sidon progressively declined. Itineraries and Persian kings with a park (Diodorus xvi.41); the travelers of the 4th–6th cents A.D. considered Phoenician fleet, principal nucleus of the the city a secondary center (less important than

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Sarepta), but with a local bishop; it had a constrained by love, and influenced by the limited role at the time of the Crusades, as did consideration of the relation he stood in to God. all the ports of the region, after which its And all this was not peculiar to the apostle, but horizons became exclusively local and remain common to all the saints, excepting that of his so today. being an apostle and minister of the Gospel: M. LIVERANI; W. S. LASOR and the consideration of their relation to God ACTS 27:22. And now I exhort you to be of has the same influence upon them it had upon good cheer, To take heart and courage, and him; they are not their own, nor are they the not be cast down, though things had been thus servants of men, nor do they belong to Satan, with them, and they were now in a very nor even to the ministering angels, but they are melancholy plight and condition. the Lord’s; not merely by creation, as all men are, but in a way of special grace. For there shall be no loss of any man’s life among you, but of the ship; the ship will be They are Jehovah the Father’s, to whom he lost, but not one person in it: there will be a bears a peculiar love and favour, and whom he shipwreck, and so every man’s life will be in has chosen in his Son for his peculiar people; danger, and yet not one will perish; and and which is made manifest and known by therefore there was reason to be of good cheer, drawing them with loving kindness to himself since this was what they could not, and did not in the effectual calling; by his Gospel coming in expect, all hope of being saved was gone: power to them; by the blessings of the covenant wherefore this, if they could but believe it, must of grace being bestowed on them; and by the be good news to all the company; and in order spirit of adoption witnessing to them, that they to engage them to believe it, the apostle adds, are the children of God. ACTS 27:23. For there stood by me this night They are Jehovah the Son’s, they are his people the angel of God, One of the ministering, made willing in the day of his power; they are spirits that stand before God, and who was sent his portion assigned him by his Father; they are by him to the apostle; and appeared to him, his spouse and bride, whom he has betrothed to either in a vision by a dream, or rather when he himself; they are his children, to whom he was awake, and stood by him, as he was stands in the relation of the everlasting Father; praying for deliverance from the storm; for it is and they are his sheep the Father has given most likely that the apostle should be engaged him, and he has laid down his life for; all which at such a time as this: appears by their having his Spirit, as a Spirit of regeneration and sanctification, without which whose I am, and whom I serve: meaning not none are openly and manifestly his: and they the angel, but God, whose the angel was; and are Jehovah the Spirit’s. his the apostle was, by electing, redeeming, and calling grace; God the Father had chosen him in They are his regenerated and sanctified ones; his Son unto salvation; and Christ had they are his workmanship, having his good redeemed him by his blood; and the Holy Spirit work of grace begun and carrying on in their had called him by his grace; and he was not souls; they are his temples in which he dwells; only the Lord’s in common, as all other saints he has the possession of them, and will not are, but he was his apostle and minister, and leave them till he has brought them safe to served him in the ministration of the Gospel of glory: and under all this evidence, and Christ, as well as from a principle of grace, especially through the testimony of the Spirit of obeyed the law of God, and was subject to the God unto them, they call themselves the Lord’s, ordinances of Christ; in all which he served as the apostle here does, and this engages them with great pleasure and cheerfulness, diligence, to serve him. constancy, and faithfulness; from right The natural man has no desire, but an aversion principles, and with right views, being to the service of God; converted men are willing

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to serve him, and delight to do it; they serve whether with respect to things temporal; that God in the best manner they can, in they shall not want any good thing; that all their righteousness and true holiness, in an afflictions shall be for their good; that they shall acceptable manner, with reverence and godly be supported under them, and at last brought fear, and heartily and willingly; as appears by out of them: or whether with respect to the pleasure they take in being called the spiritual things. servants of God, by disclaiming all other lords, Whatever he has said concerning himself, that by running all risks to serve the Lord, and by he will be their God, will continue to love them, lamenting it, that they serve him no better. will not leave them, nor forsake them, will ACTS 27:24. Saying, fear not, Paul, For guide and protect them, will supply all their though the apostle knew and believed he need, and give them grace here, and glory should go to Rome, and appear before Caesar, hereafter; and whatever he has said concerning to whom he had appealed, and where he should his Son, that he is their Saviour and Redeemer, bear a testimony for Christ; and though he had that they are justified by his righteousness, previous notice of this storm, and of the loss pardoned through his blood, and shall be saved and damage which should be sustained, and in him with an everlasting salvation. which he expected; yet the flesh was weak, and Whatever he has said concerning his Spirit, that he might be under some fears and misgivings of he shall enlighten them more and more, carry heart, for these sometimes attend the best of on his good work in them, and finish it, shall be men. their comforter and their guide, shall Thou must be brought before Caesar; as has strengthen them in their inward man, and work been declared, and therefore cannot be lost in them up for that selfsame thing, eternal glory: this storm; it is the will and decree of God, and likewise, whatever he has said concerning which cannot be frustrated, it must be: the prosperity and happiness of the churches in and lo, God hath given thee all them that sail the latter day; even all those glorious things with thee; that is, God had determined to save spoken of the city of God; and which relate both the whole ship’s company for his sake, and in to the spiritual and personal reign of Christ. answer to his prayers, which he had been Faith takes all this at his word, and firmly putting up for them; the Lord had heard him, believes it shall be as he has said: and it has and granted his request, and would save them good grounds and reasons for acting in this all on his account: so sometimes God saves a manner; from the veracity, faithfulness, and nation, a city, a body of men, even of ungodly power of God, who has promised; and from the men, for the sake of a few that fear his name, nature of the promises themselves, which are who are among them. unconditional, immutable, all in Christ, and yea ACTS 27:25. Wherefore, sirs, be of good and amen in him, and not one of them has ever cheer, Which he repeats with more fervency failed: and such a believing frame of soul and earnestness, there being so much reason greatly encourages cheerfulness of spirit, and for it: produces it: a believer is cheerful himself, as he has reason to be; he is filled with joy and peace for I believe God, that it shall be even as it in believing, yea, with a joy unspeakable, and was told me: true faith lays hold and, settles full of glory; and he makes all about him upon the word and promises of God; and the cheerful; he comforts others with the same true believer, knowing his power and comforts he has been comforted of God; and faithfulness, firmly persuaded that there shall however, he exhorts, after his own example, to be a performance of what is said by him, with believe, and be of good cheer; (see 2 Chronicles respect to matter, manner, and circumstances. 20:20). Whatever God has told his people of, or has promised unto them, shall be performed, ACTS 27:26. Howbeit, we must be cast upon a certain island. This circumstance is foretold,

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that when the whole affair should come to pass, being sunk in the middle of Adria, being in it might be manifest that it was not a casual number about six hundred, we swam all night; thing, a fortuitous event, a business of chance, and about break of day, by the providence of but was predetermined by God, made known to God, a ship of Cyrene appeared to us, in which I, the apostle, and predicted by him. This island and some others, in all eighty, getting before was Melita; and the fulfillment of this part of the rest, were received into it, and so got safe to the prediction is related in (Acts 28:1). Dicearchia, which the Italians call Puteoli;” a ACTS 27:27. But when the fourteenth night place afterwards mentioned, where the apostle was come, From their setting out from the Fair also arrived. Havens in Crete, or from the beginning of the And the sea itself is often, by the poets called storm: Adria, as here, and is represented as a very as they were driven up and down in Adria: or troublesome sea; and here Paul, and the ship’s “in the Adriatic sea”, as the Syriac version company, were driven to and fro by the storm, renders it: the Adriatic sea is now called by the when about midnight the shipmen deemed Turks the gulf of Venice, and the straits of that they drew near to some country: about Venice, and sometimes the Venetian sea ; but the middle of the night the mariners thought, by formerly the Adriatic sea included more than some observations they made, that they were the Venetian gulf; it took in the Ionian and nigh land; or, as it is in the Greek text, “that Sicilian seas, and had its name from the city some country drew near to them”; which well Adria, a colony of the Tuscans . agrees with the language and sense of seafaring It is called by Ptolemy Hadria, and reckoned a persons, to whose sight the land seems to draw city of the Picenes. Pliny places it near the river near them, or depart from them, when they Padus, and calls it Atriae, a town of the Tuscans, draw near, or depart from that: the Ethiopic which had a famous port, from whence the sea version is, “they thought they should have seen was before called Atriatic, which is now a city”; they had a notion of some city near; and Adriatic. the Arabic version, “they thought to know in what country, or place” they were; and Adria, Justin says, which is near to the Illyrian therefore did as follows. sea, and gave name to the Adriatic sea, is a Grecian city; and from this place the ancestors ACTS 27:28. And sounded, Or let down their of Adrian, the Roman emperor, originally came; plummet, or sounding line; which was a line and all the sea between Illyricum and Italy is with a piece of lead at the end of it, which they called the Adriatic; and from the beginning of it, let down into the water, and by that means which is at the city of Venice, unto Garganus, a found what depth it was, by which they could mountain in Italy, and Dyrrachium, a city of judge whether they were near land or not. Macedonia, it is 600 miles in length, and its The sounding line, with the ancients, was called largest breadth is 200, and the least 150, and by different names; sometimes bolis, and this is the mouth of it 60. the name it has here, , “they let down the bolis”: The other part of the sea, which washes and the bolis is, by some, described thus; it is a Macedonia and Epirus, is called the Ionian sea. brazen or leaden vessel, with a chain, which Moreover, this whole sea is called the superior mariners fill with grease, and let down into the sea, with respect to the Tyrrhenian, which sea, to try whether the places are rocky where a dashes the other shore of Italy, and is called the ship may stand, or sandy where the ship is in inferior . danger of being lost: it is also called “catapirates”, which is thus described by In this same sea, Josephus , the historian, was Isidore; “catapirates” is a line with a piece of shipwrecked as he was on a voyage to Rome: lead, by which the depth of the sea is tried. his account is this; “I came to Rome, having gone through many dangers by sea, for our ship

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Herodotus makes mention of it under this ACTS 27:29. Then fearing lest they should name, and observes, that when persons are have fallen upon rocks, Or rough places, as within a day’s voyage of Egypt, if they letdown shelves, rocks, or sands, as they might well fear, the “catapirates”, or sounding line, they will when the water shallowed so fast, from 20 to bring up clay, even when in eleven fathom deep 15 fathoms: According to modern accounts, there are two they cast four anchors out of the stern; or kinds of lines, occasionally used in sounding the hinder part of the ship; the Ethiopic version sea, the sounding line, and the deep sea line: the calls it, “the head of the ship”: and adds, “where sounding line is the thickest and shortest, as the governor sat”; that is, at the helm, to steer it. not exceeding 20 fathoms in length, and is Perhaps the reason of this version is, because it marked at two, three, and four fathoms with a is not usual in modern navigation, and so, when piece of black leather between the strands, and this version was made, to cast out anchors from at five with a piece of white leather: the the stern, but from the prow or head of the sounding line may be used when the ship is ship; but it seems this was done by the ancients. under sail, which the deep sea line cannot. According to Pliny, the Tyrrhenians first The plummet is usually in form of a nine pin, invented the anchor; though Pausanias ascribes and weighs 18 pounds; the end is frequently the invention of it to Midas, the son of Gordius: greased, to try whether the ground be sandy or the most ancient ones were made of stone, as rocky, etc. was the anchor of the Argonauts; afterwards The deep sea line is used in deep water, and they were made of wood; and it is said, that the both lead and line are larger than the other; at Japanese use wooden anchors now; and these the end of it is a piece of lead, called deep sea were not pointed, but had great weights of lead, lead, has a hole at the bottom, in which is put a or baskets filled with stones at the head of piece of “tallow”, to bring up the color of the them, to stop the ship with; last of all they were sand at the bottom, to learn the differences of made of iron, but with a barb or tooth on one the ground, and know what coasts they are on. side only, not on both: the anchor with two And found it twenty fathoms; or “orgyas”; a teeth or barbs was found out by Eupalamius; or, fathom is a measure which contains six feet, as others say, by Anacharsis, the Scythian and is the utmost extent of both arms, when philosopher: it was usual to have more anchors stretched into a right line: the fathom, it seems, than one in every ship, of which there was one differs according to the different sorts of which exceeded the rest, both in size and vessels; the fathom of a man of war is six feet, strength, and was called the “sacred” anchor; that of merchant ships five feet and a half, and and which was only used in case of necessity ; that of fly boats and fishing vessels five feet: if and is what is now called “the sheet anchor”. the fathom here used was the first of these, the The modern anchor is a large strong piece of sounding was an hundred and twenty feet; the iron, crooked at one end, and formed into two Ethiopic version renders it, “twenty statues of a barbs, resembling a hook, fastened at the other man”. end by a cable. And when they had gone a little further, they The parts of an anchor are, (1) the ring into sounded again, and found it fifteen fathoms; which the cable is fastened; (2) the beam, or or ninety feet; by which they imagined that they shank, which is the longest part of the anchor; were near the continent, or some island: in (3) the arm, which is that which runs down into some places, as the coasts of Virginia, for the ground; at the end of which is, (4) the instance, by the use of the deep sea line, it is flouke or fluke, by some called the palm, being known how far it is from land; for as many that broad and picked part with its barbs like fathoms of water as are found, it is reckoned so an arrowhead, which fastens into the ground; many leagues from land. (5) the stock, a piece of wood, fastened to the

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beam near the ring, serving to guide the fluke, danger, nor aware of the design of the shipmen; so that it may fall right, and fix in the ground. and besides, had now great dependence upon There are three kinds of anchors commonly the assurance the apostle had given, that no life used, the kedger, the grapnel, and the stream should be lost: to these he said, anchor ; yea, I find that there are four kinds of except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be anchors, the sheet anchor, best bower, small saved; pointing to the mariners who were bower, and stream anchor: it seems the grapnel about to let down the boat, in order to make is chiefly for the long boat: here were four their escape: the apostle had before declared, anchors, but very likely all of a sort, or, that there should be no loss of any man’s life, however, not diversified in the manner the and yet now affirms, that unless the mariners modern ones are. continued in the ship, the rest of the company These they cast out to stop the ship, and keep it could not be saved: this does not show that the steady, and that it might proceed no further, till decree concerning the salvation of them was a they could learn whereabouts they were: conditional one, and that the condition was, that the mariners should stay in the ship; but and wished for the day; that by the light of it that their stay in the ship, who had skill to guide they might see whether they were near land, or and direct it, as also the company when in danger of rocks and shelves, as they shipwrecked, were a means absolutely fixed in imagined. the decree, and therefore was absolutely ACTS 27:30. And as the shipmen were about necessary. to flee out of the ship, To save their lives, God had determined to save the whole ship’s concluding that it was in the utmost danger, crew, and that in the same way and manner; and that it would quickly, notwithstanding the they were all to be shipwrecked; some were not anchors cast out, break away, and fall upon the to leave the ship before hand, and save rocks, and split to pieces: themselves in the boat, but they were all to be when they had let down the boat into the sea; exposed to equal danger, and then be saved; which before they had taken up into the ship, and till that time came, the proper and prudent (Acts 27:16,17) and now they let it down, in means were to be made use of, who were the order to get into it, and make their escape: shipmen, who best knew how to manage the under color as though they would have cast ship in this extremity: this teaches us that the anchors out of the foreship; the foremost part end and means, in the decrees of God, are not to of the ship, the prow of it; their pretence in be separated; nor is any end to be expected attempting to get out of the ship, and into the without the use of means; and means are as boat, was, that whereas there were anchors cast peremptorily fixed, and are as absolutely out of the stern, or hinder part of the ship, so necessary, and must as certainly be they would cast out others, from the fore part of accomplished, as the end. it; and “stretch” them “out”, as the word Thus spiritual and eternal salvation is a certain signifies, or carry them further out into the sea, thing; it is the appointment of God, which is for the security of the ship; and to do which, it absolute and unconditional, immutable and was necessary to use the boat. unfrustrable; there is a sure connection ACTS 27:31. Paul said to the centurion, and between the decree of God and salvation; it is a to the soldiers, He did not direct his speech to scheme drawn by Jehovah in the council of the governor and owner of the ship, who very peace, who is God only wise, saw everything likely, being sensible of the danger, were in the before hand that would come to pass, and has scheme with the mariners, and at the head of power to execute his scheme; it is an affair them; but to Julius the centurion, and the secured in the covenant of grace, which is sure soldiers under him, who having no knowledge and immovable; God is faithful who has made it of maritime affairs, were not apprised of the with his Son; and Christ, the surety and

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Mediator of it, is equal to that part which he has ACTS 27:32. Then the soldiers cut off the in it. ropes of the boat, With which it had been Salvation is a finished work, full satisfaction is fastened to the sides of the ship, and by which made for sin, and pardon procured, an the mariners were letting it down, in order to everlasting righteousness is brought in, all get into it, and go off: enemies are conquered and destroyed, and and let her fall off; from the sides of the ship Christ’s people are saved from them: and the into the sea, and so prevented the shipmen interest which he has in them shows the quitting the ship; for now they gave more credit certainty of their salvation; for they are given to to Paul than to them. him, and are in his hands; they are his portion, ACTS 27:33. And while the day was coming his treasure and his jewels; they are the on, Between midnight and break of day: Paul purchase of his blood, and the travail of his besought them all to take meat; to sit down and soul; they are united to him, and are built upon eat a meal together: him; they are interested in his preparations and saying, this day is the fourteenth day that ye prayers, and are in some sense saved already; have tarried; or have been waiting for, or and yet there are some things which God has expecting; that is, as the Arabic version fixed as means, and made absolutely necessary, expresses it, a shipwreck; for fourteen days and without which none can be saved: as for past, ever since the storm begun, they had instance. expected nothing but shipwreck and death: None can be saved without regeneration; and continued fasting, having taken nothing: without this there is no meetness for heaven; not that they had neither ate nor drank all that nor does it appear without it that any have a while, for without a miracle they could never right unto it; nor can an unregenerate man have have lived so long without eating something; any true hope of it; wherefore such as are but the meaning is, they had not eaten anyone chosen and redeemed, are regenerated by the regular meal all that while, had only caught up a Spirit of God: so likewise without holiness no bit now and then, and ate it, and that but very man shall see the Lord; this is fixed in the little. decree of God, and is necessary to the enjoyment of him, and to fellowship with angels ACTS 27:34. Wherefore I pray you to take and glorified saints; wherefore the Lord some meat, To sit down composedly, and eat sanctifies all he saves. meat cheerfully and freely: None without faith in Christ will ever be saved; for this is for your health; the Alexandrian nor is this inconsistent with salvation being by copy reads, “for our health”; it was for the grace, seeing it is not considered as a cause of health of them all, that they might be better salvation, but is itself a gift of grace; it lies in able to bear the shock and fatigue of the receiving things at the hand of God, it admits of shipwreck, and be in better spirits, and in a no glorying in men, and gives all the glory of better capacity to help themselves, and one salvation to God and Christ, and free grace; and another: this is necessary because God has appointed it, for there shall not an hair fall from the head and therefore he bestows it on all he means to of any of you; a proverbial phrase, expressing save: to which may be added, that without the utmost safety of their lives, and therefore perseverance in faith and holiness, there is no might cheerfully eat their food, and rest salvation; wherefore the Lord puts his grace themselves, and be satisfied. into the hearts of his people to cause them to To dream of shaving the hair portended persevere; he encompasses them with his shipwreck to sailors; nor was it lawful for any power, upholds them with the right hand of his to pare his nails, or cut off his hair, but in a righteousness, and preserves them from Satan, storm; to which custom, some think, the apostle and from a final and total falling away.

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here alludes ; (see 1 Samuel 14:45, 2 Samuel then said “Amen”, at giving of thanks; when he 14:11). that gave thanks broke and ate first: for he that ACTS 27:35. And when he had thus spoken he broke the bread might not break it until the took bread, A piece of bread, of common “Amen” was finished by all that answered by it, bread, into his hands; for this could never be at giving of thanks; and no one might eat the Eucharist, or Lord’s supper, which the anything until he that broke, first tasted and ate apostle now celebrated, as some have . suggested, but such sort of bread that seafaring ACTS 27:36. Then were they all of good cheer, men commonly eat: Encouraged by the apostle’s words and Mention is before made of “meat” or “food”, example: which the apostle entreated them to take, and they all took some meat; and made a which includes every sort of sea provisions they comfortable meal, which they had not done for had with them; and which, with the ancients, fourteen days past. were usually the following: it is certain they ACTS 27:37. And we were in all in the ship, used to carry bread corn along with them, Reckoning the master and owner of the ship, either crude, or ground, or baked; the former and the centurion and the soldiers, and the when they went long voyages, the last when apostle and his company, with whatsoever shorter ones; and it is plain that they had wheat passengers there might be: in this ship, which after they had eaten they two hundred and threescore and sixteen cast out, (Acts 27:38) and corn ground, or meal, souls; the Alexandrian copy reads, “two they had used to eat moistened with water, and hundred seventy and five”; and the Ethiopic sometimes with oil, and sometimes with oil and version, “two hundred and six”. wine. This account of the number is given to show, They had a sort of food they called “maza” that the historian, who was one of them, had an which was made of meat and milk; likewise exact knowledge of all in the ship; and this they used to carry onions and garlic, which the being recorded before the account of the rowers usually ate, and were thought to be shipwreck, may serve to make the truth of the good against change of places and water; and relation the more to be believed that none of they were wont to make a sort of soup of them perished, since their number was so cheese, onions and eggs, which the Greeks call precisely known; and makes it the more “muttootos”, and the Latin’s “mosetum”; and marvelous, that such a number of men should they had also bread which was of a red color, be saved, and in a shipwreck; and shows, that being hard baked and scorched in the oven, yea there must be a wonderful interposition of it was “biscoctus”, twice baked ; as our modern divine power to bring them all safe to land. sea biscuit is, and which has its name from hence, and which for long voyages is four times ACTS 27:38. And when they had eaten baked, and prepared six months before the enough, Were satisfied, having eaten a full voyage is entered on; and such sort of red bread meal: or biscuit very probably was this, which the they lightened the ship; of its burden, that it apostle now took into his hands, and did with it might the better carry them to the shore, and as follows: that by the following method: and gave thanks to God in the presence of and cast out the wheat into the sea; which them all: and for them all, as Christ did at seems to have been part of the ship’s provision; ordinary meals, (Matthew 14:19, 15:36). or one part of their lading, which they brought and when he had broken it he began to eat: from Egypt, and were carrying to Italy: they had which was all agreeably to the custom and cast out some of the goods of the ship before, manner of the Jews, who first gave thanks, and and also the tackling of the ship, and now, last of all, the wheat; for what was eatable they

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reserved till last, not knowing to what ship, by which the rudder is managed and extremity they might be reduced. directed: this latter is properly called the ACTS 27:39. And when it was day they knew “helm” or “tiller”, and sometimes, though not the land, What place it was, or the name of improperly, the rudder itself. it: A narrow rudder is best for a ship’s sailing, but they discovered a certain creek with a provided she can feel it; that is, be guided and shore; a gulf or bay, with a shore near it; the turned by it, for a broad rudder will hold much Ethiopic version explains it, water when the helm is put over to any side; yet if a ship has a fat quarter, so that the water an arm of the sea, where was a port, where cannot come quick and strong to her rudder, they thought they could secure themselves, or she will require a broad rudder. get ashore: The aft most part of the rudder is called the into which they were minded, if it were “rake” of the rudder. This is the account of a possible, to thrust in the ship; whither they rudder with the moderns: with the ancients, the had a mind, and consulted to run the ship, if it parts of the rudder were these, the “clavus” or could be done by any means, believing it was “helm”, by which the rudder was governed; the the most likely method of saving themselves, pole of it; the wings or the two breadths of it, and that; for notwithstanding the assurance which were as wings, and the handle: some they had that no man’s life should be lost, they ships had but one rudder, most had two, and made use of all proper means for their safety some three, and some four; those that had but and security. one, seemed to have it in the middle of the ACTS 27:40. And when they had taken up the stern; and those that had two had them on the anchors, The four anchors they cast out of the sides, not far from the middle; and there were stern, (Acts 27:29) or “when they had cut the some ships which had them not only in the anchors”, as the Syriac and Arabic versions stern, but also in the prow or head of the ship : render it; that is, had cut the cables to which the that the ancients had sometimes more rudders anchors were fastened: than one in a ship, has been abundantly proved they committed themselves unto the sea; or by Bochartus and Scheherus; take only an left them, the anchors, in the sea; or committed instance or two. the ship to the sea, and themselves in it, The Carthaginians, as Aelianus reports, endeavoring to steer its course to the place they decreed two governors to every ship saying it had in view: was absurd that it should have , “two rudders”, and loosed the rudder bands; by which the and that he who was most useful to the sailors, rudder was fastened to the ship. and had the government of the ship, should be The rudder, in navigation, is a piece of timber alone, and without successor and companion; turning on hinges in the stern of a ship, and and so Apuleius says, the ship in which we which opposing sometimes one side to the were carried was shook by various storms and water, and sometimes another, turns or directs tempests, “utroque regimine amisso”, and the vessel this way or that. having lost both its rudders, sunk at the The rudder of a ship is a piece of timber hung precipice. on the stern posts, by four or five iron hooks, Some of the Indian ships have three rudders; called “pintles”, serving as it were for the bridle that of Philopator’s had four rudders: how of a ship, to turn her about at the pleasure of many this ship had, in which the apostle was, the steersman. cannot be said: but this is certain, that it had The rudder being perpendicular, and without more than one; for the words are, “and loosed side the ship, another piece of timber is fitted the bands of the rudders”; and since it is a clear into it at right angles, which comes into the case, that the ships of the ancients had more rudders than one to each, there is no need to

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suppose a figure in the text, and that the plural which the sea ran; and which the inhabitants of number is used for the singular, as Beza thinks. Malta, as Beza says, show to this day, and call it, “The bands” of them were those by which they “la Cala de San Paulo”, or the Descent of Saint were fastened; and they were “loosed”, as Paul. Schefferus conjectures, because when the The meeting of these two seas might occasion a anchors were cast out, they fastened the great rippling in the sea like to a large eddy, or rudders higher, that they might not be broken counter tide; and here might be a sand on by the dashing of the waves, especially as they which were in a storm; but now having taken up the they ran the ship aground; for this place anchors, they loosed these bands: and certain it where the two seas met, as the same annotator is, that not only oars but rudders were fastened observes, could not be the shore itself; for with cords or ropes to the ship : according to otherwise, to what purpose should they cast the notion of modern navigation, the rudder themselves into the sea, as they afterwards did, band might be thought to be the rope which is if the head of the ship struck upon the shore, turned round the tiller, and made fast to the and stuck fast there? but must rather mean a ship’s side, and as the tiller is moved, “surges” shelf of sand, opposite, or near the entrance round the end of the tiller; and very likely might into the bay, and where the shipwreck was. be made fast, when the ship was at anchor, on And the fore part stuck fast, and remained one side, to keep the ship from breaking her unmovable; so that there was no getting her sheer; but now being loosed, and the helm off: “amidships”, and the mainsail hoisted, the ship ran to the shore before the wind. but the hinder part was broken by the violence of the waves; that is, the stern; by : And hoisted up the main sail to the wind which means there were boards and broken which they had before struck or let down, (Acts pieces for the company to get ashore upon. 27:17). The main sail is that which is upon the main mast. ACTS 27:42. And the soldiers’ counsel was to kill the prisoners, Paul, and the rest: this they The Ethiopic version renders it, “the great sail”. had not only an inclination to, but they declared The great sail was that which is called “acatius”, it, and gave it as their opinion, and what they which is another word than is here used: so thought advisable to be done directly: Isidore says “acatius” is the greatest sail, and is placed in the middle of the ship; “epidromos” is lest any of them should swim out and escape; the next in size, and is placed at the stern; and and they should be accountable for them: but “dolon” is the least sail, and is fixed at the head: this was dreadful wickedness in them to seek to and both the Syriac and Arabic versions here take away the lives of others, when they render it, “the little sail”; and which sailors put themselves were in so much danger; and up when they are afraid to use large sails, which monstrous ingratitude to the Apostle Paul, who would carry too much wind; but the word here had been so much concerned for their lives, and used is “artemo”, which the above writer says is careful of them, and had been the means of commended rather for the sake of directing the saving them, and for whose sake they were ship, than for swiftness. saved: the devil must have had a great hand in this. And this seems to be the use that was now made of it, namely, to guide the ship into the ACTS 27:43. But the centurion, willing to save creek or bay. Paul, Not only because he was a Roman citizen, but because he perceived he was some ; which was in the And made toward the shore extraordinary person; and chiefly because he creek, or to the haven in it. was moved there unto by a superior influence, ACTS 27:41. And falling into a place where that Satan might not have his end; and that the two seas met, An “isthmus”, on each side of

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will of God might be fulfilled, that he should go and they will be with the Lord, and for ever to Rome, and there bear a testimony of Christ. with him. Kept them from their purpose; would not This voyage of the apostle, and the saints with suffer them to execute their design, restrained him, was an emblem of the passage of the them from it, and laid his commands upon them people of God in this world to heaven: their to the contrary. number was but few; who besides Luke, and And commanded that they which could swim, Aristarchus the Macedonian, were with him, is should cast themselves first into the sea, and not known, (Acts 27:2). get to land; which some restrain to the Roman And so the number of the children of God, in soldiers, as if the centurion’s speech was only anyone period of time, is but small in directed to them; though it seems rather to comparison of the rest of the world: the apostle have respect to the whole company, the and his companions had but very indifferent mariners, who generally can swim, and the company, as other prisoners, a band of soldiers, soldiers, as many of them as could, and the rest and the sailors; Christ’s church is as a rose in a of the prisoners or passengers; though it may field, a lily among thorns, vexed with the be, he might chiefly regard the soldiers, who conversation of the wicked, being in a world were usually learned to swim, that they might which lies in wickedness; and which may very the more readily pass rivers, in their marches, fitly be compared to the sea, for the waves of where they could find no bridges, that so he afflictions in it, and the restless and uneasy might be the sooner rid of them, and break spirits of the men of it. their purpose. Sailing at this time was dangerous, (Acts 27:9) ACTS 27:44. And the rest, some on boards, as the saints’ passage through this world Doors, tables, planks, or any such like things: always is, and especially now in these last and and some on broken pieces of the ship; or perilous days; partly through the abounding of what came from it, as masts, beams, etc. immorality on the one hand, and partly through the spread of error and heresy on the other. and so it came to pass that they escaped all safe to land; not one was lost, as Paul had A great storm arose, (Acts 27:14) and there are foretold. And so it will be with the saints after many the Christian meets with in his voyage to their afflicted state in this life, who are safe by heaven; and well it is for him that Christ is an being in Christ, and by abiding in him and in the hiding place from the wind, and a covert from use of means; and though by reason of the the tempest, and that he is built on such a many difficulties in the way, through the foundation, which the most violent storms corruptions of their own hearts, the cannot move him from. temptations of Satan, the hidings of God’s face, There was no sight of sun or stars for many various afflictions, and sometimes violent days, (Acts 27:20) and so it is sometimes with persecutions, they are scarcely saved, yet at last the people of God; the sun of righteousness is they are certainly saved. not seen by them, clouds interpose between So it comes to pass that they get safe on the him and them; and the stars, the ministers of shores of eternal bliss and happiness; because the Gospel, are removed from them, and their they are ordained unto it, are the care of Christ, eyes cannot behold their teachers, which make and the purchase of his blood; and are it a distressed time with them: yea, all hope of partakers of the blessings of grace, and have the salvation was gone, (Acts 27:20) and such at Spirit, as an earnest of the heavenly times is the case of truly gracious souls; their inheritance; and when landed they are safe; sin hope, and their strength, they are ready to say, will be no more; Satan will be under their feet; are perished from the Lord, and they are cut off there will be no more afflictions of any kind; from before his eyes: there was also a long abstinence from food, (Acts 27:21,33) which is

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sometimes the case in a spiritual sense, and is On his voyage to Rome, Paul was shipwrecked owing either to want of food, the word of the on the island (Acts 27:43) and stayed there Lord being precious, there being a famine of three months until favorable sailing weather hearing the word; or for want of appetite to it: (28:11). The traditional site of Paul’s shipwreck and last of all, there was a design formed by the is 13 km (8 mi) NW of the present capital of soldiers to kill Paul, and the prisoners, but were Valletta at a place now called St. Paul’s Bay. The prevented by the centurion, (Acts 27:42). location is reasonably certain. W. Ramsay and J. The sincere followers of Christ are accounted as Smith (Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, 1880) sheep for the slaughter, and are killed all the have exhaustively treated the topographical day long in the intention of wicked men; who question. have always a good will to it, were they not Two points about the incident of Paul and the restrained through the goodness of a civil snake (Acts 28:3–6) need mention. First, as F. F. government, and especially by the power and Bruce and others have pointed out, there are providence of God: however, at last, they get now no snakes on Malta, but there may have safe to their port and haven, where the wicked been in Paul’s day. Second, in the natives’ initial cease from troubling, and where the weary are reaction to the incident, “Though he has at rest. escaped from the sea, justice [Gk. díkē has not Malta allowed him to live,” Gk. díkē is probably Luke’s Hellenizing of a Punic deity. Thus Bauer, rev, p. from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia 198, defined díkē here as “Justice personified as Malta Melitē (Acts 28:1); AV a goddess” MELITA. The island where Paul was shipwrecked.malʹte [Gk. Though some have identified Roman Law Malta with Meleda on the east coast of the I. Introduction Adriatic Sea, the African Melita (Malta) is most The source of Roman law is the family or gens. likely the correct identification. The Romans The proprietary rights of the paterfamilias as called the island and principal town Melita. head of this primitive unit of organization are Malta is a rocky islet 93 km (58 mi) S of Sicily, fundamental in private law, and the scope of 240 km (149 mi) S of the Italian mainland, and the criminal jurisdiction of the state was limited 290 km (180 mi) N of Cape Bon in Tunisia. A by the power of life and death exercised by the little over 27 km (17 mi) long, 14 km (9 mi) head of the family over those under his wide, and with a shoreline of 137 km (85 mi), it authority. Their transgressions were tried is the chief island of the Maltese group—which before the domestic tribunal. includes Gozo and Comino islands. At one time many different classes of crime Though Malta lacks significant natural must have been punished by the priests as resources, it has often had strategic importance sacrilege, in accordance with the divine law as a base from which to control the (fas); the offender would have been put to Mediterranean narrows. Its excellent harbor death as a sacrifice to the offended deity. can accommodate a considerable fleet. Restitution for private violence or injustice would have been left to private initiative. Thus Phoenicians occupied Malta in Paul’s day. avenging the death of a kinsman was more than Luke’s calling the people bárbaroi (not Greco- a right; it was a religious duty. Roman; Acts 28:2) agrees with the testimony of Diodorus (v 12) that they were Phoenicians, The law of the Twelve Tables that allowed the neither Hellenized nor Romanized. The date of nocturnal thief and the adulterer caught in the the Phoenician arrival is uncertain, but act to be killed was a survival of primitive Carthage dominated Malta after the 6th cent. private vengeance. Survivals of the old religious b.c. and Rome captured the Maltese islands rules demanded condemnation to death for from Carthage in 218 b.c. sacrilegious acts. The secular conception of

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crime as an offense against the welfare of the succeeding praetors usually reissued the ones state gradually superseded the older that had proved just and expedient, and in time conception. Private law arose when the there arose a large and uniform body of rules community eliminated an individual’s or a which praetors issued in an edict before family’s right directly to seek justice, which beginning their term of office. Thus Roman law caused societal disorder. The parties to a maintained a proper balance between elasticity disagreement were compelled to submit their and rigidity. claims to an arbitrator. D. Praetor Peregrinus The institution of the II. Roman Private Law praetor peregrinus (241 b.c.) to hear cases in A. The Twelve Tables Roman private law was which parties were foreigners led to a series of at first a body of unwritten usages handed similar edicts. Since most of the foreigners were down by tradition in the patrician families. The Greeks from southern Italy, these edicts demands of the plebeians to know the laws by formulated principles based on the spirit of which they were governed and taxed resulted Greek law, which became an important means in the publication of the famous Twelve Tables for gradually broadening Roman law. (449 b.c.), which were later regarded as the E. Imperial Ordinances Under the empire source of all public and private law (Livy direct legislation superseded the other sources iii.34.6). But the code was not scientific or of law — enactments of the senate (senatus comprehensive. To meet the growing consulta), imperial ordinances, and occasional requirements of the republican community, its bills ratified by the people (leges). Imperial primitive form was expanded, chiefly by ordinances eventually superseded all other interpretation and the jus honorarium. types; they consisted of edicta (issued by the B. Civil Procedure The praetor, or magistrate, emperor as orders, similar to those of the listened to the claims of the litigants and republican magistrates), decreta (decisions of prepared an outline (formula) of the disputed the imperial tribunal, of force as precedents), issues. He submitted it to a judex, or arbitrator, and rescripta (replies by the emperor to a one-man jury, who decided the questions of requests for interpretation of the law). All these fact involved. Neither praetor nor judex had imperial acts were known as constitutiones. special legal training. The court therefore had F. Golden Age of Juristic Literature In the 2nd recourse to authorities on the law cent a.d. Salvius Julianus was commissioned to (jurisprudentes), whose opinions (responsa) invest the praetorian edict with definite form. formed a valuable commentary on the legal The Institutes of Gaius that appeared around institutions of the time. The body of rules the same time became a model for subsequent amassed by such interpretative adaptation textbooks on jurisprudence. This was the would never have been recognized by the Golden Age of juristic literature. A succession of authors of the Twelve Tables. able thinkers, such as Papinian, Paulus, Ulpian, C. Jus Honorarium Jus honorarium was so Modestinus, and Gaius (cf. Codex Theodosianus named because this law rested upon the ii.4.3), applied to the incoherent mass of legal authority of magistrates (honor = magistracy). materials the methods of scientific It was composed of orders that had been issued investigation, developing a system of Roman in cases for which the existing law did not make law and establishing a science of jurisprudence. adequate provision. This second agency for G. Codification in the Later Empire The legal expansion may be compared with English emperor Justinian (a.d. 527–565) finally equity (chancery-court legal and procedural codified the immense body of Roman law. The rulings that enforce common and statute law by board of eminent jurists engaged in the great supplementing or overriding it). These orders work published (1) the Code in twelve books, a were issued by the praetors and had legal force selection of imperial enactments from Hadrian during only the tenure of their office. But onward; (2) the Digest or Pandects in fifty

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books, extracts from the juristic literature; and citizens, wherever they might be, by (3) the Institutes, a textbook in four books. Most establishing their right to a trial at Rome. Thus Roman private law has come down to modern Roman citizens in the provinces, in all serious times in this form. Next to the Christian cases, were sent to Rome for trial; other religion, it is the most plentiful source of the persons were subject to the criminal rules governing actual conduct in Western jurisdiction of the municipalities unless the Europe (J. Bryce, Studies in History and governor summoned them before his own Jurisprudence [1901). tribunal. III. Roman Criminal Law C. Popular Jurisdiction Curtailed The exercise A. Jurisdiction in the Royal Period In the of this popular jurisdiction was gradually royal period criminal jurisdiction, insofar as it curtailed by the establishment of permanent was a function of secular administration, was courts. The people delegated their authority to the right of the king. The titles quaestores judge certain classes of cases. The first of these parricidii (“prosecutors of murderers” [lit courts (149 b.c.) was authorized for the trial of “parent-murderers”) and duumviri perduellionis charges of extortion against provincial (lit “two-man commission for treason”) indicate governors. Compensation was the main the kind of crimes first brought under secular purpose of accusers in bringing charges before jurisdiction. The republican magistrates this and later permanent courts. The procedure inherited the royal right to punish crimes and was similar to that in civil cases. A praetor the power to compel obedience to their own presided over the tribunal; a number of judices decrees by means of penalties (coercitio). replaced the single juror. Sulla provided seven courts — each dealing exclusively with B. Right of Appeal The right of the people to extortion, treason, embezzlement, corrupt final jurisdiction in cases involving the life or electioneering, murder, fraud, or assault. civil status of citizens was established by an enactment (perhaps 509 b.c.) granting the right D. Jurors Jurors were originally chosen from of appeal to the assembly (provocatio) against a the senate, but C. Gracchus transferred capital or other serious sentence pronounced membership in all the juries to the equestrian by a magistrate (Cicero De re publica ii.31 [54; class. Sulla admitted three hundred members of Livy ii.8.2). This right of appeal was extended the equestrian class to the senate, to which he by subsequent enactments (leges Valeriae, then restored the exclusive control of the juries. Valerian laws) in 449 and 299 b.c. Generally the In 70 b.c. a judicial law gave equal magistrates made no provisional sentence of representation in the courts to all three classes their own but brought their charges directly of the people; 1080 names were then on the list before the people. of jurors (Cicero In Pisonem xl). Caesar abolished the plebeian jurors. Augustus 1. Penalties The death penalty was practically restored them but confined their action to civil abrogated in republican times, for the accused cases of minor importance (Suetonius was allowed to go into voluntary exile. The Caesar 41; 32). He excused senators from Romans rarely imposed imprisonment and Augustus service as jurors. granted the right to appeal heavy fines. A right of appeal was granted ca 300 b.c. against E. Disappearance of Criminal Courts The decisions of the dictator, who previously had system of criminal courts diminished in held the power of life and death over the importance under the empire and disappeared citizens (Livy xxvii.6.5). in the 2nd century. They were replaced by the senate, over which a consul presided, then by 2. Porcian Law The right of appeal to the the emperor, and later by officials delegated by people was valid in Rome and as far as the first the emperor. At first the senate functioned as milestone from the city. The Porcian Law had the jurors in the permanent courts to the virtually secured this protection for all Roman praetor. Then the emperor and imperial

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officials decided without a jury, and the judicial ACTS 28 competence of the senate was gradually lost. After the 3rd cent trial by jury ceased to exist. ACTS 28 TOPICAL STUDIES An important innovation was the right to Paul’s Journey to Rome appeal the decisions of lower courts to higher Praetorian Guard tribunals. The emperors and eventually their Puteoli delegates (usually the two prefects) heard Rhegium appeals from Roman and Italian magistrates and provincial governors. Rome in Bible Times F. Right of Trial at Rome Under the early Syracuse empire provincial governors were generally ACTS 28:1. And when they were escaped, obligated to grant Roman citizens’ demand to From the danger they were exposed to by be tried at Rome (Digest xlvii.6f), although this shipwreck, and were got safe to land; this is rule apparently had exceptions (Pliny Ep. ii.11; omitted in the Syriac version: Digest xlviii.8, 16). Lysias, tribune of the cohort then they knew that the island was called at Jerusalem, sent Paul as a prisoner to Melita; an island toward the African shore, Caesarea, the capital of the province, so that where it is placed both by Pliny , and Ptolemy; Felix the procurator might determine what to in which, the latter says, was the city Melita: it do since Paul was a Roman citizen (Acts 23:27). lies between Sicily and Tripoli of Barbary, and Two years later Paul asserted his privilege of is now called Malta: it was famous for the being tried at Rome by the emperor (25:11– knights of Rhodes, which are now called the 21). Roman citizens who were sent to Rome knights of Malta: it has its name from , “to might be brought before the senate or the escape”, it being formerly a refuge to the emperor, but usually the imperial tribunal Phoenicians, especially in stormy weather, in handled these cases and eventually supplanted their long voyage from Tyre to Gades; and was senatorial jurisdiction over them. The formula indeed a place of escape to the Apostle Paul, of appeal became proverbial: “I am a Roman and those that were with him citizen, I appeal unto Caesar” (cf. 25:11). And perhaps it might be so called from its being As Roman citizenship became more and more a refuge for pirates; for Cicero says, here widely extended to people throughout the pirates used to winter almost every year, and empire, its relative value diminished. Many of yet did not spoil the temple of Juno, as Verres its special privileges, such as the right of trial at did: though some say it was so called from the Rome, must have been gradually lost. It became great abundance of honey found in it; for it was customary for the emperors to delegate their a very pleasant and fruitful island, bringing power of final jurisdiction over the lives of the forth great plenty of wheat, rye, flax, cumin, citizens (jus gladii, “right of the sword”) to the cotton, figs, wine, roses, thyme, lavender, and provincial governors. After Caracalla had many other sweet and delightful herbs, from conferred Roman citizenship upon the whence bees did gather great plenty of honey inhabitants of the empire generally, the right of It was, according to Pliny, distant from appeal to Rome remained the privilege of Camerina eighty four miles, and from certain classes, such as senators, municipal Lilybaeum a hundred and thirteen; and it is said decurions (Digest xlviii.19, 27), officers of to be distant from the promontory of Sicily an equestrian rank in the army, and centurions hundred miles, though others say sixty; and (Dio Cassius lii.22, 33). G. H. Allen; A. M. that it was so far from Syracuse, which is the Renwick next place the apostle came to in this voyage, was from Africa an hundred and ninety miles

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On the east side, a little from the chief city of it, so that nothing was more needful and more now called Malta, was a famous temple of Juno, agreeable to them than a large fire. spoiled by Verres, as before observed; and on ACTS 28:3. And when Paul had gathered a the south side another of Hercules, the ruins of bundle of sticks, Had picked up some sticks, both which are yet to be seen and put them in a bundle fit for the fire, as The compass of the island is about sixty miles, everyone was busy to assist in this extremity; the length twenty, and the breadth twelve, and nor did the apostle think such an action below has in it five ports, and about sixty villages. him, who in all things was a man of great ACTS 28:2. And the barbarous people showed humility and condescension: us no little kindness, The inhabitants of this and laid them on the fire; to increase it: island are called barbarians, not from the there came a viper out of the heat: a viper is a country of Barbary, near to which they were; kind of serpent, which brings forth its young nor so much on account of their manners, for, living, to the number of twenty, only one in a though Heathens, they were a civil and day, which come forth wrapped up in thin cultivated people, being, as appears from the skins, which break on the third day, and set name of the chief man of the island, under the them at liberty; and so is reckoned among Roman government; but because of their viviparous animals, from whence it seems to language, (see 1 Corinthians 14:11), it being have its name, whereas other serpents lay eggs neither Hebrew, Greek, nor Latin. and hatch them As the inhabitants were originally a colony of It is said , that this remarkable reptile has the the Phoenicians, they spoke their language; and biggest and flattest head of all the serpent kind; now though it is inhabited by such as are called its usual length is about half an ell, and its Christians, they speak the Saracen or Arabic thickness an inch; its snout is not unlike that of language, and little different from the old Punic a hog; it has sixteen small immovable teeth in or Phoenician language: however, though the each jaw, besides two other large, sharp, inhabitants could not understand their hooked, hollow, transparent, canine teeth, language, they understood their case, and were situate at each side of the upper jaw, which are very civil and humane to them, and showed those that do the mischief: these are flexible in them extraordinary kindness: their articulation, and are ordinarily laid flat for they kindled a fire; or set fire to a large pile along the jaw, the animal never raising them of wood; for a large fire it must be to be of but when it would bite The roots or bases of service to such a number of people, in such a these teeth, or fangs, are encompassed with a condition as they were: vesicle or bladder, containing the quantity of a and received us everyone: though their large drop of a yellow insipid juice number were two hundred threescore and — It has only one row of teeth, whereas all sixteen; other serpents have two; its body is not at all because of the present rain, and because of fetid, whereas the inner parts of the bodies of the cold; for a violent rain fell on them, as is other serpents are intolerable usual upon a storm, and much wetted them, so — It creeps very slowly, and never leaps like that a fire was very necessary; and it being other serpents, though it is nimble enough to winter or near it, it was cold weather; and bite when provoked especially they having been so long in a storm, — Its body is of two colors, ash colored or and now shipwrecked; and some having yellow, and the ground speckled with longish thrown themselves into the sea, and swam to brown spots; the scales under its belly are of the island; and others having been obliged to the color of well polished steel put themselves on boards and planks, and get Its bite is exceeding venomous, and its poison ashore, and were no doubt both wet and cold; the most dangerous

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Now when this viper here is said to come out of witnesses he shall surely die” ((Deuteronomy the heat, the meaning is, that it came out from 17:6)): may he that knows the thoughts take the sticks, which were laid upon the fire, being vengeance on that man that slew his friend; forced from thence by the heat of it: and so the they say, they did not remove from thence, , “till Syriac version renders it, “there came out of a serpent came”, and bit him, and he died.” them” (the sticks) “a viper, because of the heat So the Jews observe, that when the execution of of the fire”; it lay quiet among the sticks, among capital punishments was taken away from which, and such like things, this creature often them, yet such who deserved them were lies; but when the fire began to heat it, it sprung punished by God in a way equivalent to them: out: so for instance, if a man committed a crime, for and fastened on his hand; or wrapped itself which he deserved to be burnt, either he fell about his hand: the Syriac and Arabic versions into the fire, or , “a serpent bit him” ; or if he render it, “bit his hand”; but that does not seem deserved to be strangled, either he was so likely, since he felt no harm by it; the drowned in a river, or died of a quinsy. Ethiopic version, “hung upon his hand”; which There is a kind of an asp which the Egyptians agrees with what follows; nor is it inconsistent call “Thermuthis”, which they reckon sacred, with its wrapping itself about his hand, which is and worship: this they say will not hurt good the more proper signification of the word used. men, but destroys the wicked; and if so, says ACTS 28:4. And when the barbarians saw the the historian, then , “vengeance”, or justice has venomous beast, The viper is called “Therion”, honored this creature, to be so sharp sighted as a beast, it being of the viviparous kind; and to discern the good from the bad; and they say, hence comes “Theriaca”, or “Venice treacle”, the Isis sends it to the most wicked foundation of which composition is vipers’ Agreeably to which these men reason, flesh; and it is called venomous, because it is of whom though he hath escaped the sea: has all serpents the most venomous: this when the not been drowned there, when shipwrecked, country people saw yet vengeance suffered not to live hang on his hand, having wrapped itself about it, The Greek word “Dice” rendered “vengeance”, is the name of a goddess among the Heathens, they said among themselves, no doubt this said to be the daughter of Jupiter and Themis man is a murderer: they might see he was a prisoner by his chain, or might learn it from She is represented as sitting by her father some of the company, and therefore took it for Jupiter; and when anyone does injury to granted he had been guilty of some crime; and another, informs him of it . She is painted by the viper’s fastening on him, they concluded sorrowful, and with a contracted forehead, a it was murder he was guilty of; for the same grave countenance, and a rough aspect, to notion might obtain among them, as among the strike terror in unrighteous persons, and give Jews, that a murderer that could not be legally confidence to righteous ones , agreeably to her convicted, was sometimes punished this way name, which signifies “justice”. This deity the barbarians supposed pursued Paul; and though “Says R. Simeon ben Shetach , may I never see she let him escape the sea, she will not suffer the consolation, if I did not see one run after his him to live any longer; for they looked upon the friend into a desert place; and I ran after him, viper’s fastening on him, as to be sent by her, so and I saw the sword in his hand, and the blood to be immediate death to him. dropping, and he that was slain panting; and I said to him, O wicked man, who has slain this? ACTS 28:5. And he shook off the beast into the either I or thou; but what shall I do? for thy fire, Having held it a while, and as being blood is not delivered into my hand; “for the master of it, and as not being afraid of it, though law says, by the mouth of two or three it was the ready way to provoke it to fasten on him again:

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and felt no harm; it having not bit him, nor ensued, as they expected: when they had infected him with its poison; and hereby was waited some time, perhaps an hour or two, fulfilled what our Lord promised to his and saw no harm come to him; that he was disciples, (Mark 16:18); neither inflamed, nor swelled, nor dead; that it ACTS 28:6. Howbeit they looked when he had no manner of effect upon him, and no evil should have swollen, With the venomous bite of punishment was inflicted on him hereby, of the viper; swelling is one of the symptoms from whence they could conclude that he was following the bite of this creature; and if the guilty of any notorious crime: bite does not issue in death, yet the swelling they changed their minds, and said that he continues inflamed for some time. was a god: before they took him to be a The symptoms following the bite of a viper are murderer, and now they even ascribe deity to said to be an acute pain in the place wounded; him, as was usual with the Gentiles, when swelling, first red, afterwards livid, spreading anything extraordinary was performed by men: by degrees; great faintness; a quick, low, and so the Lystrians took Paul for Mercury, and sometimes interrupted pulse; sickness at the Barnabas for Jupiter, upon the apostle’s curing stomach; bilious convulsions: vomiting; cold the cripple, (Acts 14:11,12); but what god the sweats; sometimes pains about the navel; and inhabitants of Melita thought him to be, is not death itself, if the strength of the patient, or the certain; some think Hercules, who was slightness of the bite, do not overcome it: if he worshipped in this island does overcome it, the swelling continues The inhabitants of this island now believe that inflamed for some time; and the symptoms the apostle expelled all poison and venom out abating, from the wound runs a liquor, little of it when he was there; and it is reported, that pustules are raised about it, and the color of the the children born in this place fear not any skin is as if the patient were jaundice; or had snakes, neither are hurt by anything that is the jaundice: the Arabic and Ethiopic versions venomous, insomuch that they will take render it, “that he should burn”, or “burnt”; that scorpions, and eat them without danger; is, inflamed, for the bite of the viper causes an although, in all other parts of the world, those inflammation, a hot swelling, which rises up in kind of creatures are most pernicious, and yet pustules or blisters: do no manner of hurt to men in this island; yea, or fallen down dead suddenly; for immediate it is affirmed, that there is a sort of earth found death is sometimes the effect of such poison here, which kills serpents. Pliny relates, that the Scythians dip their As for the eating of them, the viper itself may be arrows in the corrupt matter of vipers, and in eaten; most authors agree , that there is no part, human blood, which by the least touch causes humor, or excrement, not even the gall itself, of immediate death; and Pausanias reports from a a viper, but may be swallowed without much certain Phoenician, that a man fleeing from a harm; accordingly the ancients, and, as several viper got up into a tree, where the viper could authors assure us, the Indians at this day, both not reach him, but it blew, or breathed out its of the east and west, eat them as we do eels — poison on the tree, and the man immediately viper’s flesh either roasted or boiled, physicians died: though the force of this creature’s poison unanimously prescribe as an excellent does not always, and in all places, and in all restorative, particularly in the elephantiasis, persons operate alike; some die within a few incurable consumptions, leprosy, etc. hours, and others live some days, some to the ACTS 28:7. In the same quarters were third day, and some to the seventh : possessions of the chief man of the island, Or but after they had looked a great while; upon “the first man of the island”; so the governor of the apostle, to observe whether any Melita used to be called, as appears by an inflammation or swelling arose, or death inscription mentioned by Bochart, wherein a

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Roman knight is called , “the first of the the same here mentioned; who they say was Melitians”; for this island was under the Roman first bishop in his own country, which through government, and the very name of this chief mistake they make to be Miletus, instead of man shows it: it was first in the hands of the Melita; and afterwards bishop of Athens, where Africans, when Dido built Carthage, which was he suffered martyrdom: but this is not likely, eight or nine hundred years before the time of for even though he might be converted by the Christ. apostle, of which we have no account; and also Battus was king of this island, from whom it became a preacher of the Gospel, of which there was taken by Hiarbas king of Lybia, or of the is no proof; it is not probable that he should Getulians, and who also conquered Carthage; leave his own country, and go to Athens, and and it continued under the power of the take upon him the care of that church there: but Carthaginians, until they were conquered by whether he was afterwards converted or not, the Romans; and then it was taken by Titus he was very kind to the apostle and the ship’s Sempronius, above two hundred years before company, as follows: Christ, in whose hands it was when the apostle who received us, and lodged us three days was here; since then it has been taken by the courteously; this was a very considerable Saracenes, though they held it not, being taken instance of humanity and hospitality, to receive from them by Roger earl of Sicily, in the year so many strangers at once into his houses, as 1090. two hundred three score and sixteen; and give So it remained in the hands of the Sicilians, until them food and lodging, for three days together, the knights of Rhodes were driven out of that and that in such a kind, friendly, and cheerful island by the Turks, in 1522; and then this was manner: and thus, as Abraham and Lot, by given them by the Emperor Charles the Fifth receiving strangers, entertained angels at seven years after, on condition they would unawares, so Publius, though ignorant of it, oppose the Turks, and defend that part of entertained an apostle of Christ among those Christendom, which they bravely did: in the strangers; the benefit of which he afterwards year 1565, it was besieged by Pialis Bassa, but enjoyed, and which was a compensation for his without success ; and it is said to be so well liberality and beneficence. fortified, as that it is impossible it should be ACTS 28:8. And it came to pass that the taken, unless through treachery or famine; it is father of Publius, So that Publius was not an now in the hands of the said knights: but old man, though of so much dignity and wealth: whether this man was governor of the island or the Arabic version, contrary to all copies, and not, it may be reasonably thought that he was other versions, reads, “the son of Publius”: the richest man in the island, and in the lay sick of a fever; or fevers, of different sorts, a greatest honor and dignity; and had near the complication of them, which sometimes is the shore, where the ship’s company landed, many case; unless this was an intermitting fever, and houses and much land, and farms and the several fits of it are intended; or rather the vineyards, and the like: plural number is put for the singular, to denote whose name was Publius; or Poplius, as some the vehemence of it, and which was attended copies, and the Syriac version read with another disorder, and might be brought on Publius was a name common with the Romans; by it: it was with them a forename, by which such and of a bloody flux; or dysentery, a pain of the were called, who were “pupilli”, or fatherless, bowels, as the Syriac version renders it; or an for it is a contraction of “Popilius” ulceration of the bowels, as the Arabic version; There was one of this name who was bishop of which occasioned a discharge of blood, so that Athens, said to succeed Dionysius the his case was very threatening Areopagite there; who is thought by some to be

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This disease, according to modern writers , is this he did, to let them know that he himself attended with a fever. The word “dysentery” was not a god; and that the cure that would here used properly signifies that kind of flux of now be wrought would be from God, and not the belly, characterized by the frequency of from himself, and therefore all the glory should stools, or dejections, mixed with blood, and be given to God; and he laid his hands on him, accompanied with gripes: the fever, ulcer, etc. as a sign or symbol, or rite that was used in which attend it, are not essential to the disease; extraordinary cases, and agreeably to the though many both of the ancients and moderns direction and promise of Christ, (Mark 16:18); think the ulcer is and upon this a cure followed; both the — There are three kinds of “dysenteries”; the diseases left him at once, and he was restored “first” when a laudable blood is evacuated from to health. a mere plethora, or plenitude, without any ACTS 28:9. So when this was done, This disorder of the intestines, as in the miracle was wrought, and the fame of it spread hemorrhoidal flux; the “second” when a thin over the island: watery blood is evacuated, called the “hepatic” others also which had diseases in the island flux, though really arising from hemorrhoidal came: from all parts of it, to the apostle: vessels; the “third” kind, which is that that is and were healed; of whatsoever diseases they properly called the dysentery, is when blood is were afflicted with. cast out, mixed with a purulent matter in the excrements: this is either “benign”, i.e. without ACTS 28:10. Who also honored us with many a fever, and not contagious; or “malignant”, honors, Not with divine honors, with religious which is attended with a pestilential fever, and adorations, as if they had been so many deities; frequently ravages whole cities and provinces, for these they would not have received, nor happening most commonly in armies; in the have recorded them, to the commendation of last stage, a sort of caruncles are frequently the inhabitants; but civil honors, expressions of ejected along with the purulent matter, which respect and gratitude; and particularly gifts and are difficult to be accounted for, unless from an presents, large and valuable, in which sense the excoriation and ulceration of the intestines: phrase is used by Jewish writers; so upon those sometimes the intestines are even gangrened: words in (Judges 13:17) this seems to have been the case of the father of “What is thy name, that when the sayings come Publius, which makes the following cure the to pass, we may do thee honor?” they make this more remarkable: paraphrase , “Manoah said to him (the angel), to whom Paul entered in; into the room where tell me thy name, that I may inquire where to he was, no doubt with the consent and leave, if find thee, when thy prophecy is fulfilled, and not at the request of Publius; the Ethiopic give thee , “a gift”, , “for there is no honor but a version adds, “and he entreated him to put his present”, or “offering”; or wherever this phrase hand upon him”; that is, either Publius asked is used, it signifies nothing else but a gift, as it is this favour of the apostle for his father, having said, (Numbers 22:17) heard of the affair of the viper, from whence he “For honoring I will honor thee”:” that is, with concluded there was something divine and money and gifts, as Balaam’s answer in the next extraordinary in him; or the father of Publius verse shows, and so the Jewish commentators asked this for himself: interpret it ; (see Gill on “1 Timothy 5:17”); and prayed and laid his hands on him, and And when we departed; from the island, which healed him; when Paul had entered the room, was not till three months from their first and found in what a bad condition the sick man coming ashore: was, he either kneeled down and prayed by they laded [us] with such things as were him, or stood and prayed over him, and for him, necessary; that is, for the voyage: they that God would restore him to his health; and provided a proper supply of food for them,

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which they put into the strip, for their use in when they returned, and were delivered from their voyage; by which they expressed their shipwreck; and when they were in danger at gratitude for the favors they received from sea, they used to pray unto them. Paul; for whose sake not only his company, but The fiery exhalations that sometimes appear at the whole ship’s company fared the better. sea, they took for them; and when only one Very likely many of them were converted under appeared, it was looked on as a bad omen; but the apostle’s ministry; for it can hardly be when both, it was reckoned to portend a thought that the apostle should be on this prosperous voyage; hence they were island three months, as he was, and not preach considered as sea deities; and the Ethiopic the Gospel to the inhabitants of it, in which he version accordingly renders it here always met with success, more or less; and the “Dioscoura”, and adds, “who is the god of the great respect shown him at his departure mariners”. seems to confirm this; though we meet with no Now the images of these two brothers were account of any church, or churches, or sometimes set at the head, or forepart of the preachers of the word in this place, in ship, as they were in this, from whence the ship ecclesiastical history, until the “sixth” century, took its name; as it is very common for the when mention is made of a bishop of the island names of ships to be the same with the pictures of Melita. or images that are placed at the head of them: Indeed in the “fourth” century, Optatus whether the centurion chose this ship because Milevitanus is said by some, through mistake; of its sign, imagining there might be more to be bishop of Melita, when he was bishop of safety in it, he having suffered shipwreck Milevis, a city in Africa upon the continent; and, already; or whether this was the only one in the through a like mistake, this island is said to be island, that was going for Italy, is not certain, famous for a council held in it under Pope nor very material: the Arabic version takes the Innocent, against Pelagius, in the beginning of word rendered Castor and Pollux, to be the the “fifth” century; when the council was held at name of a man, who was the owner of the ship; the above place Milevis, and not at Melita, from for it reads the words thus, “in a ship of whence it was called the Milevitan council. Alexandria”, that belonged “to a man of ACTS 28:11. And after three months we Alexandria, called Dioscorides”. departed, From Melita; here they stayed the ACTS 28:12. And landing at Syracuse, A three winter months, which were unseasonable famous city in the isle of Sicily: it is placed by for navigation; but now the spring coming on, Ptolemy on the east side of the island, in the and the weather agreeable, they left the island, Adriatic sea; it was 180 furlongs, or two and and sailed twenty miles and a half in circuit, and formerly in a ship of Alexandria; (see Gill on “Acts had a marble haven and triple wall, and as 27:6”); many towers; the founder of it was Archias, a Corinthian; Pliny says , that it is never so cloudy which had wintered in the isle; perhaps all the weather, but the sun is seen in it, at one time or said three months, for the same reason: another of the day: Cicero calls it the greatest whose sign was Castor and Pollux; or and most beautiful of all the cities of Greece; it Dioscuri, that is, the sons of Jupiter; for Castor is such a city, he says, that it may be said to and Pollux were his sons, by Leda: these are consist of four large cities; “one” part of it is placed among the constellations in the Zodiac, called “the island”, which has two ports to it; and go by the name of Gemini, or the twins; and “another” was called Acradina, in which were a these were supposed to have a power of saving large market, beautiful porticos. men in danger at sea: wherefore such as were The third, Tiche, in which was the ancient about to go to sea, first paid their devoirs, and temple of Fortune; and the “fourth”, which made vows to them; which they performed because it was last built, was called Neapolis: it

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is a very ancient city, being built more than Pope Vitalian wrote a letter; and in the same seven hundred years before the birth of Christ; century a bishop of this church was in the sixth it was a colony of the Corinthians; here reigned council at Constantinople . two tyrants, whose names were Dionysius; it ACTS 28:13. And from thence we fetched a was attacked by the Carthaginians, but without compass, About the isle of Sicily, from success, being delivered from the siege by Syracuse to Pachinus, the promontory of the Pyrrhus king of Epirus. island: It was again assaulted by the Athenians, who and came to Rhegium; a city in Calabria, called were repulsed, and entirely conquered, about by Ptolemy Rhegium Julium; it was built, as the year before Christ 413: after that it was Solinus says, by the Chalcidensians, and was taken by Marcellus, the Roman consul, about formerly a city of the Brutians ; it is now called the year of the city of Rome 542 , after a three Reggio: it is said to have its name from its years’ siege; during which time it was defended, being broken off from the main continent, for it and preserved by the means of the famous lies in the straits of Sicily; and formerly Sicily mathematician Archimedes; who by his was joined to Italy, but was separated from it invention of warlike machines, baffled all the by the violence of the sea at this place: attempts of the Romans; but was killed by a and after one day the south wind blew; they soldier, as he was intent upon his studies, not stayed one day at Rhegium, and when they knowing that the city was taken; and it departed from thence, they had a south wind, continued in the hands of the Romans, until it which was favorable to them: whether the was taken and plundered by the Saracens, in apostle preached here, or no, is not certain, the year of Christ 675; and was retaken by since his stay was so short; some Popish Roger king of Apulia, about the year 1090, and writers tell some idle stories about the apostle’s is now under the government of Don Carlos, preaching; how that the fishes came to the king of the two Sicilys; shore to hear him; that the grasshoppers were we tarried there three days; on what account commanded by him to be silent, and have never it is not said, whether on account of been seen in that place since; that a stone pillar merchandise, or for the sake of the was set on fire by the flame of a candle, by conversation of Christians here: it is certain which miracle the inhabitants present were there were churches in Sicily very early; we converted and baptized; and one Stephen, that read of them in the “second” and “third” was in company, was made by him their first centuries; in the time of Constantine, at the bishop: but in ecclesiastical history we meet beginning of the “fourth” century, there was a with no account of any church in this place, church at Syracuse, of which Chrestus was until the fifth century; when the bishop of it, bishop, to whom the emperor wrote a letter with others, subscribed a letter of Leo the First, himself, which is still extant in Eusebius : in the sent into the east; and about the year 440, there “fifth” century, Hilarius, a teacher at Syracuse, was a synod of thirteen bishops convened in wrote from thence to Augustine, concerning the this place, on account of a certain ordination; Pelagian heresy, to whom he gave an answer: in and in the “seventh” century, a bishop of the the “sixth” century, Maximinianus, bishop of church at Rhegium was present in the sixth this church, had the inspection of all the council at Constantinople; in the “eighth”, churches in Sicily committed to him, by Constantine, bishop of Rhegium, was in the Gregory; who was wonderfully preserved in a Nicene synod : shipwreck, as he was returning from Rome; in and we came the next day to Puteoli; the this same age lived John, bishop of Syracuse, Syriac version adds, “a city of Italy”; it was and Trajanus a presbyter, and Felix a deacon of formerly called Dicearchia , from the strict the same church: in the seventh century there justice used in the government of it: it had its was one George bishop of this place, to whom name of Puteoli, either “a putore”, from the

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rankness and ill smell of the waters of it, Surentum, a great city which Tzintzan through the “sulphur” and “alum” in them; or “a Hadarezer built, when he fled for fear of David. puteis”, from the wells about it, the waters of ACTS 28:14. Where we found brethren, which, by Pausanias, are said to be so hot, as in Christians; which is not to be wondered at, time to melt the leaden pipes through which since it was a port much frequented, and where they flow, who calls it a town of the many came and went, of different countries and Tyrrhenians; by Pliny it is placed in Campania, nations; particularly there were many Jews and so Jerome says, Puteoli a city, a colony of here, to whom the Gospel was first preached, Campania, the same that is called Dicearchia and to some of them it was the power of God Josephus also speaks of it as in the same unto salvation in many places, and doubtless country; for he says, that Herod and Herodias was so here: Josephus speaks of Jews in this both came to Dicearchia, (or Puteoli), and found place, who were deceived by a false Alexander, Caius (the emperor) at Baiai, which is a little who pretended to be the son of Herod, a prince town in Campania, about five furlongs from of their nation Dicearchia; and he also in another place says, Patrobulus, the same with Patrobas in ( the Italians call Dicearchia, , “Potioli”; which is Romans 16:14); who is reckoned one of the the same word the apostle here uses, and which seventy disciples, is said to be bishop of this is the Latin “Puteoli” corrupted; it is said to be place; (see Gill on “Luke 10:1”); though we have first built by the Samians: frequent mention is no account of its church state until the “fifth” made by writers , of “pulvis Puteolanus”, the century, when a bishop of the church at Puteoli dust of Puteoli; which being touched by the sea is said to be in the council held at Ephesus water, hardens into a stone; and was therefore against Eutyches, and sustained the place of used to bank the sea, break the waves, and Leo, pope of Rome: in the “sixth” century, a repel the force of them. bishop of this church was in a council held at That it was a place by the sea side, may be Rome, under Symmachus: in the seventh learned from the sea being called after its name, century, the bishop of Puteoli was in the sixth “mare Puteolanum” , the sea of Puteoli; so council at Constantinople : Apollonius Tyaneus is said to sail from this and were desired to tarry with them seven place to Rome, whither he came in three days; days; that is, the Christians at Puteoli desired to this port the ships of Alexandria particularly the apostle, and those that were with him, to used to come, and hither persons were wont to stay a week with them, that they might have the go to take shipping for Alexandria ; it is now advantage of a day of public worship together, called by the Italians Pozzuoli, and lies about and might enjoy much of their Christian eight miles from Naples; and according to the conversation; and accordingly they did stay following story of the Jews’, must be an that time, no doubt by the leave, and with the hundred and twenty miles from Rome; who tell consent of Julius the centurion; and which us , that “Rabban Gamaliel, and R. Eleazar ben shows, that he used the apostle with great Azariah, and R. Joshua, and R. Akiba, went to civility and courteousness, and was very ready Rome, and they heard the noise of the to grant him favors; if he was not in this voyage multitude at Rome, from Puteoli, an hundred converted by him, which is not unlikely, and twenty miles:” the story is a fable designed considering the whole of his conduct: to signify the vast number of people at Rome, and so we went toward Rome; after they had and the noise, hurry, and tumult there; but stayed seven days at Puteoli, they set forward perhaps the distance between the two places on their journey to Rome; for from hence they may not be far from truth: and as fabulous is went thither on foot, though they might have the account which R. Benjamin gives of this gone from hence to Rome by sea, as Apollonius place Puteoli, when he says it was called Tyaneus did; (see Gill on “Acts 28:13”); and so likewise Titus the son of Vespasian, who went

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from Rhegium to Puteoli in a merchant ship, whether he ever was at Rome; and if he was, it and from thence to Rome ; but it may be the is not probable that he should take upon him ship unloaded here, and there was no other the care of a single church, which was not going for Rome at that time. consistent with his office as an apostle. Rome was the metropolis of Italy, the seat of In the “first” century, the bishops or pastors of the empire, and mistress of the whole world; it this church were as follow; after the martyrdom is so well known, as not to need describing: it of Paul and Peter, Eusebius says, Linus was the was built on seven hills, and had its name either first bishop of it, the same that is mentioned in from Romulus the founder of it; or from the (2 Timothy 4:21) and according to the same Greek word , which signifies “strength” , from writer , Anencletus succeeded him, and then whence Romulus is supposed to have his name; Clement, a fellow laborer of the Apostle Paul’s, with the Hebrews it has its name from its (Philippians 4:3); who wrote two epistles to the sublimity, height, and glory, from the word , Corinthians, which are still extant; though which signifies to be high and exalted: some say Eusebius , not consistent with himself, makes it had its name from Roma, a daughter of Italus, Clement in another place to succeed Linus; and who first laid the foundation of it, though some make Clement even to be before him; and Romulus and Remus brought it into the form of some place one Cletus before Anencletus and a city; it was built seven hundred and fifty him. years, and upwards, before the birth of Christ Such an uncertainty is there, and such a puzzle The Jews make it to be of an earlier date; they attends the first account of this uninterrupted say , that at the time Solomon married succession; and which seems designed in Pharaoh’s daughter, Gabriel descended and Providence to bring it into contempt: in the fixed a reed in the sea, and brought up clay, and “second” century, Euarestus succeeded with it was built the great city, which is Rome; Clement; and then followed him Alexander, and in another place it is said, in the day in Sixtus, or Xystus, Telesphorus, Hyginus, Pius, which Jeroboam set up the two calves, one at Anicetus, Soter, Eleutherius, and Victor: in the Dan, and the other at Bethel, was built a certain “third” century, Victor was succeeded by cottage, which is Italy of Greece, that is, Rome; Zephyrinus; and after him were Calixtus, for it is elsewhere observed , Italy of Greece, Urbanus, Pontianus, Anterus, Fabianus, this is the great city of Rome; and again , on the Cornelius, Lucius, Stephanus, Sixtus, or Xystus day in which Jeroboam set up the two calves, II, Dionysius, Felix, Eutychianus, and Gaius. Remus and Romulus came and built two In the “fourth” century, Marcellinus succeeded cottages in Rome. Gaius; who was followed by Marcellus, ACTS 28:15. And from thence, That is, from Eusebius, Miltiades, Sylvester, Julius, Liberius, Rome, whither they were going: Felix II, Damasus, and Siricius ; and further than when the brethren heard of us; when the this age, it is not worth while to follow them; Christians at Rome heard that the apostle and the man of sin began to grow apace, and in a his friends were landed at Puteoli, and were on century or two afterwards, proclaimed himself their journey to Rome: these were the members universal bishop: of the church at Rome; for there was a church they came to meet us as far as Appii Forum state here before this time and the Three Taverns; these were both of The apostle had before this written a letter to them towns that lay in the Appian way to Rome; them, called the Epistle to the Romans, in which the former of these Horace makes mention of, he treats them as a church. in the account of his journey from Rome to Brundusium; first he says, he came to Aricia, or The Papists say that the Apostle Peter was the Rizza, which is about 160 furlongs, or 21 miles first bishop of it, and pretend an uninterrupted from Rome, and from thence to Appii Forum: succession from him; though it is questionable that Appii Forum was further from Rome than

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the Three Taverns, appears from what Cicero Appian Way says , who dates his letter to Atticus from Appii Go to Wikipedia for a good article on the Appian Forum, at four o’clock, and tells him, that be Way: had sent him another a little before from “Tres http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appian_way Tabernae”, or the Three Taverns; and indeed, Puteoli Appii Forum was one and fifty miles from Rome, and the Three Taverns but three and Puteoli - Potioloi—‘sulfur thirty. springs’] (Acts 28:13). A maritime city of Campaniapōōtēʹō in Italylē where [Gk. Paul landed on his So that the sense must be, that some of the voyage to Rome; the modern name is Pozzuoli. brethren from Rome came as far as the Three It is on the northern shore of a recess in the Taverns, and others as far as Appii Forum; Gulf of Naples, protected on the west by the which, as before observed, were two towns peninsula of Baiae and Cape Misenum. The upon the road: hence the former of these was region was volcanically formed, and Puteoli not a statue of Appius, near the city of Rome, as owed its name to the odor of the sulphurous some have said; nor a market in the city itself, springs in the vicinity. The volcanic dust, called as says Jerome , or a writer under his name; (Ital.) pozzolana today, was mixed with lime to whose words are, Appii Forum is the name of a form a durable cement that resisted seawater. market at Rome, from Appius, formerly a consul, and from whom the Appian way had its Puteoli was originally a colony, founded name: but this was a town at some distance. probably in the 6th cent. b.c., of the neighboring Greek city Cumae (Strabo Geog v.4.5f); it was There were several towns in Italy of a like called Dicearchia. The earliest event in its appellation; as Julii Forum, Cornelii Forum, now history that can be dated definitely is a Roman Imola, Livii Forum, now Forli: Pliny makes garrison’s repulse of Hannibal before its walls mention of an Appii Forum; and there was a in 214 b.c. Carthage’s effort to secure a seaport town in Calabria, called Taberna: and as the one as a base of supplies and communication was was not a mere market place, so the other does thus thwarted (Livy xxiv.7.10–12; 12.1–13.7). not design three houses for public Puteoli became the first Roman port on the Gulf entertainment; for the words should not be of Naples when a Roman colony was translated “three taverns”, nor indeed established there in 194 b.c. (Livy xxxiv.45.1–3; translated at all; nor are they by Luke, who Strabo Geog v.4.6; Velleius i.15.1–3). retains the Latin name, as the name of a place; and here it was that Severus, the Roman The city’s consequent commercial prosperity as emperor, was killed by Herculius Maximianus ; the chief seaport of the capital was due to the and this, in Constantine’s time, was the seat of a harbor’s safety and the inhospitable character bishop; for among the bishops assembled on of the coast nearer Rome. The harbor was account of Donatus, mention is made of one doubly protected by a mole, known to have “Felix a Tribus Tabernis” , or Felix bishop of been at least 382 m (418 yds.) long, consisting Tres Tabernae, the same place we call “the of massive piers connected by solid masonry Three Taverns”: arches (Strabo Geog v.4.6). Extensive remains of this mole are still visible. The shoreline whom when Paul saw, he thanked God and devoted to commerce (emporium) extended ; that is, when he saw the took courage about 2 km (1 1/4 mi) west from the mole; the brethren that came to meet him, he gave thanks imports handled there consisted chiefly of to God for the sight of them, which he had so Egyptian grain and oriental wares from much desired; and he took heart and courage, Alexandria and other cities of the Levant and went on cheerfully, and in high spirits, (Suetonius Augustus 98.1–10; Strabo Geog. xvii. towards Rome; in hope of seeing the rest, and 1.7; Seneca Epistulae morales 77.1f.). At the believing that God had some work for him to do height of Puteoli’s prosperity under Claudius there.

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and Nero its population, estimated at nearly entirely recovered from this blow, although it 100,000, included many people from the was partially restored by the younger Eastern part of the empire. Dionysius. When the Greek general Pyrrhus Puteoli declined in importance when Claudius invaded Italy, the people of Rhegium made an built an artificial harbor at Portus Augusti and alliance with Rome (280 b.c.) and received four when Trajan made the mouth of the Tiber the thousand Campanian troops within their walls. principal converging point for the The Campanians turned out to be very unruly Mediterranean Sea trade, but Puteoli and Baiae guests, for, in imitation of a band of remained the favorite resort area of the Roman mercenaries across the strait in Messina, they nobility. The foundations of many ancient villas expelled or massacred the men and enslaved are still visible, although partly covered by the the women and children (Polybius i.7; cf. sea. Cicero had a villa in this region (Cicero Ad Orosius iv.3). The mercenaries were not Atticum xiv.16.1; 20.1). In the bay between punished by the Romans until 270 b.c., when Puteoli and Baiae Nero tried to have his mother the town was restored to the former Agrippina drowned by means of a boat that inhabitants who had survived. The people of came apart while carrying her toward her villa Rhegium were faithful to their alliance with near the Lucrine Lake (Tacitus Annals xiv.5). Rome during the Second Punic War (Livy The Apostle Paul found Christians living in xxiii.30.5–9; xxiv.1; xxvi.12.1–14; xxix.6.3–10). Puteoli and stayed with them seven days on his During the Social War (91–87) Rhegium way to Rome (Acts 28:13f.). At that time the became a Roman municipality (Cicero In ordinary route to Rome, along the Via Appia Verrem v.61 [158–160]; Pro Archia poeta iii.5). from Capua, was 155 Roman miles (about 229 Some of Augustus’s veterans were settled there. km, 142 mi). Later Domitian reduced the The ship on which Paul sailed from Melita to distance by laying out the Via Domitia along the Puteoli encountered unfavorable winds after coast. leaving Syracuse, and it reached Rhegium by from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia means of tacking. It waited at Rhegium a day for a south wind, which bore it to Puteoli (Acts G. H. Allen 28:13), about 290 km (180 mi) away, probably Rhegium in about twenty-six hours. Rhegium - Rhēgion] (Acts 28:13). A from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia city on the east side of the Sicilian Straits, the G. H. Allen; B. F. Harris modern Reggirēʹjēo əmdi Calabria, [Gk. where Paul’s ship stopped on the way to Rome. Ancient Syracuse authorities were divided as to whether Syracuse - Syrakousai; Lat Rhegium meant “royal [town]” (Lat regium) or Syracusae; Italian Siracusa]. A city on the east “rent [town]” (Gk. rhégnymi, i.e., where Sicily coast of Sicily,sēr̄̀ə aboutkūs [Gk. midway between Catana was rent apart from Italy). Rhegium was about and the southeastern extremity of the island; 10 km (6 mi) S of a point opposite Messina Paul stopped there three days on his voyage (ancient Messana), near the rock Scylla and the from Malta to Rome (Acts 28:12). whirlpool Charybdis, long known as hazards to Syracuse was the most brilliant Greek colony in ships. the western Mediterranean area. The original Originally a colony of Chalcidian Greeks (Strabo Corinthian colony founded in 734 b.c. Geog vi.1.6), Rhegium enjoyed great prosperity (Thucydides vi.3) was confined to the small under tyrants in the 5th cent. b.c. (Herodotus island Ortygia, which separates the great vii.165) but was captured and destroyed by harbor from the sea. Later the city spread over Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse in 387 b.c. All the the promontory lying N of Ortygia and the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery harbor. (Diodorus xiv.106–108, 111f.). The city never

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Syracuse assumed a preeminent position in the centurion delivered all the prisoners he affairs of Sicily under the rule of the tyrants brought from Caesarea, excepting Paul, to be Gelon (485–478 b.c.; cf. Herodotus vii.154f) and disposed of by him, in the several prisons, or Hieron (478–467). It flourished greatly after jails, to whom it belonged to take care of such the establishment of popular government in persons: this clause is wanting in the 466 (Diodorus xi.668–672). The Syracusans Alexandrian copy, and in the Vulgate Latin and successfully withstood the famous siege by the Syriac versions: Athenians in 414, the narrative of which is the but Paul was suffered to dwell by himself most thrilling part of Thucydides’s history (vi– with a soldier that kept him: this was owing, vii). either to the letter which Festus sent to Rome Dionysus the Elder took advantage of the fear concerning him, and his case; by which it inspired by the Carthaginians to elevate himself appeared, that he was no malefactor, and to despotic power in 405; he reigned for thirty- therefore to be used in a different manner from eight years and was succeeded by his son of the the rest of the prisoners; or rather to the same name. Although democratic government intercession of the centurion, who had all along was restored by Timoleon after civil used him in a very civil and courteous manner; dissensions in 344 (Plutarch Timoloeon), it was who requesting this favour had it granted, that not of long duration. Paul should not be put into the common prison The most famous later ruler was the wise with the rest, but should dwell in an apartment Hieron II (275–216), a steady ally of the by himself; or, as the Ethiopic version renders Romans. But his grandson and successor it, “at his own will”; where he himself pleased, Hieronymos switched allegiance to Carthage, an for he dwelt in his own hired house, (Acts act that led to the celebrated siege of the city by 28:30). the Romans under Marcellus and its fall in 212 He was under the care and custody of a soldier, (Livy xxiv.21–33). Henceforth Syracuse was the who constantly attended him wherever he capital of the Roman province of Sicily. Cicero went; and which could not be otherwise, seeing called it “the greatest of Greek cities and the he was chained, as in (Acts 28:20) and his chain most beautiful of all cities” (Cicero In Verrem was put on his right hand, and fastened to the iv.52). left hand of the soldier, that had him under his The extant Greek ruins of Syracuse include the keeping; so that wherever he was or went, the temple of Apollo (ca 500 b.c.), the temple of soldier must be likewise: hence that passage in Athena (ca 470 b.c.) in which a Christian Seneca , “as the same chain joins together the cathedral was built ca a.d. 640, a theater, the prisoner and the soldier, so those things which foundation of Hieron II’s great altar, and parts are unlike go together; fear follows hope.” of a large fortress of Dionysus. There are also ACTS 28:17. And it came to pass, that after extensive Roman remains: private houses, an three days, From his first coming to Rome, amphitheater built probably by Augustus, and when he had hired himself a house, or lodging, Christian catacombs. from International and was settled in it, and was rested from the Standard Bible Encyclopedia, G. H. Allen fatigue of his voyage and journey: ACTS 28:16. And when we came to Rome, To Paul called the chief of the Jews together: he the city itself: sent to the principal men among them; for the centurion delivered the prisoners to the though the Jews, were expelled from Rome in captain of the guard; or general of the army; the reign of Claudius, they were now returned, or, as some think, the governor of the and had their liberty of residing there; very “praetorian” band of soldiers, who attended the likely by means of Poppea, Nero’s concubine, emperor as his guards: his name is thought to who favored the Jews: but whether they had a have been Burrhus Afranius; to him Julius the synagogue, and these men were the chief and leading men in it, the doctors, rulers, and

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officers of it, are things not certain; however, be tried and judged there, to which Festus these the apostle desired to come to him where seemed inclined: he was, for whether he had the liberty of going I was constrained to appeal to Caesar; to about where he would, the soldier attending prevent the design of the Jews upon him, which him, is not so clear a point: was to way lay him and kill him, or by what and when they were come together; to his ways they could, right or wrong, take away his house, or lodging: life; and to provide for his own safety: he said unto them, men and brethren: which not that I had ought to accuse my nation of; was the usual form of address with the Jews; meaning, that he had no ill design in this appeal (see Acts 7:2) against his country, to expose them, and bring Though I have committed nothing against the them under reproach and censure, but to people and customs of our fathers; meaning vindicate himself, defend his own innocence, he had said nothing disrespectfully of the and preserve his character and life; suggesting, people of the Jews; nor had done anything to that what he did was not of choice, but by the prejudice of their temporal, spiritual, and constraint, and with reluctance; being no friend eternal good, but just the reverse; nor had he to Heathen tribunals, nor any enemy to the said or done anything contrary to the laws and Jewish nation. customs enjoined the Jews by Moses, even ACTS 28:20. For this cause therefore have I those that were of a ceremonial nature; for called for you, To let them know the true state though he had everywhere declared that the of his case; that though he was a prisoner, it Gentiles were not obliged to an obedience to was not for any crime he had done, much less them, yet he did not dissuade the Jews from the any of a capital nature; and that as he was no use of them; and oftentimes complied with scandal to his country, so neither did he intend them himself, things he had been charged with: to raise any against it, or say or do anything yet was I delivered prisoner from Jerusalem which might bring it into contempt and danger: into the hands of the Romans; he was first as well as seized by the Jews in the temple of Jerusalem, to see [you] and speak with [you]; and keep up and then fell into the hands of Lysias, the chief and maintain a free and friendly conversation captain; who bound him, and by whom he was together: sent to Caesarea, where he was retained a because that for the hope of Israel I am prisoner both by Felix and Festus, Roman bound with this chain; which was then upon governors. him, and he pointed to; the true reason of which ACTS 28:18. Who when they had examined was, because he had preached that the Messiah me, About the things laid to his charge, had the tribes of Israel were hoping and waiting for, heard what his accusers had to object to him, and who is the only solid foundation of the and the defense he made for himself: hope of eternal life and salvation, was already would have let [me] go; released him from his come; and that he had suffered and died, and bonds, and set him at liberty to go where he rose again from the dead, and that Jesus of pleased: Nazareth was he; (see Jeremiah 14:8 17:13) because there was no cause of death in me; And this title well agrees with Jesus Christ, who no crime proved upon him, which was worthy in the New Testament is called “our hope”, and of death; and this was the sense of Lysias the “the hope of glory”, (1 Timothy 1:1 Colossians chief captain, and of Felix and Festus the Roman 1:27), and he is the hope of every Israelite governors, and of King Agrippa. indeed, of every sensible sinner, of every regenerated person, whether Jew or Gentile; ACTS 28:19. But when the Jews spoke against and such are encouraged to hope in him for it, His being cleared and dismissed, and grace here, and glory hereafter desired he might be sent back to Jerusalem, to

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Whereas they see themselves lost and undone, hope of the tribes of Israel in common, and that there is no salvation for them by their especially of every Israelite indeed: now these own works, and that there is salvation in Christ, things had irritated the carnal Jews against him, they are directed and encouraged to hope in who could not rest till they had been the means him for it; because it is a work finished by him, of bringing him into the condition he now was; and is complete in him; it is of free grace and nor were they content with this, without having favour bestowed; it is wrought out for the chief his life. of sinners; and such as they themselves are, are ACTS 28:21. And they said unto him, That is, invited by himself to look to him for it; and the the chief men of the Jews at Rome, whom Paul Gospel declaration is, that whoever believes in had called together, replied; either in a lying him shall be saved. and dissembling way, or as expressing matter They see themselves to be sinners, and that of fact; which last may be allowed: there is no hope of the forgiveness of their sins we neither received letters out of Judea from an absolute God, or the absolute mercy of concerning thee: which was very much, that God out of Christ, but that the blood of Christ the high priest and Sanhedrin had not wrote to was shed for the remission of sins, and that the principal men of their religion at Rome; God, for Christ’s sake, does forgive sins. giving an account of the apostle, and his case Wherefore they hope in him for it; to which unto them, in order to prejudice them against they are encouraged by the proclamation of the him, and to furnish them with charges and grace of God, as a forgiving God in Christ; by the accusations; which if they could not prevail by promises of forgiveness in the covenant of them, so as to get him condemned by the grace; by the Gospel declaration of it; by its emperor, yet might be a means of preventing being entirely of free grace, through the blood any of their nation giving heed unto him, and of Christ; and by the many instances of the embracing his sentiments and notions worst of sinners who have been favored with it. concerning Jesus of Nazareth: These Israelites, indeed, also see themselves neither any of the brethren that came [from] unrighteous creatures, and that they cannot be Jerusalem; or any part of Judea, to Rome; justified before God by works of righteousness meaning not the Christian Jews, for these they done by them; but that there is a righteousness would not call brethren; but those who were of wrought out by Christ, which is acceptable and the same religion as well as nation, whom it well pleasing to God; is freely bestowed on was usual with the Jews to call brethren: men, and is imputed to all sorts of men, even to showed or spoke any harm of thee; so that it the ungodly; wherefore they hope in him for it, looks as if they did make mention of him, but and lay hold on this object of hope set before did not charge him with anything that was themin a word, they have hope of eternal life on wicked and criminal: this they said, to show his account, that being the gift of God through that they were not prejudiced against him by him; and it being the will of God, that whoever any person or means; and which carried in it a believes in him should have it; and it being in very considerable testimony of the apostle’s the power and right of Christ to bestow it; and innocence. they having also his Spirit as the earnest and ACTS 28:22. But we desire to hear of thee pledge of it; as well as have his righteousness as what thou thinkest, What was his opinion and their title to it, his grace as their meetness for it, judgment, concerning the Messiah, whether he and have a share both in his intercession and in was come or not, and whether Jesus of his preparations of it. Nazareth was he; and concerning other Moreover, the apostle taught that there would principles relating to him, embraced by the be a general resurrection of the dead, upon Christians; and what he had to say for the which would succeed a state of everlasting happiness for the righteous; and which was the

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clearing up, proving, and confirming his denied, as they still are; and his offices, as sentiments about these things: prophet, priest, and King; yea, his actions, even for as concerning this sect; or heresy, meaning his works of mercy to the bodies of men, by the Christian religion: in saying so, they healing their diseases, his conversing with reproached it; for the Gospel, or Christian sinners for the good of their souls, the several religion, is not an human device, the choice and miracles he wrought, and the whole series of option of man’s free will, and what he pleases his life and conversation, were blasphemed and himself with, as an opinion and invention of his evil spoken of. own, or of other men, as “heresy” signifies; but The doctrines of the Gospel in general were it is of God, and by revelation of Jesus Christ, contradicted, as they now are by many, as and is a doctrine of the highest wisdom. absurd and irrational, and as tending to Nor does it deny or take away any fundamental licentiousness; and in particular those which article of true religion; either natural, as known respect the Father of Christ, as being the Father by the Gentiles, or as revealed, with which the of Christ, his everlasting love to the elect in him, Jews were made acquainted, under the former and his distinguishing grace in the choice of dispensation; but establishes every such article, them; and those which relate to Christ, as that as the unity of the divine Being; the worship of he is truly God, and the Son of God, and to his the one only and true God of Israel, in a sacrifice, satisfaction, and imputed spiritual manner; the doctrine of the Messiah, righteousness; and also which concern the his person, office, and grace; the resurrection of Spirit of God, as his deity and personality, and the dead, and eternal judgment; and therefore his operations on the souls of men; and such as could not be chargeable with heresy. relate to a future state, the resurrection of all the dead, and judgment to come. Nor was it set up for any worldly gain, or popular applause, which are the things that Likewise the ordinances of the Christian authors and abettors of heresy have in view; religion, baptism and the Lord’s supper, were nor was it designed to divide and separate despised and spoken against, and the persons from the true church of God, but to professors of it treated as fools and wicked bring them to it, and unite them together in it; men; the reasons of all this are, because the (see Acts 24:14). Christian religion, and the doctrinesof it, are not of men, are contrary to the lusts of men, and We know that everywhere it is spoken particularly to the pride of men; they subject against; this they knew, both by letters they them to reproach and persecution, and gather received, and by persons who came from men out from among them. different parts of the world; and which was fact, and was no other than what was foretold ACTS 28:23. And when they had appointed concerning Christ, that he should be a sign that him a day, When they should meet together, should be spoken against, (Luke 2:34); and and when both sides might be better prepared which the apostle found true of the Gospel to enter into a conversation on the subject of preached by him, both among Jews and Greeks; Christianity; and when there might be an it being to the one a stumbling block, and to the opportunity for a more numerous assembly to other foolishness, (1 Corinthians 1:23), and hear: especially it was contradicted and blasphemed there came many to him into his lodging; the everywhere by the Jews; these in all places same very likely with his own hired house, opposed themselves to it, and spoke evil of it, (Acts 28:30); hither a large number came at the and of its preachers and professors. time appointed, more than those whom Paul Christ, the author, sum, and subject of the first sent for: Christian religion, was spoken against in his to whom he expounded; the Scriptures, the person; his deity and divine sonship were writings of Moses, and the prophets; and

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particularly such parts of them as concerned lives to make intercession, and will come again the Messiah; so our Lord expounded to his a second time to judge both quick and dead. disciples in all the Scriptures, the things These are some of “the things concerning concerning himself, (Luke 24:27) Jesus”, as the words may be rendered, which And testified the kingdom of God; or the the apostle endeavored to persuade the Jews kingdom of the Messiah, which oftentimes into a belief of; as also the blessings of grace signifies the Gospel, and the Gospel which come by him, such as peace and pardon dispensation: he produced full and sufficient through his blood, reconciliation and proofs and testimonies from prophecies, atonement by his sacrifice, justification by his miracles, and facts, that the kingdom of the righteousness, and complete salvation in him. Messiah was come; which consisted not in Concerning these he persuaded the Jews, outward pompous things, in temporal riches setting things in a clear light, using strong and honors, as they expected; but in the arguments to convince them, and giving full ministration of the Gospel, and in the proof, as the nature of them would admit of; administration of its ordinances; and in and which is no other than moral persuasion, righteousness and holiness, which give the one and is of itself ineffectual; efficacious a right unto, and the other a meetness for, the persuasion is only of God; it is he that opens the kingdom of heaven. heart to attend to these things, and gives faith Of this he testified, that it is the kingdom of God, to receive and embrace them: however, it is the of his preparing and of his giving, and is what duty of Gospel ministers to make use of he calls his people unto, and makes them meet arguments, and by them to endeavor to for; and in which they shall reign with him, and persuade men of their need of Christ, and of enjoy him for ever: and the apostle could testify salvation by him, as the apostle did; (see 2 and make it evident, that there was such a Corinthians 5:11) kingdom, and such a future glorious state; from Both out off the law of Moses: not the law of the promise of God, to which the twelve tribes the ten commandments, given on Mount Sinai of Israel hoped to come; from the prophecies of to Moses, who delivered it to the children of the Old Testament, which speak of everlasting Israel, and is opposed to the doctrine of grace life, and of the resurrection of the dead unto it; and truth, which came by Jesus Christ, (John from the expectations of the saints of the 1:17); that accuses and convinces of sin, and former dispensation, who all died in the faith of pronounces guilty, and curses for it; but does it; and from the coming of the Messiah, his not reveal Jesus Christ as a Saviour from it; no sufferings and death, and ascension to heaven, proof can be taken from thence of the things whereby he had brought life and immortality to concerning Jesus; but the five books of Moses the clearest light: are here meant, in which he wrote of Christ, as persuading them concerning Jesus; our Lord himself says, (John 5:46,47) as he did endeavoring to persuade them, that Jesus was particularly in (Genesis 3:15 49:10 the true Messiah; that he was truly God, and the Deuteronomy 18:15); also the types and Son of God, as well as man; that he was born of sacrifices, recorded in his writings, might be a virgin, and wrought miracles, and yielded made use of in proof of Jesus, and the things of perfect obedience to the law; that he laid down him: his life as a sacrifice for sin, and to make and out of the prophets: such as (Psalm reconciliation and atonement for it; that he 22:15,16 16:10 68:18 110:1) (Isaiah 7:14 53:1- brought in an everlasting righteousness; that he 12 Daniel 9:24, 26 Micah 5:2 Zechariah 9:9 rose again from the dead for justification; that 13:7); with many others: and in this work he he was ascended up to heaven, and was set continued, down at the right hand of God, where he ever

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from morning till evening; not that we are to from the ignorance that was in them, because of suppose, that he carried on one continued the obduracy of their hearts. discourse upon these subjects, without any The kingdom the apostle testified of was not an intermission; but that he was all the day Utopian kingdom, nor any of the real kingdoms employed, either in expounding: the Scriptures, of this world, but the kingdom of the Messiah proving that the kingdom of the Messiah was they were expecting; but that which he come, and using strong and persuasive described, being not such an one as they arguments, to show that Jesus was he; or in imagined, they believed him not. answering the cavils and objections of the Jews, The things he said concerning Jesus were not to what he said. trivial, speculative, and indifferent things; but ACTS 28:24. And some believed the things of the greatest moment and importance, and of which were spoken, By him, concerning the which there was full proof in their own kingdom of God and Jesus Christ; even as many writings; and though spoken by Paul, were no as were ordained unto eternal life, and to whom other than the word of God; and besides, were it was given to believe; for faith is the gift of good news, and glad tidings, and yet they God, and which comes by hearing of the word, believed them not. when it is attended with a divine power; and This difference among them, some believing then it is not only notionally understood, and and some not believing, was not owing to the barely assented to as truth, but is cordially power and free will of man, as if some of believed and embraced, and cheerfully themselves would, and did believe, and others professed, and steadily held fast: this was not a would not, but to the distinguishing grace of mere historical faith, or a bare assent to the God; for faith is not of man, it is the gift of God, truth of the things spoken, nor a mere it is the fruit of electing grace, and is given in profession of faith in them, but a believing in consequence of it: nor is this any unusual thing, Christ with the heart, the sum and substance of under the same ministration of the word, for them; as they heard these things, their one to believe, and another not believe: this is a understandings were enlightened, and they saw common case, and is the usual success the their need of Christ, and the things of Christ, Gospel meets with; so it always has been, and which were held forth in the ministry of the so it is, and will be; so it was in the times of word; and so approved of them, savored, Noah, he was a preacher of righteousness to the relished, and fed upon them; and until this is old world, even of the righteousness of faith, the case, none can, nor will believe aright: many were disobedient, few believed; and so it and some believed not: notwithstanding the fared with the evangelical prophet Isaiah, and full proof, and clear evidence produced by the with Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, and other apostle: these were not of Christ’s sheep, their prophets of the Old Testament; and with John eyes were blinded, and their hearts were the Baptist, the forerunner of Christ, and with hardened, as was prophesied of them, and Christ himself, as well as with our apostle; and therefore they could not believe; they were this has been the case ever since his time, now given up to a judicial blindness and hardness of is, and will be, as long as the Gospel is preached. heart, and were left under the power of ACTS 28:25. And when they agreed not obstinate and invincible unbelief: their disbelief among themselves, One part believing what of these things arose from the prejudices they was said, and the other disbelieving; and such a had conceived about a worldly kingdom; from division is the usual effect of the Gospel the sufferings and death of Jesus Christ, they ministry; (see Luke 12:51,52) imagining the Messiah would not die, but abide for ever; from the carnal reasoning of their Or this may be understood of the unbelieving minds, about divine and spiritual things; and party, who though they agreed in the main that Jesus was not the Messiah, yet might have

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different sentiments of the apostle; of the them; and therefore God does not call them manner of his reasoning, and the nature of his “his”, but “this” people: and this message was proofs and arguments; and of some things sent by an evangelical prophet, who foretold, in which he delivered, which some might assent the clearest manner, the Messiah’s incarnation, to, and others deny; as the Pharisees and and birth of a virgin, the work he was to do, the Sadducees in the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem sufferings he should undergo, and the glory that disagreed about the doctrine of the should follow; and that after he had seen in a resurrection: and the rather this may be vision the glory of the King Messiah, the thought to be the sense, because they not only perfections of deity filling the temple of his departed, when very likely those that believed human nature, him exalted on a throne, and might stay longer, but because at their attended and worshipped by angels; after he departure the apostle says something very had had such a view of his beauty and cutting and stinging, and which he would not excellence, that laid him low in his own sight, say in common of them all, of the believers; and and humbled him under a sense of his own besides, they are afterwards said to reason impurity and unworthiness; and after he had among themselves, (Acts 28:29) had a comfortable discovery and application of They departed; from the apostle’s lodging to pardoning grace; and after he had expressed their own houses, or to some other place, such a readiness and willingness to go on the where they could call over, and debate among Lord’s errand. themselves, the things they had heard: Which one might have thought would have after that Paul had spoken one word; a very been of a different nature; and that he would remarkable one, and full to the purpose, and have been sent, and have been made useful, to which he gave them just at parting with them: set forth the glories and excellencies of Christ’s person, office, and grace, he had had such a well spake the Holy Ghost by Esaias the view of; and to preach the comfortable doctrine prophet unto our fathers; the passage referred of pardoning grace to men, which he had just to is in (Isaiah 6:9,10), which the prophet Isaiah now such a gracious experience of; but on the delivered under the influence and by the contrary, he is bid to say, inspiration of the Holy Ghost, being moved by him, as all the holy men of God were; and which hearing ye shall hear; with bodily ears, the was very appropriate, not only to the Jewish Gospel preached by the Messiah and his fathers in the times of Isaiah, but to their apostles: posterity in succeeding ages, in the times of and shall not understand, spiritually and Christ and his apostles;(see Matthew 13:10-14 experimentally, what they heard: to have an John 12:37-46); and were exceeding applicable opportunity of hearing the Gospel, is a great to the present unbelieving Jews, who had been blessing; seeing it is good news, glad tidings of disputing with the apostle, and were now good things, a joyful sound, and the voice of departing from him, in unbelief: and from hence Christ himself; it is a distinguishing favour, and it appears, that since it was the Holy Ghost that what all men at all times have not; when it is spake by Isaiah the prophet, and he that spoke attended with a divine energy, the Spirit of God to him and by him, was the Adon, Jehovah, and is received through it, regeneration, quickening Lord of hosts, as is clear from (Isaiah 6:1,5,8,9); and sanctifying grace are by it; faith comes by it follows, that the Holy Ghost is a divine hearing it, and Christ is found under the person, truly God, and equal with the Father ministration of it; and generally speaking, the and the Son. understanding and knowledge of divine things, ACTS 28:26. Saying, go unto this people, and are by means of it. say, A message sent in wrath and judgment to Men are naturally without the understanding of the people of Israel, rejected from being the spiritual things, and where the Gospel is not, people of God, a “lo ammi” being written upon they remain so; the ministers of the Gospel, and

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the word preached by them, are the means of and so be turned from darkness, ignorance, and leading men into a spiritual understanding of unbelief, to light, knowledge, and faith: things, though only as, and when attended with and I should heal them; or “have mercy on the Spirit of God, who is a Spirit of wisdom and them”, as the Ethiopic version renders it; that is, revelation, in the knowledge of Christ: and a forgive their sins: hearing the Gospel preached, special mercy it is when persons, whilst hearing is the ordinary means of understanding the word, understand what they hear, and can spiritual things; and the understanding being distinguish truth from error; and approve of the enlightened through the ministry of the word, truth, receive the love of it, feel the power, and by the Spirit of God, whereby the sinner sees taste the sweetness of it; find it and eat it, his lost state by nature, his impurity and believe, embrace, and profess it, and bring forth impotency, the danger he is in, and the fruits worthy of it: but on the contrary, when it destruction that is imminent on him, and he is is heard and not understood, it is an awful liable to, and also his need of Christ, and dispensation; for hence either they content salvation by him; this issues in conversion, in themselves with bare hearing, and depend the turning of a man from the evil of his ways, upon it for salvation; or they despise and speak to believe in Christ, walk on in him, and worthy evil of what they do not understand; and so of him; when he is healed of the diseases of his their hearing, instead of being a blessing, is an soul, which are many, are natural, and aggravation of their condemnation: hereditary, mortal and incurable, but by Christ and seeing ye shall see: miracles wrought: the great physician; by whose stripes, wounds, and not perceive; them to be proofs of the and blood, there is healing, that is, pardon; for things, for which they are wrought: so Jarchi healing diseases, and pardoning iniquities, are expounds those words, “ye shall see the one and the same; (see Psalm 103:3); and at wonders, or miracles I have done for you, and conversion, when a soul is enlightened, and shall not set your hearts to know me” from made sensible of the evil of sin, and that there is whence it appears that the Gospel preached in no cure of this disease, by anything that he or the clearest and most powerful manner, and any creature can do, or prescribe for him, but even miracles wrought in confirmation of it, are only by the blood of Christ; a discovery of insufficient for conversion; and nothing will pardoning grace is made unto him; and he is effect it, but efficacious grace. made whole, and cured of every disease that attended him; from whence spring joy, peace, ACTS 28:27. For the heart of this people is and comfort to him:, but when through hearing waxed gross, Or fat; stupefied with notions of the word, the understanding is not enlightened, carnal and temporal things, and become and conversion does not follow upon it, there is hardened against, and unsusceptible of, divine no healing of the disease of sin, no pardon and spiritual things: applied; and consequently such must be in a and their ears are dull of hearing; the Gospel, most deplorable and miserable condition, as all and its joyful sound; to which they stop their ignorant hearers and despisers of the Gospel cars, as the deaf adder to the voice of the are; (see Gill on “Matthew 13:14; see Gill on charmer: “Matthew 13:15; and their eyes have they closed; and willfully ACTS 28:28. Be it known therefore unto you, shut, against all evidence from facts, miracles, Unbelievers and despisers, take this along with prophecies, and preaching: you at parting, and do not say you were never lest they should see with [their] eyes, and acquainted with it: hear with [their] ears, and understand with that the salvation of God is sent unto the [their] heart, and should be converted; that is, Gentiles; meaning the Gospel, which is a see the evidence of miracles, take in the truth of publication and declaration of that salvation, doctrine, understand the meaning of prophecy, which God contrived from all eternity; made

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provision for, and secured in the covenant of wanting in the Alexandrian copy, and in the grace; which he appointed, called, and sent Syriac version. Christ to effect, in the fullness of time; and ACTS 28:30. And Paul dwelt two whole years which he has accomplished, by his obedience, in his own hired house, In a house which he sufferings, and death; even a full, complete, hired with his own money; in which his friends spiritual, and eternal salvation, from sin, Satan, Luke, Aristarchus, and others, dwelt with him; the world, the curse of the law, and eternal where he was guarded by a soldier: whether at death; that that Gospel which proclaims this, the expiration of these two years he was set at and is the power of God unto it, to them tha liberty, and for ten years afterwards travelled tbelieve, is sent to the Gentile world, by God into Italy, France, and Spain, preaching the himself, who has ordered his ministers to turn Gospel, as some think; or whether he then to them, upon the rejection of it by the Jews: suffered martyrdom, is not certain; the latter is and [that] they will hear it: and do most probable: understand it and obey it, believe it and and received all that came in unto him; there, profess it: this the apostle could assert upon his as the Syriac version reads, that is, into his own knowledge, who had preached it in many lodging, as the Ethiopic version expresses it; nations of the world; and could testify how which is not to be understood of his hospitality, gladly they heard it, with what pleasure they for it cannot be thought that he should provide received it, how readily they obeyed it, and how food and lodging for all that came unto him; but cheerfully they professed it, and how steadily that be admitted they held it; though the Jews despised and put it all that would to come and hear him, and away from them, judging themselves unworthy freely preached the Gospel to them: it should of everlasting life: this the apostle says, seem by this, as well as by what is said (Acts reproaching them with their folly, stupidity, 28:23); that many of the Jews came into his and infidelity; when the Gentiles, which knew lodging, and heard him expound, that it was a not God, received the Gospel and are saved. large house he had hired and dwelt in; and such ACTS 28:29. And when he had said these an one Jerome thinks it was, like that he words, Cited the prophecy of Isaiah, and supposes he would have Philemon provide for declared the mission of the Gospel to the him, which he desires in his epistle to him, Gentiles, and their calling by it; both which (Philemon 22); namely, a house in the most must greatly gravel and disturb the unbelieving noted place in the city, for the convenience of part of his audience: those that came to him; large enough to hold the Jews departed; much displeased and many; free from noise and disturbance; and not uneasy: situated in a scandalous neighborhood, nor and had great reasoning among themselves; near to shows and plays; and that the lodging not only with them that believed, but with should rather be on the floor than in an upper others, that seemed to incline towards the room: and such a house, with all the conditions apostle, and who espoused and undertook to that Jerome mentions, the Papists pretend to defend some principles of his, against the rest, show at Rome to this day; where, as their as the doctrine of the resurrection; and tradition is, Luke composed, or however particularly they might take into consideration finished this his history; which, as the above the passage in Isaiah, the apostle had recited to writer observes , reaches to the two years of them at parting, and which was so appropriate Paul’s stay at Rome; that is, until the fourth year to them; as well as the account he gave them of of Nero; from whence, adds he, we learn that in the preaching of the Gospel, and the success of the same city this book was composed: and it is it among the Gentiles, things which must be certain, that Luke was with him, when the very grating to them: this whole verse is apostle wrote his second epistle to Timothy from Rome, and when the time of his

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martyrdom seemed to himself to be at hand, (2 magistrate; nor could the Jews hinder him, nor Timothy 4:7,11). was his mouth to be stopped by any; nor could ACTS 28:31. Preaching the kingdom of God, the open door of the Gospel be shut, or its That is, the Gospel, as in (Luke 4:43 16:16); he course be impeded; for though the apostle was preached up Jesus as the King Messiah, and bound, the word of God was not, but ran and declared that his kingdom was come, and was glorified; and was made known, and even opened the nature of it; that it consisted not in owned in Caesar’s palace; some say Nero’s meats and drinks, but in righteousness and cupbearer, and Poppea his concubine, were peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost; which is the converted by him: and he not only continued kingdom of grace here, and is within a man, in preaching the Gospel during the two years of his heart, where grace reigns through his imprisonment at Rome, but also wrote righteousness, unto eternal life: and he gave several epistles to churches, and particular them same account of the kingdom of glory, and persons; as the epistles to the Galatians, the way unto it; and showed, that without Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and the regeneration and sanctification, no one could Hebrews, and to Philemon, and the “second”) be meet for it; and without the justifying epistle to Timothy: some copies add here, righteousness of Christ, no man could have a “Amen”; and at the close of the Alexandrian right unto it, or be possessed of it: copy, stand these words, “the Acts of the holy Apostles”; and at the Syriac version these, “the and teaching those things which concern the End of the Acts of the blessed Apostles, that is, Lord Jesus Christ: his person, as God and man; of their Histories”. his office as Mediator, being prophet, priest, and King; his incarnation and birth; his life and Rome in Bible Times miracles; his doctrine and obedience, sufferings Rome was founded on the Tiber river in 753 and death; his resurrection, ascension, session B.C. It soon spread to cover seven hills, which at God’s right hand; his intercession, and were : Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, second coming to judgment; with all the truths Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal. The Roman of the Gospel, in which he has a concern; as Forum lay between the Palatine and Capitoline redemption, peace, reconciliation and pardon, hills and was the center of Roman cultural, by his blood and sacrifice, and justification by civic, and commercial activities. his righteousness, and salvation and eternal life The finest of Rome’s temples, palaces, circuses, through him. These things had been the subject baths, monuments, amphitheaters, and imperial of the apostle’s ministry, throughout the whole buildings were near the Forum. All Roman life of it:he began at Damascus with preaching Jesus centered in this area, and all roads in the as the Son of God and the true Messiah; and he empire radiated from the golden milestone ends at Rome, with teaching the things located in the Forum. Paul, Peter, and Luke concerning him: at his first setting out in the must have been in the forum often; and here work of the Lord, he determined to make Paul may have been tried for his life. The dust known none but Christ, and him crucified; and and dirt of centuries cover this area now; and in this resolution he continued through the earthquake, fire, and time have taken their toll. whole course of his life, and abode by it to the There were excavations in Rome as early as the end: and this he did 16th century, with extensive archaeological with all confidence; with all freedom and work being done since then. In the late 19th liberty in his soul, though he was bound in his century, the Pontifical Commission of Sacred body with a chain; with all plainness, openness, Archaeology took up the work and have and faithfulness; and with all courage and continued to oversee it until the present. boldness, though in the midst of adversaries: Ancient Rome was a sumptuous and no man forbidding him; not the Roman magnificent city. There are many descriptions emperor, nor the Roman senate, nor any other

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in history of its magnificence. The Forum well together. They did not, however, because measures 240 by 690 feet and was the scene of the Christians swore allegiance to Jesus Christ the trial and death of Julius Caesar and the as Lord of the lives, and everything else was oration of Mark Antony. The Coliseum, expected to be subservient to Him. Of course covering six acres, seated 60,000 spectators at the Romans did not like this. gladiatorial contests in which Christians were Also, the church had high standards for moral thrown to wild beasts. The palaces of the conduct, and they called for conformity to these emperor and the temple of Jupiter were on the standards. They said, “If you expect to be Palatine Hill. More than 250,000 people could saved, you must conform to Christ’s way of life.” watch chariot races at the Circus Maximus. This was resented. The church condemned the Near the Forum can be seen the Arch of Titus world and sought to save it, but from the world (Vespasian) which has a sculptured relief of there came contempt and aversion, followed by Titus and his legions carrying the sacred persecution. vessels from the Temple in Jerusalem after the The Christians were also thought to be very siege of 70 A.D. Of course, this had not been unsocial people. They were considered strange, built when the apostle Paul was alive. Also, the and were hated as enemies of society. They Arch of Constantine is in the area and tells of were simple and moral in their dress, they Constantine’s proclamation of 316 A.D. in which would not go to games and feasts, they he announced that Christianity was to be the condemned those who sold fodder for the official religion of the empire. During the animals which were to be sacrificed to pagan excavation, in 1941, of Ostia, Rome’s seaport at gods. The public began to dread them because the mouth of the Tiber, an inscription was they thought the gods would be angry and found indicating that in 14 A.D., during the cause their crops to fail if too many people reign of Tiberius, Rome had a population of refused to make offerings. If crops failed, if the over 4 million. Tiber river overflowed, if plagues came, the cry Of all the discoveries in and around Rome, the was “Send the Christians to the lions!” Yet the most interesting to Christians and Jews are the Christians were kind to all who were in trouble, Catacombs which lay along the roadways stayed and nursed the sick during the plague outside the city, but which are never farther when others fled, and lived highly moral lives. than three miles from the old city walls. The In order to test people’s loyalty, the Roman origin of these Catacombs is one of the government required that every one appear at strangest phases of history. They started out as certain public places and there burn a pinch of sand pits discovered and exploited by people incense to the emperor. The Christians who needed building materials. The material considered this emperor worship, and they was actually a combination of volcanic ash and wished to worship only Christ. So government sand, melted enough to cause the particles to authorities began to seek them out and punish adhere to each other. This tufa stone them with death. As a protective measure the comprised the earth’s surface for miles around Christians began to meet and work in secret. Rome and was excellent when used in masonry. They sought refuge in the underground sand Many subterranean channels were dug in pits. With their tools they hollowed out rooms, “mining” this sand. chapels, and burying places. The Catacombs During the first century, there came became their place of safe retreat. They came tremendous conflict between the young Church to live there, to worship there, and were buried and the Roman Empire. The marked there, by the tens of thousands. characteristic of the empire was tolerance; and The Catacombs were discovered, and the most notable characteristics of the Christian excavations begun, in the 16th century. Since church were its love and benevolence. So, you 1950 they have been excavated very would think the two would have gotten along extensively. Enough information has been

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gathered to fill many books. About six million scenery in the interior of Asia Minor: but we are people are buried in about sixty Catacombs, on the most crowded approach to the fifty-four of which are Christian, and six of metropolis of the world, in the midst of prætors which are Jewish. Each of these has an obscure and proconsuls, embassies, legions, and turms entrance from which a stairway leads down to of horse, “to their provinces hasting or on tunnels and galleries which branch off in all return,” which Milton,—in his description of the directions creating a network of tunnels and City enriched with the spoils of nations,—has streets on as many as four levels connected by called us to behold “in various habits on the stairways. On each level is an immense maze of Appian road.” tunnels - so that in all there are about 587 miles Leaving then all consideration of Puteoli, as it of tunnels. was related to the sea and to the various places Along the walls of these passageways, or at on the coast, we proceed to consider its dead ends, the Christians are buried in wall communications by land with the towns of tombs. Each tomb is closed with tiles or with a Campania and Latium. The great line of marble slab on which the name, and perhaps a communication between Rome and the portrait, of the deceased appears. Often the southern part of the peninsula was the Way walls and ceilings were decorated with constructed by Appius Claudius, which passed paintings of Bible characters, or scenes such as through Capua , and thence to Brundusium on Moses striking the rock, David, Daniel, Noah, or the shore of the Adriatic. Puteoli and its Jonah — in each case they represented a neighbourhood lay some miles to the westward miraculous deliverance by God. In 1853, the of this main road: but communicated with it archaeologist DeRossi found a marble slab with easily by well-travelled cross-roads. One of the engraving, “Marcus Antonius Rastutus them followed the coast from Puteoli made this sepulchre for himself and his own, northwards, till it joined the Appian Way at who are confident in the Lord.” Sinuessa, on the borders of Latium and The Praetorian Guard Campania. It appears, however, that this road was not constructed till the reign of Domitian. Refer to Wikipedia for an extensive article on Our attention, therefore, is called to the other the Praetorian Guard. cross-road which led directly to Capua. One Paul’s Journey to Rome branch of it left the coast at Cumæ, another at The following is Chapter 24 of The Life and Puteoli. It was called the “Campanian Way,” and Epistles of St. Paul, by W. J. Conybeare and J. also the “Consular Way.” It seems to have been S. Howson constructed during the Republic, and was The Appian Way doubtless the road which is mentioned, in an The last Chapter began with a description of the animated passage of Horace’s Epistles, as facilities possessed by the ancients for communicating with the baths and villas of travelling by sea: this must begin with a Baiæ. reference to their best opportunities of The first part then of the route which Julius travelling by land. We have before spoken of took with his prisoners was probably from some of the most important roads through the Puteoli to Capua. All the region near the coast, provinces of the Empire: now we are about to however transformed in the course of ages by trace the Apostle’s footsteps along that road, the volcanic forces, which are still at work, is which was at once the oldest and most recognised as the scene of the earliest Italian frequented in Italy, and which was called, in mythology, and must ever be impressive from comparison with all others, the “Queen of the poetic images, partly of this world and Roads.” We are no longer following the narrow partly of the next, with which Virgil has filled it. line of compact pavement across Macedonian From Cumæ to Capua, the road traverses a plains and mountains, or through the varied more prosaic district: the “Phlegræan fields”

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are left behind, and we pass from the scene of vines and elms would have a winterly Italy’s dim mythology to the theatre of the most appearance. But the traces of spring would be exciting passages of her history. The whole line visible in the willows; among which the Liris of the road can be traced at intervals, not only flows in many silent windings—from the in the close neighbourhood of Puteoli and birthplace of Marius in the mountains—to the Capua, but through the intermediate villages, by city and the swamps by the sea, which the fragments of pavement, tombs, and ancient ferocity of his mature life has rendered milestones. illustrious. After leaving Minturnæ, the Appian Capua, after a time of disgrace had expiated its Way passes on to another place, which has friendship with Hannibal, was raised by Julius different associations with the later years of the Cæsar to the rank of a colony: in the reign of Republic. We speak of Formiæ, with its long Augustus it had resumed all its former street by the shore of its beautiful bay, and with splendour: and about the very time of which we its villas on the sea side and above it; among are writing, it received accessions of dignity which was one of Cicero’s favourite retreats from the Emperor Nero. It was the most from the turmoil of the political world, and important city on the whole line of the Appian where at last he fell by the hand of assassins. Way, between Rome and Brundusium. That Many a lectica, or palanquin, such as that in part of the line with which we are concerned, is which he was reclining when overtaken by his the northerly and most ancient portion. The murderers, may have been met by St. Paul in his distance is about 125 miles: and it may be progress,—with other carriages, with which the naturally divided into two equal parts. The road would become more and more crowded,— division is appropriate, whether in regard to the cisium, or light cabriolet, of some gay the physical configuration of the country, or the reveller, on his way to Baiæ,—or the four- modern political boundaries. The point of wheeled rheda, full of the family of some division is where Terracina is built at the base wealthy senator quitting the town for the of those cliffs, on which the city of Anxur was of country. At no great distance from Formiæ the old proudly situated, and where a narrow pass, road left the sea again, and passed, where the between the mountain and the sea, unites the substructions of it still remain, through the Papal States to the kingdom of Naples. defiles of the Cæcuban hills, with their stony but productive vineyards. Thence the traveller The distance from Capua to Terracina is about looked down upon the plain of Fundi, which seventy Roman miles. At the third mile, the retreats like a bay into the mountains, with the road crossed the river Vulturnus at Casilinum, a low lake of Amyclæ between the town and the town then falling into decay. Fifteen miles sea. Through the capricious care, with which further it crossed the river Savo, by what was time has preserved in one place what is lost in then called the Campanian Bridge. Thence, after another, the pavement of the ancient way is still three miles, it came to Sinuessa on the sea, the street of this, the most northerly town of which in St. Paul’s day was reckoned the first the Neapolitan kingdom in this direction. We town in Latium. But the old rich Campania have now in front of us the mountain line, extended further to the northward, including which is both the frontier of the Papal states, the vine-clad hills of the famous Falernian and the natural division of the Apostle’s journey district through which we pass, after crossing from Capua to Rome. Where it reaches the the Savo. The last of these hills (where the vines coast, in bold limestone precipices, there Anxur may be seen trained on elms, as of old) is the was situated, with its houses and temples high range of Massicus, which stretches from the above the sea. coast towards the Apennines, and finally shuts out from the traveller, as he descends on the After leaving Anxur, the traveller observes the farther side, all the prospect of Vesuvius and high land retreating again from the coast, and the coast near Puteoli. At that season, both presently finds himself in a wide and

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remarkable plain, enclosed towards the interior there it is needless to speculate. Whoever might by the sweep of the blue Volscian mountains, be the persons, they were brethren in Christ, and separated by a belt of forest from the sea. and their presence would be an instantaneous Here are the Pomptine marshes,—“the only source of comfort and strength. We have marshes ever dignified by classic celebrity.” The already seen, on other occasions of his life, how descriptive lines of the Roman satirist have the Apostle’s heart was lightened by the wonderfully concurred with the continued presence of his friends. unhealthiness of the half-drained morass, in Appii Forum and the Three Taverns preserving a living commentary on that About ten miles farther he received a second fifteenth verse in the last chapter of the Acts, welcome from a similar group of Christian which exhibits to us one of the most touching brethren. Two independent companies had passages in the Apostle’s life. A few miles gone to meet him; or the zeal and strength of beyond Terracina, where a fountain, grateful to one party had outstripped the other. At a place travellers, welled up near the sanctuary of called the Three Taverns, where a cross road Feronia, was the termination of a canal, which from the coast at Antium came in from the left, was formed by Augustus for the purpose of this second party of Christians was waiting to draining the marshes, and which continued for welcome and to honour “the ambassador in twenty miles by the side of the road. Over this bonds.” With a lighter heart, and a more distance, travellers had their choice, whether to cheerful countenance, he travelled the proceed by barges dragged by mules, or on the remaining seventeen miles, which brought him pavement of the way itself. It is impossible to along the base of the Alban Hills, in the midst of know which plan was adopted by Julius and his places well known and famous in early Roman prisoners. If we suppose the former to have legends, to the town of Aricia. The Great been chosen, we have the aid of Horace’s Satire Apostle had the sympathies of human nature; to enable us to imagine the incidents and the he was dejected and encouraged by the same company, in the midst of which the Apostle causes which act on our spirits; he too saw all came, unknown and unfriended, to the corrupt outward objects in “hues borrowed from the metropolis of the world. And yet he was not so heart.” The diminution of fatigue—the more unfriended as he may possibly have thought hopeful prospect of the future—the renewed himself that day, in his progress from Anxur elasticity of religious trust—the sense of a across the watery, unhealthy plain. On the brighter light on all the scenery round him—on arrival of the party at Appii Forum, which was a the foliage which overshadowed the road—on town where the mules were unfastened, at the the wide expanse of the plain to the left—on the other end of the canal, and is described by the high summit of the Alban Mount,—all this, and satirist as full of low tavern-keepers and more than this, is involved in St. Luke’s bargemen,—at that meeting-place where sentence,—“when Paul saw the brethren, he travellers from all parts of the Empire had often thanked God, and took courage.” crossed one another’s path,—on that day, in the motley and vulgar crowd, some of the few The mention of the Alban Mount reminds us Christians who were then in the world, that we are approaching the end of our journey. suddenly recognised one another, and emotions The isolated group of hills, which is called by of holy joy and thanksgiving sanctified the place this collective name, stands between the plain of coarse vice and vulgar traffic. The disciples at which has just been traversed and that other Rome had heard of the Apostle’s arrival at plain which is the Campagna of Rome. All the Puteoli, and hastened to meet him on the way; bases of the mountain were then (as indeed and the prisoner was startled to recognise they are partially now) clustered round with some of those among whom he had laboured, the villas and gardens of wealthy citizens. The and whom he had loved, in the distant cities of Appian Way climbs and then descends along its the East. Whether Aquila and Priscilla were southern slope. After passing Lanuvium it

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crossed a crater-like valley on immense which the centurion who had charge of the substructions, which still remain. Here is Aricia, prisoners was in some way connected. As they an easy stage from Rome. The town was above proceeded over the old pavement, among the road; and on the hill side swarms of beggars gardens and modern houses, and approached beset travellers as they passed. On the summit nearer the busy metropolis—the “conflux of the next rise, Paul of Tarsus would obtain his issuing forth or entering in” in various first view of Rome. There is no doubt that the costumes and on various errands,— vehicles, prospect was, in many respects, very different horsemen, and foot-passengers, soldiers and from the view which is now obtained from the labourers, Romans and foreigners,—became same spot. It is true that the natural features of more crowded and confusing. The houses grew the scene are unaltered. The long wall of blue closer. They were already in Rome. It was Sabine mountains, with Soracte in the distance, impossible to define the commencement of the closed in the Campagna, which stretched far city. Its populous portions extended far beyond across to the sea and round the base of the the limits marked out by Servius. The ancient Alban hills. But ancient Rome was not, like wall, with its once sacred pomœrium, was modern Rome, impressive from its solitude, rather an object for antiquarian interest, like standing alone, with its one conspicuous the walls of York or Chester, than any cupola, in the midst of a desolate though protection against the enemies, who were kept beautiful waste. St. Paul would see a vast city, far aloof by the legions on the frontier. covering the Campagna, and almost Entrance into Rome continuously connected by its suburbs with the Yet the Porta Capena is a spot which we can villas on the hill where he stood, and with the hardly leave without lingering for a moment. bright towns which clustered on the sides of the Under this arch—which was perpetually mountains opposite. Over all the intermediate dripping with the water of the aqueduct that space were the houses and gardens, through went over it—had passed all those who, since a which aqueducts and roads might be traced in remote period of the republic, had travelled by converging lines towards the confused mass of the Appian Way,—victorious generals with edifices which formed the city of Rome. Here no their legions, returning from foreign service,— conspicuous building, elevated above the rest, emperors and courtiers, vagrant attracted the eye or the imagination. Ancient representatives of every form of Heathenism, Rome had neither cupola nor campanile. Still Greeks and Asiatics, Jews and Christians. From less had it any of those spires, which give life to this point entering within the city, Julius and his all the landscapes of Northern Christendom. It prisoners moved on, with the Aventine on their was a wide-spread aggregate of buildings, left, close round the base of the Cœlian, and which, though separated by narrow streets and through the hollow ground which lay between open squares, appeared, when seen from near this hill and the Palatine: thence over the low Aricia, blended into one indiscriminate mass: ridge called Velia, where afterwards was built for distance concealed the contrasts which the arch of Titus, to commemorate the divided the crowded habitations of the poor destruction of Jerusalem; and then descending, and the dark haunts of filth and misery—from by the Sacra Via, into that space which was the the theatres and colonnades, the baths, the centre of imperial power and imperial temples and palaces with gilded roofs, flashing magnificence, and associated also with the most back the sun. glorious recollections of the republic. The The road descended into the plain at Bovillæ, Forum was to Rome, what the Acropolis was to six miles from Aricia, and thence it proceeded Athens, the heart of all the characteristic in a straight line, with the sepulchres of interest of the place. Here was the Milliarium illustrious families on either hand. One of these Aureum, to which the roads of all the provinces was the burial-place of the Julian gens, with converged. All around were the stately

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buildings, which were raised in the closing four ridges (the Cœlian, the Esquiline, the years of the Republic, and by the earlier Viminal, and the Quirinal) which ascended and Emperors. In front was the Capitoline Hill, united together in the higher ground on which illustrious long before the invasion of the Gauls. the Prætorian camp was situated. And when Close on the left, covering that hill, whose name fires swept rapidly from roof to roof, and vast is associated in every modern European ranges of buildings were buried in the ruins of language with the notion of imperial splendour, one night, that contrast between the dwellings were the vast ranges of the palace—the “house of the poor and the palaces of the rich, which of Cæsar” (Phil. 4:22). Here were the household has supplied the Apostle with one of his most troops quartered in a prœtorium attached to forcible images, would be clearly revealed,— the palace. And here (unless, indeed, it was in the difference between structures of the great Prœtorian camp outside the city wall) “sumptuous marbles, with silver and gold,” Julius gave up his prisoner to Burrus, the which abide after the fire, and the hovels of Prœtorian Prœfect, whose official duty it was to “wood, hay, stubble,” which are burnt (1 Cor. keep in custody all accused persons who were 3:10–15). to be tried before the Emperor. Description of Rome This doubt, which of two places, somewhat If we look at a map of modern Rome, with a distant from each other, was the scene of St. desire of realising to ourselves the appearance Paul’s meeting with the commander-in-chief of of the city of Augustus and Nero, we must in the the Prætorian guards, gives us the occasion for first place obliterate from our view that circuit entering on a general description of the of walls, which is due in various proportions, to different parts of the city of Rome. It would be Aurelian, Belisarius, and Pope Leo IV. The wall, nugatory to lay great stress, as is too often through which the Porta Capena gave done, on its “seven hills:” for a great city at admission, was the old Servian enclosure, length obliterates the original features of the which embraced a much smaller area: though ground, especially where those features were we must bear in mind, as we have remarked naturally not very strongly marked. The above, that the city had extended itself beyond description, which is easy in reference to this limit, and spread through various suburbs, Athens or Edinburgh, is hard in the instance of far into the country. In the next place we must modern London or ancient Rome. Nor is it easy, observe that the hilly part of Rome, which is in the case of one of the larger cities of the now half occupied by gardens, was then the world, to draw any marked lines of distinction most populous, while the Campus Martius, now among the different classes of buildings. It is covered with crowded streets, was true, the contrasts are really great; but details comparatively open. It was only about the close are lost in a distant view of so vast an of the Republic that many buildings were raised aggregate. The two scourges to which ancient on the Campus Martius, and these were chiefly Rome was most exposed, revealed very of a public or decorative character. One of palpably the contrast, both of the natural these, the Pantheon, still remains, as a ground and the human structures, which by the monument of the reign of Augustus. This, general observer might be unnoticed or indeed, is the period from which we must trace forgotten. When the Tiber was flooded, and the the beginning of all the grandeur of Roman muddy waters converted all the streets and buildings. Till the Civil War between Pompey open places of the lower part of the city into and Cæsar, the private houses of the citizens lakes and canals, it would be seen very clearly had been mean, and the only public structures how much lower were the Forum and the of note were the cloacæ and the aqueducts. But Campus Martius, than those three detached in proportion as the ancient fabric of the hills (the Capitoline, the Palatine, and the constitution broke down, and while successful Aventine) which rose near the river; and those generals brought home wealth from provinces

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conquered and plundered on every shore of the crowded on the various landings of those Mediterranean, the City began to assume the insulœ, or piles of lodging houses, which are appearance of a new and imperial perhaps best described by comparing them to magnificence. To leave out of view the the houses in the old town of Edinburgh. luxurious and splendid residences which If it is difficult to describe the outward wealthy citizens raised for their own uses, appearances of the city, it is still more difficult Pompey erected the first theatre of stone, and to trace the distinctive features of all the parts Julius Cæsar surrounded the great Circus with a of that colossal population which filled it. portico. From this time the change went on Within a circuit of little more than twelve miles rapidly and incessantly. The increase of public more than two millions of inhabitants were business led to the erection of enormous crowded. It is evident that this fact is only Basilicas. The Forum was embellished on all explicable by the narrowness of the streets, sides. The Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and with that peculiarity of the houses which has those other temples the remains of which are been alluded to above. In this prodigious still conspicuous at the base of the Capitoline, collection of human beings, there were of were only a small part of similar buildings course all the contrasts which are seen in a raised by Augustus. The triumphal arch erected modern city,—all the painful lines of separation by Tiberius near the same place was only one of between luxury and squalor, wealth and want. many structures, which rose in rapid But in Rome all these differences were on an succession to decorate that busy exaggerated scale, and the institution of slavery neighbourhood. And if we wish to take a wider modified further all social relations. The free view, we have only to think of the aqueducts, citizens were more than a million: of these, the which were built, one by one, between the senators were so few in number, as to be hardly private enterprises of Agrippa in the reign of appreciable: the knights, who filled a great Augustus, and the recent structures of the proportion of the public offices, were not more Emperor Claudius, just before the arrival of the than 10,000: the troops quartered in the city Apostle Paul. We may not go further in the may be reckoned at 15,000: the rest were the order of chronology. We must remember that Plebs urbana. That a vast number of these the Colosseum, the Basilica of Constantine, and would be poor, is an obvious result of the most the baths of other emperors, and many other ordinary causes. But, in ancient Rome, the buildings which are now regarded as the luxury of the wealthier classes did not produce conspicuous features of ancient Rome, did not a general diffusion of trade, as it does in a then exist. We are describing a period which is modern city. The handicraft employments, and anterior to the time of Nero’s fire. Even after many of what we should call professions, were the opportunity which that calamity afforded in the hands of slaves; and the consequence for reconstructing the city, Juvenal complains of was, that a vast proportion of the Plebs urbana the narrowness of the streets. Were we to lived on public or private charity. Yet were attempt to extend our description to any of these pauper citizens proud of their citizenship, these streets,—whether the old Vicus Tuscus, though many of them had no better sleeping- with its cheating shopkeepers, which led round place for the night than the public porticos or the base of the Palatine, from the Forum to the the vestibules of temples. They cared for Circus,—or the aristocratic Carinæ along the nothing beyond bread for the day, the games of slope of the Esquiline,—or the noisy Suburra, in the Circus, and the savage delight of gladiatorial the hollow between the Viminal and Quirinal, shows. Manufactures and trade they regarded which had sunk into disrepute, though once the as the business of the slave and the foreigner. residence of Julius Cæsar,—we should only The number of the slaves was perhaps about a wander into endless perplexity. And we should million. The number of the strangers or be equally lost, if we were to attempt to peregrini was much smaller; but it is impossible discriminate the mixed multitude, which were

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to describe their varieties. Every kind of between Rome and the East. Many of them nationality and religion found its were wealthy, and large sums were sent representative in Rome. But it is needless to annually for religious purposes from Italy to the pursue these details. The most obvious mother country. Even the proselytes comparison is better than an elaborate contributed to these sacred funds. It is difficult description. Rome was like London with all its to estimate the amount of the religious miseries, vices, and follies exaggerated, and influence exerted by the Roman Jews upon the without Christianity. various Heathens around them; but all our Population of Rome sources of information lead us to conclude that it was very considerable. So long as this One part of Rome still remains to be described, influence was purely religious, we have no the “Trastevere,” or district beyond the river. reason to suppose that any persecution from This portion of the city has been known in the civil power resulted. It was when modern times for the energetic and intractable commotions took place in consequence of character of its population. In earlier times it expectations of a temporal Messiah, or when was equally notorious, though not quite for the vague suspicions of this mysterious people same reason. It was the residence of a low were more than usually excited, that the Jews of rabble, and the place of the meanest Rome were cruelly treated, or peremptorily merchandise. There is, however, one reason banished. Yet from all these cruelties they why our attention is particularly called to it. It recovered with elastic force, and from all these was the ordinary residence of the Jews—the exiles they returned; and in the early years of “Ghetto” of ancient Rome: and great part of it Nero, which were distinguished for a mild and was doubtless squalid and miserable, like the lenient government of the Empire, the Jews in Ghetto of modern Rome, though the Jews were Rome seem to have enjoyed complete often less oppressed under the Cæsars than toleration, and to have been a numerous, under the Popes. Here then—on the level wealthy, and influential community. ground, between the windings of the muddy river and the base of that hill from the brow of The Roman Church which Porsena looked down on early Rome, The Christians doubtless shared the protection and where the French within these few years which was extended to the Jews. They were have planted their cannon—we must place the hardly yet sufficiently distinguished as a self- home of those Israelitish families among whom existent community, to provoke any the Gospel bore its first-fruits in the metropolis independent hostility. It is even possible that of the world: and it was on these bridges,— the Christians, so far as they were known as which formed an immediate communication separate, were more tolerated than the Jews; from the district beyond the Tiber to the for, not having the same expectation of an Emperor’s household and the guards on the earthly hero to deliver them, they had no Palatine,—that those despised Jewish beggars political ends in view, and would not be in the took their stand, to whom in the place of their same danger of exciting the suspicion of the exile had come the hopes of a better citizenship government. Yet we should fall into a serious than that which they had lost. error, if we were to suppose that all the The Jewish community thus established in Christians in Rome, or the majority of them, had Rome, had its first beginnings in the captives formerly been Jews or Proselytes; though this brought by Pompey after his eastern campaign. was doubtless true of its earliest members, who Many of them were manumitted; and thus a may have been of the number that were great proportion of the Jews in Rome were dispersed after the first Pentecost, or, possibly, freedmen. Frequent accessions to their disciples of our Lord Himself. It is impossible to numbers were made as years went on—chiefly arrive at any certain conclusion concerning the from the mercantile relations which subsisted first origin and early growth of the Church in

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Rome; though, from the manifold links between received its growth and instruction through the city and the provinces, it is easy to account various channels, many of them were for the formation of a large and flourishing connected, directly or indirectly, with St. Paul; community. Its history before the year 61 might and accordingly he writes, in the whole of the be divided into three periods, separated from letter, as one already in intimate relation with a each other by the banishment of the Jews from Church which he has never seen. And whatever Rome in the reign of Claudius, and the writing bonds subsisted between this Apostle and the of St. Paul’s letter from Corinth. Even in the first Roman Christians, must have been drawn still of these periods there might be points of closer when the letter had been received; for connection between the Roman Church and St. from that time they were looking forward to a Paul; for some of those whom he salutes (Rom. personal visit from him, in his projected 16:7, 11) as “kinsmen,” are also said to have journey to the West. Thenceforward they must been “Christians before him.” In the second have taken the deepest interest in all his period it cannot well be doubted that a very movements, and received with eager anxiety close connection began between St. Paul and the news of his imprisonment at Cæsarea, and some of the conspicuous members and waited (as we have already seen) for his arrival principal teachers of the Roman Church. The in Italy. It is indeed but too true that there were expulsion of the Jews in consequence of the parties among the Christians in Rome, and that edict of Claudius, brought them in large some had a hostile feeling against St. Paul numbers to the chief towns of the Levant; and himself; yet it is probable that the animosity of there St. Paul met them in the synagogues. We the Judaizers was less developed, than it was in have seen what results followed from his those regions which he had personally visited, meeting with Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth. and to which they had actually followed him. As They returned to Rome with all the stores of to the unconverted Jews, the name of St. Paul spiritual instruction which he had given them; was doubtless known to them; yet were they and in the Epistle to the Romans we find him, as comparatively little interested in his is natural, saluting them thus:—“Greet Priscilla movements. Their proud contempt of the and Aquila, my helpers in Christ Jesus: who Christian heresy would make them indifferent. have for my sake laid down their own necks: The leaven of the Gospel was working around unto whom not only I give thanks, but also all them to an extent of which they were hardly the Churches of the Gentiles. Likewise greet the aware. The very magnitude of the population of Church that is in their house.” All this reveals to Rome had a tendency to neutralise the currents us a great amount of devoted exertion on behalf of party feeling. For these reasons the hostility of one large congregation in Rome; and all of it of the Jews was probably less violent than in distinctly connected with St. Paul. And this is any other part of the Empire. perhaps only a specimen of other cases of the Interview with the Jews like kind. Thus he sends a greeting to Epænetus, Yet St. Paul could not possibly be aware of the whom he names “the first-fruits of Asia” (ver. exact extent of their enmity against himself. 5), and who may have had the same close Independently, therefore, of his general relation to him during his long ministration at principle of preaching, first to the Jew and then Ephesus (Acts, 19), which Aquila and Priscilla to the Gentile, he had an additional reason for had at Corinth. Nor must we forget those losing no time in addressing himself to his women, whom he singles out for special countrymen. Thus, after the mention of St. mention,—“Mary, who bestowed much labour Paul’s being delivered up to Burrus, and on him” (ver. 6); “the beloved Persis, who allowed by him to be separate from the other laboured much in the Lord” (ver. 12); with prisoners, the next scene to which the sacred Tryphæna and Tryphosa, and the unknown historian introduces us is among the Jews. After mother of Rufus (ver. 13). We cannot doubt, three days he sent for the principal men among that, though the Church of Rome may have

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them to his lodging, and endeavoured to to Christianity than we can suppose to have conciliate their feelings towards himself and prevailed among the Roman Jews. But with the Gospel. regard to Paul himself, it might well be true that It was highly probable that the prejudices of they had little information concerning him. these Roman Jews were already roused against Though he had been imprisoned long at the Apostle of the Gentiles; or if they had not Cæsarea, his appeal had been made only a short yet conceived an unfavourable opinion of him, time before winter. After that time (to use the there was a danger that they would now look popular expression), the sea was shut; and the upon him as a traitor to his country, from the winter had been a stormy one; so that it was mere fact that he had appealed to the Roman natural enough that his case should be first power. He might even have been represented to made known to the Jews by himself. All these them in the odious light of one who had come circumstances gave a favourable opening for to Rome as an accuser of the Sanhedrin before the preaching of the Gospel, and Paul hastened the Emperor. St. Paul, therefore, addressed his to take advantage of it. A day was fixed for a auditors on this point at once, and shewed that meeting at his own private lodging. his enemies were guilty of this very appeal to They came in great numbers at the appointed the foreign power, of which he had himself time. Then followed an impressive scene, like been suspected. He had committed no offence that at Troas (Acts, 21)—the Apostle pleading against the holy nation, or the customs of their long and earnestly,—bearing testimony fathers; yet his enemies at Jerusalem had concerning the kingdom of God,—and delivered him,—one of their brethren—of the endeavouring to persuade them by arguments seed of Abraham—of the tribe of Benjamin—a drawn from their own Scriptures,—“from Hebrew of the Hebrews—into the hands of the morning till evening.” The result was a division Romans. So unfounded was the accusation, that among the auditors—“not peace but a even the Roman governor had been ready to sword,”—the division which has resulted ever liberate the prisoner; but his Jewish enemies since, when the Truth of God has encountered, opposed his liberation. They strove to keep a side by side, earnest conviction with worldly child of Israel in Roman chains. So that he was indifference, honest investigation with bigoted compelled, as his only hope of safety, to appeal prejudice, trustful faith with the pride of unto Cæsar. He brought no accusation against scepticism. After a long and stormy discussion, his countrymen before the tribunal of the the unbelieving portion departed; but not until stranger: that was the deed of his antagonists. St. Paul had warned them, in one last address, In fact, his only crime had been his firm faith in that they were bringing upon themselves that God’s deliverance of his people through the awful doom of judicial blindness, which was Messiah promised by the Prophets. “For the denounced in their own Scriptures against hope of Israel,” he concluded, “I am bound with obstinate unbelievers; that the salvation which this chain.” they rejected would be withdrawn from them, Their answer to this address was reassuring. and the inheritance they renounced would be They said that they had received no written given to the Gentiles. The sentence with which communication from Judæa concerning St. Paul, he gave emphasis to this warning was that and that none of “the brethren” who had passage in Isaiah, which is more often quoted in arrived from the East had spoken any evil of the New Testament than any other words from him. They further expressed a wish to hear the Old, —which recurring thus with solemn from himself a statement of his religious force at the very close of the Apostolic history, sentiments, adding that the Christian sect was seems to bring very strikingly together the Old everywhere spoken against. There was perhaps Dispensation and the New, and to connect the something hardly honest in this answer; for it ministry of Our Lord with that of His seems to imply a greater ignorance with regard Apostles:— “Go unto this people and say:

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Hearing ye shall hear and shall not understand, and seeing ye shall see and shall not perceive: for the heart of this people is waxed gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and their eyes have they closed; lest they should see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and should be converted, and I should heal them.” A formal separation was now made between the Apostle of the Gentiles and the Jews of Rome. They withdrew, to dispute concerning the “sect” which was making such inroads on their prejudices (ver. 29). He remained in his own hired house, where the indulgence of Burrus permitted him to reside, instead of confining him within the walls of the Prætorian barrack. We must not forget, however, that he was still a prisoner under military custody,— chained by the arm, both day and night, to one of the imperial bodyguard,—and thus subjected to the rudeness and caprice of an insolent soldiery. This severity, however, was indispensable, according to the Roman law; and he received every indulgence which it was in the power of the Præfect to grant. He was allowed to receive all who came to him (ver. 30), and was permitted, without hindrance, to preach boldly the kingdom of God, and teach the things of the Lord Jesus Christ (ver. 31). Thus was fulfilled his long cherished desire “to proclaim the Gospel to them that were in Rome also” (Rom. 1:15). Thus ends the Apostolic History, so far as it has been directly revealed. Here the thread of sacred narrative, which we have followed so long, is suddenly broken. Our knowledge of the incidents of his residence in Rome, and of his subsequent history, must be gathered almost exclusively from the letters of the Apostle himself.