Pesticide Use in Periurban Environment
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PESTICIDE USE IN PERIURBAN ENVIRONMENT Nur Ahmed Introductory Paper at the Faculty of Landscape Planning, Horticulture and Agricultural Science 2008:1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Alnarp, July 2008 ISSN 1654-3580 PESTICIDE USE IN PERIURBAN ENVIRONMENT Nur Ahmed Introductory Paper at the Faculty of Landscape Planning, Horticulture and Agricultural Science 2008:1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Alnarp, July 2008 2 © By the author Figure 15 reprinted with kind permission of Ruth Hazzard, [email protected] and also available at http://www.umassvegetable.org/soil_crop_pest_mgt/insect_mgt/cabbage_maggot.html Figure 16 reprinted with kind permission of Ruth Hazzard, [email protected], and Becky Koch, [email protected] 3 Summary This introductory paper focuses on pesticides; use, regulation, impact on nature, economics, and interactions with pests, non target organisms as well as society in the periurban environment and with an international context. With an increasingly skeptical society to pesticides it is important that scientists and non-specialists (farmers and neighbours) meet and discuss their ideas about insecticide use and risks. This is necessary because the public’s perception of risks may well diverge significantly from that of specialists. In the periurban areas (the urban fringe) these problems and divergent opinions are likely to be more pronounced than in the rural areas. This review paper is also discussing the insect pest migrations and trap cropping with a view to find out whether insecticide application in field crops (e.g. oilseed rape) affects pest density in the adjacent garden crops (e.g. radish). Preface This introductory paper is a review based on references from libraries, internet and personal communication. It elucidates pesticide use and its interactions with nature as well as society in the periurban context but with an international perspective. This review gives a background to a coming PhD-study on pesticide use, interactions between farmers and neighbour gardeners and insect pest situation of farmers field and nearby garden crops. Oilseed rape and radish are used as examples of farmers field and neighbour garden crops, respectively, with flea beetles and cabbage root flies as common insect pests of both crops. Interactions between farmers and neighbours use of pesticides in two societies, Bangladesh, one of the most densely, and Sweden, sparsely populated will be studied. 4 Contents Page No. Summary 4 Preface 4 Contents 5 Introduction 7 Periurban Definition and Concept 7 Pesticides and Pests 9 A. Pesticide Use and Social Attitude 9 Definition and History of Pesticide 9 Pesticide Use in Agriculture and Surroundings 10 Pesticide Use in Public Health 11 Impact of Pesticides in the Environment 11 Crop or Foodstuff 12 Natural Enemy Community 12 Soil and Soil Microorganisms 13 Water 13 Air 14 Health 14 Economics of Pesticide Use 15 Alternatives to Pesticide Use 18 Allelopathy or Biological Control of Weed 19 Safe Use of Pesticides 19 Human Safety 19 Environmental Safety 19 Regulatory Framework 20 Product Registration 20 Regulatory Harmonisation 20 Codex Maximum Residue Levels 21 FAO Pesticide Specifications 21 Pesticide Management 21 Pesticide Regulations in Bangladesh and Sweden 21 Pesticide Use in Bangladesh 22 Pesticide Use in Sweden 23 Pesticide Marketing System 26 Bangladesh 26 Sweden 28 Society and Pesticides 29 B. Exchange of Pests between Insecticide Treated Farmers’ Field and Garden 30 Crop Oilseed Rape 31 Introduction 31 Origin 31 Scientific Classification 33 Importance 33 5 Page No. Management 34 Radish 35 Introduction 35 Origin 35 Scientific Classification 36 Importance 36 Management 36 Pests of Oilseed Rape and Radish 37 Pests of Oilseed Rape 37 Management of Oilseed Rape Insect Pests 38 Pests of Radishes 38 Common Insect Pests of Oilseed Rape and Radish 38 Cabbage Root Fly 39 Flea Beetle 41 Pest Resistance to Insecticides 41 Migration of Insect Pests 43 Trap Cropping 43 Acknowledgements 44 References 44 6 Introduction Agriculture, a term which encompasses farming, is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other goods by systematic raising of plants and animals. The human history is closely related to the history of agriculture. Development of agriculture has been a crucial factor resulting in social change and specialization of human activities (Wikipedia). The agricultural activities generally occur in rural, urban and periurban areas. They consist mainly of producing crops, fish, meat and egg. Processing and marketing also takes place, especially in the urban region in order to get higher prices. A large part of the urban vegetable market supply is accounted for by the periurban and urban productions. For example, in the capital city of Hanoi, 80% of the vegetables are from the Province of Hanoi and in Brazzaville, 65% of the marketed vegetables come from the urban gardens (Moustier 1999; Bon de 2001). Periurban Definition and Concept The periurban interface is a transitional area between city and countryside, meaning not a discrete zone, but rather a diffuse territory. The area is identified by combinations of features and phenomena, generated largely by activities within the area (Adell 1999). The area is a zone of mixed land use elements and characteristics. The area is sometimes also termed the rural-urban fringe. Within the area, rural activities are in rapid change and not only residential, but also commercial, educational, recreational, public services and other largely extensive uses of land are intruding (Thomas 1974). Periurban agriculture takes place on the fringe of a town, a city or a metropolis while urban agriculture is located within the town, city or metropolis. Within the urban and periurban agriculture (UPA), a diversity of food and non-food products are grown or raised, processed and distributed. Also, human and material resources, products and services found in and around that urban area are largely (re)-used. In turn UPA supplies human and material resources, products and services primarily to that urban area (Mougeot 2000). UPA systems include aromatic and medicinal herbs, all types of crops such as cereals, root crops, vegetables, fruit as well as livestock of all types. Also, some systems include plants like ornamentals and tree seedlings. Food and non-food production is often mutually complementary. As for food crops, relatively high-valued, perishable vegetables and animal products and by- products are more common. Although medium sized and larger enterprises are present, the main urban farmers are small-scale family enterprises. Therefore, urban agriculture is carried out additionally to other types of employment. Urban agriculture is found beneficial since it leads to increased food security as well as income levels, both for individuals and at household levels (Zeeuw & Lock 2000). In many developed countries periurban areas are presently undergoing major transformations. The expansion of urban areas into the surrounding landscape entails the transformation of land use, population composition and business structures. Periurban areas made on scarce land resources are therefore dynamic landscapes, areas of tension and conflicts, with various clashes of interests, and contradictory demands (Busck et al. 2006). The processes of urbanization affect land use and social systems of rural communities near urban agglomerations (Bryant & Johnston 1992). Farm properties in 7 periurban areas may attract newcomers with little or no relation to agricultural production. The reason might be a cheap housing alternative, a pleasant living environment away from pollution and social problems of the city, more space for hobby activities or other qualities (Berg & Wintjes 2000). The new landowners’ lifestyle may still be strongly attached to nearby urban areas in terms of social, cultural and occupational relationships, made possible by improved infrastructure and mobility. Also, former full-time farmers often seek stronger relations to nearby urban areas e.g. by commuting to off-farm work or engaging in agro-tourist activities (e.g. bed and breakfast) due to the structural development within the agricultural sector. The conventional agricultural areas as suppliers of agricultural products are in other words contested and urban values and lifestyles are encroaching upon agricultural areas (Antrop 2000). In developing countries agricultural policies have focused strongly on rural areas, aiming to achieve self sufficiency in food production and to reduce rural poverty. Urban food needs are also expected to be fulfilled by production in rural areas. The UPA is a major source of produce in developing countries, leading to improved food security and enhanced livelihoods of poor producers (Bakker et al. 2000). Much of the evidence for this has been gathered from African, Latin American, Caribbean and some Asian and Eastern European countries (Lintelo et al. 2001). Criteria defining periurban agriculture differ and relate to population sizes, density thresholds, official city limits (Gumbor & Ndiripo 1996), municipal boundaries of the city (Maxwell & Armar-Klemesu 1998), agricultural land zoned for other use (Mbiba 1994) or agriculture within the legal and regulatory purview of urban authorities (Aldington 1997, also cited by Mougeot 2000). One determination of the outer boundary of periurban zones is based on varying ratios of buildings and roads and increasing ratios of open space per km2 (Losada et al. 1998). Maximum distance away