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Deposited in DRO: 19 February 2013 Version of attached le: Published Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Baili, I.K. and Lacey, H.R. and Coningham, R.A.E. and Gunawardhana, P. and Adikari, G. and Davis, C.E. and Manuel, M.J. and Strickland, K.M. (2013) 'Luminescence dating of brick : an application to the hinterland of , .', Antiquity., 87 (335). pp. 189-201. Further information on publisher's website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00048717

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Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk Gunawardhana 95.Ietfiaino hs ie srlato h rsneo n rmr architectural more or one of presence (Coningham the settings its on rural reliant following and is urban Lanka sites both these Sri in of sites in Identification Buddhist of 1995). religion development accompanied was state rapid change this the and the by 1946), (Paranavitana BC as century third the established in introduction became swiftly Introduction Strickland M. Keir & Bailiff K. Ian Lanka Sri Anuradhapura, of hinterland the to an application stupas: brick of dating Luminescence 3 2 1 Keywords: ANTIQUITY C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity otrdaeIsiueo rhelg,Uiest fKlny,Klny 10,SiLna(Email: Lanka Sri 11600, Kelaniya Kelaniya, of [email protected]) University Archaeology, of (Email: Institute Lanka Postgraduate Sri 11600, Kelaniya Kelaniya, [email protected]) of University Archaeology, of Department UK 3LE, [email protected]) DH1 [email protected]; Durham [email protected]; Road, [email protected]; South [email protected]; Building, [email protected]; Dawson (Email: University, Durham Archaeology, of Department 7(03:1921http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/087/ant0870189.htm 189–201 (2013): 87 Anuradhapura r ak,Auahpr,Bdhs,sua,OL hinterland OSL, stupas, Buddhism, Anuradhapura, Lanka, Sri Colombo 1 are .Lacey R. Harriet , 2 ,GaminiAdikari 0 1 km 200 1 N oi ..Coningham A.E. Robin , 3 hi .Davis E. Chris , 189 fbidn,ads rtn borpis for functions. ‘biographies’ different writing with stupas so and episodes building, different of distinguishing by insights important embellishment. promises or method and replaced the Nevertheless, be repair may during brick recycled tempered context: be their must by specimens dates scientific from good obtained often, so As fabric. brick to luminescence assess stimulated largely optically by here sequences applying building authors are dating for the stupas potential the brick, the accurate of since on composed depend and change dating, economic political for arguments and Since for society. indicators sensitive their be to shown and been monuments have religious Asia’s South of distinc- tive most the among are stupas domed The 1 akJ Manuel J. Mark , 1 Prishanta , 1

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas features, the , the griha (sanctuary) and the vihara (monastery) being prominent types (Coningham 2001, 2011). The stupa is the most distinctive and durable of the monuments and, as the focal point of many monastic sites, it has become a prominent symbol of (Silva 1986: 8). The origin of the stupa is thought to be pre- Buddhist, with a development traced back to megalithic mounds (Silva 1986: 6). Typically formed as a solid mound, the stupa was built primarily as a monument to enshrine relics or to commemorate important events or places in the life of the Buddha (Silva 1986; Coningham 2001). In Sri Lanka, the main building material used in the construction of ancient stupas was fired clay brick, a technology that, along with tile, was notionally restricted to religious or royal structures (Bandaranayake 1989). The fortified city of Anuradhapura, a pivotal urban centre in Sri Lanka from the third century BC until its abandonment in AD 1017, witnessed a sustained and vigorous development of both secular and religious monumental architecture during this period (Coningham 1999, 2006). In the hinterland, monastic establishments developed a key economic and political role, acting as agents for the management of land and water, and providing an administrative infrastructure linked to the great urban viharas as an extension of their religious and secular influence (Coningham 2011). These rural monasteries were often located on granite outcrops, providing visually distinctive structures within the landscape of the hinterland, the topographic positioning of which has been linked to the concept of establishing intervisibility in the religious landscape as a means of increasing the visual prominence and authority (Shaw 1999). Recent archaeological work in the Anuradhapura hinterland (Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) project phase II: the hinterland) has focused on the relationship between urban and rural communities and the role of the development of Buddhist viharas within a broader landscape setting, including formulation and refinement of the monastic architectural chronology (Coningham et al. 2007; Coningham 2011). However, the dating of stupas based on the use of architectural typologies is frequently not feasible in rural areas because historically original features were not preserved during renovation (Paranavitana 1946). Moreover, many stupas remained abandoned for centuries and were reduced to amorphous mounds, often structurally damaged by looting or robbed for the reuse of building materials. This is a problem common to the stylistic dating of many brick Buddhist monuments in South and Southeast Asia, as discussed by Ali and Coningham (2002) working in Pakistan, Shaw (2007) in central India and by Stark et al. (2006) working in Cambodia, and there is a general need for a method of dating the construction of brick structures that is based on a direct analysis of the building materials. This paper reports a study that examined the potential of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to test the chronology of a selection of brick-built stupas in the hinterland of Anuradhapura. Earlier work by Abeyratne (1994) on the application of thermoluminescence (TL) dating to archaeological sites in Sri Lanka included the testing of bricks from two urban stupas within Anuradhapura (Jetavanaramaya and Mirisewetiya) and a further stupa at Polonnaruva, and obtained good agreement with historical dates. However, no previous attempts have been made to apply scientific dating methods to stupas within the urban hinterlands. C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

190 ml ua tpso ihotrp 20) h nrdcino agrmnsi complexes, monastic as larger of identified the introduction and The as Lanka, (2009). such Sri outcrops south-east high on in ‘focal’ stupas of 400–700 rural introduction AD small the to (Bandaranayake with Gunawardhana deities occurred by local architecture dated monastic with stupas, in associated shift already significant locations A in 1974). founded often and monasteries, stupa hub, and or Organic, BC from 1995). century Coningham third dating 1970; the (Paranavitana between AD to century dated are first are textual or the they and surviving caves (EBI), on that rock-cut inscriptions reliance Brahmi are in a early identified display having significant structures than monastic are rather earliest remains methods The material records. These of use artefacts. the diagnostic on grounded of typology presence architectural periodisation, the monument of and scheme a in employs located hinterland—that those particular the complexes—in monastic to stupa phases occupational broad a assigning of of evolution the factors important for potentially basis were stupas. enlargement chronological examining evidence. and when repairs a archaeological that the provide recognised with was not it literature typology, did Pali approach and development Sinhalese architectural this the connecting While trace by to stupa attempted the and of units, were building unsuccessful, there monastic were individual that method recognised this use he to time, discredited. attempts largely over approach However, later the size size. and leaving brick correlation, diminishing on the of based in trend irregularities chronology a a attempted establishing finding [1909]) of (2001 although feasibility Parker the stupas, demonstrate for technique to dating materials-based systematic a rdcdi h fhadsxhcnuisA,btteeaesatdtiswti hs records these within details often scant and are there large, Lanka, of but Sri building the AD, the of centuries of of chronicles sixth Pali foundation and the fifth and within the provided building in is produced the Anuradhapura of of stupas accounts urban written gigantic, of source rich A chronology Stupa tutrladatfculsqecsa S2 hc a necvto ntesecular the boundaries in the excavation hinterland, the an in was architecture monastic the which of from terms ASW2, In primarily at Anuradhapura. derived of sequences are core they artefactual boundaries, and well-defined structural relatively have phases these CA 0) aeHsoi A 0–0) al eivl(D6010)adLate and 600–1200) (AD Medieval Early 200–600), 1200– (AD (AD (340 Historic Historic Medieval Early Late the defined: 200), been have BC–AD phases broad Eight sites. excavated individual from dates the chronometric sites typologies and 2009) monastic 755 Gunawardhana the 1974; 2006), (Bandaranayake for Coningham above ASW2; mentioned phasing (site typologies itself ceramic chronological citadel from the of developed in was excavations system It from Anuradhapura. broad of hinterland a the on within identified based is project Anuradhapura another is institutions, monastic 58). pre-planned 1974: representing (Bandaranayake development and significant AD centuries twelfth and adrnyk 17)adGnwrhn 20)hv oercnl rvddameans a provided recently more have (2009) Gunawardhana and (1974) Bandaranayake of analysis the to approach detailed a for foundations the laid (1946) Paranavitana h otrcnl eeoe hoooia ceedvlpdadapidi the in applied and developed scheme chronological developed recently most The abt Vihara Pabbata c. D1to 1 AD viharas c. 50 en h otrlvn otepeetsuy(al ) Whilst 1). (Table study present the to relevant most the being 1500) c. eodtelmt ftect Lnhrt19) nseigt find to seeking In 1992). (Longhurst city the of limits the beyond D60i nubnstig eepandaon colossal a around planned were setting, urban an in 600 AD or ahngaaParivena Padhanaghara a .Bailiff K. Ian 191 tal et . ohdtdt ewe h eighth the between to dated both , C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity lenas, hc often which

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas

Table 1. Anuradhapura project chronological scheme, showing phases relevant to this paper. ASW2 Key ceramic Period Architecture Sequence indicators Script Sculpture

Early Historic Caves/Lena Structural Northern Black Early Brahmi Aniconic (c. 340 periods I, H, Polished BC–AD 200) G Ware, Rouletted Ware Late Historic Organic/hub Structural Glazed Late Brahmi, Iconic (AD monasteries period F Sassanian Transitional 200–600) ceramics Brahmi Early Medieval Focal Structural East and west Sinhalese and Iconic (AD monasteries, periods E, D, Asian Tamil script 600–1200) Pabbata C, B ceramics Vihara, Padhanagara Parivena are not as well defined. The availability of an independent method of dating stupas within the monastic complexes of the hinterland could therefore provide a key link in the interpretation of the archaeological relationship between urban and rural developments.

The sample sites The monastic complexes containing the stupas that were sampled are located in two regions, c. 30km to the south (C508, Etenawatunagala; A155, Veheragala; C527, Nawagala) and c. 20km to the south-east (D340, Nikawewa; A030, Thalaguru; Z001, Parthigala) of Anuradhapura (Figure 1). In common with many abandoned monastic monuments, stupas in the hinterland are usually partially or wholly overgrown with vegetation (Figure 2), and in many cases the interior cores of the structures have been exposed by episodes of looting. In view of these potential issues of degradation, the brick stupas in the six monastic complexes were selected as being potentially suitable on the basis of previous survey work. Evidence of occupation at the monasteries was categorised using the broad architectural phases outlined above, and bricks were sampled from locations associated with a particular phase of each stupa (Table 2).

Dating procedure Samples for dating were obtained by fracturing whole bricks taken from contexts of interest; in most instances the sample was taken from the inner part of the brick (Figure 3). A detailed record of the location and orientation of the brick was made in each case, and the remaining piece of brick was replaced. The OSL measurements were performed on grains of quartz extracted from the interior of the sampled brick fragments and hence they are not affected by exposure of the bricks to sunlight. This measured the cumulative radiation dose received C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

192 h oert.Asmayo h ehia aaascae ihti aclto sgvnin given is calculation this with associated data technical and the paleodose the of 3. of summary Table quotient A the rate. evaluating isotope and by dose radioactive months) obtained the their nine is for around age medium luminescence for burial The associated place at content. and in rate sample (put the dose capsule of the analysis dosimeter laboratory of a using measurement combination location, a experimental by sample local direct determined the The is including rate) 2008). methods, dose Duller (the experimental year 1998; per of (Aitken grains brick the by the received of dose radiation manufacture the since paleodose) (the Anuradhapura. of location the represents star The Veheragala Nikawewa) zone. A155, Veharagala D340, Etenawatunagala; the (C508, and in three Parthigala southerly are survey Z001, more Nawagala) project remaining Thalaguru; Anuradhapura the C527, the (A030, and and of tank Three areas Nachchaduwa Anuradhapura. main of of vicinity two the south the in within and are investigated south-east sites the six the to of are location that the showing Map 1. Figure tte6%lvlo ofiec ( given statistic confidence conventionally test of obtained are (1978) uncertainties dates level the with 68% 3); to Table dates referred the to OSL note also at comparing also is when (see which methods used B), other is (type all 1998), using term (Aitken the second error (i.e. The overall laboratory paper). the same this as the in discussed by dates produced of dates group OSL between differences examining when h S ae aetoerrterms, error two have dates OSL The T a sd(netn ausfor values (inserting used was − + 1 σ a .Bailiff K. Ian .We oprn S ae,Wr n Wilson’s and Ward dates, OSL comparing When ). σ A 193 and σ tal et B hr h omr(yeA sol used only is A) (type former the where , σ . A o S aecmaiosand comparisons date OSL for C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity σ B

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas

Figure 2. The Nawagala stupa showing (a) the extent of overgrowth in 2010 and (b) a scaled illustration of the monument showing the focal stupa mounted on a large stupa. for OSL date and architectural date comparisons) and the value of χ 2 is given at the 5% level of significance unless indicated otherwise.

Results (Table 2; Figure 4) At Etenawatunagala, structural assessment indicated a single-phase construction, and a robbed section of the stupa revealed an interior built with stone and brick from which C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

194 Table 2. The monasteries and sampled stupas. Chronological phase Early Historic Late Historic Early Medieval Name Site no. Lab no. 340 BC–AD 200 AD 200–600 AD 600–1200 Stupa type Height (m) Diameter (m)

Etenawatunagala C508 375 -1 Y Y N  Focal? 3.7 -

Nawagala C527 N Y Y Bailiff K. Ian 6  Large 14.5 39.6 7  Focal 3.6 8 195 Veheragala A155 Y Y Y 5  Large 7.8 18.5

4  Focal 4.9 0.7 al et Thalaguru A030 N Y Y 12  Large 10.1 20.3 . 11  Focal 0.7 3.3 Parthigala Z001 N N Y 13  Large 5.1 41.9 Nikawewa D340 N N Y C 

niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 10 Undiagnostic 1.0 3.3

Note: the position of brick samples is indicated as interior () or exterior () and Y/N indicates whether evidence of occupation had been found within the site for the architectural phase indicated (Coningham et al. forthcoming).

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas

Figure 3. A section of the base of the focal element of the stupa at Thalaguru showing (a) the brick extracted to allow a fragment (b) from the inner section of the brick to be removed for OSL measurements (375-11). Before the brick was replaced, a dosemeter capsule was placed in the gap between the inner bricks that can be seen at the rear of the cavity. one sample was taken, giving a date of AD 390−+110. The site conforms to the setting in Gunawardhana’s model for a focal monastery and the OSL date is consistent with his initial typology (AD 400–700), although earlier than expected within the Anuradhapura project chronology (2009). If the date does not represent an outlier in this scheme, it could represent a new variant of the urban/centric-type monastery applied in the hinterland (Coningham et al. forthcoming). At Nawagala, two external brick samples were obtained from the stupa, one from the base of the lower perimeter wall and the second from exposed brickwork of the upper section. The OSL date for the lower sample (sample 6, AD 130−+165) is the earliest of the dates for the large stupas tested. The date from the summit of the stupa (sample 7, AD 860−+85) is significantly later, the central values being separated by 730 years. These results fit the Anuradhapura project phase model, in which a large stupa is characteristic of the Late Historic period, and the surmounted focal stupa represents a later addition, suggested to be within the range c. AD 700–900. However, a slightly different monument chronology for large stupas with surmounted focal elements is indicated by the results for Veheragala and Thalaguru. The OSL dates for the large stupas in these monasteries are similar (AD 480−+105; AD 550−+95), placing their construction towards the end of the Late Historic phase, which is much later than at Nawagala. The OSL dates for the focal components (AD 640−+105; AD 690−+75) are C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

196 oicto.Tedfeec ewe h S ae o rcsfo h ag n focal and large the (T later from significant a bricks statistically as is for built years) dates was (140 OSL element Thalaguru at focal the elements the between that difference indication The consistent modification. a provide and similar, also fuiga salse iulst olgtms rrasr uhrt vrtelandscape. the over authority the reassert of or legitimise landscape to monastic site intention ritual the the established indicate integrate may an one using and investment within of monument onwards) formalise earlier an century to of (seventh incorporation Anuradhapura the later hinterland, of a kings reflect to the assumed by widely the been Whereas has buildings. earlier category incorporate that could and construction 69), of (1974: phase by Anuradhapura new governed within a been complexes have urban not monumental would areas, of rural constraints or the suburban in located type, this of by monasteries investigated as sites, Buddhist connected at be seeing’ may (2007). ‘divine Sanchi enlargement of at of activity Shaw importance Veheragala practice building the This of of and century. resurgence stupas intervisibility the mid-eighth large of to the the part during as as site enlarged phase the been same have at the may so of and originally Thalaguru was and stupa the that period Medieval indicates Early the chronology—of the overlaps project which range Anuradhapura during age the stage—the in early very boundary or 600 transitional AD a during built was it that indicates sls clear-cut. less is lhuhtecrepnigdfeec tVhrgl 10yas ( years) (160 Veheragala at difference corresponding the although tp ul ntosae ol edspott adrnyk’ ugsinthat suggestion Bandaranayake’s to support lend would stages two in built stupa A ftelresuaa atiaa(D520 (AD Parthigala at stupa large the If aeSt apeG G a mGy Gy 6.19 Sample -1 375 Site C508 Etenawatun- Name the at Appendix Technical the see Table, this on notes paper. For the data. of technical end of Summary 3. Table atiaaZ0 33.61 13 Z001 Parthigala eeaaaA5 4.35 4 A155 Veheragala hlgr 001 3.94 2.01 11 10 A030 D340 Thalaguru Nikawewa aaaaC2 5.80 6 C527 Nawagala gl (69/31%) agala abt Viharas Pabbata 5774.54 7 C527 001 4.43 12 A030 1554.52 5 A155 eebit oee,teeryOLdt o h cr)brick (core) the for date OSL early the However, built. were a .Bailiff K. Ian P − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + 197 s.e. .43.82 0.14 .32.42 0.03 .33.04 0.03 .13.17 0.21 .22.99 0.02 3.14 0.04 3.95 0.22 .72.96 0.17 .73.08 0.37 5 sasnl hs tutr,teOLdate OSL the structure, phase single a is 95) tal et D (62/38%) (67/33%) (70/30%) (65/35%) (69/31%) (73/27%) (73/27%) (71/29%) − . tot − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + .1390 0.11 .7520 0.07 .9550 0.09 .7640 0.07 .7690 1370 0.07 860 0.09 0.09 .7480 0.07 .7130 0.07 ..OLdate OSL s.e. − 1 = T 6.7; C = niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 2.6; χ 1 2 , − + 0 − + − + − + χ − + − + − + − + AD . − + 125; 05 − + 1 60; 75; 65; 2 abt Vihara Pabbata 50; 45; 30; 60; , 25; 0 σ = . 1 − + − + − + A − + − + − + − + − + = − + ; 3.84; 110 105 105 95 95 165 75 85 − + 45 2.7; σ B σ σ A A ), )

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas

+ Figure 4. A plot of OSL dates for each stupa where the error bars correspond to the uncertainty term −σ B at the 68% level of confidence (see main text). The symbols indicate stupa type (◦ large;  focal;  not classified). The historical phasing and monastic architectural typology indicated to the right of the graph are those developed by the Anuradhapura project (Coningham et al. forthcoming).

The OSL date for the brick from the interior core of the small putative stupa at Nikawewa (AD 1370−+45) places it much later than the Early Medieval phase attributed on the basis of associated artefacts (eighth–eleventh centuries AD) and therefore rules out the suggestion that, with the nearby terracotta site (D339), Buddhist and other ritual traditions were coexistent (Coningham et al. forthcoming). The OSL date is also much later than the thirteenth-century date proposed for the abandonment of the Anuradhapura plain on the basis of OSL dates from irrigation channel sediments (Coningham et al. forthcoming; Gilliland et al. 2013), and consequently this may be a structure other than a stupa. Moreover, activity in the hinterland indicated by this result suggests that further investigation of settlement during the Late Medieval phase would be worthwhile.

Discussion and assessment Since the date of manufacture is determined using luminescence, the possibility of the replacement of bricks centuries after the original construction is a potential issue when sampling the external locations of any brick-built structure (Bailiff 2007; Bailiff et al. 2011). The risk of sampling secondary material was reduced by careful assessment of C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

198 uligmtrasadrdvlpeto tutrsas a eeac otewdrstudy wider Acknowledgements the to Asia. relevance across buildings has secular in also and traditions structures monuments particular, religious of similar in of redevelopment between and, and (Stark relationships architecture materials Asia temporal Asian building the South Southeast in examine and brick to South of means use the the provide on detail features chronometric such where or features erosion. structural typological directly of through of distinctive middle lost potential been lack the the have that demonstrates in also monuments construction study brick its The is bricks, 2007). following dating (Verardi baked-clay which renovations BC moulded Nepal, of century with in third built series Gotihawa the stupa a at early length. underwent an stupa monuments. of which in the example and the to varied unique of applied a interval be be histories to this example, considered produced structural summit, for complex Thalaguru), could, the potentially method and and The the Veheragala base emphasise (Nawagala, the results between stupa These interval focal expected a the by surmounted stupa brick a the interesting with some of results consistency revealed development study overall the the further finding variations. scheme, and to the chronological addition Anuradhapura, project to In Anuradhapura of contribute region. proposed the hinterland to for OSL the chronology of monument within potential located the stupas demonstrate brick of range fa ale u oatr n,i o a motn mlctosfrteitrrtto of interpretation the for implications important core has that the the so, of structures if from examples and, earlier brick other monastery for of hub date presence earlier a an of OSL the range of the for accepted that the testing predates finding Parthigala of The of means obscure. samples remain a interior otherwise of provided availability would also The focal study appropriate. the this and construct possible in focal where to to locations and used interior taken stock also large was same stupa the the large from both lower by drawn the of 2, been in Table not locations bricks element. had in the exterior they of Veheragala, and that from at weathering above indicate exception severe were one indicated more the sampled the as of sections, case bricks and, the In the bricks interior. the stupa where the of from samples condition obtaining and context the fAcaooy n ct rigro h eateto rhelg,Dra nvriy hspprwas paper This University. Durham Archaeology, of Department the Director-General of former Grainger Deraniyagala, Scott Siran and Dr Archaeology; Archaeology; of of Director-General Dissanayake, fieldwork. thanks Senarath of HRL Dr cost Council. the which Research towards II, Humanities support and phase essential Arts project provided the Lanka) which from Fund (Sri RAEC) Cramp Anuradhapura (to Rosemary the grant the of a auspices by supported the financially under was collected were samples brick The eaeeteeygaeu otefloigidvdasfrterhl nfilwr,giac n assistance: and guidance fieldwork, in help their for individuals following the to grateful extremely are We lhuhtenme fdtspoue ofri oet hycnrbt further contribute they modest, is far so produced dates of number the Although large a comprising typology, architectural similar with monasteries three a the for Although dates absolute time, first the for produced, study the proviso, this With namr ealdsuy ape ol esuh rmsvrletra oain and locations external several from sought be would samples study, detailed more a In abt Vihara Pabbata tal et a .Bailiff K. Ian category. 06.Isapiaint etn o h es of reuse the for testing to application Its 2006). . 199 abt Vihara Pabbata tal et . a ersn h conversion the represent may C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Method Luminescence dating of brick stupas developed from a pilot study carried out by H.R. Lacey for an undergraduate dissertation at Durham University in 2010.

Technical Appendix Notes to Table 3 1. The dating measurements were performed in the Durham Luminescence Dating Laboratory, Department of Archaeology, Durham University, and each date, if quoted, should be given the prefix DurOSLqi (e.g. DurOSLqi 375-1). 2. The paleodose, P, was determined using HF etched quartz grains in the size range 90–150μmand applying a single aliquot regeneration procedure (Bailiff 2007). For each sample, the value of P is given with its measurement uncertainty (type A); the range in values of P for individual aliquots obtained using preheat ◦ temperatures within the range 200–240. C were consistent with a normal distribution. 3. The total dose rate, Dtot, is given with its measurement uncertainty (type A) and the division in contributions from beta radiation vs gamma and cosmic radiation are indicated in parentheses (β/γ +cosmic %). An average burial moisture content of 5−+1% was assumed; the values of the saturation uptake in brick measured in the laboratory ranged from 11–17% across all samples. The beta dose rate was measured using the technique of β-TLD and the combined gamma and cosmic dose rate was measured using in situ dosemeter capsules (γ -TLD). The beta dose rate component includes an allowance of 0.06 mGy a−1 for lithogenic sources within the quartz grains. + + 4. The OSL date is given with type A and type B uncertainties, (− σ A) and (− σ B ) respectively, calculated using a procedure based on an analysis of the propagation of errors, similar to that described by Aitken (1998) and given at the 68% level of confidence (1σ ). The error term σ A is a type A standard uncertainty (ISO 1993) obtained by an analysis of repeated observations. The second error term, σ B , equivalent to the overall error described by Aitken (1998), is the type B standard uncertainty based on an assessment of uncertainty associated with all the quantities employed in the calculation of the age, including those of type A, hence these error terms are calculated for each sample and are based entirely on assessments related to the experimental results and the sample conditions that potentially may affect the values of parameters used in the calculation of the luminescence age.

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