The Renaissance Reading List

IRE 2201 DIPLOMATIC HISTORY WEEK II

Lecture Outline • The rise of national monarchies. • Holy Roman Empire • The Renaissance Reading List

• Required Reading: • Stephen Hause and William Maltby, Chapter 13: The Renaissance: Political Renewal and Intellectual Change , pp. 233-252.

• Recommended Reading: TIME LINE

• 1453 The Hundred Years' War ends • 1455-1485 England is tom by the Wars of the Roses • 1461 Louis XI becomes king of France • 1469 Ferdinand of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile • 1485 Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VII of England • 1492 The Spanish government orders the country's Jews either to convert to Christianity or leave • The Spanish reconquer Granada from the Moors • 1519 Charles V becomes Holy Roman emperor • 1556 Charles V begins the process of abdication THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

• The weakened papacy coincided with the revival, after 1450, of unified national monarchies. • In the early part of the fifteenth century, European monarchs shared power with their noble vassals in the countryside and with local magistrates in the urban towns and cities. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

• After 1450, the monarchs began to award royal administrative offices to high-ranking town officials rather than nobles. • This marked the beginnings of an alliance between the monarchs and an emerging middle class of merchants and professionals that would make the creation of a modern, sovereign nation state possible. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

• European monarchs also began to create national armies in the fifteenth century. • These new armies differed from their predecessors in several ways: 1- Monarchs hired mercenary soldiers rather than relying on the nobility to raise troops. 2- The armies became “professional,” in that they fought for pay and spoils rather than honor and feudal obligation. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

3- The cavalry, usually composed of nobles, became less important than artillery and infantry. 4- Larger professional armies increased costs, creating an even greater need for taxes. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

1- ENGLAND • England experienced a long struggle known as The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) between the Lancaster and York families. • The War got its name from the fact that a white rose was the symbol of the York family, and a red rose that of the Lancasters. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

1- ENGLAND • The wars ended with the accession of Henry Tudor as Henry VII and the end of the Plantagenet dynasty in 1485. • Henry VII restored the authority of the English monarchy, and he preferred diplomacy instead of expensive wars. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

2- FRANCE • Removal of English influence from the continent gave the French kings increasing power. • The French Kings’ growing power at the expense of the nobles placed them in the dominant role of ruling France. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

2- FRANCE • After their victory against the Duchy of Burgundy, the French King Louis XI (r.1461- 1483) attempted to strengthen the monarchy in a way never before seen in Western Europe. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

2- FRANCE • He no longer depended for support on the French representative assembly, the Estates General, and established heavy taxes. • He used these taxes to expand a salaried bureaucracy and a standing army. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

3- SPAIN • In Spain, the period of civil wars known as the Trastamaran Wars was ended with the marriage of Ferran and Isabel (the proper names for the individuals usually called Ferdinand and Isabella). THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

3- SPAIN • Aragon and Castile were united in 1469 by this marriage and completed the Reconquest with the conquest of Granada in 1492. • Ferran and Isabel formed an alliance with the Church -- an easy matter since Aragon controlled much of Italy. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

3- SPAIN • They "purified" their realms by expelling both Muslims (1502) and Jews (1492), and used the Inquisition as a personal police force that gave them power that the laws and customs of the land did not permit them. THE RISE OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES

3- SPAIN • By 1500, the riches of the Americas began arriving in Spain, making the Spanish monarchs supreme in Spain and a major power in Western Europe for the next two centuries. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

• While strong national monarchies emerged in England, France and Spain, in the German lands of Central Europe, the Holy Roman Empire experienced continuing disintegration as the nobility increased its power at the expense of the emperor. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

• The process of centralization was less successful in Germany and Italy. • The German principalities were nominally ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor who, since 1356, had been elected by a seven-member council consisting of the archbishops and rulers of the most strongest provinces. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

• In 1356 Golden Bull was issued. • Probably the most important aspect of the Golden Bull was that it set out in detail the rules for the election of the King of the Romans. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

• The king had long been chosen by the seven Electors, but the Bull broke the papal hold by confirming that only the seven electors had the right to choose. • Conflict between religious and political authority? THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

• In other words, the election itself was sufficient and papal approval was not needed. • No longer could the popes intervene in imperial affairs by refusing to recognize the king. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• Wherever possible, they gained permanent taxation powers from the representative assemblies, and were thus less dependent upon popular support. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They used this income to surround themselves with salaried employees: administrators drawn from the middle classes and standing armies of professional soldiers. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• Their professional administrators allowed them to keep much better records and financial accounts, and they used their control of information to increase their power still further. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They used the weakness of the papacy to gain control of their national churches, which gave them many advantages. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They had control of the most intellectuals, teachers, writers, and administrators and gained access to the wealth of the church when needed. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They often used the Inquisition as a secret police and were able to depend upon the secular clergy to help in shaping public opinion in their favor. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They used their powers to put down popular uprisings, gaining the support of the middle class and the reputation of being the sole defense against rebellion and anarchy. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They were economically aware, and used their powers to tax, regulate, charter, and subsidize to promote the economy of their state. • Under royal guidance, the economy of Europe began to emerge from the recession of the 15th century. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• Generally speaking, the new monarchs were political creatures with little concern for ethical action or the general welfare other than that of their own state. • Their accession marked the end of any real aspiration for morality in international affairs. The new monarchs began to assume almost absolute powers, depending upon their circumstances. What were the bases of their power?

• They gained power largely because the monarchy was the only institution of European society that had not been discredited. What were the limits of the new monarchs’ powers?

• Although medieval society was much changed by the end of the 15th century, the basic conditions to which it had to adapt -- limited resources, population, periodic waves of contagious disease, insufficient capital, and shrinking markets -- were still much the same. What were the limits of the new monarchs’ powers?

• The rise of the national monarchs was important, but not decisive in ending the Middle Ages. • What was important was that these national monarchs were laying the foundations of the modern state. Although the kings up to this time might have seemed powerful, their powers were actually quite limited. What were the limits of the new monarchs’ powers?

• They generally ruled only after swearing to obey the customs of the land, and there was always a nobility and clergy ready to oppose their policies if they appeared to be taking more power than was traditional. What were the limits of the new monarchs’ powers?

• Most of the wealth of their countries was in the hands of nobles and the Church, and their power to tax these properties was limited. • Transportation and communication was difficult, and the kings could not expect to be able to control their subjects if those subjects did not want to be controlled. What were the limits of the new monarchs’ powers?

• If the kings tried to levy new or heavier taxes, they could not find officials able to gather the revenues that they demanded. • In short, they depended a great deal upon the good will of their subjects. COMPARISON

Characteristics of Medieval Characteristics of the New Kings Monarchs • Medieval kings received • The new monarchs retained most of their income from their feudal income while their own estates and from also taxing towns, grants of money from their merchants and peasants. vassals. • The new monarchs created • Medieval kings marched to professional armies that war followed by an army of were paid from the royal vassals who owed military treasury. service in exchange for land COMPARISON

Characteristics of Medieval Characteristics of the New Kings Monarchs • Medieval kings relied upon • The new monarchs created nobles for advice and a more centralized counsel. administrative bureaucracy • Medieval kings shared that relied upon educated power with the church and and loyal middle-class were often subordinate to officials. the pope. • The new monarchs negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church. CONCLUSION

• 14th and 15th centuries • It is important to notice that were a period of transition the new monarchs did not in Europe. gain absolute power. • The Roman Catholic Church • The age of absolutism has lost its power. would not occur until the • Strong national monarchies 17th century. developed in Spain, England and France. • Modern Europe was • The Holy Roman Empire beginning to take shape. continued its process of disintegration. RENAISSANCE

OUTLINE

• The definition • Why Italy? • The Italian City States • The Renaissance Spirit • The Renaissance Art RENAISSANCE

• The term “renaissance” means “rebirth” in French. • The term was first coined by Giorgio Vassari (1511-1574) , an Italian art historian. • Riniscita RENAISSANCE

When did it occur? • In terms of chronology, the Renaissance occurred after the Middle Ages and, more specifically, after the events such as the Black Death and Hundred Years’ War. RENAISSANCE

When did it occur? • Historically, it refers to a time in Western civilization (1350–1550) that was characterized by the revival of three things: 1- commerce, 2- interest in the Classical world, 3- and belief in the potential of human achievement. RENAISSANCE

• More broadly, it is used to describe a dramatic rebirth of civilization in Western Europe. • However, what occured in Italy beginning in the late 14th century was not a sudden rebirth. • It was a continuation of what been underway for centuries. Why do historians refer to the period following the Middle Ages as a time of rebirth?

1- Following the death and destruction that plagued Europe in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the next few centuries seem in retrospect as a time in which civilization was reborn, was given a second chance at life. Why do historians refer to the period following the Middle Ages as a time of rebirth?

2- Historians remember the Renaissance as a time when classical texts and classical ideas were resurrected. As scholars throughout Europe, not just in Italy, began to realize their common heritage, an ancestry traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, the desire to collect and study classical Greek and Roman texts grew. Why do historians refer to the period following the Middle Ages as a time of rebirth?

• This was a departure from medieval scholarship, which often studied commentaries on the classical texts and not the texts themselves. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Both before and during the Renaissance there was no country or nation named Italy. • Italians were Italians based roughly on a common geography and language. • Cities known as city-states dominated the political, cultural, and economic scene in Italy, and that alone went a long way toward keeping Italy fragmented. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Italy sat south and east of Europe, west of the Ottoman Empire and north of Africa. This great location gave Italy access that Europe did not have to the rest of the world. • In terms of politics and economics, Italy never found itself dominated by feudalism like the rest of Europe. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• While trade stagnated and even dried up in some parts of Europe during the Middle Ages, Italy always had at least some trade.

• Dating back to the days of the Roman Empire when “all roads led to Rome,” much of the Mediterranean world’s trade flowed through Italy. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Byzantine intellectuals escaped Constantinople and Ottoman conquest and brought knowledge of ancient Greek achievements with them to Italy Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• The perception of Rome and Italy as the world’s trade center never completely disappeared even after the fall of Rome. • The monetary benefits of trade contributed to the development of the Renaissance spirit. • If a city-state exported more than it imported, it profited. • This made several city- states and many individuals very wealthy. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Trade centers like the Italian city-states, even dating back to classical Athens, have always had the unique qualities of sophistication and cosmopolitanism. • If a city wanted to be successful in the world of trade, it had to be willing to open its doors to outsiders. Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Merchants from other parts of the world flooded trade centers with not only new goods but also with new languages and new ideas.

TRADE

CULTURE Why did the Renaissance attain its fullest and highest development in Italy?

• Cities such as Venice, Milan, Rome, and especially Florence became the cultural centers of Italy and Europe because they first were the financial centers. Where did the cities get the cash to finance the rebirth of civilization?

1. Export wool, manufactured products. 2. Import spices, silk and luxury items. 3. Organize fairs, carnivals and open-air markets. 4. Buy and sell slaves. 5. Establish a trade network over Europe and Mediterranean. 6. Loan money to whoever needed it. Who were desperate for money?

1. The kings to finance their wars. 2. The church to expand its area of influence. • Wealthy businessmen of Renaissance loaned credits to the people and institutions demanding cash, and successfully multiplied their gains. Who were desperate for money?

• Medici Family and the city of Florence • The Medici family dominated the city of Florence’s economic, political and artistic life for much of the 15th century. • The Medici earned their wealth as bankers. EXAMPLE?

• Led by Cosimo (1389-1464), Piero (1416-1469), and Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492), the Medici financed libraries, built churches, sponsored the Platonic Academy of Philosophy, and commissioned hundreds of artworks. • Florentine Renaissance reached its peak during the lifetime of Lorenzo the Magnificent. ITALIAN CITY STATES

• During the Renaissance, Italy remained divided politically. • In northern Italy, the city states of Florence, Milan, and Venice became major centers of Renaissance civilization. • Rome dominated the Papal States of Central Italy, while the Kingdom of Two Sicilies embraced most of southern Italy. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

The Renaissance Spirit

Individualism+Humanism+Secularism 3 “isms” THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

A) The Medieval mind-set. B) A new celebration of the individual. C) Scholarship and the love of classical learning. D) A new secular spirit. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

A) The Medieval mind-set. • Medieval thinkers believed that God had created the world to prepare humans for salvation or eternal damnation. • Human beings and their lives on earth were equally insignifcant. • The individual was of no importance. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

A) The medieval mind-set. • Medieval artists did not win fame as individuals. • The architects, glassmakers, and sculptors who designed and decorated Europe’s great cathedrals worked for the glory of God, not for personal glory. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

B) A new celebration of the individual. • Unlike feudal nobles, Italian merchants did not inherit their social rank. • Success in business depended mostly on the merchants’ own skill. • As a result, prosperous merchants took pride in their achievements. • Agnolo Bronzino / Bia (Tudors) THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

B) A new celebration of the individual. • Like the merchants, northern Italian artists and writers were eager to be known and remembered as individuals. • Fame became a reward for superior talent. • Da Vinci / Cecillia Gallerani THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

B) A new celebration of the individual. • Portrait painting and autobiography illustrate the interest in individual personality and fame. • Wealthy patrons wanted their portraits and Renaissance artists often included self- portraits in their paintings. • Jan Van Eycke / Arnolfini Wedding THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

B) A new celebration of the individual. • Renaissance individualism stressed the importance of personality, the development of unique talents, and the pursuit of fame and glory. • Giovanni Pico della Mirandola / Oration on the Dignity of Man THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

C) Scholarship and the love of classical learning • Scholars began to study the classical texts and cultures of ancient Greece and Rome. • These scholars named the Middle Ages as “Dark Ages” and they were called humanists. • Parmigiannino / Portrait of a Man THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

C) Scholarship and the love of classical learning • Inspired by classical authors, humanists rejected medieval scholasticism and advocated a cirriculum based on the study of Greek and Roman literature, rhetoric and history. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

C) Scholarship and the love of classical learning • Humanists believed that by studying the classics they would gain a more practical understanding of human nature. • Humanists played a key role in promoting the new liberal arts education, developing vernecular languages, and renewing interest in translating Greek and Roman manuscripts. • Vitruvian Man / Da Vinci THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

D) A new secular spirit • Medieval culture emphasized spiritual values and salvation. • Renaissance culture was far more interested in the pleasures of material possessions. However it was not completely secular. • Instead it combined religious and secular elements. • Boticelli / Lamentation (ağıt) THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT

D) A new secular spirit • Wealthy Renaissance families openly enjoyed fine music, expensive foods, and beautiful works of art. • Holbein / The Ambassadors CHARACTERISTICS OF RENAISSANCE ART

• Perspective: It is a geometric method of creating the illusion of depth on a flat, two dimensional surface. This way of presenting space became the foundation of the European painting for the next 500 years. • Sanzio / The School of Athens THE RENAISSANCE ART

• Chiaroscuro: It is the realistic blending of light and shade to model forms. • It creates the illusion of volume. • Chiaroscuro and perspective enabled artists to create paintings in which the real people semmed to occupy real space. • Van Honthorst / The Matchmaker THE RENAISSANCE ART

• Pyramid configuration: Byzantine and medieval art featured flat, rigid figures arranged in a horizontal line. • Renaissance artists used three dimensional pyramid configurations to create symmetrical and balanced compositions. • Da Vinci / Virgin of the Rocks THE RENAISSANCE ART

• Classical forms and Christian subjects: Inspired by their study of Greek and Roman statues, Renaissance artists attempted to revive classical standards of beauty. • Renaissance artists did not abandon Christian themes and subjects. • Rather, they combined classical forms with Christian subjects. • Michalengelo / The Creation of Adam THE RENAISSANCE ART Mantegna/ Lamentation of Christ THE RENAISSANCE ART THE RENAISSANCE ART THE RENAISSANCE ART THE RENAISSANCE ART

• Whereas medieval art had been characterized by religious subject matter, the Renaissance style took the human being and the human form as its subject. • Donatello’s David is a good example for the Renaissance artist’s concern for the human form in all its complexity How did the Renaissance ideals and values spread over Europe? 1- Printing press 2- Teachers migrating out of Italy 3- Students who came to study in Italy and then returned home 4- European merchants whose interests now penetrated the peninsula 5- Various lay groups seeking to spread their message of piety. THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

• During the late 1400s, students and artists from northern Europe traveled to Italy where they became familiar with the “new learning” and the new style of painting. THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

• At the same time, merchants from the Low Countries, France, Germany and England also visited Italy and learned about the advances of the Italian Renaissance. CHRISTIAN HUMANISM

• Northern humanists • Christian humanists were often called as were committed to Chritian humanists. moral and institutional • Like their Italian reform. counterparts, the • Christian humanists They were more closely studied classical concerned with sources. religious piety than • However they gave their Italian humanism a specifically counterparts. Christian content. KEY FIGURES IN THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

• Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) / The Praise of Folly • Thomas More (1478- 1535) / Utopia • Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) PRINTING REVOLUTION

• Johannes Gutenberg in 1445 invented the first printing press. • In 1456 the first book “the Mazarin Bible” was published. • By 1500, presses in over 200 cities printed between 8-20 million books. PRINTING REVOLUTION

• The printing press • Like today’s internet, enabled the works of the printing press humanists such as promoted freedom of Erasmus and More to expression, be quickly disseminated disseminated (yayılmak) across information, and Europe. challenged the power of established authorities to control divergent views. CONCLUSION

• The Italian Renaissance had a powerful impact on the civilization of Western Europe. • Emphasis on classical languages and the revival of classical ideals in, painting, sculpture and architecture had an enduring influence on Western art. CONCLUSION

• In time, the achievements of the Italian Renaissance gradually spread beyond Italy. • Northern Renaissance artists were heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance. CONCLUSION

• The Renaissance brought a secular spirit in Western European civilization. • However, religious concerns continued to exert influence.