Shattering the Revolving Door: Implicit Discrimination and Its Effect on Minority Managers in European Football Aino Hiisku

09 JUILLET 2015

SHATTERING THE REVOLVING DOOR: IMPLICIT DISCRIMINATION AND ITS EFFECT ON MINORITY MANAGERS IN EUROPEAN FOOTBALL

AINO HIISKU – ALEXANDRE MIRANDA – DONGUK KIM – MARCELLO GUASTAFIERRO- SEAN DEMPSEY

GROUP 2

TUTOR : PETROS MAVROIDIS

About the Authors Aino Hiisku Finnish, 26 [email protected] Bachelor of Business Administration with a specialization in Marketing, Haaga-Helia University, Finland. 2 years of Marketing, Management and Sales experience in sporting goods. 3 years of experience in business event and project management.

Alexandre Miranda Brazilian/Portuguese, 31 [email protected] Bachelor of Law, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo. Certificate in Sports Law, Instituto Brasileiro de Direito Desportivo. 7+ years of experience in Sports Law.

DongUk Kim South Korean, 28 [email protected] BSBA in Marketing with minor in Spanish, Northeastern University, USA. 1 year of experience working in Sports Researching and Strategy (Major League Soccer), 1 year of experience in Social Media Marketing (Ringier China, Courtyard by Marriott)

Marcello Guastafierro Italian, 26 [email protected] Master of Science in Management, Major in Organization and Bachelor degree in Business Administration Università Commerciale Luigi Bocconi, Milan, Italy. Experience in organization of sports events and sports sponsorship.

Sean Dempsey American, 26 [email protected] BBA in Marketing, Loyola University Maryland, USA. 3+ years of project management Experience in the Legal Services Industry. 1 year of experience in Youth Development in Football.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As a group, we have experienced much help and support in the finalization of our Final Project. The support provided to our group showed the commitment, not only to the FIFA Masters but also, to a topic which has polarized the sport of football over the past year in particular. The importance of the subject matter has been well received by all external parties we’ve been in contact with (coaches, players, league administrators, and etc.) and their collaboration has been vital to the successful completion of our project.

We would like to send a very special thank you to our tutor, Petros Mavroidis. Petros was highly supportive in the designation of our subject matter and often challenged us to search for the tough answers that may be overlooked when researching a topic such as discrimination in sport. His unique insight on the topic from a dual level perspective opened many intellectual doors which pushed our project forward throughout the year.

In addition, Kevin Tallec Marston has been vital to the completion of our project and we thank him for his determination and willingness to help along the way. His meetings that contained such passion, rigour, and curiosity helped shaped our project both structurally and intellectually.

Lastly, we would like to mention the following organizations and people that played a critical role in supporting our project by giving up their time to speak to us and give their opinions on how to increase diversity in the sport of football:

• Carlo Ancelotti, a former manager of Real Madrid, PSG, Chelsea, AC Milan, & Juventus • Javier Zanetti, a former player of Internazionale, Banfield, & Argentina • Philipp Wollscheid, a Stoke City player in the English Premier League • Per Skjelbred, a Hertha Berlin player in the German Bundesliga • Jens Hegeler, a Hertha Berlin player in the German Bundesliga • Mason Wild, a English youth coach in Sweden • Xinxin Cao, a vice president of Atletico CP in the Portuguese Segunda Liga • Eric McClymont, a youth development coach at Beste Football Club

Table of Contents

1) Introduction ...... 5 1.1) Limitations ...... 6 1.2) Implicit Judgement in Decision Making ...... 7 1.3) Correctly Identifying the Problem ...... 9 1.4) Rooney Rule: Context, Justification, and Arguments ...... 10 1.4.1) Context ...... 10 1.4.2) The Rooney Rule by the Numbers ...... 12 1.4.2.1) Pre-2003 ...... 12 1.4.2.2) Post-2003 ...... 14 1.4.3) Arguments ...... 15 1.5) Past Precedent ...... 17 1.5.1) Affirmative Action in the US Collegiate System ...... 18 1.5.2) Gender Quotas for Elected Members of the Lower House in the Irish Government .. 21 1.5.3) Mandatory Inclusion of a Female member in FIFA's Executive Committee ...... 22 2) Legal Perspectives of social hiring regulations ...... 23 2.1) Legal perspective of social hiring regulations in Europe ...... 24 2.2) Legal aspects of implementation in England ...... 27 3) CASE STUDY – ENGLISH PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES ...... 30 3.1) Black, Asian and Minority ethnic groups in United Kingdom ...... 30 3.2) Perception of racism ...... 30 3.3) BAME footballers in the United Kingdom ...... 31 3.4) BAME managers in English professional football leagues ...... 31 3.5) Reception from the fans, footballers & coaches ...... 36 3.6) Summary of our qualitative analysis ...... 38 3.7) Case Comparative Analysis ...... 40 3.7.1) The Sporting Industry: A Comparative Analysis of BAME Participation and Coaching in all Sports Segments ...... 40 3.7.2) The Traditional Industries: An Evaluation of BAME Senior Management and BAME Middle-management positions ...... 41 3.7.3) The Situation in Other European Countries: An Analysis of Four European Professional A-Leagues ...... 41 4) Methodology ...... 43 5) Recommendations ...... 45 5.1) First Recommendation: The European Rooney Rule ...... 45 5.1.1) European Context ...... 45

5.1.2) A European Rooney Rule? ...... 46 5.1.3) Analysis ...... 46 5.1.4) Variables of the Model ...... 47 5.1.5) Formula ...... 48 5.1.6) English Case ...... 49 5.1.7) Calculations ...... 52 5.1.8) Recommendation 1: Wrap Up ...... 53 5.2) Second Recommendation: Alteration of the Coaching Licensing System and Minority Alliance Groups ...... 54 5.2.1) Alteration of the Coaching Licensing System ...... 54 5.2.2) Proactive Adjustments of the Minority Alliance Groups ...... 54 5.3.3) Collaboration with External Experts ...... 54 6) Conclusion ...... 55 7) References ...... 58 8) Appendix ...... 64 8.1 Table 4 ...... 64 8.2) Survey 1 ...... 67 8.3) Survey 2 ...... 70 8.4) Survey 3 ...... 73 8.5) Survey 4 ...... 75 8.6) Survey 5 ...... 79 8.7) Remaining Surveys ...... 80

1) Introduction

-Lyndon Johnson, US President 1965

The aim of this paper is to examine the influence of minority football managers within European football leagues. The football world has advanced with society over the years and has faced many of the same challenges in regards to racism, criminal activity, and homophobic behavior to name a few examples. In order to combat the challenges of racism in the game, many confederations and national associations have focused on fan behavior especially within the stadium. An area that has yet to be examined by those parties is also within the stadiums but much closer to the pitch, the players and coaches. The influx of minority players over the last twenty years within football leagues shows the growth in equal opportunity for all playing the beautiful game. With that said, the lack of influence that minority football managers have made is quite startling especially in the representation, or lack thereof, within the profession. The idea of latent or implicit discrimination has been ordained as the primary factor for the lack of minority managers within football. This paper takes a look at that misrepresentation and will suggest ways to produce change in this area. We looked to see if a disparity exists in regards to minority coaches against the football community (in comparison with the distribution of minority players) and the greater population within the country as a whole. If such a misrepresentation exists, we will take a two pronged approach to address the issue by seeking to regulate both the supply and demand side of the equation. We examine how regulations such as the Rooney Rule can influence change within a sporting culture from the hiring side, using the benchmark of the National Football League of the United States as the guiding principle. Regulations such as the Rooney Rule have been called for in countries such as England as the potential cure all for such an institutional problem. Even with legal precedent, the implementation of such a regulation will surely be difficult without the backing of the national associations. We consider the possibility to

5 implement an affirmative action regulation at the national association level within the club licensing system. We believe that implementation through the licensing system provides the necessary institutional backing for effective enforcement at all levels of the professional football pyramid. Secondly, an analysis of the coaching licensing system must take place to see if all coaches, minority or not, are receiving the appropriate training to build competencies within the employment pool. We take a look at certain access barriers that may exist on this level on look make recommendations that should effectively and efficiently create a stronger and more diverse employment base through strong networking skills, a diverse representation of instructors in qualification academy, and the creation of more influential minority support group that lobbies effectively for its interests. This two-pronged approach would manage and regulate both ends of the hiring process that has not been able to regulate itself effectively. Of course this will not be the end all solution to end implicit discrimination in the hiring process, but it will surely increase the level of transparency in the hiring process. With these changes, the membership to the old boys club will no longer be difficult to attain.

1.1) Limitations

In conducting the research for this project, our group was faced with certain limits and constraints, which were the following:

• The time constraints associated with the project were great, which played a factor in the number of stakeholder interviews we were able to conduct. Finding the appropriate targets for our questionnaires proved time consuming and with the profiles of those chosen, many questionnaires were not returned within an appropriate time.

• The scope of our project was limited from our initial goal to cover more of Europe within our study. Data collection is restricted where categories of data considered sensitive in certain countries, such as France and Germany, and a inconsistency of what a minority was defined as, we limited our study to England due to the similarities it has with the United States for data collection.

• The nature of the topic had the potential to introduce personal bias in the answering of the questionnaire from our target audience. Based on the study mentioned regarding latent and explicit preference selection and the strong egalitarian nature as one gets

older, it is possible that the interviewees did not provide a fully transparent response to the questions presented to them.

1.2) Implicit Judgment in Decision Making

“In conclusion, the evidence from this and related studies completed in our laboratory suggests that implicit race attitudes are acquired early and remain relatively stable across development, even though explicit attitudes become more egalitarian. It is around age 10 that the split between mean levels of conscious and less conscious race attitudes first emerges, pointing out the differential sensitivity of these two forms of attitude to the societal demand to be unbiased in race-based evaluation.” (Baron and Banaji, 2006) The following quote was from a Harvard based study about the introduction on implicit attitude formation and its development within a person during the course of one’s life. One of the major finding of this study showed that implicit attitudes can exist in people as young as 6 years old. This may seem to be quite surprising but furthermore, this particular study showed that as a person develops, the rate of implicit attitude formation remains constant yet the explicit attitude becomes “more egalitarian” as soon as age 10 and beyond. The result of this study helps define an issue in decision making, especially that of Caucasian individuals who are more inclined to have more positive attitudes to their own social group. The notion of implicit attitudes and its effect on decision making has grown in research content particularly in the last 20 years. So much so that a joint study between top research universities in the United States (Harvard, University of Washington, and University of Virginia) was created in 1998 to specifically study the phenomenon and its role in society. (Projectimplicit.net, 2011) This research collaboration is called “Project Implicit”. Project Implicit has performed a great deal of research on implicit social cognition and has disseminated its data for further analysis by other scholars in the field. In the “About Us” section on their website, the group describes itself as the following: “Project Implicit was founded as a multi-university research collaboration in 1998 by three scientists - Tony Greenwald (University of Washington), Mahzarin Banaji (Harvard University), and Brian Nosek (University of Virginia), and was incorporated as a non-profit in 2001 to foster dissemination and application of implicit social cognition. Project Implicit supports a collaborative network of researchers interested in basic and applied research concerning thoughts and feelings that occur outside of conscious awareness or control. Project Implicit

7 expanded into a substantial web-based infrastructure for supporting behavioral research and education that is available to other laboratories. Finally, Project Implicit provides consulting, education and training services on implicit bias, diversity and inclusion, leadership, applying science to practice, and innovation.” (Projectimplicit.net, 2011) The research coming from this collaboration has delved into sections of the social construct that have been, continue to be, will be relevant in today’s world. Topics such as gender, race, sexuality, age, weight, and even preference towards weapons have been examined by the institution to see how subconscious association can affect decision-making. At its simplest form, the findings from their research can be characterized by a rejection of what is “different.” For example, they have decoded the following results from some of their research; a preference for thin people to fat people, for light skin people to dark skin, straight people to gay people, and so on. (Implicit.harvard.edu, 2015) They have discovered a pattern that reflects that people may be inherently designed to prefer what is more “socially acceptable” in their mind’s eye. The results from these studies have come from the taking of Implicit Association Tests (IAT). The structure of IATs can be found below as described on the Project Implicit website:

“The IAT measures the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., black people, gay people) and evaluations (e.g., good, bad) or stereotypes (e.g., athletic, clumsy). The main idea is that making a response is easier when closely related items share the same response key. When doing an IAT you are asked to quickly sort words into that are on the left and right hand side of the computer screen …The IAT score is based on how long it takes a person, on average, to sort the words in the third part of the IAT versus the fifth part of the IAT. We would say that one has an implicit preference for thin people relative to fat people if they are faster to categorize words when Thin People and Good share a response key and Fat People and Bad share a response key, relative to the reverse.” (Implicit.harvard.edu, 2015)

As described, the subconscious plays the key role in the findings of these tests. The social context that is affected by these results is drastic as it covers the majority of every society and the people that govern them.

The implicit testing offers an insight into the thought process of society. This research is not intended to prove who has a warped view or “incorrect” social cognition at an individual level. What is does show is that inequality may exist naturally in society. As seen in the findings mentioned in the beginning of the section, implicit attitude formation occurs at a very young age and the explicit nature of this formation changes as one gets older to reflect what “society would expect” from people. People are used to and prefer what is similar to themselves. This very nature is what is reflected in many aspects of society especially in the business context. The results from these tests can identify why the selection process in everyday life may be skewed towards a select subsection of society. This paper will shine light on ways that this phenomenon can be overturned. The promotion of acceptance in society will advocate change in this implicit attitude formation towards the current norm. The idea to invoke artificial change into society has been implemented on many levels and in many industries. This paper will look towards those examples and how the resulting outcome influenced change within specific sections of society. The first, and for the purpose of this paper, most important regulation examined will be the Rooney Rule of the NFL. Other examples implemented around the world will be examined in seeing whether or not regulation can limit or break down the effect of implicit decision making bias and stereotyping.

1.3) Correctly Identifying the Problem

Before analyzing the precedent in injecting artificial to address implicit discrimination, it is prudent to define what a minority group is and how it compares to other commonly associated groups in regards to discrimination. When the topic of discrimination arises, three main ideals typically come to mind; race, ethnicity, and minority. Often times, people cannot differentiate between the three and sometimes even confuse them. For the purpose of this paper, analysis for racial discrimination will be discussed and will be based on the sociological explanation contained in “Sports in Society” by Jay Coakley. One of the largest misnomers in this discussion occurs when using the terms race and ethnicity. The disassociation in similarity is commonly used as people assume that these words are interchangeable. Race can be defined as “a population of people who are commonly believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations”. (Coakley, n.d.) The key differentiator between race and ethnicity is that race can be associated to a classification of physical or perceived physical traits whereas ethnicity refers to a shared culture or history for a group of people. The next piece to this puzzle comes when you add in the term minority,

9 which will be the central focus of this paper and its recommendations. Along with race and ethnicity, minority is a term that is often seen as interchangeable yet cannot be associated as such because of how the term is properly defined from a sociological standpoint. The term minority can be defined as “a socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination”. (Coakley, n.d.) From this definition, one can see how using minority to describe race or ethnicity would not adequately describe or contextualize all populations. Examples exist where not all minorities are races and not all races are minorities. In most Anglo-Saxon countries, whites are identified as a race but would not be a minority. Yet similarly in the US, African Americans are both a race and a minority group based on a shared experience of discrimination experienced by the population. With this, one must differentiate the terms and how using the words interchangeably would create scenarios that would disprove their meanings. Although a difference exists between the usages of the terms mentioned above, this paper will analyze how racial minorities are affected in the world of sport. The following section will provide practical examples on how the search for inclusion in different industries has been executed along with some results. Two illustrations from the world of sport along with two from other industries including politics and education will be examined. Implementation of artificial regulatory tools within these four cases has been different but the desired change can be seen. Based on these examples, one can look to how successful implementation within the sporting world can draw the desired change for increased diversity within the industry with the major precedent coming from the Rooney Rule in the National Football League.

1.4) Rooney Rule: Context, Justification, and Arguments

1.4.1) Context

The analysis on why the Rooney Rule was implemented is fairly straightforward. The intriguing aspect in this scenario is who got involved and at what part of the process they became involved. It is very rare that you see non-governmental outside influencers shape change within the sporting world. In the sporting context, change is typically brought about from an internal stakeholder and only for support are outside influencers called in. The case of the Rooney Rule followed a different pattern in which outside analysis dictated direct internal

10 change in the world of sport. This external influence came from two of the most prominent U.S. attorneys of the time, Johnny Cochran Jr. and Cyrus Mehri. The two attorneys, along with the help of University of Pennsylvania professor of Sociology Dr. Janice Madden (Sociology.sas.upenn.edu, 2015), would be the driving force behind the research done to influence movement on the part of the National Football League. (Thornton, 2015) Both Johnny Cochran Jr. and Cyrus Mehri attained their reputation in the legal field for their prominence in high profile cases within American society. For Johnny Cochran Jr., his rise to national fame came off the back of representing and exonerating O.J Simpson in his murder trial in the 1990s. Cyrus Mehri was part of legal teams that represented the two largest race class action suits in American history against companies like Texaco and Coca-Cola. (Thornton, 2015) The interest of both attorneys in this matter seems fairly well placed and the addition of Dr. Madden was the addition they needed to develop concrete evidence that the lack of minority coaches and executives in the NFL was becoming a problem. The importance of addressing the problem to the team was simple, “America’s game should represent America’s diversity and its best values.” (Thornton, 2015) Within the report run by the team, they found a few inconsistencies that existed in the hiring and firing process of coaches in the NFL. The time period analyzed in their research was from 1986-2002. The indicators from the study showed, with significant proof that will be looked at statistically in a later section, that minority coaches were not provided the same luxuries in hiring and retention as their white counterparts. This fact was illuminated when the data showed that minority coaches were actually more successful than their white counterparts during the selected time period. Johnny Cochran Jr. saw this data and made the claim that “black coaches are the last hired and the first fired.” (Thornton, 2015) Another troubling statistic observed by the team was that over a three year, 21 head coaching positions were filled with only two of those spots filled by minority candidates. Of the two minority coaches hired during this time period, only one was a new entry to that level of coaching. Now that the report had substantial findings to support their initiative, Cochran and Mehri developed a report with specific regulation that they would like to see implemented within the league. The most glaring part of the report did not appear in statistical data but in a statement made during the release of the report and it came from Cochran. He stated “We can litigate this. We can bring a lawsuit. I think the NFL is reasonable. They understand that this can end up in the courts, and they'd rather not see that happen. But let's see if we can have a dialogue. You only litigate after you've done everything you can to negotiate.'' (Assets.espn.go.com, 2015) The NFL was now staring down the barrel of a potential lawsuit that would have

11 brought against them by the two most seasoned attorneys in the subject matter they are most experienced. As one would imagine, the NFL acted and acted quickly. From this action, the namesake of the future rule was brought in to fix the problem that was brought to the surface by Cochran and Mehri and that man was Dan Rooney.

1.4.2) Rooney Rule by the Numbers

1.4.2.1) Pre-2003

The National Football League prospered to the pinnacle of the American sporting landscape at a very rapid pace. This can be seen in the astonishing growth in TV revenue, sponsorship, and infrastructure that has taken place in the last 20 or so years. This success has come at the hands of a largely white leadership group when taking into account coaches, general managers, and owners. With that said, 8 men have been able to infiltrate the Caucasian dominated brotherhood of head coaches in the NFL in the last century. The leader of this group is now memorialized in the affinity group that now helps to support the men he set an example towards. Fritz Pollard became the first minority coach in the National Football League in its lean years of the post-World War 1 era in 1921. This provides a very interesting lens into the sporting culture of the United States. In a sporting landscape which saw delayed acceptance of minority participation, the NFL was much ahead of the curve in regards to minorities and their involvement in the game. Unfortunately, Fritz Pollard became an outlier in regards to the advancement of minority coaches in the National Football League. It will take approximately 60 years for the next minority coach to take the sidelines in a head- coaching role in the league. In a scenario that is often very real in the context of modern day sport, the influx of minority players in the professional leagues continues to grow, yet the coaching pool remains depressed and stagnant.

Data from Dr. Madden and the commissioned report:

1. Between the years 1986 – 2001, black coaches averaged 9.1 wins per season and white coaches averaged 8.1. 2. Teams with black head coaches made the playoffs 67% of the time, while white coaches made it 39%. 3. In the fifteen seasons, black coaches averaged 2.7 more wins than white coaches.

4. In the fifteen seasons, 66% of black coaches made the playoffs, to 20% of white coaches. 5. In the fifteen seasons, black coaches who were fired averaged 6.8 wins per season, while white coaches who were fired averaged 5.5. 6. 20% of black coaches who were fired made the playoffs that year, and 8% of white coaches who made the playoffs were fired. (Thornton, 2015)

From the year 1979 to the inception of the Rooney Rule in 2003, the last seven minority coaches have joined the sidelines. The chart (Pro-Football-Reference.com, 2015) below breaks down the success of these seven coaches. Within this list, you have the 12th most successful coach in NFL history in regards to win percentage in Tony Dungy. The combined winning percentage of these seven coaches would place them as a group as the 64th most successful coach in the history of the NFL. (Pro-Football-Reference.com, 2015) The last and maybe most astonishing fact from this list of 7 head coaches is that from the 49 Super Bowls that have been played, 2 Super Bowls were won by members of the below list (2 - Tom Flores). Thirty coaches have won the Super Bowl since its inception and the list of minority coaches before the introduction of the Rooney Rule has two members in that list of thirty.

Coaches Wins Losses

Tony Dungy 139 69

Tom Flores 97 87

Art Shell 56 52

Dennis Green 113 94

Ray Rhodes 37 42

Herman Edwards 54 74

Total Wins 496

Total Win Percentage .542%

These statistics would put this group inside or on the cusp of the playoffs on a yearly basis. The amount of success had by this segment of the coaching industry is the precise

13 reason why the Rooney Rule was implemented. You have a selection of coaches that have a positive success rate and are proven at the NFL level collectively. As mentioned, the common thread that ties these coaches together is the fact that they are all from minority groups within the United States. From an external and purely stereotypical lens, the success had from this group should imply that minority coaches can and will have success as a head coach in the NFL. The shocking disparity and even contradiction of the win loss record and number of minority coaches within the league seemed to have sparked debate and prompted thought on why this can occur, especially in a modern societal landscape. From this moment in time, men like Johnny Cochran Jr., Cyrus Mehri, and Dan Rooney decided to take action. With this, the following section will examine the effectiveness in the implementation of the Rooney Rule in the NFL and how well minority coaches have been integrated into the league.

1.4.2.2) Post-2003

It is now 2003 and the NFL has officially welcomed in the Rooney Rule to league regulations. Within the first few years, two key moments occurred that provided the league the much-needed credibility in backing such a rule. “Success” was always going to be difficult to gauge in such a matter due to the personal and subjective element involved in determining what appropriate change would be. The first success the NFL had with the Rooney Rule was in enforcement while the second came in concrete statistics that reinforced the need to administer change as prescribed by Mr. Cochran and Mehri. In short succession after the rule was implemented, the authority of the NFL to enforce the rule was challenged by an organization within the league. Enforcement was not the only challenge to the NFL posed by the Detroit Lions in 2003. They also pointed out a potential gap in the rule’s design, which they will argue in their defense of breaking the new regulation. In 2003, the Detroit Lions became a team that needed to fill their head coaching position. It so happens that one of the available candidates in the employment pool was Michigan native and highly successful head coach in Steve Mariucci. The fit was perfect and both sides wanted to get the contract signed. The new regulations, now in place, mandated that Lion’s General Manager, Matt Millen, interview a minority candidate and with the straightforwardness of his intention to hire Mariucci, Millen could not find a candidate to act as a proxy to fulfill the rules. In order to get his man before another team could, Millen decided to hire Mariucci thus disregarding the Rooney Rule. This pushed the NFL to task and they responded and quite severely indeed. The NFL and its commissioner, Paul Tagliabue, fined Matt Millen $200,000

14 and provided the following explanation: ““[w]hile certain of the difficulties that [Millen] encountered in seeking to schedule interviews with minority candidates were beyond [his] control, [he] did not take sufficient steps to satisfy the commitment that [he] had made” (Collins, 2007) The NFL had now drew a line in the sand. The Rooney Rule was here to stay and was going to be enforced as such. The NFL has now defended its position on the Rooney Rule and would shortly reap the benefits of allowing the regulation to do its job. Again, this rule was instituted to provide a more equal platform for all coaches to be hired for open positions, not to hand out roles directly to people. Yet, the NFL and those that supported the Rooney rule quickly got statistical backing for the initial success of the program. Within three years of implementation, the number of minority coaches in the NFL had jumped up to seven, which represented 22% of the total coaches in the league. The NFL had witnessed a 16% increase in the number of minority coaches in the league and the best moment was yet to come in support of the success of the Rooney rule. The watermark moment for the success of the Rooney rule came in the 2006 Super Bowl when the NFL had its first black head coach (Tony Dungy) lead a team to the championship game. This was a fantastic testimony to the benefits of the Rooney rule and how it can help provide greater access to all minority coaches. What provided to be the icing on the cake for the regulation was that the coach of the other team participating in the Super Bowl that year was also a minority coach. This coach, Lovie Smith, was a coach that was hired after the Rooney Rule was implemented in 2003. Tony Dungy had already proven his ability in the league before the Rooney rule, yet for the first time since implementation, the league had a first time minority coach leading a team to the Super Bowl. From the Super Bowl in 2006, the NFL has had further success stories in the case of Mike Tomlin and Jerry Reese. Mike Tomlin was hired by the namesake of the rule in 2007 and went on to win the Super Bowl in 2009 with the Pittsburgh Steelers. On a different level, Jerry Reese became the first minority General Manager to win the Super Bowl when he accomplished the task with the New York Giants in 2011. The arguments for and against the rule will be discussed in the next section of this paper, yet the results on the field, especially in the time frame in which they occurred, quickly validates Johnny Cochran Jr. and Cyrus Mehri in their roles in putting forth this movement.

1.4.3) Arguments

The success of the Rooney Rule has been illustrated thus far in the results that it has been able to achieve on the football field. The design of the rule was surely a key success factor in the implementation of the rule. Like anything in life, there will always exist counter arguments that will look to damage the credibility of its initial success. The proceeding section will analyze the arguments that the Rooney Rule has come across since its inception in 2003. The majority of the arguments will come in how teams can “escape” the rule diverting the actual effect the rule will have. The second major argument is quite fascinating as it examines the hiring trends of the minority candidate after the primary hiring and subsequent firing process. The biggest, and most flawed, argument behind the introduction of the social equality hiring regulations is that the most qualified candidate will not be hired. This argument is often floated around when dealing with the “experienced” or “time served” backers. People that support this argument are those that perpetuate the virtuous circle in the employment pool that often follows this pattern “hired-fired-rehired-fired-etc...” Of course, this pattern is what the regulations like the Rooney Rule is designed to fix; to increase the quality, quantity, and diversity of the employment pool. As this is an argument for people that don’t truly understand the regulation in the first place, let’s move on to arguments that examine the design of the rule itself. When the Detroit Lions went to hire Steve Mariucci, not a single person in the NFL was surprised. As described in the story above, sometimes there are candidates that are too good to pass up when hiring for a position. Regardless of industry, gender, race, etc., these situations can and will occur in the hiring process. The argument against the Rooney Rule comes when this situation occurs. When this situation does occur and the “right” candidate is not a minority, what should be done? An interview for the sake of an interview? This opens up a question in relations to the closed versus open league system. One could imagine that in a closed league like the NFL with 32 manager positions, the truly perfect candidate would be more likely than in an open system in which one country like England has 92 total positions. Would a compulsory interview in this scenario promote any actual value to the proxy minority candidate? As seen in the Detroit Lions case, not a single minority candidate made themselves available to be interviewed, thus leading to the monetary sanction handed down to the general manager of the team. This scenario promotes two opposing positions. One being that the formality of the interview provides no purpose or value to any of the stakeholders involved. Others may argue that the mere face time within an interview will prove an example

16 to other minority managerial candidates while maybe, just maybe affecting the thought process of the owner who would have never seen this candidate in other circumstances. The next procedural argument against the Rooney Rule is the ability to prove certain factors in implementation of the rule. It is said that teams should take sufficient steps in following the rule while acting in good faith during all interviews. Two of these phrases provided a grey area in enforcement of the rule. How can one prove that a team did not act in good faith while interviewing a minority candidate or any candidate for that matter? What would serve as sufficient steps in commitment to following the rule? The grey area that is provided does not serve well in enforcing sanctions on teams or fully enforcing the rule. What this grey area does now do is shine a bright light on the decision making process undergone by hiring managers. (Collins, 2007) The ability to prove “good faith” in an interview will be a limitation that the Rooney Rule leaves open and this ambiguity may lead to problems of enforcement based on these grounds. One of the final major arguments of the implementation of the Rooney Rule is one that does not argue against the validity of the regulation but rather its limitations. The argument presented by two American researchers from the University of Central Florida, Carlton Keith Harrison and Scott Bukstein, is that the Rooney Rule does a good job at introducing and converting minority candidates into managers within the NFL. What it does not do is protect those minority coaches after they are fired from their first job. They argue that it is much more difficult for a minority coach to be rehired than a non-minority coach. (Harrison and Bukstein, 2013) With that said, the Rooney Rule is limited to tackle institutional racism on the front end but does little to absolutely nothing to protect on the back end. Harrison and Bukstein also prove that a team is less likely to hire a minority coach after firing another minority coach. These results help establish a basis for the institutional discrimination that may be prevalent within the NFL and that the Rooney Rule is not sufficient enough to completely overcome this phenomenon. In the past years, there have been calls to re-examine the Rooney Rule based on many different factors. The argument presented by Harrison and Bukstein shows that the rule may need to be redesigned to address this factor and that any other implementation of the regulation would not be complete without this fix.

1.5) Past Precedent

Social integration regulation is not unknown within the landscape of both sport and society as a whole. The need to artificially regulate the employment marketplace has been

17 implemented both in the US and in Europe. Although many different groups were affected by the implementation of this regulation, the end goal of the regulations was to take out any latent or subconscious discrimination that may exist within a group, community, or organization. Many leaders saw that the distribution of members of workforce, student body, etc. did not accurately reflect society as a whole. In order to implement a change such as this, you must have a proper reason to do so. In many of the cases, the demographic nature of an organization would be so skewed that artificial regulation would need to be introduced. The examination of three separate examples from both Europe and the US will provide a basis, act as precedent, and see expansion from the Rooney Rule. The three examples of regulations that were enacted to adjust a disparity that existed in the demographic makeup of organizations were: Affirmative Action regulation in the US collegiate education system, gender quotas in Irish government, and the mandatory inclusion of a female representative on the FIFA Executive Committee. An examination of each in conjunction with the Rooney Rule will shed light on the effect that social inclusion regulation can have within an industry.

1.5.1) Affirmative Action in the US Collegiate System

"You do not take a person who, for years, has been hobbled by chains and liberate him, bring him up to the starting line of a race and then say you are free to compete with all the others, and still just believe that you have been completely fair." (The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, 2015) This quote by Lyndon Johnson, former United States president, in 1965 indicates the recognition of an underlying problem that existed within American culture. All forms of segregation have been legally abandoned in the country yet he recognized that the society was still very unequal. Affirmative action became the vessel that would seek to bring equal opportunities for all American citizens regardless of race, gender, sexuality, or handicap. The plan to create this equality would be designed at regulating the American society in two forms, employment and higher education. Both of these fields were deemed as the key influencers to induce change and break social barriers within the country. In 1977, The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights defined affirmative action as the following, “any measure, beyond simple termination of a discriminatory practice, adopted to correct or compensate for past or present discrimination or to prevent discrimination from recurring in the future.” With this in mind, affirmative action became a very prominent part of American society.

Employment became a clear objective to tackle when implementing affirmative action in order to create equal opportunity for all Americans. In a study performed by the National Asian and Pacific American Legal Consortium found that although white men make up only 48% of the college-educated workforce, they hold over 90% of the top jobs in the news media, 96% of CEO positions, 86% of law firm partnerships, and 85% of tenured college faculty positions. (The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, 2015) The results from this study show the vital nature that affirmative action serves and what it intends to correct. The misrepresentation in demography of the work force, especially in top positions in industry, implies that external factors would need to be introduced since self-regulation created entry barriers from subsections of society. A sociological argument can be made from the numbers above in which groups of a certain subset of society may be deterred psychologically from pursuing positions in which members of their group are not present. Affirmative action sought to curb the influence of such a factor by providing a platform for all people to have access to any field that they would choose. In order to create this equal playing field, the competencies of people in minority groups would have to be expanded. This would provide the necessary motivation to amend the higher education system while allowing for members of minority subgroups to attain a much higher quality education that serves as the supply chain for the workforce. The American university system, setup in a very much hierarchical structure, is as old as the country they operate in. The schools at the top of this tiered structure are responsible for the production of the leaders of tomorrow whether it be in politics, industry, or sciences. In many cases, these future leaders that matriculate from these universities are the progeny of the current leaders in the same fields mentioned in the previous sentence. Based on the data from the previous paragraph on employment, one can see a trend that would need to be accounted for. The same people that are becoming the next lawyers, CEOs, doctors, etc. are also the ones that are achieving the appropriate skills and competencies for those positions. It was becoming increasingly apparent that minority groups were not well represented in the top universities in the United States. Affirmative action was brought into the university acceptance process to amend this situation. The results of affirmative action have been quite positive in regards to reaching its intended target, to provide greater access to top quality higher education to members of minority groups. Ivy League and equivalent schools are now producing a student body that is much more diverse and eclectic. Of course, this program has been challenged legally at both the state and national level. The interesting outcome from these challenges is that the national

19 government gave the rights to the states to decide if they would like to outlaw affirmative action policies within their education system. This has provided new data that has shown the effects that affirmative action actually has on the enrollment demography within public institutions. When states like Washington, California, and Michigan decided to ban the use of affirmative action, the diversity of their student body shifted much like it did when affirmative action was implemented, but on average in a more negative way. The results of the change are below and demonstrate that the lack of an affirmative action policy can have a direct negative effect on the number of students enrolled at a university from a minority group against the available candidates within the state from that same minority group: (Nytimes.com, 2015)

California (1998 Ban Introduced)

UC Berkeley UCLA

Hispanic Students - Pre-Ban 32% Enrollment Gap 28% Enrollment Gap

Hispanic Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 38% Enrollment Gap 32% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Pre-Ban 4% Enrollment Gap 4% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 7% Enrollment Gap 6% Enrollment Gap

Washington (1999 Ban Introduced)

University of Washington Washington State

Hispanic Students - Pre-Ban 7% Enrollment Gap 7% Enrollment Gap

Hispanic Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 9% Enrollment Gap 6% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Pre-Ban 3% Enrollment Gap 2% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 3% Enrollment Gap 3% Enrollment Gap

Michigan (2008 Ban Introduced)

University of Michigan Michigan State

Hispanic Students - Pre-Ban 1% Enrollment Gap 2% Enrollment Gap

Hispanic Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 1% Enrollment Gap 2% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Pre-Ban 10% Enrollment Gap 9% Enrollment Gap

African American Students - Post-Ban up to 2011 14% Enrollment Gap 12% Enrollment Gap

In the selected states analyzed above, there exists a clear change in most scenarios that showed a decline in minority representation in public universities after the abolishment of affirmative action regulations. The allowance of universities to freely run their enrollment process has a clear negative side effect on minority groups within the country. Although the idea of affirmative action is widely contested on a personal level, the results of such regulation are clear and advantageous for minority groups.

1.5.2) Gender Quotas for Elected Members of the Lower House in the Irish Government

The notion behind quotas is not strictly an American principle. In the following paragraphs, two European examples of implementation of quota systems will be examined both in the sporting and non-sporting context. The first scenario takes place in the political landscape of the Republic of Ireland. In the year 2012, the Irish government adopted an amendment to their Elections Act’s Section on State Funding of Political Parties and Gender Balance. This provision was to serve a direct response to the underrepresentation of women in the Lower House of government within the country. The amendment outlined that the political parties in Ireland must have women represent 30% of their candidates for upcoming elections. This has a similar design that the Rooney Rule entails in such that the misrepresented class will not be forced into positions but into the opportunity to obtain positions within the government The representation of women in the Irish political system was appreciably low especially in comparison with some countries in Europe. At the time before the introduction of the amendment, women occupied 25 of a possible 166 seats (15%) (Quotaproject.org, 2015) in the Irish House of Representatives while countries like Sweden (47%), Netherlands (40%), and Finland (40%) showed a much more egalitarian share of the seats within the governments of their countries. (Galligan, Coakley and Buckley, 2015) These statistics in the Republic of Ireland were very telling when the male to female ratio was almost even with the slightest edge to women (50.4%). (Cso.ie, 2015) The same gender differential was present in the three countries mentioned above where the representation in women in government was

21 much higher than Republic of Ireland. Across the world, gender quotas for increasing the representation of women in parliaments have been implemented and largely successful. Of the top ten countries (democracies) in the world for women’s representation, eight countries have some form of gender quota regulation in place. From one study conducted shortly before the Irish amendment passing, the countries with the highest representation of women in parliament had greater than 38% of all seats occupied by women. (Galligan, Coakley and Buckley, 2015) Implementation of gender quota regulations has been done through various platforms. Some countries have opted to include voluntary systems in which political parties are free to design and regulate their own systems. Other countries, such as the Republic of Ireland, have used legislation for the enforcement of their policies. Under the Irish amendment, political parties that do not fulfill the minimum candidate percentage will have their government funding cut by 50%. The monetary loss to the political parties in Ireland can be quite severe. For example, if the Republican Party within the country, Fianna Fail, does not meet the regulation to promote women candidates to the tune of 30% of their candidates, they stand to lose over 1.4 million euros in state funding. (Wilsoncenter.org, 2015) The results of the implementation of the quota system will be seen in the next few elections, yet with the track record of other countries’ success, Ireland should expect to see the same.

1.5.3) Mandatory Inclusion of a Female member in FIFA's Executive Committee

The world of football has already seen the introduction of a quota system to address gender representation within its highest decision making body, the executive committee. From its inception, the organizing body responsible for the sport has been very homogenous in that the decision makers were predominately white and male. The leading adjective has slowly become more diverse, yet the second (male) remained a prominent characteristic within the Executive Committee. The waves of movement began to appear in the year 2012, over 108 years after its inception, to adjust the trend of boy’s club that developed. Leading up to June 2012, there were a grand total of zero women who have ever been a part of the executive committee within FIFA. (Monnier, 2015) From 2012, the executive committee must contain one female representative with the first member being Lydia Nzekera from Burundi. This appointment served as an important first step in the quest to bring greater diversity to the executive committee of FIFA and was a precursor to the appointment of two other female co-

22 opted members from Australia and Trinidad & Tobago. The appointment and implementation of a female member of the executive committee was an important step and should be remembered to be just a step in the process to create a more diverse organization. The establishment of a gender quota within the executive committee sets a very positive precedent for inclusion in the management of the world’s game. It is far too early to see any tangible results from this decision. One must look further on how this may impact other areas outside of the executive committee of FIFA, like the representation of women in the standing committees. In analyzing the numbers to date, there is still work to be done in expanding diversity. FIFA currently has 26 committees that operate around all functions of the game including two that are specific to women’s football. Within these 26 committees that encapsulate 528 members, 63 women are active which represents around 10.8% of all members. The more telling statistic is when you examine the 24 committees that do not directly involve women’s football. Once you take out those two committees, the female representation drops to about 3% of the total members within working groups. (Monnier, 2015) With the differential being so vast for female representation, the implementation of gender quotas at the highest level should have a trickledown effect. If, after an appreciable amount of time, the growth in female representation does not grow, it may be time to think of ways to impose diversity into the working groups as well.

2) Legal Perspectives of social hiring regulations

In order to analyze the feasibility and implementation of social hiring regulations into European Football, one must consider the legal system where such regulations will be applied and the provisions of minority access rules in countries where they currently do not exist. Of course, one must take into consideration the predictive element in the project based on how the rule has affected the US market while using similarities with the European countries.

Society is obsessed with categorizing and treating individuals and groups according to their physical and non-physical differences, such as sex, gender, disability and race. This treatment can lead to the inclusion or exclusion of an individual from the tangible and intangible benefits of society. It is exactly at this point that law comes to regulate the market and to avoid exclusion based on any type of discrimination. Moreover, as in all segments of society in sports such inclusion and exclusion is not different. Sport is one area where individuals seek inclusion and it is a field that has potential to foster the recognition of aspects of being human. Sport possesses a degree of “specificity" because of its unique essence and

23 institutional core values. In order to protect this essence, rules and regulations concerning eligibility and selection are imposed to match ability, preserve competition, ensure safety, provide the best possible entertainment and generate revenue.

The relationship between sport and the law is well documented by experts in the field of sports law particularly. Sports governing bodies have a general tendency to regard the involvement of the law as a potential threat to the special essence of sport. Instead internal sports regulation is favored, using a complex network of normative rules such as the rules of the game, administrative rules, unwritten customs, values and cultures that influence the rules of the sport and codes of ethics. These are not legally binding but have practical effects. As a consequence, persistent inequalities and patterns of social exclusion amongst minority and marginalized groups are being addressed through the enactment of legislation and implementation of government policies. These political strategies and agendas seek to achieve and promote social inclusion.

Social exclusion agendas were firmly embedded within policies for sport, since sport has been widely used to assist in the delivery of important community, health, and welfare outcomes particularly for minority groups. In terms of achieving social inclusion, sport is also perceived as a neutral ground in which individuals compete equally. In this regard, sport was and it has always been a tool of social inclusion, the perception of sport as a solution to social concerns are considered part of a wider “functionalist perspective” which contends that institutions, such as sport, have a special function in society. It is strongly contended that these are presumed outcomes of sport participation, which are not always achieved. Particularly at a competitive level, many undesirable consequences of such influential power exists, such as cheating, violence and discriminatory practices.

2.1) Legal perspective of social hiring regulations in Europe

The legal analysis of the implementation of social hiring regulations for football coaches in Europe has to observe the applicable laws and jurisdiction of the area. Not only the laws of each country where the rule will be implemented but the most important is the league level, taking into consideration that is a specific rule to be imposed by a sports body. For the case at hand, in the level of European football the competent sport body is UEFA (Union of European Football Associations), who has been fighting strongly against racism mostly since

2001 when the campaign to eliminate racism, discrimination and intolerance from football has become a major priority. As an important measure, UEFA has forged a close partnership with the FARE (Football Against Racism in Europe) network, which comprises groups and bodies working against intolerance and discrimination across the continent. The message is clear, it is zero tolerance for any form of racism and discrimination, in favor of more respect for diversity.

In this respect, the president of UEFA, Mr. Michel Platini, said "UEFA, its member associations and its long-standing partner FARE share an unflinching desire to tackle all forms of discrimination in our sport and to help stamp out such behavior across Europe” (UEFA.com, 2014). The “NO TO RACISM" message aims to increase public awareness of intolerance and discrimination in football, as well as developing ideas and strategies on how to fight them. However, the efforts of UEFA against racism are focused predominately inside the pitch with the imposition of stricter sanctions on racist behavior. UEFA's resolution includes encouraging referees to stop, suspend or even abandon a game if racist incidents occur; the imposition of ten-match suspensions on any player or team official found guilty of racist conduct; and stadium closures if fans engage in racist behavior. The Disciplinary Regulations (edition 2012) of UEFA in its article 11 bis establishes:

"Article 11bis Discrimination and similar conduct

1 Anyone who insults the human dignity of a person or group of persons by whatever means, including on grounds of colour, race, religion or ethnic origin, shall incur a suspension for five matches or for a specified period. If a member association or club or any of their officials is found guilty of such conduct, depending on the circumstances this suspension could be replaced by a fine.

2. If one or more of a member association or club’s supporters engage in the behaviour described in paragraph 1, the member association or club responsible shall be fined €20,000.

3. If particular circumstances so require, the competent disciplinary body may impose additional sanctions on the member association or club responsible, such as the playing of one or more matches behind closed doors, a stadium closure, a match forfeit, the deduction of points or disqualification from the competition.

4 All forms of ideological propaganda are forbidden. If this provision is breached, paragraphs 1 to 3 above apply.

As much as the NFL (National Football League) established the Rooney Rule in 2003 requiring teams to interview minority candidates for head coaching and senior football operation jobs, UEFA has it owns legal provisions against racism in the Disciplinary Regulations, addressed to anyone who insults the human dignity on grounds of discrimination. But, as already said, such regulations are mainly tackling racism inside the pitch. On the other hand, the numbers prove that the discrimination is also perceived on hiring process of clubs, outside of the pitch, especially if we consider the number of black coaches in Europe. The European non-discrimination law, as constituted by the EU non-discrimination directives, and Article 14 of and Protocol 12 to the European Convention on Human Rights, prohibits discrimination across a range of contexts and grounds. One of these grounds is the discrimination in the field of employment, as the provision of the item 3.4.1. “Employment”:

“3.4.1 Employment - Protection against discrimination in the field of employment is extended across all the protected grounds provided for under the non-discrimination directives."

As we are analyzing the implementation of social hiring regulations on European football due to the underrepresentation of minority coaches and senior positions, the article 3.4.1 above mentioned must be imposed in connection with article 4.6 “ Race, ethnicity, colour and membership of a national minority”. First of all, from this article we perceive a slight difference in concepts. The breadth of the ground of ‘racial and ethnic origin’ appears to differ slightly as between the European Union and the European Convention of Human Rights, in that the Racial Equality Directive expressly excludes ‘nationality’ from the concept of race or ethnicity, while the E. C. H. R. lists ‘nationality’ or ‘national origin’ as a separate ground. This is not because discrimination on the grounds of nationality is permitted in EU law, but because the way that EU law has evolved means that discrimination on the grounds of nationality is regulated in the context of the law relating to free movement of persons. Apart from expressly excluding nationality, the Racial Equality Directive does not itself contain a definition of ‘racial or ethnic origin’. There are a number of other instruments, which offer guidance as to how racial and ethnic origin should be understood. Neither ‘colour’, nor membership of a national minority are listed expressly in the Racial Equality

Directive, but are listed as separate grounds under the European Convention of Human Rights. These terms appear to be indissociable from the definition of race and/or ethnicity. The EU Council’s Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia under the criminal law defines racism and xenophobia to include violence or hatred directed against groups by reference to ‘race, colour, religion, and descent or national or ethnic origin’.

However, having analyzed UEFA’s regulations about the theme and also the European non-discrimination law, it is necessary to turn attention to the Treaty of Rome (European Union) which provide all the requirements and regulations related to freedom of movement for goods, services, capital and persons in between the countries members of the union. Specifically, all the EU member states agreed with the directives of an employment discrimination law. Each member state was then obliged to incorporate these new laws into their national legislation. Besides, the Article 13 of the Treaty of Amsterdam, entered into force in 1999, granted the European Union some powers to combat discrimination on the basis of race or ethnic origin, sex, pregnancy, sexual orientation, religion or belief, disability (physical or mental, including HIV status) and age.

In conclusion, if a new regulation come into force in the European territory in order to tackle discrimination, regulating social hiring procedures in European football would be legally internalized. Additionally, working in consonance with the existent laws, both in the league level or the ordinary laws applicable, in harmony with the existent legal system.

2.2) Legal aspects of implementation in England

In order to analyze the issues regarding racism and sport in England, two cases deserve to be mentioned, both involving important football players: the case the English player John Terry and the case of the Uruguayan Luis Suarez.

Both racist episodes were the most important cases in the past few years inside England, with great repercussion in the media and resolved by the local sport governing body. Sport governing bodies and organizations tend to demonstrate their commitment to equality and non-discrimination in the form of a plethora of documents outlining their position on sports equity. It is suggested that sport policies in England have adopted a “top-down” approach, which is dictated by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, Sport England,

27 and UK Sport. For instance, the UK Sport commitment to equality is outlined in the equality and diversity strategy policy and action plan 2010. The policies are then transferred to governing bodies such as The FA, who in 2012 introduced their inclusion in anti- discrimination action plan for addressing discrimination in English football and achieving a better level of inclusion. A range of equality policies specific to sex and gender, disability and race, exist within each sport.

The English Football’s Inclusion and Anti-Discrimination Action Plan addresses issues and incidents of discrimination in England, encouraging greater inclusion across the game of football. The plan details the specific responsibilities of the individual governing, representative and competition bodies as well as their clubs and members. All of those involved in its drafting and agreement are committed to this vital agenda and to meeting their responsibilities. In order to understand the importance of such plan, the sporting bodies who added the Action Plan are The Football Association; The Premier League; The Football League; The Professional Footballers Association; the League Managers Association; The Professional Game Match Officials Ltd and finally The Referees Association. However, the relevance and effectiveness of these initiatives are debated and criticized as being slow and theoretical. It is argued that they have achieved very little in terms of practical reform. Even for Nordic countries, who are considered to be leaders in gender equality in sport, it is argued that “gender equality as a political endeavor in sport is sometimes ambiguous and contradictory” and has had limited impact upon the culturally rooted gender regime in sport. In the United Kingdom, whilst some progress has been made, resources for active change are restricted. It is suggested that without legal intervention, there has to be an acceptance that not all of these ideas will be implemented.

For this reason, the legal intervention based on mechanisms like the Rooney Rule could be productive in balancing the numbers and addressing the underrepresentation among minority football coaches in the Premier League and other leagues inside England. In order to overcome disproportionate treatment on the basis of human differences, the rule incorporates and embraces the idea that people must be treated equally and enjoy fundamental rights. The level or type of equality, which should be protected and encouraged by the law, is surrounded by philosophical debate. For instance, formal equality is based upon the principle that like should be treated as like to uphold values of formal justice and individualism. This has been

28 criticized on the basis that it serves to preserve the status quo within society, rather than taking into account the social contexts within which individuals and groups operate.

In the PFA’s point of view, there is a large representation of qualified coaches who are from ethnic minorities and with the implementation of the rule those coaches could be heard and have at least the opportunity of a single interview in a football club. This would allow for increased levels of competition with other members of the employment pool. If the scenario is favorable to the implementation of social hiring regulations, legally analyzing the issue in England must be considerate of the United Kingdom labor law, which regulates the relations between workers, employers and trade unions.

The United Kingdom labor law establishes the employment rights and all the guarantees to the employers and employees, while the Equality Act of 2010 is the primary legislation prohibiting discrimination and harassment in the UK. The law strictly prohibits discrimination and harassment based upon a wide array of protected minorities. The laws prohibiting discrimination apply to hiring, the terms and conditions of employment, training, promotions, terminations, and employee compensation. The law also prohibits both direct and indirect discrimination. Direct discrimination occurs if the reason for a person being treated less favorably than another employee is based upon the employee's protected characteristic as defined by law. Indirect discrimination refers to the situation when a particular employment policy adversely affects or disadvantages a group of employees who are of a particular protected characteristic.

In conclusion, with the Professional Footballers Association welcoming the implementation of a new rule in order to set out social hiring regulations in England but in a legal point of view the rule would be internalized in accordance with the existent laws, both in the league level and the ordinary laws level, totally in harmony with the British legal system with a higher probability to increase the number of minority coaches in the Premier League as well as in other leagues in England.

3) CASE STUDY – ENGLISH PROFESSIONAL LEAGUES

3.1) Black, Asian and Minority ethnic groups in United Kingdom

According to the Office for National Statistic (The Office for National Statistic, 2012), 12.9 percent of the 63 million resident population of the United Kingdom is from BAME ethnics group (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic background). This number shows that the population of the minority ethnic groups is increasing from 5.9 percent in 1991 and 8.7 percent in 2001. The 7.7 million ethnic minority population resides in England, which is more than 95% of the 8.1 million BAME population in the UK. From the BAME ethnic group, Asian British is the largest minority ethnic group with 7.5 percent, while Black African/Caribbean/Black British is followed with 3.3 percent. Mixed/multiple ethnic groups and other ethnic groups such as Arabs or Gypsies make up the rest of the minorities.

3.2) Perception of racism

As difficult as it is to establish whether racism plagued football in England first, it is almost certain that the English football governing bodies are pioneers in addressing the issues effectively. Multiculturalism is definitely an inherent feature of English society that can be traced back to the time of colonialism; therefore, the determination of the British government to tackle racial discrimination and xenophobia is not a new thing. Also not surprisingly, the 2006 British Crime Survey stressed that member of ethnic minorities such as Black African, Black Caribbean, Black Other, Indian and Pakistani, were more likely to fall victims of racially motivated crimes by white Britons especially after the impact of 7 July 2005 London Bomb Attacks (Kassim, C. 2007, page 111-112).

In the case of football, however, racism has only recently been addressed in effect. The Ethics and Sports Equity Strategy clearly indicated the determination of the English football governing body to tackle discrimination in football by taking into serious consideration the very small number of Asian British football players from the top division, the apparent underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the various bodies of the Football Association and the limited involvement of blacks in managerial and coaching positions. This phenomenon of low level of BAME coaching representation in English professional football

30 divisions will be discussed later in part of this case study section (Kassim, C. 2007, page 111- 112).

3.3) BAME footballers in the United Kingdom

Since Arthur Wharton, Britain’s first minority professional footballer, signed for Rotherham in 1889, professional football in England has seen a few players from BAME background. However, it was not until 1978 in which Viv Anderson became the first minority player to play for the England national football team. Since that time, there were black players such as Paul Ince, John Barnes, and Sol Campbell serving as captain of the national team. In addition, many footballers from the BAME background were introduced into the English professional leagues. From the early 1990s, the second and third generation BAME players accounted for roughly 25 percent of players in the top four professional divisions and national team’s squad at senior and youth level, according to Dr. Steven Bradbury (Sports People’s Think Tank, 2014). Sports People’s Think Tank study suggests that approximately 25 percent of current professional football players are BAME individuals. In the future, the number is likely to increase even more, as an estimated 30 percent of BAME players, mostly from black and mixed ethnicity backgrounds, play in youth and development level at professional clubs in England. Also, during the 2014/2015 season, the Premier League clubs have registered 625 players from 61 national football associations (Football-Lineups, 2015). While 285 players are from United Kingdom, 340 foreign players, including 48 Africans and 6 Asians, are making up of the rest 54.4 percent, representing six different continents. In short, professional football in England nowadays is becoming more international, more diverse with players from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic groups not only from United Kingdom, but also all over the world.

3.4) BAME managers in English professional football leagues

Although an increasing number of BAME players are entering the pitch, the situation on the sideline does not seem to match this trend. Historically, only 28 minority managers have been appointed as a manager in the top 4 football divisions in England (League Managers Association, 2015). Tony Collins became the first BAME manager in 1960 for Rochdale in League Two, while Ricardo Moniz of Notts County in League One was the most recent person to be appointed as a manager in April of 2015. During 55 seasons, there have

31 only been 50 appointments among these 28 managers, and 64.3 percent of them have had a chance to manage only once (although John Barnes and Ricardo Moniz have had managing experience outside England). This is a very low number compare to 49.1 percent of all one- time managers in the English professional football leagues. BAME managers also have a shorter stay as managers in terms of longevity at a club, according to LMA. 1.6 years was the average tenure for all the dismissed football managers, while BAME managers were dismissed after 1.33 years of the tenure in average. Out of 10 BAME managers who had managed a club more than once include Tony Collins, Sammy Chung, Carlton Palmer, Ruud Gullit, Chris Powell, Keith Alexander, Leroy Rosenior, Chris Hughton, Keith Curle, and Paul Ince. The first five each had managed a club twice, and Paul Ince had experienced six different clubs until now, including then a Premier League club Blackburn Rovers.

As of July 2015, managers from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic backgrounds only hold seven out of the 72 current jobs in the English Football League. Additionally, there is not a single minority manager in the 20 clubs in the Premier League after Queens Park Rangers, led by Chris Ramsey, were relegated at the end of the 2014/15 season. At the moment, the cumulative number of minority managers in positions is peaking with seven out of 92 (7.6 percent of the top four flights in England), while the number was second highest at six (6.5 percent) in the 2003/04 season (League Managers Association, 2015). These numbers, however, match neither the percentage of UK minority players in four English professional divisions nor that of minorities residing in Great Britain (14%). Although the appointment of minority managers has grown since early 2000s, the number of employed minority managers has not been so stable. In fact, the English Premier League and Football League went through a spell without a single minority manager for five months from April to August in 2014, which is not so long ago. From the 2010/11 to 2014/2015, there have been 198 dismissals in the top 4 English professional leagues. Only 17 appointments from 10 BAME managers were seen during those five seasons, and these make up of 8.6 percent of all appointments.

In the history of Premier League’s 23 seasons, six minority managers, Ruud Gullit, Jean Tigana, Paul Ince, Chris Hughton, Terry Connor, and Chris Ramsey, have been brought in as a manager. Ruud Gullit and Chris Hughton were the only ones that were appointed as a manager of Premier League clubs on two different occasions, which makes up eight appointments among six managers. The first BAME manager in the Premier League was the Surinamese Dutch Ruud Gullit, who lasted little more than a season and a half at Chelsea

32 before managing Newcastle for exactly one year. With 2.79 years of in charge, Jean Tigana at Fulham is the longest serving BAME manager in the Premier League (League Managers Association, 2015). While Chris Hughton, the first mixed race player to represent the Republic of Ireland, was at the helm of Newcastle and Norwich, he lasted less than a year in each club, being the manager for 1.83 years in the Premier League. Currently, Chris Hughton is in charge of the Championship side Brighton Hove and Albion since the last day of 2014 after getting sacked by Norwich in April of the same year.

The six BAME managers, from eight stints, averaged approximately 43.17 points per season (Premierleague.com, 2015). As one would imagine, there are relatively successful ones, and not so successful ones. As Table 1 suggests, Gullit managed 104 Premier League matches during his time at Chelsea and Newcastle, leading his teams to 41 wins and 26 draws. While it should be noted that he managed arguably one of the better sides in Chelsea, Gullit delivered his clubs 1.43 points per match and 54.44 points per season, besting the other five BAME managers at the top division clubs. Interestingly, table 2 shows that his 54.44 points per season record also beats the averaged points from 5 experienced Premier League managers such as Harry Redknapp, Sam Allardyce, Steve Bruce, Martin O’Neill, and Mark Hughes, the only ones who have led at least 3 Premiership sides with 300 matches under their belts. We have excluded managers such as Sir Alex Ferguson from Manchester United and Arsene Wenger from Arsenal, as they only spent their coaching time in one club, and also they are the outliers who can significantly affect the outcome of this comparison. However, these five experienced managers who totaled 2175 matches, averaged 49.83 points per season, which comfortably surpasses the average points per season for the six BAME coaches by 6.66 points.

While Jean Tigana averaged 43.89 points per season with Fulham, Chris Hughton registered an estimated 39.67 points per season with Newcastle and Norwich. Since the Premier League was made up of 20 teams in the 1994/95 season, a team needed 36.8 points to avoid relegation, and theoretically both managers are capable of keeping their teams above the relegation zone. Especially Chris Hughton who took the helm at Newcastle for a year from October 2009, the clubs first season back to top flight football. While in 2010, Newcastle’s dismissal of Chris Hughton deemed unfair and harsh, he was sacked again at Norwich in 2013 when the club was still five points clear of the drop zone (Taylor, 2010). Norwich got relegated after appointing their youth coach Neil Adams at the end of the season.

While Gullit and Chris Hughton’s results were impressive enough for them to get hired again in the Premier League, Chris Ramsey and Terry Connor only totaled 12 points from 13 matches from each manager. Chris Ramsey registered 0.62 point per match and 23.38 points per season, and Terry Connor recorded mere 0.31 point with estimated 11.69 points per season. It is noteworthy, however, that both of them took the helms of the already struggling Queens Park Rangers and Wolverhampton Wanderers sides as caretaker managers in the middle of the season. When they took over the roles, both of their sides were already in a relegation zone and ended up going down to the Championship at the end of the season.

Table 3 shows the performance of 20 managers who have managed between 100 and 200 Premier League matches during their career. These 20 managers averaged 49.09 points per season, which showed a gap of little less than 6 points per season compared to BAME

34 coaches. This category, however, includes very successful managers such as Jose Mourinho at Chelsea, Roberto Mancini at Manchester City, and Claudio Ranieri at Chelsea. Although these managers have special talents, it should be noted that they had a huge financial backing by “sugar daddy” billionaires (partially in the Claudio Ranieri’s case). Mostly thanks to these three outstanding managers who have recorded an averaged 2.08 points per match and estimation of 78.96 points per season. Without these three’s record, rest of the 17 managers averages 45.08 per season, and the gap between BAME managers becomes less than 2 points per season.

Finally, table 4 shows the coaches who have managed less than 100 Premier League matches. Among 127 managers, including those who have been appointed as a caretaker manager, they have managed 151 clubs and 1245 wins from 4080 matches. Managers in this

35 category recorded an average of 1.18 points, and an estimation of 44.82 points per season. While we realize that the gap between the sample numbers from two sides is relatively larger than other comparisons, this number of 44.82 points per season indicates that there is only 1.65 points gap between managers from this category and the managers from BAME backgrounds. These comparisons show that in terms of sporting result, there is no significant difference between the white majority managers and BAME managers who have struggled to get a job historically.

3.5) Reception from the fans, footballers & coaches

The research made in the UK, by Professor Ellis Cashmore and his colleague Dr. Jamie Cleland, involved 1,000 football fans, professional players, referees, coaches and managers sharing their thought on the dearth of black managers. Over 56% of all respondents said racism exists at the top of football’s hierarchy and between BAME the percentage was higher, 73%. Surprisingly enough, over half of BAME fans were asking for a similar policy to the Rooney rule in the US. Some respondents stated that there is a strong institutional racism – where people do not consciously discriminate against minorities, but fall into the old assumptions and stereotypes. In other words, club owners appoint managers like themselves. This type of cycle is not easily broken even though the increase in black managers will come through the growing number of black players. The lack of black managers in football reflects the football view that while black men earned their place on teams on merit; they are not competent to manage (Journal of Sport and Social Issues November 35, 2011).

Although a large majority of the English football community calls for the Rooney Rule to be implemented, there are some ex-footballers that are against it, saying the Rooney Rule is a disgraceful and coaching hire process is not a black and white issue. These two ex- Premier League players from BAME backgrounds, Kieron Dyer and Titus Bramble, are currently establishing themselves as coaches. Both of them claim that they have never experienced skin color as a problem while playing or especially while being recruited to be a head coach for youth teams. Dyer, who is coaching Ipswich’s Under-16s, believes he was never held back because of the color of his skin and he has never seen it as a negative. “Maybe it’s a generation thing. I wasn’t persecuted like older generations.” Titus Bramble also argues, “There was too much talk of black candidates not getting a chance, but Paul Ince, Chris Hughton got a chance as well as Ruud Gullit, who was successful in Chelsea.” In fact,

36 both Kieron Dyer and Titus Bramble questioned the amount of black players being interested in applying for a coaching academies and after for coach or manager position, stating that nobody from their black friends in football talks about going into coaching (Telegraph, 2014). On the other hand, QPR's director of football Les Ferdinand believes there is a covered racism, which prevents ethnic minorities from getting top jobs in management. The lack of BAME role models, together with "conscious and unconscious racial bias" and stereotyping, plays a big part in the low figures (Sky Sports, 2015).

It not about giving anyone a job – it’s just about having an opportunity to sit down and impress the hiring director who could recommend you to someone else. Also for a Rooney Rule to work the interview process should be more transparent where for the interview three or four candidates are invited and one of them has to be from a BAME background.

In fact, the trend of low numbers in employed minority managers is not only limited in terms of the 92 first team managers, but rather in all 552 senior coaching positions including first team assistant managers, first team coaches, development squad head coaches, youth squad head coaches, and academy directors in English professional divisions. In November 2014, Sports People’s Think Tank and Fare network point out that coaches from BAME backgrounds occupy 19 positions out of 552 available coaching positions, meaning nearly 97% of these jobs are held by white coaches.

Low levels of BAME representation in each core coaching qualification are one important reason to explain this phenomenon. At the end of 2012, according to FA and the Black and Asian Coaches Association, a total of 401 BAME coaches acquired the FA UEFA B license, 57 achieved the FA UEFA A award, and only 13 qualified for the FA UEFA Pro award, the highest qualification in coaching and the mandatory requirement for all coaches who wish to become managers in the Premier League. While the levels of BAME representation for the FA Level 1 and FA Level 2 award, which are more relevant to the grassroots level, is relatively higher at 8.5 percent and 9.5 percent, it is noteworthy that the BAME license holders’ representation of UEFA B and beyond are lower at 4.2 percent, 4.8 percent, and 6.4 percent. There are only 4.3% high-level qualified coaches from BAME backgrounds. (Sports People's Think Tank, 2014) Recently, Daily Mail reported that out of 44 candidates who were taking the UEFA A license, 41 of them (93.2 percent) were white male (Ashton, 2015). Additionally, it was noteworthy that the five FA coaching educators on the

37 course were all white. These numbers show that low level of BAME coaching representation is not likely to change in the near future if nothing is done. Currently, The Football League, which consists of 72 professional clubs from the Championship, Football League One, and Football League Two, is set to introduce the modified version of Rooney Rule from the 2016/17 season. This proposal includes piloting “voluntary recruitment code” on five to ten clubs to interview a BAME candidate, and introducing mandatory hiring process to interview at least one BAME candidate for all youth development roles requiring a minimum of a UEFA B license. While this proposal is heading to the right direction, it will only be implemented if approved at the 2016 Annual General Meeting.

3.6) Summary of our qualitative analysis

The purpose of this analysis was to build an overall picture of the coaching world in football and whether there were any challenges to tackle, especially in terms of lack of BAME managers. Our survey was built in three parts, where the first part covered the professional background and characteristics a candidate needed to have to be hired as a coach. The second part examined whether the hiring process had any significant changes and how likely it is for a minority coach (BAME) to be hired. And the last part of the survey was designed to cover the impression of the Rooney Rule and its potential need and effect on social changes in European football. Our survey was built to target football players, coaches, managers, and club owners from different social and racial backgrounds. The process was done as a face-to- face interview or via phone or a Skype calls. The interviews were taken place between March 20th and July 10th, 2015.

Based on most of the respondents, it was clear what kind of background and characteristics were needed: a good coach needs to have as a first thing coaching experience, then playing experience and as a third an education from football academies. From personal characteristics, leadership was clearly the most wanted skill, then came experience and personality.

The main changes that were noticed in hiring process were increased attention and speculations from media, a slight increase of coaches being changed during the season due to the club’s bad performance and the fact that clubs only look for the big names instead of

38 giving an opportunity to new entries. When we asked how likely it was for a minority coach (non-white) to be hired our correspondents were quite aligned by saying the opportunity was not high and this has been the case in football for a long time.

When we asked about the first impression of Rooney Rule there were different opinions about it. Most of the correspondent said that they were not against the rule being implemented or put on trial in European leagues. One of the correspondent, a current A- license holding coach from the UK with BAME background said, “It is great idea to take a benchmark from NFL where the rule has lead towards positive future with many minority coaches achieving great results in the game and it has also opened up the gates to all people regardless of colour and creed”.

We also found that there were some doubts between respondents, in regards how the rule should be implemented in different leagues and will it really make any changes. The doubts were argued by the fact that, in the end, all clubs will always find their way out. A current professional football player with a German background playing in English Premier League said, ”If a club is seeking for a head coach they are more likely, already to have someone in their mind and inviting one minority candidate would be just for the sake of formality.” On the other hand if the rule was implemented in a right way, our respondents felt that it might have an impact on the hiring process and at very least it would bring awareness to the problem.

To conclude, it is a fact that BAME coaches are underrepresented in the biggest European leagues. There are probably many reasons to explain the current situation including lack of experience, eligible personality or the closed circle of the “old boys club’’ that is impossible to enter. Nevertheless, the problem needs to be acknowledged and tackled not only in football but as well as in any other industry, whether by implementing the exact rule from NFL or by building a model, which is more adaptable for the needs of the specific football league or industry. Today, the NFL is not the only benchmark that we should learn from but also big organization are taking the first steps such as Facebook, Apple Inc. and Google Inc. who are all working to address the issue with new recruiting methods, retention strategies and funding of nonprofit groups that help increase the pipeline for candidates (Bloomberg, 2015).

3.7) Case Comparative Analysis

The analysis of case studies is crucial to have a complete overview of the current situation in England and to estimate the gravity and density of the problem in sports and in the other industries within the country. Moreover, it’s fundamental to look at the BAME representation gaps between the English Premier League and the other three big football leagues in Europe (Italy, Germany, and France).

3.7.1) The Sporting Industry: A Comparative Analysis of BAME Participation and Coaching in all Sports Segments

The under-representation of sports coaches from Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) groups has been identified in some previous research and little has been done to understand why. Despite numerous policies and initiatives aimed to support the UK sport organizations and NGBs in diversifying their participant base and sporting workforce, existing statistics and research suggests that diversity within sport and sports leadership remains low. Members of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic groups are under-represented in all positions, not just sports coaching, but also in the organization and governance within the UK sport organizations and national governing bodies.

In fact, according to the latest Sport England survey, BAME groups have average representation among sporting participants (though this will vary considerably between ethnic groups) at 15%. However, this participation in sport is not being converted into participation in coaching with around 3% or less of the sport coaching workforce being BAME. Moreover, exploring sport participation at a higher performance level, UK Sport estimated that only 10.3% of their funded elite athletes were from BAME communities (Long, et al., 2009) and also that racism experienced in grassroots and elite level sport and in both men’s and women’s sport, is one reason for some BAME groups preferring to participate in physical activity than in organized sport.

The four sports, which demonstrated high levels of BAME participation are athletics, badminton, cricket and basketball but by far the main segment of BAME representation is represented by the keep fit and gym sector (16%). Keep fit and gym are typically associated with instructors, swimming with instruction and teaching (coaching occurs at the 6 higher levels of performance), and cycling with activators (again, coaching occurs at higher levels of performance). For eight of the most popular sports for BAME participation, five sports are

40 generally regarded as having a higher level of connection with sport coaching - football, athletics, badminton, cricket and basketball.

3.7.2) The Traditional Industries: An Evaluation of BAME Senior Management and BAME Middle-management positions

Another important and interesting overview regards the analysis of BAME representation in senior management and middle-management positions within the traditional industries in England. Recent research demonstrates that BAME representation is about 7.9% in middle management, while in top management is only 6% in England in 2014 (Goodley, 2014). Considering the fact that 7.9% is an average value for the overall work population, this percentage is still pretty far from the BAME level of the total population (14%).

The sample for the cluster analysis will be set up using the BAME statistics of four professions: politicians, police officers, nurses, and workers in the construction sector. The idea is to equally compare two public and two private sector ones. Looking at the “poor” ratios, we can assume that the problem is harsh and widespread. In fact, BAME politicians represent only 6.6% (Sedghi and Syal, 2014) of the members of the parliament generating a strong debate through the mass media in the UK. Remaining in the public sector, the problem looks even worse within the police workforce where the statistics show that only 5.4% (Gov.uk, 2013) of the workers are coming from minority groups. If the situation can be considered negative in the public sector, the situation presented in the private market is even worse. Indeed, just 2.3% of the senior nurses are black, Asian or from other ethnic minorities. This value shocks and underlines clearly that the problem is huge at the top management level. Finally, it’s very interesting to look at the construction sector because it’s considered by far the most white-male dominated industry in the UK and in England. The BAME work population is only 3.1% of the total. (Race discrimination in the construction industry: a tematic review, n.d.)

3.7.3) The Situation in Other European Countries: An Analysis of Four European Professional A-Leagues

In this part, the core of the investigation is to understand the differences in the BAME representation within three professional football A-leagues in Europe and the English Premier

League. This transversal analysis consists of two steps: first, the calculation of the BAME ratio in each league and then the evaluation of the difference between the EPL level of BAME representation and the other three leagues. The unit of analysis is only the BAME managers of professional teams ratio and the three leagues taken into consideration are the Serie A, the Ligue 1 and the German Bundesliga.

According to the different definition of minority for each country, we calculate each BAME coaching ratio for all four “A” leagues. Generally, racism is more connected to some ethnic groups especially Slavic, Muslims and Africans mainly due to the continuous migrations that affect the country.

In Germany, the definition of minority may be exactly the opposite of the values of Christianity. According to Article 3.3, Basic law and the Federal Constitutional Court provide for respect and equal treatment of all religions, since religion constitutes an integral part of the rights protected by the constitution. However, there has been growing debate with regard to the core value of Christianity and its importance to the German people, given the emphasis put on Islamic symbols (Kassim, C. 2007, page 167).

In Italy, the Italian constitution stipulates that all citizens are equal before the law without distinction of gender, race, language, religion, and political opinions, personal and social conditions. However, the legal protection for freedom of religion remains relatively poor. Moreover, the Muslim community maintains no official relationship with the Italian state, which is certainly a cause for concern given the rise of Islamophobia. Regardless, racism in the Italian society exists and the ethnic groups that are more likely to fall victims of racial discrimination concern Albanians, Muslims and African (Kassim, C. 2007, page 167-168).

In France, people from Africa, southern and eastern Europeans with big communities of people from ex-African colonies represent minorities. Even though the French Republic maintains values that pertain to the principle of equality of treatment before law – regardless of ethnic origin – racist incidents were increased, particularly acts of anti-Semitism, perhaps because of the 11 September 2001 events and the tension in the Middle East (Kassim, C. 2007, page 166-167).

The results show that the situation in England and France is much better than in Italy and Germany. In the three main leagues in Germany, there are no coaches from the minority groups, which are usually represented by Turkish or other Muslim backgrounds. In Italy, the situation is still bad although 2 out of 20 coaches are from the Slavic minority; Znedek Zeman at Cagliari and Sinisa Mihajlovic at Sampdoria. In France, the ratio is pretty similar to the EPL with three coaches (7.5%) from the two divisions being from minority groups, one of which being female.

It is clear that the issue does not only exist in the English Football league but also in various other big leagues in European countries. Therefore, it seems coherent and possible to work for increasing the BAME coaching levels in football in England. This thesis is supported by four main pieces of evidence: the huge gap between the representation of BAME football players and BAME managers; the fact that football is better positioned within the sports industries for BAME representation from a player side and even from a coaching side; the fact that the BAME coaching ratio is pretty similar to the average BAME ratio of the overall workforce and much greater than the senior management positions in the public and private markets; finally, the BAME coaching ratio is the best comparing the English football leagues to other leagues from three nations. These supporting ideas above show that there is not only a need for change but that also sports is the right vector to do it. This can be accomplished through an effective diversification process that brings a much more fair distribution of BAME players and coaches.

4) Methodology

The research design is composed out of both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The quantitative method is based mainly on descriptive statistics. The process is structured in three phases: the collection of empirical data, the analysis of the results, and the creation of a general linear model.

In the first phase or input phase, the main objective is the collection of reliable descriptive statistics to discover the main trends and support consistently our final output. The research

43 and the data collection are oriented to underline the exact level of discrimination in football, other sports industries, and other “traditional” industries. Also, BAME ratios from other European league will be considered to better understand the phenomenon.

In the second phase or analysis, the main goal is primarily to analyze and have a complete understanding of the data. Moreover, it will be crucial to look at the trends inside England evaluating the differences between the various industries within the British market. Then, a transversal comparison with the results coming from the other main football leagues (Serie A, Bundesliga, Ligue 1, and La Liga) is necessary. Finally, at this stage we have to merge with an overall judgment to discover the importance of the problem.

In the third phase or output phase, the main task is to create a general linear model which will show the delta from the optimum level of BAME ratio for each country level according to the variable analyzed in the two previous phases. The final equation will be adjusted considering the culture of the country (social development index) and the output of the individual in-depth interviews representing the current perception of the BAME issue in the country. We will use a specific software, QI MACROS 2015, to estimate the elaborate the data collected and to estimate the model.

The qualitative method is built on individual in-depth interviews, with football players, coaches, leagues and academies. The qualitative method that was used generates rich data and allows us to gain a detailed understanding of respondents’ attitudes and experiences. However this method does not cover the statistical data that can be inferred to the wider population.

Each interview was based on the same ten (10) questions, which were presented to our target groups. Our research questions were designed specifically to answer topics about skills and characteristics needed in coaching, hiring process itself and whether candidates were familiar with Rooney Rule and of it potential implementation in European football.

Around twenty (20) people took part in the research. Respondents were selected based on their availability and professional experience in the industry. Respondents were selected to ensure that there was a spread of people in the following categories:

• BAME ethnic groups

• Age 25 and above

• male gender

• higher and lower socio-economic group

• different backgrounds in football

The fieldwork was carried out between March and July 2015.

5) Recommendations

5.1) First Recommendation: The European Rooney Rule

5.1.1) European Context

First thing we have to look at is the European context. Europe is very different from the United States for several reasons and this fact may have big consequences in the mere application or the importation of a rule coming from the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. In effect, Europe is not one country and the differences between the members of the European Union are huge. The countries have different laws, languages and customs while in the US there is only one language and the state laws are not so far and adherent to the superior federal law. Indeed, not only in law, business, finance, humanities or other disciplines but also in sports, it’s hard to find a common solution for all the European Countries without expecting poor results or divergent outcomes. Looking at the football industry, teams must follow the rules imposed by the National Federations and by the National Leagues and they also have to respect the UEFA regulation if they accept to compete in a European completion.

5.1.2) A European Rooney Rule?

As we mentioned in the above paragraph, the difference in history and culture between the European countries is relevant and related to different definitions of minority for each country. For England, Black African, Black Caribbean, Black Other, Indian and Pakistani represent minorities and they are easily recognizable. For countries like Italy and Germany, it’s more difficult to define the minorities and they are often represented by the complementary set of the native population (Italians or Germans). For instance, people from Balkans, Maghreb, and Muslims are considered minorities in these countries. Due to these limitations, the unit of our analysis cannot be the same and an eventual solution has to be adjusted following this cultural disparities.

5.1.3) Analysis

Primarily, our recommendation requires a quantitative analysis to discover the optimum level of tolerance accepted for each country in Europe. Secondly, the next step is the creation of a general linear model that allows determining the “optimum” interview ratio for minorities only in each country in case of open coach positions. The output of the linear regression is a minimum ratio different for each country based on six different statistics and two appraisals: Example of the country X:

A. % current minorities population in the country X- (POPULATION) B. % current minorities football players in the country X- (PLAYERS) C. % current minorities football head coaches in the country X, professional leagues only (FOOTBALL COACHES X) D. % current minorities football head coaches in the other European professional leagues (average)- (FOOTBALL COACHES OTHER COUNTRIES) E. % current minorities head coaches in other sports industries (average) (COACHES OTHER SPORTS) F. % current minorities senior and mid managers in the traditional industries (average)- (TRADITIONAL MANAGERS) G. a SENSIBILITY ratio urgency coming from the qualitative interviews and surveys about the Rooney Rule (PERCEPTION)

H. an URGENCY ratio obtaining from the existing Social Index Indicators (CULTURE)

5.1.4) Variables of the Model

The eight ingredients discussed above are the variables analyzed and the input of the model. Let’s see in detail where those statistics and estimations are coming from. According to their analytical nature, the variables can be classified in three groups: the static ratios, the industries ratios and the appraisals.

Firstly, we have to collect the data that don’t need any ulterior elaboration. We have to collect the three statistics looking at the squad databases of the league of the country X and extract the % of the total current minorities players and coaches in a specific season. Moreover, we have to look at the official public database or official documents to discover the % minorities within the population of the country X.

Secondly, we have to observe the data in some industries. After gathering the data, there is a need to merge them with a weighted or non-weighted average because this option may facilitate the comparison between them. In our case, the inputs of our model in this phase are minority coaches in other European football leagues, like Serie A, Ligue 1 and Bundesliga, the minority coaches in other sports industry in the country X and the top and middle managers operating in the traditional industries in the country X.

Finally, it’s really relevant to introduce in the model a variable part, which considers the perception of the minority issue in sports especially in football and the culture of the country itself. For the perception, the estimations of the results of the surveys and the interviews are pretty subjective and they explain the sensibility of former and current football coaches and players about this topic. So to increase the level of credibility of our analysis, we may manage them with the same criteria and establish a range for the answers. For example, a very negative answer can reduce the optimum ratio of 3%, while a very positive answers, which agrees that there is a clear need for change, can increase the ratio of 3% maximum. Neutral answers should be considered as much as possible around zero to not create

47 distortions in the final output. A little bit more complicated is the appraisal of the urgency for change in the hiring practices of the sports system. In this case we have to look at some important indicators under the cluster of the social progress index and its derivate for the country X. For instance, besides the social progress index we may consider the level of tolerance for immigrants, the discrimination against minorities, the freedom of religion and the freedom of life choices. Finally, the statistics will be merge in a subjective way, which take into consideration the values above. The range for the urgency ratio is from minus 1% to plus 1%.

5.1.5) Formula

Considering the eight ingredients above, we decide to create the model applicable for each country in Europe, which look at the cultural differences.

The “optimum” ratio for reserved interview spots only for minority football coaches in the country X is calculated through the following formula:

OPTIMUM MINORITIES FOOTBALL COACHES interview ratio in the country X = (PLAYERS ratio+ FOOTBALL COACHES X ratio + FOOTBALL C. OTHER COUNTRIES ratio) + C. OTHER SPORTS ratio + (POPULATION ratio+ TRADITIONAL MANAGERS ratio) +/- (SENSIBILITY ratio + URGENCY ratio)

Y= 0.5 (B+C+D) +0.3E+ 0.2(A+F) +/- Z

The variables are grouped in a more logical way in this model, which underlines the different fields of analysis. Also, the weight for each field is not the same due to the importance of the field itself. For example, the three variables strictly related to football should weigh more than the other ones related to other industries or general statistics. That’s also a reason why the sensibility ratio coming from interviews and surveys about the football situation should be considered more important than the urgency ratio coming from general demo-political statistics; the idea is that the micro-environment is more important than the macro-one in this model.

• FOOTBALL VARIABLES: B+C+D -> 0.5 weight

• SPORTS VARIABLE: E -> 0.3 weight

• TRADITIONAL INDUSTRIES AND GENERAL STATISTICS: A+F -> 0.2 weight

• SENSIBILITY RATIO: -3% < G > +3%

• URGENCY RATIO: -1%< H >1%

5.1.6) English Case

Now let’s apply the above model to England. As already mentioned, the unit of analysis is represented by the BAME. Let’s have a look into the single variables to better understand the situation for the season 2014-15, though.

The football variables

• B= around 25%

• C= 7.6% (TOT Professional Leagues )

TOT Professional leagues RATIO 0,076 Ratio Premier League 0,05 Ratio Championship 0,083 Ratio League 1 0,083 Ratio League 2 0,083

• D =3.8%. We decide to use as sample the football professional leagues of three countries: Italy, France and Germany. This percentage considers all the professional leagues only. So, for example, in Germany we consider the Bundesliga, the 2Bundesliga and the 3liga while in France only the first two that considered professional. The ratio is calculated following the specific definition of minorities per each country.

• England: EPL, Championship, League 1, league 2 -> RATIO: 7.6%

• Italy: Seria A, Serie B, Lega Pro -> RATIO: 3.9%

• Germany: Bundesliga, 2Bundesliga, 3Liga -> RATIO: 0%

• France: Ligue 1, Ligue 2 -> RATIO: 7.5% (ALSO ONE WOMAN IS INCLUDE IN THE CALCULATION)

D is calculated making the average of the three values from the other leagues: (3.9%+0%+7.5%)/3

The graph above shows two things:

• England is better positioned than the other country with the highest BAME RATIO

• The scenario has two antipodes: the situation is much worse in Italy and Germany rather than France and England due to historical factors and to the composition of the actual society.

The sports variables

• E= about 3%. Only E can be considered as a sports variable. It includes the amount of the BAME coaches in the other sports industry is about 3%. This value is much lower than the BAME representation level in those sports industries showing a need for hard work to increase and equalize them as much as possible.

The traditional industries variables and general statistics

• A= 14%. Demographic data shows that the level of BAME among the overall population is about 14%.

• F= 6.95%. The value is calculated by doing a simple average of the average value of BAME in the work population (7.9%) and the average value in the senior and middle management positions (6%).

BAME levels in some industries in England:

• Member of the British parliament: 6.6%

• Police workforce: 5.4%

• Senior nurses: 2.3%

• Costruction workforce: 3.1%

The SENSIBILITY and the URGENCY ratios

• G= 0%. The range for this variable is between -3% and +3% depending on the answers of the surveys and the interviews of former and actual coaches and players on a possibile introduction of the Rooney rule in Europe. The results from these semi- structured interviews are very polarized: some are in favor and optimistic about its introduction; others are against or they don’t think it will be the key to solve the problem. Even if the answers are far from the neutrality, they compensate themselves so we assign a final value of 0% to this variable.

Following some relevant players and coaches quotes:

“It can have a good impact if transmitted at social level too: more tolerance, less racism for new generations (football is a sample and an example for the society)” -Javier Zanetti

“I think this will make a difference. I know many young coaches that want to join bigger clubs in Bundesliga but they haven't got a chance for an interview”- German Bundesliga Player

“Don’t think this rule will help the change. But if yes it will have an impact in Premier League and in German league as things like this are taken seriously in these two leagues”- English Premier League Player

“Not much”- German Bundesliga Player

• H= +0.5%. The variable can assume values within the interval -1%<->+1% according to the social progress index and other indicators that underline the understanding and the urgency of the minority issue. These are some useful indicators for a correct, even though subjective appraisal, for UK: they show that there is an urgency and a feasibility for change but not so strong.

Press Freedo Religio m Women Toleranc Discriminat us Index treated e for Tolerance ion and toleran Person (0=mos with immigra for violence ce Social al Toleran t free; respect nts homosexu against (1=low Progre Freedo ce and 100=le (0=low; (0=low; als minorities ; ss m and Inclusio ast 100=hig 100=high (0=low; (0=low; 4=high Index Choice n free) h) ) 100=high) 10=high) ) 84,56 87,47 70,75 16,9 88 77 75 5,0 2

5.1.7) Calculations

Introducing all the variables in the model and weighting them we will obtain the final output which gives us the optimum ratio level of BAME reserved spots in the hiring interviews in case of open football coaching positions.

Y= 0.5 (B+C+D)+0.3E+ 0.2(A+F) +/- Z

-> Y= 0.5(25%+7.6%+3.8%)+0.3 (3%)+ 0.2(14%+6.95%)+(0%+0.5%)= 0.5(36.4%)+0.3(3%)+0.2(20.95%)+0.5%= 23.79%

This means that in England the best choice is to reserve the 23.79% for the interviews of BAME football managers only.

5.1.8) Recommendation 1: Wrap Up

1. Examination and review of recruitment practices to ensure all qualified candidates for a coaching position: an opportunity to be considered fairly. For instance, to eliminate stereotyping assumptions during the selection process (question in the interviews…)

2. Introduction of the new model for the hiring process. It can be considered as an example of affirmative action and also there is no quota or preference in hiring like in the Rooney Rule because we believe that the problem can be solved with simply introduction of a mandatory ratio, specific for each country, for the interview part of the selection process.

3. The introduction of a quota cannot be considered a meritocratic principle but the establishment of achievable goals under the principles of nondiscrimination is a must to establish an equal and meritocratic procedure.

4. For successful implementation of this regulation, we suggest that it be included in the club licensing process for leagues. Licensing support provides the institutional backing for enforcement due to the mandatory nature of compliance to participate in league competition.

5.2) Second Recommendation: Alteration of the Coaching Licensing System and Minority Alliance Groups

5.2.1) Alteration of the Coaching Licensing System

As revealed from our interviews, a lack of role models for younger generations is contributing to current low-level representation of BAME managers in English professional football. It is vital for youth in the same industry to have someone to be an inspiration, and this can be improved through cooperation with the relevant parties to upskill and foster young coaches who are potentially on their way to be role models. These stakeholders can provide suitable networking opportunities with club decision makers, which would help coaching candidates to get into the core of this industry. As mentioned in the Daily Mail article cited earlier in the paper, the coaching academies are taught predominately, if not solely by white coaches. The introduction of minority teachers into the licensing system will break down many psychological barriers that exist for minority candidates.

5.2.2) Proactive Adjustments of the Minority Alliance Groups

In England, the cooperative situation is already set up, as there are relevant stakeholders such as Professional Players’ Association, League Managers Association, the Black and Asian Coaches Association, and the Sports People’s Think Tank, which contributed in launching a provisional Rooney Rule at Football League. By working with these kind of organizations, the leagues or football association can introduce processes aimed at identifying current BAME coaches and players with the potential and aspiration to coach in professional football, including the creation of a ‘ready-list’ of qualified candidates to be used by clubs when recruiting. The “ready list” was developed by the Fritz Pollard Alliance, which advocates for minority representation in the NFL, to promote awareness of the candidates that would be most suitable for open positions. This would be particularly important in the European football market due to the abundance of jobs available from the youth to first team level and everything in between. A proactive initiative driven by the minority alliance association in each European country will provide a boost to new entrants into the coaching market.

5.3.3) Collaboration with External Experts

The introduction of the Rooney Rule in the NFL was not established within the context of internal stakeholders within the league. The ability to allow outside specialists to collaborate in the design of the regulation was a very positive step in the introduction and immediate success of the rule. The market of European football has many well qualified experts in the field of anti-discrimination with the likes of FARE, Kick It Out, and the Sports People’s Think Tank to work with. The successful collaboration with external stakeholders will allow for specialized knowledge to be imparted into the design of the regulation. This knowledge, like that provided by Johnny Cochran Jr and Cyrus Mehri, will create an environment for efficient and effective implementation.

6) Conclusion

As this paper shows, the effects of implicit discrimination are far reaching and spread across various industries. The case of European football is quite fascinating due to the power the sport has to effect change on a broader spectrum. Like when any situation arises within the context of an organization, industry or society, it is important to first understand and recognize that a problem exists before addressing ways to amend it. The industry that is European football has taken many steps to stamp out racism from the sport and has worked with much vigor to do so by asking from external parties for assistance. Much of this support has come in the steps to stamp out overt racism from the game which is a fantastic and necessary first step. This paper was created in order to shine a light on the second problem that faces football, implicit discrimination. Of course, the ability to prove or acknowledge such a situation will be difficult because of the inherent nature of the situation itself. Through this paper, the statistics that are present in European football should illuminate the hidden or latent forms of discrimination that exist. The importance of bringing this situation to the forefront of the decision makers in football is vast in how many of its stakeholders are currently being underrepresented in governance and policy making. The positive effects of increased diversity can be seen in industry outside of sport in top companies like Google and Facebook. The work of scholars, like Scott Page from the University of Michigan, on the effects of diversity offer an insight to the effects that increased diversity has on groups and its application to sport can be an area for further study. Implicit discrimination has been addressed in sport in cases such as the Rooney Rule in the NFL. Yet through this paper, a direct transfer from the NFL to a European football league would not have a complete and thorough effect. The idea is transferable but must fit

55 into the context in which it is to be applied. The addition of the coaching licensing process needs to be addressed when analyzing European football. This process adds many more barriers to minority groups that face implicit discrimination to those that face the same complexities in American sport. This dual-mannered approach will have a more efficient output in effecting change in underrepresentation of minority coaches in football. As mentioned earlier in the paper, the complexity of what constitutes a minority within Europe provides a challenge to completely eradicate implicit discrimination. It is up to individual leagues to internally analyze their country and discriminatory dynamics in order to best implement the recommendations presented in this paper. Our analysis shows that addressing both the hiring process, through the implementation of a Rooney Rule type regulation, and the employment pool, through amending the coaching licensing process, will have a positive influence in creating diversity within the managerial structure of football. From a management perspective, the amendments that we propose will have a direct effect on the HR process within the football industry. The ability to formalize the hiring process through a Rooney Rule type regulation will bring an increased transparency to football, which many of our interview respondents felt was missing when talking about finding coaching positions. The formality created will have a twofold effect. Firstly, it will increase the professional nature of the sporting aspects of clubs. Many clubs are becoming increasingly more commercial, yet the sporting divisions still lack in many business-like aspects, one being hiring. The second effect is that this new transparency will provide a psychological boost for members of minority groups when thinking about what types of professional positions are available to them. When one perceives a fair opportunity, then one will be more likely to put themselves out there to attain that opportunity. It may seem simplistic but the key descriptive words found from our project are chance and opportunity. Implicit discrimination can be loosely defined as a lack of chance and opportunity. The revolving door that is the European football managerial positions limits the chance and opportunity to not only specific people but also often specific groups of people. The recommendations from this paper suggest ways to create a more equitable chance for all stakeholders involved. The current self-regulated process has shown deficiencies that exclude appropriate minority representation. An exclusion to the right to a chance. It is a simple structure that needs to be adjusted. Preparing the entire employment pool with equitable competencies allows for more chances to interview for positions. The chance to interview leads to the chance to coach. The chance to coach leads to the chance to succeed. It is time

56 that the sport of football provides that chance to minority and underrepresented groups that are currently subscribed to the outreaches of the footballing world.

Word count: 19154

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8) Appendix

8.1 Table 4

8.2) Survey 1

Xinxin Cao, a vice president of Atletico CP in the Portuguese Segunda Liga.

Interviewed 26.6.2015

FIFA Masters

What type of professional background does a candidate need to be hired as a coach?

Rank in order:

Coaching Experience Personality Playing experience Academic Experience

Other (please describe below)

Always coaching experience, from which I will know which kind of coach he belongs to, his technical level, if he is familiar with the local football environment and culture, and if his style fits my team; and a 2nd important pt is his personality, and mentality, because coach is anyhow a job to deal with people, he is coach to the players, head of the technical staff, but also employee by the club, communication and different role-play in different situations is very important to him with regards to his stay in the club; playing for example might be a tiny bonus because of his net-work, anyhow football is about network; third I will go for language; all the rest, not important to me at least.

What type of personal characteristics does a candidate need to be hired as a coach? Please explain.

Rank in order:

Personality Leadership Experience Creativity Intelligence

Other (Please describe below)

I cannot answer this Qs without being given a specific situation. But one thing in common for all successful coaches, he must be persistent and strong-hearted. The rest about personality, for me I would choose the candidate based on the specific situation that I have. For example, if I am at the very beginning of a season, and we have a lot of new foreign players just newly arrive, I would go for someone who is very good at motivation and communication, in this case, I don’t need some angry boss, but have to build up the confidence and team-work of the

67 new squad, I need something smooth; but if I am in middle of the season, and I am at very dangerous situation, like relegation, then it is super urgent situation which means I need someone who is super tough, strict. I don’t care about his communication now, the only thing I look for is to win, and only with a tough coach can the loose atmosphere in the team be changed.

What elements of the hiring process for the manager position has changed over the past few years?

Not really, at least in Asian markets and Portugal. Football is a very closed and limited business, full of exclusivity, do not expect new things appear and be popular within short term.

Please name the top 3 characteristics of top directors/chairman of clubs around Europe in your opinion?

• Long-term vision and the related actual practical support • Communication, dedication and sacrifice • Always to learn

How likely is it for a minority coach (non-white) to be hired today?

Not Likely At All Very Likely

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I cannot answer this Q. I actually hired one black coach the past season. You have to tell me which situation, which candidate, I have.

Did that likelihood change in the last years?

Not At All Strongly

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rooney Rule defined:

The rule stated that for all coaching and general manager job openings, a racial minority candidate had to at the very least get an interview.

What is your first impression of this rule?

It makes no difference to practice, at least for my market. Actually in Asian markets I serve, there is very few, or nearly no minority candidates I can have. I do agent business for 6 years, I never receive any minority coach CV or recommendation from my oversea partners or the coach himself. One thing to notice, there is very obvious gap between minority players and whites’ players, even bigger gap after they retire, because always, the whites receive better education, can speak several languages, better in interpersonal skills, etc. All those make minority coaches difficult to break their circle at the bottom or lower level. In football, same for player and coaches, if you want to be successful, u must keep leaving your current circle and level, and breaking into a bigger and better one. If not, u will just spend whole career at low level.

If this rule must be adopted, then I would say it just gives more chances for interviews, but will not change in the employment, simply because they are not as good or suitable as the other one.

How likely would this type of regulation affect social change in European football?

I am only football person, I don’t know about social change. I honestly don’t expect even a bit on that.

Would you like to see it implemented? Please Explain.

I cannot answer this question. Please tell me what are the rights and obligations for clubs based on this rule.

8.3) Survey 2

No permission to authorise the name of respondent

Interviewed 30.5.2015

FIFA Masters

What type of professional background does a candidate need to be hired as a coach?

Rank in order:

Coaching Experience Leadership Experience Academic Experience Playing Experience Business Experience Other (please describe below)

What type of personal characteristics does a candidate need to be hired as a coach? Please explain.

Rank in order:

Experience Intelligence Leadership Personality Creativity Other (Please describe below)

What elements of the hiring process for the manager position has changed over the past few years?

I believe that there are clubs that recruit Managers and clubs that recruit head coaches. Alex Ferguson at Manchester United was definitely in the Manager category. Alex Ferguson had huge levels of control at Manchester United including the final say on player recruitment. At a club like Real Madrid they tend to hire Head coaches rather than Managers and this means that whoever is recruited has to sacrifice certain powers and have to focus mainly on the training of the players. The hierarchy at Real Madrid will go over a head coaches head with regards to player recruitment and they might go against his wishes. The role of a Manager over the years has changed dramatically, many clubs now are global brands and the Manager is the face of that brand. There has been an increase in commercial success in football and huge media deals means that Managers need to be adept at dealing with the

70 media and the pressures that brings. A modern manager needs to also manage players who have huge wealth and have their own representatives. Managers have to be leaders and also have the acumen to deal with the executives at clubs and Chairmen. During the past decades Managers had a much lower workload but today the top managers could be working up to 16 hours a day. The pressures on Managers is huge, football is a cut throat business and only the strongest will survive and thrive. All this means that Clubs will assess how a Manager will affect not only the on the field activities but also the off field side of the job.

Please name the top 3 characteristics of top directors/chairman of clubs around Europe in your opinion?

• Patience • Intelligence • Business acumen

How likely is it for a minority coach (non-white) to be hired today?

Not Likely At All Very Likely

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I cannot answer this Q. I actually hired one black coach the past season. You have to tell me which situation, which candidate, I have.

Did that likelihood change in the last years?

Not At All Strongly

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rooney Rule defined:

The rule stated that for all coaching and general manager job openings, a racial minority candidate had to at the very least get an interview.

What is your first impression of this rule?

As a person of a mixed race background (English and Jamaican) I am a big fan of the Rooney Rule. Let me be clear, I believe that the best candidates should be considered for a role regardless of race but it is also proven that the Rooney Rule allowed talented Black coaches to get employment opportunities they were denied before. I also believe that once more black coaches get roles at football clubs it will inspire other black coaches and give them the belief that if they are good enough the opportunities will be there and race won't be a barrier. The key issue is making sure that black coaches get equal opportunities and for that reason the

Rooney Rule for me has been a huge success.

How likely would this type of regulation affect social change in European football?

I believe it would have a huge impact if clubs such as Real Madrid and Manchester United started having to interview black coaches, it would give talented black coaches a platform to be able to network with the top executives and demonstrate their attributes directly. In the end though Football is a results game and if a black coach gets the best results no one will even care about his race.

Would you like to see it implemented? Please Explain.

I would actively campaign for it to be implemented. I hope FIFA will push this.

8.4) Survey 3

Javier Zanetti, a former player of Internazionale, Banfield, & Argentina

Interviewed 16.3.2015

FIFA Masters

What type of professional background does a candidate need to be hired as a coach?

Rank in order:

Playing Experience Business Experience Academic Experience Coaching Experience

Note: Playing experience is still the key factor. Coaching especially in youth academies is an add value. Both Business and Academic are growing factors at the same level representing two decisive aspects for a candidate to be selected.

What type of personal characteristics does a candidate need to be hired as a coach? Please explain.

Rank in order:

Intelligence Leadership Creativity Personality Experience Other (Please describe below)

Note: Creativity: with Mourinho you would never get bored. There is always something new in the training sessions.

What elements of the hiring process for the manager position has changed over the past few years?

It depends on the strategic plan of the club. For example, big teams are always searching coaches with a great experience, a winning mentality and the ability to live with big personalities.

Please name the top 3 characteristics of top directors/chairman of clubs around Europe in your opinion?

• Belongingness • Credibility • Intelligence of understanding the different moments

How likely is it for a minority coach (non-white) to be hired today?

Not Likely At All Very Likely

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I cannot answer this Q. I actually hired one black coach the past season. You have to tell me which situation, which candidate, I have.

Did that likelihood change in the last years?

Not At All Strongly

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rooney Rule defined:

The rule stated that for all coaching and general manager job openings, a racial minority candidate had to at the very least get an interview.

What is your first impression of this rule?

A very positive impression but the implementation seems not so easy. The culture is the key!

How likely would this type of regulation affect social change in European football?

It can have a good impact if transmitted at social level too: more tolerance, less racism for new generations (football is a sample and an example for the society)

Would you like to see it implemented? Please Explain.

We should let clubs free to choose how to implement it but the rule should be established at league level. Moreover, we all have to believe in it to reach the desired results.

8.5) Survey 4

No permission to authorize the name of respondent

Interviewed 4.7.2015

FIFA Masters

What type of professional background does a candidate need to be hired as a coach?

Rank in order:

Academic Experience Coaching Experience Playing Experience Business Experience Other (please describe below)

The importance of being a coach is to have the ability of being a good teacher above all, the ability to get your philosophy across to the players. The best players never always make the best coaches. In the English game now many coaches are now doing teaching qualifications this also needs to come across into coaches who tutor.

What type of personal characteristics does a candidate need to be hired as a coach? Please explain.

Rank in order:

Leadership Creativity Personality Experience Intelligence Other (Please describe below)

Without a doubt Leadership is very important also the ability to adapt and change very quickly. Coaches need to grasp very early never ceed control to players. Leadership, approachable and honesty crucial ingredients for a young coach.

Why did you decide to become a coach?

I became a coach because I like working with young players and seeing them develop, sadly what has crept into the game is dishonesty amongst parents, scouts, agents and clubs, who suffers are the players and coaches who the majority give of their time freely

When you were taking your licensing course, did you get any help from FA / PFA / BACA / LMA, etc. regarding job possibilities? If yes, what kind? If no, how would you like them to help the course takers to get employed?

No I got no help from the FA only BACA who identified that BME Coaches were not being catered for properly. BACA were the first to adopt a mentoring program and support programs for coaches wanting to take the higher qualifications. Many BME coaches found out about job opportunities after the closing date for applications. The English game suffers from cronyism and mediocre people who sit in powerful jobs. However attitudes are changing with a younger more fairer workforce who operate a “Growth Mindset”

As you can see on the graph below, 19 out of 552 senior coaching positions were occupied by BME (Black and minority ethnicity) coaches in September 2014. Why do you think the number is so low?

It boils down to opportunities and attitudes within the English game. Many qualified BME coaches are not given the opportunity to even apply for these roles. To be honest many professional players are given the qualifications rather than earning them. If the English took the approach as the Dutch where coaches have to work at the lower end of the spectrum working themselves up rather than jumping in at the elite level. Past Pro players want to work in the premier league none of them want to work with junior sides of these clubs. It is harder for BME coaches regardless if they played the game professionally.

The table 1 states that relatively low number of coaching course takers are from minority background. Why do you think the number is so low?

You have to factor in the cost of the courses and many of the BME Coaches are not working within a Professional club who would cover these costs, furthermore if one was to attain these qualifications you would need employment of which many BME coaches don’t get a fair chance of interviews.

*The Football League in England adopted the modified Rooney Rule:

- Introduce mandatory new recruitment practices in Academy football that would make it compulsory for clubs to interview at least one BAME candidate for all youth development roles requiring a minimum of a UEFA B coaching licensee.

What is your first impression of this rule? It’s a good rule adopted from the NFL as they realized the discrepancies with NFL teams of past players and coaches in general moving to the coaching ranks not getting the opportunities at interviews then a chance of a job. I think many teams, owners and fans now see the importance of the Rooney Rule. The Pittsburgh Steelers were instrumental in having the rule implemented in NFL football and the results have been very positive with many minority coaches achieving great things in the game, it has opened up the gates to all people regardless of colour and creed.

How likely would this type of regulation affect social change in European football?

It has to affect social change in Europe and Football because currently the makeup of Europe is not reflected in Football. Not only Football many Fortune 500 companies have to realize that the workforce should be reflected in management and that is currently not the case in European Football and the corporate world things have to change opportunities if legislation is needed so be it. It should not be an option for Football the Rooney Rule has a place in sport not only Football. Do you think this rule should be expand? If yes, to what extent?

As mentioned before yes all sports where people of race are not represented yet they have the qualities to do the job/role they need some form of assistance to go beyond the interview stage, cronyism and the serial loser coach’s syndrome need to end. So many times you see coaches who achieve nothing but move from club to club despite the record of poor success. The Steelers were ahead of the curve when appointing Mike Tomlin as he was nurtured from within the organization but they (The Steelers) took a look at the coaching landscape and admitted the NFL was not doing enough in giving minorities a chance the Rooney Rule has been an overall success.

8.6) Survey 5

Carlo Ancelotti, a former manager of Real Madrid, PSG, Chelsea, AC Milan, & Juventus

Interviewed 11.2.2015

There is more awareness of equal opportunities and as a result greater opportunities.

However, the number of minority coach´s working at the elite level is still low. Whether a coach is from a minority background or the not, the important factor is the quality of the person. The modern coach has to be multi skilled. Clearly he/she has to have knowledge and understanding of the game. But without the ability to plan, organize, communicate, teach, analyze and evaluate, the knowledge can be wasted. A modern coach needs to be patient, humble and open. Always searching for a better way of doing things. He needs to be able to operate on many levels with the fans to mention a few. The coaching market is not truly open because in many situations the Club´s will have already decided who the next coach is when there is already a coach in position. Headhunting for the next coach is common practice. Coach´s in different countries are often a product of the culture, football style and football education that they have developed with. Coaches who have travelled and worked in various countries, or have taken the time to study outside of their own country have a broader knowledge of football styles, tactics, trainings methods and cultures. It is very difficult to say why so few minority players have not become Managers. Perhaps there are not enough role models? Although football violence has declined in big numbers through the hard work of the governments, police and football authorities, unfortunately it is still present in some leagues. The biggest similarities around the decision makers of the European league regarding coach´s and manager´s is that they are less and less patient when the results do not go well. The average tenure of a manager/coach continues to fall. The role is a precarious position. The Rooney Rule is an interesting intervention used by the NFL. My personal opinion is, when a coaching opportunity is available the best candidates for that position should be considered based on their suitability for the role and not where they were born, the color of their skin or their religion.

8.7) Remaining Surveys