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Análisis Documental De Los Efectos Del Estrés En Los Procesos De Aprendizaje Y Memoria, Desde Una Perspectiva Neurocientífica Y Bioquímica

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Análisis Documental De Los Efectos Del Estrés En Los Procesos De Aprendizaje Y Memoria, Desde Una Perspectiva Neurocientífica Y Bioquímica ANÁLISIS DOCUMENTAL DE LOS EFECTOS DEL ESTRÉS EN LOS PROCESOS DE APRENDIZAJE Y MEMORIA, DESDE UNA PERSPECTIVA NEUROCIENTÍFICA Y BIOQUÍMICA SARA VIVIANA BENAVIDES PINZÓN UNIVERSIDAD DISTRITAL FRANCISCO JOSÉ DE CALDAS FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS Y EDUCACIÓN PROYECTO CURRICULAR DE LICENCIATURA EN QUÍMICA BOGOTÁ - 2016 EFECTOS DEL ESTRÉS EN LOS PROCESOS DE APRENDIZAJE Y MEMORIA, DESDE UNA PERSPECTIVA NEUROCIENTÍFICA Y BIOQUÍMICA SARA VIVIANA BENAVIDES PINZÓN DIRECTORA DOCENTE CANDIDATA A PhD. MARÍA LUISA ARAUJO UNIVERSIDAD DISTRITAL FRANCISCO JOSÉ DE CALDAS FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS Y EDUCACIÓN PROYECTO CURRICULAR DE LICENCIATURA EN QUÍMICA BOGOTÁ - 2016 Nota de Aceptación ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ _____________________ Directora: Maria Luisa Araujo ________________________ Jurado 1 A Dios que es la fortaleza de mi vida. A mi Daniel que es el motor que me impulsó a ser mejor. A Papá que desde el cielo me siguió animando. A Mamá que siempre creyó en mí. AGRADECIMIENTOS A Dios gracias por darme la fuerza necesaria para culminar esta etapa del camino, no fue fácil, pero tu amor me sustentó y me llevó a perseverar. A Mi Daniel, porque eres el motivo por el cual cada día quiero ser mejor, para que el día que crezcas yo pueda ser tu mejor ejemplo, gracias hijo por darme fuerza, motivación y una razón para seguir con este proyecto hasta la meta. Haces más tú por mí de lo que yo lograré hacer por ti. A Papá, porque aunque ya no estes y no puedas verme hoy, creías en mi y en que lo lograría. A Mamá gracias, porque nunca perdiste la fé en mí, aunque tropecé muchas veces me apoyaste, me empujaste y sé que anhelabas en tu corazón este día. A la profesora María Luisa, que vio en mí cosas que ni yo veía, por su paciencia y enorme colaboración y guianza en este proyecto y a lo largo de la carrera. Gracias por ser tan humana, tan cercana brindandome un consejo y aliento cuando lo necesitaba y dejarme aprender no sólo de su gran profesionalismo, sino del gran ser humano que es. Tiene toda mi admiración y respeto. A mis hermanos y Amigas, por cada momento de alegría que le inyectan a mi vida, por su apoyo en cada parte del camino y por que también creyeron en mí. ÍNDICE 1. INTRODUCCIÓN………………………………………………………………….............1 2. DEFINICIÓN DEL PROBLEMA…………………………………………………….....…3 3. ANTECEDENTES Y JUSTIFICACIÓN…………………………………………………..5 4. HIPÓTESIS…………………………………………………………………………………8 5. OBJETIVOS………………………………………………………………………………..9 5.1. GENERAL……………………………………………………………………………..9 5.2. ESPECÍFICOS……...…………………………………………………………………9 6. REFERENTES CONCEPTUALES ……………………………………………………....10 6.1. Contexto histórico……………………………………………………………….……10 6.2. Neurociencia, cerebro y conducta……………………………………………………27 7. METODOLOGÍA………………………………………………………………………....42 7.1. Método cualitativo……………………………………………………………………42 7.2. Técnica de investigación ……………………………………………………………..42 7.3. Unidad de análisis…………………………………………………………………….43 7.4. Análisis de categorías ………………………………………………………………..44 7.4.1 Categorías………………………………………………………………………44 7.5. Diseño de instrumentos……………………………………………………………….46 7.5.1 Cuestionario…………………………………………………………………….46 7.6. Tratamiento de Datos………………………………………………………………....46 8. NEUROCIENCIA…………………………………………………………………………47 8.1. Estructura y función del cerebro……………………………………………………..47 8.1.1. Lóbulos de los Hemisferios Cerebrales……………………………………….51 8.2. Tecnologías encargadas del conocimiento de la estructura y función del cerebro…..55 8.2.1. Imagen por Resonancia Magnética……………………………………………55 8.2.2. Resonancia Magnética Funcional (fMRI)……………………………………..55 8.2.3. Imagen por Resonancia Magnética de Difusión (DTI)………………………..56 8.2.4. Escáneres Electroencefalográficos…………………………………………….57 8.2.5. Escáneres PET (tomografías por emisión de positrones)……………………..58 8.2.6. Magnetismo en el cerebro…………………………………………………….59 8.2.7. Escáner electromagnético trans- craneal. (TES)………………………………59 8.2.8. Estimulación Cerebral Profunda (DBS)……………………………………….60 8.2.9. Optogenética.………………………………………………………………….60 8.2.10. El Cerebro Transparente: Clarity…………………………………………...…61 8.2.11. Otros estudios…………………………………………………………………62 8.3. Estructuras cerebrales encargadas proceso de aprendizaje y la memoria………...…63 8.4. Función fundamental de la neurona………………………………………………......67 8.5. Comunicación entre neuronas: Sinápsis……………………………………………...69 8.6. Sinapsis eléctrica y química…………………………………………………………..71 8.7. Modificación de la sinapsis durante la consolidación del aprendizaje……………….73 8.8. Producción de la PLP: Aprendizaje…………………………………………………..77 8.8.1. El mantenimiento y la expresión de la PLP: Almacenamiento y recuerdo……77 8.8.2. Mecanismo Molecular de la PLP………………………………………….......78 8.9. Bases neuronales encargadas de la asociación del estrés…………………………...80 8.10. Formas de percepción…………………………………………………………80 8.11. Neurotransmisores y Conducta………………………………………………..84 8.11.1. La Acetilcolina………………………………………………………………...89 8.11.2. Aminas biogénicas…………………………………………………………….91 8.11.3. Aminoácidos transmisores…………………………………………………….96 8.11.4. ATP Y Adenosina…………………………………………………………….99 8.12. Toma de decisiones y juicios de valor……………………………………...101 8.13. Atención y procesos atencionales…………………………………………...107 8.14. Proceso de solución de problemas…………………………………………...120 9. APRENDIZAJE Y MEMORIA………………………………………………………….123 9.1. Memoria ímplicita………………………………………………………………….126 9.1.1. Memoria y Aprendizaje Implícito…………………………………………...126 9.1.2. Generación de Hábitos en un individuo……………………………………...127 9.1.2.1 Teorías del proceso dual de la habituación y la sensibilización……..…131 9.1.2.2 Características de la habituación y la sensibilización…………………..131 9.1.3. Aprendizaje perceptivo………………………………………………………133 9.1.4. Condicionamiento clásico……………………………………………………135 9.1.5. Condicionamiento instrumental. ……………………………………………139 9.1.5.1 Procedimientos de condicionamiento instrumental………………....….143 9.1.6. Aprendizaje Motor……………………………..…………………………….147 9.2. Memria Explícita…………………………………………………………………...149 9.2.1. Memoria y Aprendizaje Explícito……………………………………………149 9.2.2. Memoria semántica…………………………………………………………..153 9.2.3. Memoria Episódica…………………………………………………………..156 9.2.4. Memoria de Trabajo………………………………………………………….157 9.2.5. Consolidación de la Memoria de corto a largo plazo……………………….159 10. ESTRÉS………………………………………………………………………………….165 10.1 Definición.………………………………………………………………………..165 10.2 Representantes principales del desarrollo del concepto estrés………………...168 10.3 Homeostásis y Alostasis………………………………………………………….171 10.4 Estresores…………………………………………………………………………172 10.5 Fases del Estrés…………………………………………………………………...175 10.6 Hormonas del Estrés……………………………………………………………...176 10.7 Respuesta al Estrés………………………………………………………………..178 10.8 Estrés y Salud……………………………………………………………………..186 10. 9 Estrés y Memoria………………………………………………….……………..190 10.9.1 Hipocampo…………………………………………………………………..191 10.9.2 Amígdala…………………………………………………………………….196 10.9.3 Corteza Prefrontal…………………………………………………………...203 11. CONCLUSIONES……………………………………………………………………….206 12. REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS…………………………………………………...210 13. ANEXOS. RESUMEN En la actualidad el mundo avanza con ímpetu, exigiéndole a las personas cambiar a la misma velocidad, responder a las demandas sociales, profesionales y académicas continuamente; es entendido entonces que toda la acumulación de responsabilidades y eventos cambiantes generan en las personas cuadros de estrés. Este, es entendido desde varias perspectivas, como una situación donde el ser humano se siente incapaz de responder a las eventualidades que se le presentan debido a que no cuenta con lo necesario para hacerlo. El estrés también es considerado como una respuesta biológica adaptativa de los seres humanos ante estímulos que puedan alterar la homeostasis del organismo. A través del presente análisis documental, se determinó como el estrés puede generar interferencia con las actividades de aprendizaje y memoria. Presentando estos procesos una función de U invertida, es decir, bajos o excesivos niveles de estrés afectan considerablemente los procesos de consolidación y recuperación de la memoria. Sin embargo, niveles moderados, los facilitan y optimizan. Se determinó además, que las bases neurológicas del aprendizaje y la memoria, junto con otras habilidades cognitivas como la atención, la percepción, la toma de decisiones etc., se ven drásticamente interferidos por acción de los glucocorticoides circulantes, liberados como una respuesta del estrés. Finalmente se determinó que la exposición continúa agentes estresantes, pueden generar daños progresivos en las áreas de asociación del aprendizaje y la memoria. 1 1. INTRODUCCIÓN. El ser humano es un organismo complejo que fundamenta su estado de equilibrio en una correcta sincronización y conexión funcional de los diferentes sistemas; de manera que tenga la capacidad de interactuar con un entorno en constante cambio. Uno de los principales métodos internos de comunicación que se presenta entre sistemas, órganos, tejidos y células, se realiza a través de mensajeros químicos que actúan como señalizadores y coordinadores de las necesidades y las posteriores respuestas, con el único fin, de mantener la homeostasis del organismo. Pero, el mundo contemporáneo exige niveles de rendimiento mental y físico superiores, generando un sentimiento generalizado de estrés constante; Investigadores pioneros en el estrés, consideran que independientemente de su condición física o espiritual, ningún ser humano puede vivir sin experimentar algún grado de estrés. En la actualidad, la palabra estrés es ampliamente usada con diversos
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