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In Sri Lanka ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) ISSN 0974-7893 (Print) A.A Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 April 2015 | 7(5): 7111–7130 Article Article Human-crocodile conflict and conservation implications of Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Sri Lanka ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) ISSN 0974-7893 (Print) A.A. Thasun Amarasinghe 1, Majintha B. Madawala 2, D.M.S. Suranjan Karunarathna 3, 4 5 6 S. Charlie Manolis , Anslem de Silva & Ralf Sommerlad OPEN ACCESS 1 Research Center for Climate Change, University of Indonesia, Gd. PAU Lt. 8.5, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia 2 South Australian Herpetology Group, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia 3 Nature Explorations & Education Team, No. B-1/G-6, De Soysapura Housing Scheme, Moratuwa 10400, Sri Lanka 4 Wildlife Management International, PO Box 530, Karama, NT 0813, Australia 5 No. 15/1, Dolosbage Road, Gampola, Sri Lanka 6 Crocodile Conservation Services Europe, RoedelheimerLandstrasse 42, Frankfurt 60487, Germany 1 [email protected] (corresponding author), 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected], 4 [email protected], 5 [email protected], 6 [email protected] Abstract: Human-wildlife conflict occurs when human requirements encroach on those of wildlife populations, with potential costs to both humans and wild animals. As top predators in most inland waters, crocodilians are involved in human-wildlife conflicts in many countries. Here we present findings of a 5-year survey on human-crocodile conflict on the island of Sri Lanka and relate the results to improving management practices. We aimed to quantify and understand the causes of human-crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka, and propose solutions to mitigate it. Visual encounter surveys were carried out to estimate the population size of Saltwater Crocodiles. We recorded 778 sightings of Saltwater Crocodiles at 262 of 400 locations surveyed, and estimate the total population to comprise more than 2000 non-hatchlings and to have increased at an average rate of 5% p.a. since 1978. We propose four crocodile vigilance zones within the wet zone and one crocodile vigilance zone within the dry zone of the country. Specific threats to Saltwater Crocodiles identified in crocodile vigilance zones were: habitat destruction and loss; illegal killing and harvesting (17 killings out of fear, ~200 incidents of killing for meat and skins, ~800 eggs annually for consumption); unplanned translocations; and, interaction with urbanization (10 incidents of crocodiles being run over by trains/vehicles and electrocution). Additionally, 33 cases of crocodile attacks on humans were recorded [8 fatal, 25 non- fatal (minor to grievous injuries)] and more than 50 incidents of attacks on farm and pet animals. Keywords: habitat loss, hunting, road kills, policy and planning, translocation, crocodile vigilance zones Crocodylus porosus Saltwater Crocodile NOT DATA NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT LEAST VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o4159.7111-30 Editor: B.C. Choudhury [Retd.], Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. Date of publication: 26 April 2015 (online & print) Manuscript details: Ms # o4159 | Received 26 September 2014 | Final received 26 February 2015 | Finally accepted 27 March 2015 Citation: Amarasinghe, A.A.T., M.B. Madawala, D.M.S.S. Karunarathna, S.C. Manolis, A. de Silva & R. Sommerlad (2015). Human-crocodile conflict and conserva- tion implications of Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Sri Lanka. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(5): 7111–7130; http:// dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o4159.7111-30 Copyright: © Amarasinghe et al. 2015. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, repro- duction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. Funding: Self funding of AATA, MBM, and DMSSK Competing Interest: The authors declare no competing interests. For Author Details, Author Contributionand Acknowledgements see end of this article 7111 Human-crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka Amarasinghe et al. INTRODUCTION without conflict with humans. In reality the species has received “paper protection” (Whitaker 2004), with Human-wildlife conflict is a growing issue worldwide the responsible wildlife authority, the Department (Woodroffe et al. 2005) and crocodilians are one of the of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), handling crocodile major groups involved (Lamarque et al. 2009). Sri Lanka issues without sufficient bio-geographical, taxonomic, is a relatively small island of approximately 65,500km2, behavioural or ecological understanding of the species. but home to large populations of crocodiles and other Some management measures, such as the translocation large wild animals (e.g., elephants, leopards, sloth of ‘problem’ crocodiles, have ended with critical bears, etc.), as well as humans. The human population arguments, media debates, and dead or disappeared density in Sri Lanka’s biologically richest wet zone crocodiles. (southwest), is one of the highest on earth (Cincotta et This publication aims at quantifying and al. 2000), and is growing more rapidly around protected understanding the causes of HCC in Sri Lanka, and areas (Wittemyer et al. 2008) and in developing coastal proposes solutions to mitigate it. We also provide new cities such as Colombo, Negombo, Galle, Matara, and insights into the social and biological context in which Hambantota. As a result, human-crocodile conflict crocodile conservation and management programs (HCC) is increasing. could operate in Sri Lanka. Two allopatric species of crocodiles occur in Sri Lanka; the Mugger Crocodile, Crocodylus palustris Lesson, 1831, and the Saltwater or Estuarine Crocodile, Crocodylus MATERIALS AND METHODS porosus Schneider, 1801 (Deraniyagala 1939). The Saltwater Crocodile is the largest living reptile on Earth; Between January 2008 and December 2012 we it can grow up to 6–7 m (Webb et al. 1978; Whitaker visited 400 locations within Gampaha, Colombo, & Whitaker 2008; Erickson et al. 2012). Like other Kalutara, Galle and Matara Districts in the ‘wet zone’ of crocodilians it is an opportunistic feeder, using active the country (Image 1), including beaches from Negombo hunting or ‘sit and wait’ strategies (Cooper & Jenkins on the west coast to Matara on the south coast. We 1993), and the frequency of different prey items varies divided specific survey areas in the wet zone into four significantly with habitat and body size (Taylor 1979; regions (Images 2–5). Systematic surveys in the dry Webb & Manolis 1989). Although telemetry studies are zone could not be carried out due to civil unrest, but increasing our knowledge of movement patterns and some sightings of Saltwater Crocodiles were recorded extent of home ranges for Saltwater Crocodiles (e.g., during general visits to some parts of the area. Webb & Messel 1978; Kay 2004; Read et al. 2007; Brien Spotlight and daytime surveys were carried out from et al. 2008; Campbell et al. 2013, 2014; Hanson et al. boats in rivers, lagoons and other large water bodies, 2014), which can assist management efforts, there is still and we supplemented these counts with other personal a paucity of information for most range states for the observations (both day and night) along small streams species, including Sri Lanka. and canals, marshes, and other small water bodies. We Saltwater Crocodiles are distributed in a wide variety approached crocodiles that were sighted, as close as of saline and freshwater habitats, including rivers and possible to confirm the species and to estimate their creeks, coastlines, coastal flood plains, lagoons, swamps, size. All spotlight survey sightings were recorded as river and canal outfalls (e.g., see Webb & Manolis 1989; “eyes only”. Letnic & Connors 2006). Although popularly referred to Each region was surveyed during different time as ‘salties’ in Sri Lanka, a high proportion of the Saltwater periods (January 2008–March 2009; April 2009–June Crocodile population exists in freshwater habitats in the 2010; July 2010–September 2011; and October 2011– western and southern parts of the country (e.g., Nilwala, December 2012). In all, approximately 500 kilometers Bentota, Kelani, Maha Oya; de Silva 2013), including were surveyed during the 5-year period, representing Colombo, the capital (Devapriya 2004; Jayawardene around 75% of the available habitat for Saltwater 2004; Porej 2004; Samarasinghe 2014). Crocodiles. Under Sri Lankan legislation the Saltwater Crocodile We also examined several Saltwater Crocodiles that is listed as ‘endangered’ (MOE 2012). In the 1970s, had been captured by villagers, unknown groups and Whitaker & Whitaker (1977, 1979), urged the Sri wildlife authorities. We photographed color patterns Lankan Government to establish a sanctuary in which on the flanks and tails of these animals, and other Saltwater Crocodiles would be protected and could live characteristics (e.g., body size, amputations) were 7112 Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 April 2015 | 7(5): 7111–7130 Human-crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka Amarasinghe et al. Image 1. Study area showing the habitat and human population density noted for future identification. These crocodiles were parks. After translocation, we attempted to ascertain translocated by the wildlife authorities to national the fate of the animals through direct observation
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