FALL 2018

HARVARD REVIEW OF LATIN AMERICA AND ASIA

MUSICLATIN AMERICA AND ASIA EDITOR’S LETTER BY JUNE CAROLYN ERLICK

South-South

I stumbled into when I was eleven or twelve. O-lan led me. I was intrigued by VOLUME XVIII NO.1 her quiet strength, her small stature and big unbound feet. A voracious reader, I couldn’t David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies put Pearl Buck’s The Good Earth down. I had never heard tales like the ones told of this silently courageous woman in rural prerevolutionary China, a woman who led Director Brian Farrell her husband and family to landed prosperity. Many of the themes the book touched— although I didn’t know it at the time—were those that would occupy me during my Executive Director Andrew Elrick entire life: poverty, gender relations, women’s rights, urban migration, revolution, war and peace, human trafficking, and of course, love, life and death. ReVista As a journalist and editor and just plain human being, I’ve thought about these Editor-in-Chief issues on another continent—Latin America. I lived in a Dominican neighborhood in June Carolyn Erlick New York and perhaps it was inevitable that my Spanish-speaking neighbors would lead Copy Editor me down a path of reality that was stronger than the still vivid call of the fictional O-lan. Anita Safran In the late 1960s, the two continents came together in the guise of my neighborhood Publication Interns restaurants, La Nueva Victoria and La Caridad, on Manhattan’s Upper West Side, Isaac Ochoa Sylvie Stoloff delicious and cheap eateries set up by Chinese-Cuban exiles (Katherine López writes about such restaurants in this issue on p. 40). It was my first inkling that the two Design Jane Simon Design continents were connected by large diasporas. Later I was to discover that these diasporas extended to migrants from other parts of Asia, especially and Korea. Printer P+R Publications In the process of putting together this special issue on Asia and Latin America, I’ve discovered so many other relationships, ranging from earthquake threats shared by Contact Us 1730 Cambridge Street Japan and Chile to trade relations, cultural exchanges and infrastructure goals. When I Cambridge, MA 02138 read Ernesto Londoño’s recent piece in describing a US$50 million Telephone: 617-495-5428 satellite and space mission control center built by the Chinese military in Argentina’s Subscriptions, Back Copies and Comments Patagonia desert, the development seemed light years away from the rural world of [email protected] O-lan or even my favorite Chinese-Cuban eateries. But thinking of the article and the Website Chinese imaginary of The Good Earth in context gave new meaning to the somewhat revista.drclas.harvard.edu clichéd description of the relationship between Asia and Latin America as South-South. Facebook It’s not just about geography: it’s about history. ReVista, the Harvard Review of Latin America Just as Pearl Buck looked upon O-lan from her perspective as the daughter of a white Copyright © 2018 by the President and U.S. missionary to China, we see the evolving relationships between the two continents Fellows of Harvard College. through the prisms of our own experiences. This ReVista includes Asian, U.S. and Latin ISSN 1541—1443 American scholars looking at each other’s worlds; it includes many co-authored pieces ReVista is printed on recycled stock. that bridge the two continents. As in almost every ReVista, we’ve tried to build bridges between art and business, the humanities and science, the current and the historical. Dear reader, read on. But before you do, I want to say thanks to those who have contributed to keep ReVista going, and especially to the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism class of ‘70, which funded our 2017 Best of ReVista photography contest (see the winners on p. 110 ). ReVista belongs to all of you readers and contributors; remember to keep your addresses updated and your suggestion and donations coming. p.s. Your editor knows Asia is a huge continent and that some areas of Asia are not represented in this issue as thoroughly as we’d hoped. We look forward to more Asia collaborations in the future! HARVARD REVIEW OF LATIN AMERICA

FALL 2018 VOLUME XVIII NO. 1

Published by the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies Harvard University

Photos clockwise: Site of Hitoshi Sanada, 1955/ Londrina –PR (IMS) by Haruo Ohara; Cuban and Chinese flags displayed at El Moro fort in February 2018 during Cuban international book fair honoring China as guest country by Kathleen López; Burning incense to welcome the return of their ancestors’ spirits by Yuan Wang.

CROSS CURRENTS LATIN AMERICA AND ASIA K-dramas Flow into Latin America By James A. Dettleff 82 FIRST TAKES How to Think Globally By Andrea Bachner 84 Bridging Asia and Latin America By Karen Thornber 2 Living Between Distant Shores From Extraction to Construction By Cynthia A. Sanborn 4 By Manuel Azuaje-Alamo 87 What Connects Two Worlds Apart? By Guo Jie 8 Shared Sentiments Inspire New Cultural Centers By Yuan Wang and Theodore Macdonald 90 THE DIASPORAS Telluric Connections, Bodies in Transit The Migrant Photography of Haruo Ohara By Rosario Hubert 12 By Ana Paula Kojima Hirano 94 Growing up Chinese in Uruguay By Michael Chu 18 Transoceanic Traveling Trash Japanese By Mary Jo McConahay 25 By Ilana Boltvinik and Rodrigo Viñas (TRES) 98 From Vendedor to Fashion Designer By Kyeyoung Park 27 Revisiting Circles and Circuits By Alexandra Chang 30 BOOK TALK Nikkei Latin America By Millie Creighton 34 Understanding Social Protections The Japanese Brazilian Community By Regina Matsue and Rafael Shoji 37 By Lorena Barberia 102 Fried Rice and Plátanos By Kathleen López 40 Guatemalan Youth as Citizens in Waiting One Day We Arrived in Japan By Aaron Litvin 44 By Martha C. Franco 104 Contemporary Human Rights TRADE TIES AND BEYOND and Latin America By Theodore Macdonald 105 Development in Northeast Asia By Víctor López Villafañe 48 Filling the Infrastructure Gap By Margaret Myers 50 BUILDING BRIDGES New Pirates in the Caribbean? By Horacio J. Godoy 53 Energy Innovation Ecosystems in Rural Mexico Chinese Development Finance and By Francisco Acuña et al 108 the Andean Amazon Infrastructure Boom By Rebecca Ray 56 Waves of Asian Investments in By Mario Henrique Ogasavara 60 Best of ReVista 2017-18 110 Made in China 2025 By Renato Balderrama and Amado Trejo 63 Understanding the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative By Rosario Santa Gadea 66 China and Latin America Relations By Gilmar Masiero 70 A Commercial Hit That’s a Product of Censorship By Patricia Castro Obando 72 Dragon Mart Cancún By Emiliano Valle 75 China- Relations By Matt Ferchen 77 ON THE COVER

Map illustration ISTOCK.COM OSTAPENKOOLENA

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Bridging Asia and Latin America China’s (Belt and) Road-blocks in Latin America By KAREN THORNBER

ACADEMICS, JOURNALISTS AND POPULAR and its focus on three African hip-hop Africa and India, Japan and China; authors are writing more and more in artists striving to forge careers in their new Infrastructure, Trade and Industry; recent years on the interconnections home, humanized many of the complex Migration and Economic Opportunity; between Asia and Latin America. Asia dynamics between Asia and other regions Trading and Industrial Diaspora; and specialists, Latin America specialists discussed earlier in the day. It also provided Migration, Trade and Health in the and an impressively increasing number context for other immigrant communities in Africa-Asian Relationship; and Africa of individuals who have expertise in China, including those from Latin America. and Asia: The Way Forward. These both regions are focusing on varied We reconfigured the Harvard Africa and panels, and in particular the discussions types of interconnections: diplomacy, China Program as the Harvard Africa-Asia throughout the conference on the lessons military engagement, and security; trade, Initiative in the spring of 2016, recognizing Africa and Asia can learn from one investment, and other economic networks; environmental degradation and social conflict; knowledge transfer, cultural Although unlike with Africa, Asia’s known ties interactions and transculturations. They with Latin America date back centuries, not are also exploring the many facets of the migrations and diasporas that have led millennia, the early success of the Harvard Africa- to today’s longstanding populations of Asia Initiative suggests just how fruitful a similar Asians of Latin American descent and Latin Americans of Asian descent, as well collaboration between the Asia-related centers and as to today’s steady movement of peoples the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American between the two regions, despite their great geographic distance. Studies could be. For scholars of Asia, the growing attention to Asia-Latin America inter- that African communities have been another, made even more apparent the connections reinforces the importance of interacting with their counterparts from fundamental importance of examining thinking not only across borders within across Asia for millennia, with China Asia’s relationships with other parts of the Asia (the primary mission of Harvard’s becoming a major presence on the African world, including Latin America. Asia Center, which I direct) but also about continent only relatively recently. Joining The Harvard Africa-Asia Initiative has Asia in transnational and transregional the Asia Center, the Center for African sponsored a variety of other activities, global perspective. The Asia Center has Studies, the Fairbank Center, and East including a roundtable on “Shared already done important work in this area. Asian Legal Studies at Harvard Law Challenges, Shared Opportunities: Most notably, in 2015, it partnered with School in this venture were the Korea Healthcare Delivery in Africa and Asia” the Center for African Studies, as well as Institute, Lakshmi Mittal South Asia in fall 2017. This roundtable will serve as the Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies Institute, and Reischauer Institute of a springboard for a major international and East Asian Legal Studies at Harvard Japanese Studies. In November 2017, conference in Johannesburg in March 2019 Law School, to create the Harvard Africa at the Harvard Center , the focusing on Africa-Asia interconnections and China Program. Colleagues organized Center for African Studies, with the as these related to global and public an inaugural workshop on Africa-China support of Harvard’s ten Asia-related health. Here too, we also must examine interconnections, held at Harvard in centers/programs, spearheaded a two-day the analagous connections between Asia September 2015 and featuring panels on conference on Africa and Asia: “Africa- and Latin America. Business and Economics, Law and Politics, Asia Connections: Bridging Past, Present, Although unlike with Africa, Asia’s Global Medicine and Public Health, and and Future.” Bringing together a diverse known ties with Latin America date back Population and Migration. The workshop array of participants from around the centuries, not millennia, the early success of closed with a screening of China Remix. world representing academia and both the Harvard Africa-Asia Initiative suggests This award-winning film on African the public and private spheres, this event just how fruitful a similar collaboration immigrants living in Guangzhou, China, featured panels on Relations between between the Asia-related centers and

2 ReVista FALL 2018 ARTWORK OPPOSITE PAGE BY JORGE MIYAGUI OSENKO: KINTUCHA & LOS ANCESTROS: HTTP://WWW.JORGEMIYAGUI.COM FIRST TAKES

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the David Rockefeller Center for Latin Asia-Latin America interconnections that Harvard Asia Center Council, and American Studies could be. It is my hope have already received considerable attention Professor of East Asian Languages and that this issue of ReVista, featuring an array and of shedding light on aspects of these Civilizations and of Comparative of articles by some of the most prominent relationships that heretofore have been Literature at Harvard. She has names working on Asia-Latin America relatively neglected, creating new knowledge published widely on East Asian interconnections, will inspire colleagues and greater understanding as well as policy literatures and cultures, the literatures working on Asia and those working on proposals that would benefit both regions. and cultures of the Indian Ocean Rim, Latin America at Harvard and far beyond comparative and world literature, to seek out one another and create new Karen Thornber is Victor and postcolonialism, and the environmental collaborations, with the ultimate aims both William Fung Director of the Harvard and medical humanities. of providing deeper insights into aspects of University Asia Center, Chair of the [email protected]

From Extraction to Construction Some Reflections on China in Latin America By CYNTHIA A. SANBORN

I BEGAN TO STUDY CHINA IN LATIN AMERICA increased more than 200 percent, with in 2008, quite by accident. While working Japan and other Asian China replacing the as a as a research professor in , I was leading trade partner, the leading market invited by the Andean office of Oxfam countries have also had for what we produce, and a major source to prepare an exploratory report on impact in the region, of foreign direct investment, in traditional the overseas record of some Chinese commodities and new infrastructure. companies that were starting to invest but China stands out Politically, more countries in the region in mining in this region. Although I had now for the weight of its have switched diplomatic allegiance done work on Western transnational from Taiwan to Beijing, and most of firms in this sector, trying to track and presence, the magnitude our leaders are unwilling to comment understand their Chinese peers was a new of its ambitions, and publicly on China’s authoritarianism and challenge, given the distance and language human rights violations. While the Trump barriers. My first effort was published in the expectations it has Administration in the United States shows Spanish by the Universidad del Pacífico raised. increasing hostility to Latin America, Press in 2009, and to my surprise it sold China stresses the need to empower out quickly. Apparently, quite a few policy. Holding just eight percent of the developing countries and promote South- people in Latin America—like me—did world’s population, Latin America was South cooperation—and the discourse of not know much about what China was considered very far from China and very our leaders is much the same. doing here but were keen to find out. much in the “backyard” of the United In this context, understanding the Ten years and numerous publications States. For most of us Latin Americans relations between China and Latin later, I believe that the presence of China as well, China was a distant source of America is essential to understanding is one of the most significant changes in immigrants (voluntary or forced), arroz our own prospects for development in Latin America and the Caribbean in the chaufa and wonton soup, or Maoist the years ahead. After two decades of last quarter century. Japan and other political ideology, but not a country one accelerated relations, a small but growing Asian countries have also had impact in hoped to visit or do business with. number of academics are asking what the the region, but China stands out now for In a very short time, all of that has balance is so far—whether engagement the weight of its presence, the magnitude changed. The most recent period of with China is deepening our dependency of its ambitions, and the expectations it economic growth in our region was driven on primary exports or diversifying our has raised. in large part by our commodity exports options, and how Chinese firms, banks This was not historically the case. to China, accompanied in some cases by and embassies operate on the ground. For many years, Latin America was bilateral trade agreements. Since then, Such questions are complicated by the marginal to China’s economy and foreign Latin American trade with China has challenges of understanding the Chinese

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The presence of China is one of the most significant changes in Latin America and the Caribbean in the last quarter century. perspective. There are still few Latin American experts on contemporary China, While the Trump Administration in the United and few Chinese colleagues with expertise States shows increasing hostility to Latin America, on Latin America who do fieldwork in the region and engage with us as peers. Yet China stresses the need to empower developing Chinese authorities today are determined countries and promote South-South cooperation— to change this, by training more people in Latin American studies and promoting and the discourse of our leaders is much the same. academic and cultural exchanges. Some the extractive industries, and in activities of the new voices from China on Latin fewer jobs than total exports from this with high environmental risk and high America, and vice versa, are included in region. Furthermore, Latin American levels of social conflict. Latin America’s this special issue of ReVista. exports to China use more water and exports to China, and China’s investments emit more greenhouse gas emissions per CHINA IN LATIN AMERICA: in this region, have been more concentrated dollar of output than our total exports. TAKING STOCK in primary commodities than have Latin And both the investments in large-scale America’s economic relations with the rest What have we found so far? First of mining and in infrastructure funded by of the world. all, our work with Kevin Gallagher and China today, represent serious risks for In terms of social impact, Latin Rebecca Ray at Boston University and deforestation and degradation in some America’s primary exports—especially colleagues from eight centers across Latin of the most biologically diverse parts of minerals—generate less employment America has shown the impact of China’s South America. Although these outcomes than, for example, commercial agriculture, huge demand for natural resources. This are not the direct responsibility of China, manufacturing or services. As a result, has indeed led to greater concentration in they do put to test its commitment to being exports to China also produce significantly a socially responsible global superpower,

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China’s companies are an important part of its global power. one that is concerned with the sustainable prior consultation for indigenous and development of its Southern allies. In such cases, Chinese native peoples, as well as in requiring Considerable diversity exists among environmental impact assessments and Chinese companies operating in our loans have been a monitoring firm compliance through region, even when most are formally curse, not a blessing, environmental ministries or specialized state-owned enterprises, recent research agencies. Most Latin American countries has demonstrated. Some are national facilitating fiscal also require foreign investors to contract champions, with considerable access to irresponsibility and national workers, respect trade union capital and a stated commitment to the rights, and share profits in lucrative highest standards for corporate social reinforcing both their industries such as mining and oil. responsibility. Others have little experience economies’ dependency Latin American countries have made outside of China, face difficulties operating advances in fiscal and tax transparency, in distinct societies, and lack internal on oil and their rulers’ participating in the Extractive Industries policies to mitigate the impacts of their capacity to repress Transparency Initiative (EITI) and other activities. Many do not undertake adequate frameworks. Chinese companies, with a risk analysis before deciding to invest dissent. few exceptions, are complying with the overseas, resulting in projects that can norms established by Latin American be stymied by local protest, government investment in Latin America, ignoring authorities—as long as our government bureaucracy or corruption. other warning signs. Chinese embassy officials insist on it. Because China’s companies are an staff themselves may be too new in the And therein lies the catch. As China’s important part of its global power, state region, or too busy with other tasks, to interests in Latin America expand agencies have developed guidelines for do the kind of monitoring on the ground from extraction into construction, its their overseas operations, as well as for that their counterparts from the United banks have increasingly emerged as an the banks that finance them. Yet Chinese States, Canada or the are alternative source of finance for major authorities do not often have the capacity accustomed to doing. infrastructure projects, ones that our to monitor their firms overseas, or assure Of course, the most important step in governments eagerly pursue in the compliance with local norms in diverse regulating the performance of companies interests of improving connectivity and locations. As my own research in Peru has of any origin is the will and capacity of economic diversification. Yet this has also demonstrated, from Beijing headquarters the host governments. In much of Latin promoted investments with high social there may be a tendency to assume that America, our environmental, social and and environmental risks, including some government-to-government agreements, labor norms are more stringent than that other investors did not want to touch, or encouraging words from el Presidente, those in China. We have made progress in what some observers fear will involve are all that is necessary for a successful in legislating ILO 169, the right to reversal of hard-won standards. And

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the countries with the largest amount of Chinese debt so far—Venezuela, In Latin America we have many non-governmental Ecuador—do not have governments inclined to uphold such standards and organizations that defend the rights of vulnerable invest in the long term benefit of their communities and foment supervision of the populations. In such cases, Chinese loans have been a curse, not a blessing, extractive and construction activities promoted by facilitating fiscal irresponsibility and governments. reinforcing both their economies’ dependency on oil and their rulers’ the Peruvian Amazon, action by human policy need to be reevaluated in the face capacity to repress dissent. rights lawyers and local courts postponed of such concerns. Official Chinese foreign policy initiation of a new Hydrovía Amazónica, The Chinese state, its firms and its doctrine includes the principle of Non- an unprecedented river-dredging project, banks are not immune to these pressures. Intervention in the domestic affairs of in order to undertake a formal process of Grassroots organizations, professionally- allied countries. Hence China enters consultation of indigenous peoples along staffed NGOs, independent media into agreement with all types of regimes, the route. While the project received an and other actors not only protest, but including pariah states such as Sudan initial green light, indigenous leaders and also collaborate with democratically and Myanmar, as well as the Venezuela their allies continue to monitor how the elected authorities in order to maintain of Maduro and Nicaragua of Ortega. But project will affect river flows and adjacent safeguards that can prevent or mitigate all loans have conditions. As with most ecosystems. Both projects involve Chinese negative impacts. Both civic vigilance investors, the Chinese prefer projects investors. and constructive collaboration are without competitive bidding, or where The initially popular Nicaragua Canal, essential to resisting pressures to erode their firms are the preferred candidates. a mega-project awarded by the Ortega hard-won social and environmental Their banks seek to finance Chinese government to a Chinese billionaire, protections. companies, with Chinese suppliers and was grounded after combined action In the years ahead, all of us— workers. As with other superpowers, by local peasants, conservationists, academics especially—should increase Chinese companies are being encouraged the Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences, our efforts to understand our Chinese by their government to gain global and international rights organizations peers, their institutions and motives. experience and competitiveness, as part including Amnesty International. Indeed, As with all of our foreign relations, we of overall state policy that positions that protests around this project were among must ensure that these activities not only country for the long term. the triggers of wider discontent with the protect our sovereignty, but also uphold Given this situation, the role of Ortega administration. the rights Latin American citizens have civil society and the media is crucial. Nowhere has the role of local and struggled to win, improve the quality of In Latin America we have many non- transnational civil society been as notable life for all of our peoples, and protect the governmental organizations that defend as in Brazil, where natural scientists environment for the generations to come. the rights of vulnerable communities and economists, indigenous activists, and foment supervision of the extractive Catholic missionaries and conservation Cynthia Sanborn is Vice President for and construction activities promoted by organizations have mobilized concern Research and a Professor of Political governments. Courageous investigative about their government’s ambitions to Science at the Universidad del Pací- journalists document the efforts of further open the Amazon with dozens fico in , Peru. She has held the social and environmental activists, and of new dams and hydropower projects. William Henry Bloomberg Chair at worldwide campaigns are organized These include a proposal to build 49 Harvard University and is a member of against bad practices, creating major dams on the Tapajos River and the DRCLAS Regional Office Advisory consciousness and helping to defend truly its tributaries, which would not only Group. She has dual Peruvian and U.S. global standards in these industries. increase power generation but also citizenship and has lived and worked in In Peru, for example, combined facilitate the transport of meat and soy Latin America for over 30 years. action by local farmers and ronderos, for export to China, and hence accelerate international human rights and the deforestation that has accompanied Hernan Manrique, a sociologist and conservation activists, led to the halting such activity. Last year these efforts research assistant at the Centro de of the controversial Rio Blanco copper resulted in a temporary suspension of Investigación de la Universidad del project, which would create a large one of the dams by Brazil’s environmental Pacífico (CIUP), provided valuable open pit mine in a sensitive cloud forest agency, and more recently the Temer insights for this article based on his own area on the Peru-Ecuador border. In administration declared that hydropower experience in the Amazon.

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What Connects Two Worlds Apart? Trans-Pacific Relations between East Asia and Latin America By GUO JIE

FOR MUCH OF MY ACADEMIC mostly between 1847 career, I’d focused on the and 1874, the first time faraway lands of Europe. large groups of Chinese But then, about eight people arrived there. years ago, I acted on an Four other waves of impulse to expand my immigration ensued, research horizons to the with mainly free even farther away lands of immigrants arriving on Latin America. This move Latin American shores received great support between 1890 and from my home School 1930. Another wave of International Studies followed from 1949 at Peking University.I to 1950, mostly made went through a period of up of either senior intensive Spanish language The economic trade between Japan and Latin America is the main pillar of its Kuomintang officials or relationship. training and then read of those who sought to broadly about the region. open their own businesses. In the 1960s are far apart, it seems that innate curiosity My understanding gradually broadened and 1970s, more migrants came from always drives inquiries into foreign people further through communication with , Taiwan and South East Asia. and objects—but it is never easy to build colleagues and friends from Latin The background of new immigrants after mutual, in-depth understanding of each America. After 2013, I ventured to visit late 1970s was relatively diverse, with other. Even time and space are working more than twelve countries in the region some choosing to make Latin America against us; winter and summer, day and and with each trip, my curiosity grew their new home, while others were bent night are both diametrical opposites in East stronger. on reimmigrating to places such as North Asia and Latin America. While relations I began to notice how different Latin America (United States, Canada) and between the two regions are growing ever America was from Europe. While in Europe. The largest numbers of overseas closer, I want to take a retrospective look Europe diversity is highly concentrated in Chinese are concentrated in South and into that process of getting close to each small spaces, the opposite is true in Latin Central American countries, such as other from the beginning. America, where a strong sense of identity Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Panama, Research indicates that China and among different groups prevails even when Argentina, Costa Rica and Surinam. Most Latin America did not have direct people might seem quite similar to outside of these migrants are engaged in business, interactions in the written history before observers like me. The staggering income software, manufacturing, construction, modern times. The real contact began at inequality, complex ethnic relations, the service sector and the resource the beginning of the 16th century, after changing political culture, tortuous industry. Christopher Columbus discovered the economic development, profound social While people-to-people exchanges New World and Vasco da Gama opened transformations and broken historical have a long history, the establishment a new route to Asia. At this point, the processes all left a deep impression on of the People’s Republic of China in main transport channel between Europe me. Of course, there are also outstanding 1949 is a turning point for official and and China shifted from land to sea. works in humanities and arts, as well as academic exchanges. Post-1949 China- Relations between China and America fascinating geographical formations and Latin America relations can be divided began to slowly emerge through trade— changing natural landscapes. into three periods, the first between 1949 with Manila as a hub. Later, in the 19th For a scholar from East Asia, exploring and 1970. China’s initial interest in Latin century, and more specifically between Latin America is relatively a rare opportunity America was driven by a shared affiliation 1800 and 1874, a large number of Chinese given to the physical distance and cultural with third world liberation movements. contract laborers went to Latin America. differences which limit contacts between After 1959, the situation changed. On Hundreds of thousands of these migrants our two regions. Even when two worlds January 1, 1959, the Cuban revolution moved to the region during this period,

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succeeded; in September, China issued and inclusive growth. Nowadays, “Latin Japan’s investment in Latin America a joint communique with Cuba on the American Fever” and “China Fever” expanded to iron ore, soybeans, copper, establishment of bilateral diplomatic seem to be on the rise. Any combination petroleum, aluminum, pulp and paper relations, Cuba becoming the first Latin of topics related to “ China-Latin and other exports. Japanese loans were American country to do so with the New America”—from trade to politics, society, also crucial to its relations with the China. In the context of the Cold War and diplomacy, history and humanities—has region. However, the Latin American the aftermath of the Sino-Soviet split, a not surprisingly become pivotal for both economy experienced turmoil in the struggle for leadership of the international parties as they seek to jointly develop 1980s, and Japan experienced stagnation communist movement emerged and tighter bilateral relations. in the last decade of the 20th century, China began paying special attention to Like China, the two other major prompting a decline in both Japanese Latin America. East Asian economies, Japan and South imports and direct investment. Although After the 1970s, more Latin American Korea, are increasingly developing Japan and Latin America gradually grew countries established diplomatic relations connections to Latin America based on apart economically, a new “encounter” with China, prompting a need for greater their own historical background and took place at that time. Like the first mutual understanding. Overall, this first current needs. Japan’s first “encounter” “encounter,” it was also driven by the flow period of bilateral relations was shaped with Latin America was triggered by of people, but in the opposite direction. by historical (Cold War) and ideological immigration—the flow of people broke To address increasingly serious labor (revolutionary) factors. The second geographical barriers. The earliest record shortage caused by declining fertility period of official relations was between of Japanese immigrants arriving in and aging population, the Japanese the 1970s and the late 20th century. In Latin America dates from 1893, when government amended its immigration these decades, the international system 132 Japanese plantation workers moved laws, allowing overseas-born Japanese to went through substantial political, from Hawaii to Guatemala to work on obtain long-term residence permits. Many economic and social changes. China and coffee and sugar plantations. As Japan migrants from Latin America returned to Latin America were experiencing reform confronted a shortage of land for its Japan, with the number reaching around and development at the same time. Most workers at the time, it began to encourage 300,000 at its peak. Chinese scholars focused on resolving immigration to Latin America. The first History shows that Latin America practical problems and they paid most government-supported wave of migrants has often provided solutions to Japan’s attention to Latin America’s opening up went to Mexico in 1897. Two years later, domestic problems. Of course, this and economic adjustment, comparing it Peru received its first batch of Japanese relationship is also equally important to with China’s post-1978 reforms. Other immigrants. In the early 20th century, Latin America since Japan has played a topics that attracted their interest included Japan sent another batch to Brazil, dual role in providing labor and capital Latin America’s development strategy, attracted by its coffee boom. Statistics while importing products and natural paths and models, as well as social justice show that nearly 190,000 Japanese resources from the region. Japan’s movements, democratization, political migrants came to Brazil between 1908 economic recovery in recent years and and ideological changes. and 1941. This trend was interrupted the overall stabilization of economic The 21st century can be viewed as during World War II but restarted shortly development in Latin America, as well the third period of China-Latin America after and continued until the 1960s when as its growing importance in global relations. Globalization and market Japan’s economy entered a period of rapid value chains, have contributed to a new forces, somewhat surprisingly, have tightly growth. strengthening of bilateral economic bound China and Latin America from two Meanwhile, the economic relationship relations. Japan has become an observer different ends of the world. Economic between Japan and Latin America of the Pacific Alliance, a regional trading interdependence and cooperation has became the main pillar of their relations. bloc aiming at forging stronger economic reached unprecedented levels. China has Japan began to import large amounts ties with the Asia-Pacific region, and already become Latin America’s most of energy, minerals, industrial raw signed Economic Partnership Agreements important Asian trading partner, and it is materials, as well as cotton, coffee and with three of the Alliance’s four member actively promoting the integration of the other agricultural products. This rapid countries (Mexico, Chile and Peru). Belt and Road Initiative and the region’s increase of imports was accompanied Nevertheless, as Japan’s economic development strategy. In recent years, by direct Japanese investment in Latin structure has evolved from manufacturing with the acceleration of China’s economic America. During the 1960s and 1970s, to global supply chain management, and social transformation, the country more than a quarter of Japan’s overseas its demand for natural resources and has started paying closer attention to case investment went to the region, mainly imports of large-scale production has studies from Latin America on issues such towards the heavy equipment industry. substantially decreased; hence, Latin as the middle-income trap, urbanization After the oil crisis broke out in the 1970s, American countries mostly position

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themselves as attractive destinations religion, family and social connections by Hyundai and Kia. South Korea’s for Japanese investment at present. In are also important factors. In addition investment in Brazil is mainly market- Brazil and Mexico, the top two Latin to immigration, two other factors have seeking. Investments in Mexico are American economies, the amount of direct attracted South Korea’s attention towards driven by its proximity to the United investment from Japan is much higher Latin America. The first stemmed from States, contributing to global value than that of China and South Korea. concern about South Korea’s domestic chain cooperation. Unlike with Brazil Compared to China and Japan, South politics—many of its scholars researched and Mexico, South Korea’s engagement Korea engaged with Latin America democratization processes in Latin with Peru is mostly focused on energy rather late. In the early 1960s, because America. They used the replacement of and mining. of its limited land and a lack of natural military regimes with democracies as Thus, immigration and economic resources, the South Korean government an insightful point of reference. Until cooperation have long been two main began to encourage immigration to now, South Korea’s Latin American pillars of East Asian relations with Latin Latin America; the intended purpose of scholars demonstrate a high degree of America, and will continue to play an this policy was primarily to target land concern exists about issues related to important role in the future. Meanwhile, development on the continent. In 1962, Latin American political development. with continuing globalization and the South Korea implemented the overseas The second factor relates to the Korean deepening of mutual exchange, the ties emigration law, with the first 103 Korean business community; Latin America between the two regions will inevitably migrants setting off to Brazil. Many of is both a key exporter of raw materials expand from the flow of people, goods them were urban middle-class, including and a lucrative and rapidly developing and capital to other areas, influencing businessmen, military officers and export market. Since the 1990s, bilateral politics, culture and historical processes doctors. From then until 1968, before the trade volumes have grown tremendously. at large. While the Pacific Ocean will Brazilian government banned agricultural Similar to the trade framework between always separate East Asia and Latin immigrants, four waves of Koreans China and Latin America, South Korea’s America, our peoples are growing closer. went to Brazil. Argentina was another commerce also primarily involves imports Former Chilean President Michelle destination for agricultural immigrants. of commodities, including iron ore, energy Bachelet once shared a childhood fantasy, In October 1965, 78 Korean immigrants resources and agricultural products, stating that if Chileans keep digging arrived in Buenos Aires. Between 1970 while exporting manufactured products. down in the ground, they will eventually and 1977, about 200 more Korean Most of its exports are vehicles and auto reach China. For a long time, geography families moved to Argentina. Many of parts, followed by electrical machinery, has prompted us to see each other merely these migrants aimed to develop land mechanical appliances, optical and as exotic, mythical and magical places. but they were unsuccessful in both Brazil medical equipment, steel and others. To However, reality is sometimes only one and Argentina. They lacked experience, further facilitate trade and ensure a steady step away from magic. East Asia and funds, agricultural knowledge, as well supply of natural resources, South Korea Latin America are still far away, yet closer as necessary skills and facilities. Local has signed Free Trade Agreements (FTA) than ever before and I believe that there production conditions were different and with Chile, Peru and Colombia since are more wonderful exchanges to come the new countries’ agricultural policies 2004, and concluded FTA negotiations between us in the future. were unstable. Faced with failure in the with six Central American countries countryside, most agricultural migrants (Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Guo Jie is an associate professor with then settled in urban areas. Rica, Panama and Guatemala) in 2016. the School of International Studies at the Korean migrants who came to Latin South Korea’s direct investment Peking University, China. America after the 1980s were mostly (FDI) in Latin America has increased Email: [email protected]; investors, mainly concentrated in the significantly in the past 30 years, and [email protected] fields of retail and wholesale clothing now accounts for more than one-tenth production. At present, about 100,000 of its total FDI in the world. Most Special thanks are due to Professor Korean migrants live in Latin America, investment was in the manufacturing Nobuaki Hamaguchi (Kobe University) around half of them in Brazil with other and mining industries, with Brazil, and Professor Chong-Sup Kim (Seoul relatively large communities in Argentina, Mexico and Peru as the main National University) for sharing infor- Mexico, Guatemala and Paraguay. destinations. At present, electronics is mation on Japan and South Korea in The overall number of these migrants a key area of South Korean investment our forthcoming book (Cutting the Dis- remains stable, but their mobility within in Latin America, with Samsung and LG tance: Benefits and Tensions from the Latin America is high. Such movements the two major investors. Most recently, Recent Active Engagement of China, are mostly driven by economic or direct investment in the automotive Japan, and Korea in Latin America, business incentives, but cultural values, industry has also grown rapidly, led Springer, 2018/2019)

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THE DIASPORAS

Rosario Hubert The Migrant Photography of Haruo Ohara • Michael Chu Growing Up Chinese in Uruguay Mary Jo McConahay Japanese Peruvians • Kyeyoung Park From Vendedor to Fashion Designer • Alexandra Chang Revisiting Circles and Circuits • Millie Creighton Nikkei Latin America • Regina Matsue and Rafael Shoji The Japanese Brazilian Community • Kathleen López Fried Rice and Plátanos • Aaron Litvin One Day We Arrived in Japan

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The Migrant Photography of Haruo Ohara An Artist of the Floating World By ROSARIO HUBERT

JAPANESE BEGAN MIGRATING TO BRAZIL 110 America, and the Brazilian intervention decade later and in a new setting, they years ago, becoming probably the most of a Nipponese printmaking tradition. In posed way more intricate questions about prosperous minority group in Latin order to commemorate those people who mobility, migration and displacement America and certainly the largest Nikkei left Japan a hundred years before, the in the present. Were these photographs community in the globe. In 2008, media, cultural center decided to honor how their actually coming back home, as many academia, art, education—basically every art also migrated and flourished in Brazil. critics wittingly observed because one of Brazilian cultural outlet—paid homage This was Haruo Ohara’s (1909-1999) the venues was Ohara’s hometown, Kochi? to the centenary of this immigration major solo exhibition. Arriving in Brazil Did the exhibition, subtitled now as “Light with cultural events that have marked in 1927, he recorded with striking poetry of Brazil, Scenes of Family,” indeed suggest an artistic legacy, beyond the economic the lives of a pioneering generation of new forms of nation building in the contributions for which this community migrants in the developing south. His Americas? Were these photographs about is well known. black and white prints reveal coffee Brazil and Japan or rather about global Among the featured events was the laborers at work, the changing productive labor migrations in general? triple exhibition “Japan: Floating Worlds” landscape, family portraits, still lives and In order to explore further connotations (Japão: Mundos Flutuantes) at São Paulo’s abstractions in the Japanese colonies in of the term “floating,” a concept from the SESI gallery, which displayed three of the state of Parana. Although he always social sciences offers new insights into the the unusual Japan-related collections of remained a farmer, Ohara developed a migrant photography of Haruo Ohara. Instituto Moreira Salles (IMS). The show hobby for photography thanks to the Foto Seen from Japan, these photographs included a selection of ukiyo-e woodblock Club Bandeirante of São Paulo and the rich speak of “floating populations,” that prints and from the Edo Period influx of specialized publications imported is, groups of people who reside in a (1603-1868), Haruo Ohara’s mid-century from the archipelago. The masterful use of given community for a certain amount of photographs of agricultural settlements light, meticulous geometry and poignant time and for various reasons but are not in southeast Brazil and engravings by humanistic gaze of his images reveal generally considered part of the official Paulista contemporary artist Madalena the extraordinary genius of an amateur census count. In this view, the sitters no Hashimoto. The title of the exhibit derived artist silently in dialogue with modern longer appear as settlers, but as passersby. directly from the translation of ukiyo-e photography. His personal archive, Migration, the photographs now seemed ( ) “picture[s] of the floating donated also in 2008 to IMS, is considered to suggest, is not a one-time event but a world,” a phrase that evokes the frivolous to be one of the most valuable—though continuous buoyant state. and sensual ambience of geishas, kabuki scarcely studied—photographic collections theatre and the red-light districts of in Brazil. PASTORAL DREAMS AND TRAVEL Tokyo depicted in these prints so loved by BANS European fin-de-siècle painters. HARUO OHARA BACK IN JAPAN Haruo Ohara’s photographs suggest However, the curators of the show were I was fortunate to view these photo- smooth assimilation. We see agrarian clearly thinking beyond this conventional graphs in the outskirts of Osaka in June tools, farmers at work and rest, family meaning when they gathered such diverse 2016. Together with a gatherings and children at play. The wild artists under this rubric, and pushed the catalogue and a substantial marketing Atlantic forest in the background slowly notion of “floating” from “superficial” campaign, IMS reproduced “Haruo mutates into rectilinear labyrinths of coffee to “movable,” “continually drifting or Ohara: Fotografias” in a yearlong itinerant trees and exotic flora: cherries, plums, changing position,” and “unstable.” The exhibition in an almost identical format persimmons and pears as well as orchids, art forms in question were in fact three to the 2008 one. However, when lotus, chrysanthemums and wisteria color iterations of displaced Japanese art, either displayed in the antipodes these images the black and white prints with their novel in the form of an orientalist aesthetic in that have become icons of Japanese textures and shapes. This is a lush land vogue in the West (Japonism); the work diaspora in Brazil were suddenly stripped cultivated by amicable settlers closely in of a photographer transplanted to South of their commemorative tone. Almost a touch with their native culture: kids study

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Kid with jackfruit c.1950/Chácara Arara, Londrina – PR (IMS). Criança com jaca, c.1950/Chácara Arara, Londrina – PR

kanji, teens perform kabuki and adults Londrina airport runway, and after 1952 play the shamisen. It is a detached space These pictures are pastoral scenes are set in the properties of of harmony, fertility and abundance that more poetical than the Sanada, Tomita and other neighbors. conveys the bucolic bliss of pastoral scenes. Like most Japanese nationals, the Oharas As I strolled through the Itami documentary because were subject to Getúlio Vargas’ policies of Museum galleries wallpapered in kana they do not simply containment of “enemy alien” populations scripts, the Portuguese captions beside during the war years. Suspected of being the frames became my only curatorial register the immigrant’s Axis spies, immigrants had their assets guides. Suddenly the dates and locations assimilation process but frozen, their travel was regulated and they in the cutlines glared and cast a whole were not allowed to display their foreign new light on these photographs. The rather unfold his desire culture. The Oharas were bought out of majority of these pastoral scenes are set to inhabit a new land. their property in Colónia Ikku and had to in the Ohara family farm, Chácara Arara, relocate to the city of Londrina, giving up during the 1940s. A family portrait dated the Arara farm would be expropriated the land they had acquired and nurtured in 1949 tells us through the caption that to give way to the construction of the with a lifetime effort. It is striking thus

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HARUO OHARA IN JAPAN

With the goal of bringing his work to the Japanese audience, Instituto Moreira Salles’ exhibition “Photographer Haruo Ohara - Light of Brazil, Scenes of a Family” was on view at the Kochi Prefectural Art Museum, Itami City Museum of Art and Kiyosato Museum of Photographic Arts from April to December 2016. The exhibit showed almost 400 works; among them objects, documents, tools, albums, videos and original prints as well as a Japanese language catalogue. An abridged version of the collection was in view at the Photo History Museum at Fujifilm Square in Tokyo from October to December 2017 and at the Kobe Center of Overseas Migration and Cultural Interaction from February 17 until May 6, 2018.

that this series of photographs date from was well aware of the ongoing tensions around this, in June 1990, the Japanese the most xenophobic period of Japanese between his people and the Estado Novo, government introduced new legal category life in Brazil but all they convey is an the “New State” or Vargas era. Therefore, for Nikkeijin Nikkeijin ( ) to refer illusion of a tropical Arcadia untouched he made a deliberate choice to step away to overseas Japanese emigrants and their by its stormy surroundings. from the immediate present and reshape descendants. It provided a long-term Perhaps because I write this amidst it in his craft. These pictures are more resident visa status with few restrictions a political climate where phrases such poetical than documentary because they on their economic activities. As a result, as “travel ban,” “deportation” or “threat do not simply register the immigrant’s a large number of Nikkeijin from Latin to national security” have become so assimilation process but rather unfold his American countries entered Japan to commonplace that I cannot help thinking desire to inhabit a new land. The pastoral, work as unskilled, temporary workers. of this dark episode in global migrations understood here as a rhetoric of rural More than 310,000 Brazilian Nikkeijin when I read the critical dates of these migration, is a testimony of the power of and their families currently reside in peaceful pictures. In fact, it was the art to stay afloat in turbulent times. Japan, constituting one of largest group Immigration Act of 1924 which banned the of foreign citizens (after Korean, Chinese MODEL NIKKEIJINS entry of Japanese nationals to the United and Filipinos). While children occupy a preeminent States, that diverted emigrant vessels Yet, smooth integration is far from a role in this collection, the Japanese south and made the figures soar: while promise. Derogatively labeled exhibition had them as its true Japanese arrivals at the port of Santos ( ) which roughly translates as protagonists. Whimsical kids swarm were 11, 350 between 1921 and 1925, they “working away from home,” Brazilian through the prints: whether posing or escalated to 59,564 between 1926 and Nikkeijins are subject to discrimination captured spontaneously, they run in flocks, 1930, and peaked at 72,661 between 1931 for their difficulty with the language and camouflage in tree branches and plunge and 1935. But fears of the “yellow peril” their Latin ways. Some locals scorn them into heaps of fruit. Fertility works here as spread south too: Brazil capped Japanese as the descendants of social dropouts who a trope of the land as well as the people. entries in 1934 and suspended them emigrated because they were giving up on When displayed in one of the most rapidly altogether from 1942 to 1951. Even if this Japanese society, whereas others perceive aging countries of the world, these images was a reciprocal state-sponsored scheme them more as objects of pity because they of fecundity gain new overtones. between an Asian nation with excessive were forced into emigrating by unfortunate To address the increased labor labor force and a South American one circumstances beyond their control. shortages of its demographic dilemma, in want of it, migration waves fluctuated So, how do Haruo Ohara’s pastoral the Japanese government has slowly within and beyond borders for a long time. scenes play against this backdrop? The turned to immigration, albeit in very But perhaps what renders the artistic dates speak again. Because the Parana small numbers and largely without brilliance of Haruo Ohara’s pastoral scenes photographs date mainly from the 1940s, public debate. In a society that retains a is the capacity of photography to displace they portray the end of a phase where strong perception of ethnic and cultural images out of their original context. As an immigrants were based in very “Japanese” homogeneity, immigration remains accomplished community leader, Ohara cultural enclaves that guaranteed a resoundingly unpopular. To work

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Clockwise: Haruo’s friend Suminozo’s daughter, 1949/Londrina-PR; Filha de Sumizono, amigo de Haruo, 1949/Londrina–PR; Haruo Ohara at the exhibit.

smooth return to Japan after the war. The more than any other group, Japanese- reminder to the adamant Japanese public surrender changed homecoming plans, Brazilians distinguished themselves for opinion of the cultural continuity between and along the postwar wave of urban their professional achievements and Nikkeijin and Japanese nationals? By migration, many of them resettled in educational levels. no means I imply that this exhibit is cities like Londrina, Curitiba or São Paulo. How ironic is it then that what have a pedagogical maneuver of cultural Like other immigrant groups, subsequent become model immigrants in the Americas diplomacy, where governments invest generations married out of the community, are now perceived as second-class citizens in art to harness popular perceptions educated bilingual children and blended in their ethnic homelands? To what extent (the Brazilian Embassy did assist with in the local scene. However, probably “Haruo Ohara’s: Fotografias” works as a the sponsorship of the exhibitions,

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Clockwise: Self-Portrait: A Pause for Lunch, Kô and Haruo, c.1940/Chácara Arara, Londrina–PR (IMS). Autorretrato–Pausa para o almoço, Kô e Haruo, c.1940/Chácara Arara, Londrina-PR.

Going to harvest coffee in the morning, 1940/Chácara Arara–PR (IMS).De manhã, indo a colher café, 1940/Chácara Arara–PR.

Site of Hitoshi Sanada, 1955/Londrina–PR (IMS) .Sítio de Hitoshi Sanada, 1955/Londrina-PR

Opposite page: Children at Chácara Arara, C. 1950/Londrina–PR (IMS).Criançasna Chácara Arara, C. 1950/Londrina–PR

although I would have to do further Rather, I would like to research to argue for a larger claim of Rosario Hubert is Assistant Professor stress how vehemently state intervention). Rather, I would like of Spanish and Portuguese at Trinity to stress how vehemently a change of College (CT). She is working on a book a change of locale can locale can emancipate a work of art from manuscript entitled Disorientations: emancipate a work of its original sphere of interpretation and Latin American Fictions of China, grant it with a whole new set of meanings art from its original and writes extensively about travel, from the new context. Unlike the artist geography and translation. Many of sphere of interpretation in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel who had given her research trips to Brazil during her and grant it with up ukiyo-e for propaganda Ph.D. years at Harvard were funded art and was thus trapped between by DRCLAS, where she was Graduate a whole new set of generations of Japanese who found his Student Associate in 2013-2014. meanings from the new work utterly opaque when detached from its original space of enunciation, We thank the Instituto Moreira Salles context. Haruo Ohara’s work gains density as (IMS) for the generous use of their it floats between latitudes and epochs. images.

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Growing up Chinese in Uruguay By MICHAEL CHU

WHEN THE DUTCH LINER S.S. BOISSEVAN DOCKED in the port of Montevideo in March 1953, it brought my family all the way from Hong Kong to settle in Uruguay. There were eight of us, my father and mother, her sister and my maternal grandmother, and my siblings Anna (11), Alejandro (9), Lina (almost 8) and I, three months short of my fifth birthday. Four other Chinese families had also made the journey with us and as we disembarked, we may well have established the single-day record

We ended up with immigration visas from Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. My father’s bank arranged for the local manager of Pan American Airways (then the premier world airline) to come home to show us promotional films of all three countries. for Chinese immigration to Uruguay, as I don’t think the Chinese community, then or later, ever exceeded 300, counting men, women and children. Anna, Alejandro, Michael and Lina (from left to right) with their parents in front of their home Amidst three million Uruguayans, in Pocitos, Montevideo. that made us a minority of 0.01%. All of us there that day were in one way or of Chinese, preceded decades earlier by world-class textile mill. During the war another a consequence of the victory economic migrants in search of a better life. with Japan, it was the only modern textile of the Communists in China four years Like in the United States, they came from mill outside of enemy hands. When the earlier. The heads of our families had Guangdong province, spoke Cantonese war concluded, my father was elected to been in business or professionals or held and established Chinese restaurants and represent the province in the National public office (or all three, as in the case of laundries. Assembly. Nominally, he belonged to the my father) and were part of an educated, In China, my father was a textile Kuomintang, the party of Generalissimo sophisticated urban class that, in addition engineer and entrepreneur who went to Chiang Kai-shek, but in the National to their local dialect, were fluent in Yunnan province, where my siblings and Assembly, my father was very involved Mandarin. We were the second wave I were born, to establish a brand new in the efforts to curtail his dictatorial

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powers. With the civil war against the room, my parents saw the Switzerland of good everything tasted. Every morning Communists raging, my father also helped the Americas: a wealthy country with a we would rush to the breakfast table, found a social-democratic alternative led thriving middle class, a clean and orderly help ourselves to slices of freshly-baked, by university professors and intellectuals modern city by the sea, with well-fed, sparkling-white bread on which we laid that was ruthlessly eliminated by Chiang’s well-dressed people, schools, hospitals thick slabs of butter as if it were cheese secret police. My father ended up being and universities, endless grasslands and washed everything down with huge arrested and tortured. With my mother cups of café con leche. working tirelessly behind the scenes Naturally, school was a priority, but our and with the help of my father’s closest Spanish was fairly non-existent. My sister friends, an escape right out of Hollywood Anna and my aunt Theresa (close in age), was engineered and my family landed in who had learned some English in Hong Hong Kong. Kong, were admitted into The British With the Communists victorious School and the younger children into the and the retreat of Chiang to Taiwan, the Deutsche Schule. My mother informed National Assembly was “temporarily” the German headmaster with trepidation, relocated to the island. As if his detention “I’m afraid my children speak no Spanish.” had never happened, my father was invited “My dear lady,” he replied. “Why should to move to Taiwan to once again occupy that be a problem? What is a school for if his seat as the last elected representative not to teach?” The school had two shifts, of Yunnan province “until elections could one in the morning and another in the be held once again.” My father had no afternoon, where the same lessons were intention of being part of this charade. taught to a different set of students. With At the same time, the new Communist great insight, the headmaster had us government, hungry for professionals attending both shifts. with technical expertise, was also inviting When you acquire a language in your Author Michael Chu as he entered my father to return. But he felt China Dartmouth College. childhood, it becomes so natural that it’s was on a path that ultimately would not difficult to remember that you actually be to his liking. This left my parents in had to learn it. I have no memory of a conundrum: neither my father nor my The kindness of my becoming fluent in Spanish but I do recall mother wanted to raise us in a British friend came naturally, that when we moved into our first home in Crown Colony. Montevideo, a boy who lived a block away The natural default was the United without a trace of self- and was three or four years older would States, where so many Chinese went after drop by after school and we would walk the “fall of China.” The U.S. consulate consciousness, and his around the neighborhood. We couldn’t in Hong Kong granted visas to the openness and warmth really talk to each other, so I would point immediate family but balked at including to an object and he would say its name my grandmother and aunt. My parents were characteristic of in Spanish, and I would repeat it, and were not about to leave them behind and the general reception my we would do this through all our walk. I so the possibility of Latin America arose. thought this was great fun and he must For my parents, it must have been as far family got in Uruguay. have too, as he did this daily until one day away as they could imagine from war and we were chatting. China. We ended up with immigration stocked with sheep and cattle, flush with The kindness of my friend came visas from Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. gold reserves from wool and beef exports naturally, without a trace of self- My father’s bank arranged for the local during World War II and now the Korean consciousness, and his openness and manager of Pan American Airways (then War, and a fresh World Cup, its second, warmth were characteristic of the general the premier world airline) to come home won in a final against host Brazil in Rio’s reception my family got in Uruguay. to show us promotional films of all three Maracaná Stadium. Looking back, and especially today when countries. Brazil was still under Getúlio Arriving in late summer, I remember immigrants spark such a mixed response Vargas, who had been a dictator and was our first days in Montevideo as full of in the United States, I’ve wondered what in the midst of an embattled presidency. sunshine and open air. Coming from made possible our easy acceptance by the Argentina was ruled by strong man Perón. Hong Kong, where food supply was still Uruguayans. And then, in the flickering black and basic and milk was stretched with water, One important reason, I think, was white images on the screen in our living my siblings and I couldn’t believe how that we arrived at the tail-end of the

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golden age of Uruguay. In was universal, discourse was the early years of the 20th eminently courteous, passion century, led by a remarkable and animosity were confined and visionary president, José to the football stadium and Battle y Ordoñez, Uruguay crime was petty and low. In became the first welfare nation an environment with plenty in the world, with many of the for all, the natural response characteristics that we associate was to welcome newcomers. today with Scandinavia. Battle y Indeed, Uruguay’s population Ordoñez expressly defined the was shaped by large waves of role of the state as safeguarding immigration. the welfare of the people. By First came the Spaniards 1915, ahead of the United in the days of conquest who, States, Uruguay had established unlike in Peru and Mexico, an eight-hour workday, a encountered primitive nomadic minimum wage for agricultural warrior tribes and ended workers, one day of rest a week, exterminating or pushing them workmen’s compensation in into neighboring countries. In the event of job injury and the late 1700s and early 1800s, retirement pensions. Education African slaves were introduced was made compulsory, free but, ranching never needing and secular. There was a the extensive labor demanded free health system, with the by plantations, their numbers government actively seeking were small. In the latter half to enroll the less affluent. of the 19th century, modern Divorce was legalized in 1907 Uruguay was defined by large and in 1913, women could numbers of Spanish and later demand it on their own. The Italian immigrants, together 1917 constitution enshrined the with a smaller but influential separation of church and state Michael Chu’s father and mother on the SS.Boissevan en route to contingent from Great Britain. and established proportional Montevideo (1953) This made Uruguayan society representation and secret trade. Like other nations, Uruguay was white, as white as any European nation balloting. Women suffrage became law in deeply impacted. But two factors allowed in the 1950s. Accordingly, what made the 1932, 12 years before and 39 years Uruguay to recover and to keep its Chinese stand out in Uruguay was not that ahead of Switzerland. prosperity going into the 1950s. The first we were immigrants, but that we were Behind all this was the wealth was World War II (and later the Korean Asian. For much of our childhood, my generated by a country that was world- War), which once again demanded wool siblings and I were often the first Orientals class in the production of items in high and beef. The second was a national policy Uruguayans had seen. Occasionally, people demand around the globe which at that of import substitution that gave rise to an would stop us just to wonder. Once, on the time included wool and beef, during a industrial sector. principal downtown avenue of Montevideo, period of great freedom of trade. With When we arrived, Uruguayans had my brother and I were asked if we were sheep and cattle ranching requiring few the open and cheerful disposition of twins, despite our five years difference. I of hands and a population that was only people who for decades could take for course replied, “Yes!” slowly inching towards three million, granted peace and universal access to At school, when we first arrived, kids in in a country five times the size of the all the basics of life and civilization. For the playground would come up to us and Netherlands and 80% larger than South sure, there were wealthy Uruguayans stretch the corner of their eyes upwards Korea, in 1930 the GDP per capita of but, in terms of the daily necessities, and say “chinito, chinito,” (the diminutive Uruguay ($4,301) was ahead of the the difference between them and their of “chino” or Chinese.) My brother would average GDP per capita ($4,297) of the fellow citizens was one of sophistication get angry but I would laugh and push the twelve leading European economies. rather than need. Accordingly, Uruguayan corners of my eyes towards my nose and Then the Great Depression, with its society in the 1950s was characterized by say “uruguayito, uruguayito.” Instead of cycles of retaliatory protectionism, led high social capital, where citizens felt spiteful or bullying, I remember these to a precipitous shrinking of global equal regardless of income, education incidents as quite innocent. Perhaps an

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ornithologist would have seen little chicks prancing about marking territory. In fact, being Chinese and a minority of 0.01% proved to be quite a social advantage. It rendered my siblings and I into rare commodities and, in those pre-internet days where the world was not just a click away, our classmates (and their families) were quite intrigued with us. When we made our entrance into our schools, we were, in today’s terms, “cool.” Kids approached us to talk, they asked us for playdates, they invited us to their birthday parties. This gave us the opportunity to interact and the space for relationships to form so that by the time our novelty wore off, we had established real relationships. Growing up, my siblings and I never lacked friends and we still remain in touch with many of them to this day. When she was about twelve, influenced by her friends, my sister Lina announced Michael Chu (second row, fifth from left) at the The British School, in Preparatory she wanted to become a Catholic. While (pre-First Grade). my father never showed any religious leanings, my mother was a fervent Buddhist. Yet, since was not a It rendered my siblings and I into rare commodities monotheistic religion, my mother was very and, in those pre-internet days where the world supportive, telling Lina that all religions led to God. My brand new Catholic sister was not just a click away, our classmates (and their then worked on me to take cathechesis families) were quite intrigued with us. lessons at the same convent that had taught her, feasible because nuns could to drive, she took us around in her little we would be woken up with glasses of teach boys as long as they wore short Morris Minor pick-up during Carnival, milk straight from the cows. Then, we pants and at 10 years old, I still did, the with the back loaded with friends and would ride out with my godfather and his cross-over taking place around 12. a pail full of water balloons, to wreak foreman as they inspected the livestock After a few months, I too decided to havoc in the streets of Punta del Este, the and the pastures, with a couple of dogs be baptized, again with the blessing of seaside resort. His father was an elegant running by our horses. As we grew older, my Buddhist mother. This gave me the man, with silver hair, a glint in his eye from time to time we would help in the opportunity to pick my own godparents. and a ready wit. But what I thought was work. A favorite was driving herd, when By that time, the British School had absolutely magical was how they were cattle had to be taken to a pen to be decided that I too could have the privilege together. In the evenings, they would inoculated, or collected by trucks to take of being their student and I became great always have a cocktail, I never heard to market. At midday, we would return to friends with one of my classmates. After them say anything harsh to each other, the houses and have lunch, followed by school we would play together for hours. and on some special occasions, he would a siesta. Then, the afternoon was ours. To this day, he is one of my closest friends. play the guitar or the accordion and Sometimes we would ride out again and Spending so much time together, I also got she would sing tangos. Who could wish race each other, or if there were sheep in to know his parents well. His mother was for more wonderful godparents? I was the corrals, we might pretend we were at always ready to do fun things. She once baptized with them beside me, followed a rodeo and attempt to ride them, or we took us to a live concert of The Platters, by a Chinese banquet at home. would kick a ball on the lawn outside the on tour in Montevideo, and there could My godfather was an estanciero, or main house. At other times we would go not have been many things cooler for a rancher, with an estancia that seemed out with shotguns to hunt partridges to pair of kids in short pants than listening impossibly far from Montevideo. On bring to the cook. Electricity came from a live to “Only You” and “My Prayer.” A few school vacations, my good friend and I generator by the side of a large shed next years later, when we were still too young would spend time there. In the mornings, to the ranch house, the radio provided

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the latest commodity prices and relayed at large and the Chinese community itself. have contributed to being appointed a messages (“This is Rosa, I’m arriving Not surprisingly, the two converged in prefect, and later, Head Boy of the school. on the ten o’clock bus,” “Uncle Pedro’s many respects. Especially if we had ended Just like English public schools, the operation went well,” “Martín says the up in the East Coast, Chinese seemed discipline of the school was run by students fencing wire is coming on Wednesday”). destined to make their living either in a appointed to the role (prefects), led by a There was no television reception. After restaurant or a laundry or being a doctor Head Boy and a Head Girl. Prefects made dinner, we would chat and read. or an engineer. But in Uruguay, nothing sure nobody ran or pushed or otherwise I realize now that for the ranch hands made a nuisance of themselves in the I must have cut an exotic figure, but like corridors (or anywhere else), enforced cowboys in the West they are by nature Indeed, the proudest the obligatory use of English everywhere reserved and laconic, and never asked me sporting achievement other than in classes conducted in about China or why I was in Uruguay, and Spanish, checked that everybody came treated me no different than any other of my life was, upon in the prescribed uniform (down to the friend of the owner’s son. I like to think that returning from college color of socks), and off-campus made they noticed and appreciated how I took sure that those wearing the uniform lived to life in the ranch from the very first day in the States, to play for up to the school’s standards (including they taught me to ride by sitting me on the Old Boys, the club of the giving seats up to women and the elderly saddle, telling me to pull the reins in the in public transportation.) To signal their direction I wanted to go, towards me when British School alumni, rank, prefects wore different uniforms I wanted to stop and then gave a smack and win Uruguay’s and, like teachers, had their own leisure on the rump of my horse to initiate my room; to enforce their authority, there was riding career. Decades later when I lived in First Division Rugby a punishment room to where miscreants Manhattan and rode every week in Central championship with an were sent during breaks and lunchtime. Park, out of curiosity I decided to take At around the age of twelve, social life English riding lessons. The instructor told undefeated record. started to involve the opposite sex and me to go around the ring at various speeds that began a cycle of weekend parties for so she could observe me. When I stopped, indicated that I should aim for MIT or the next several years where we took to she said, “You do everything wrong, but CalTech, or that my extracurricular life the dance floor and, as we became older, you’re so comfortable on a horse that you should be indoors and cerebral. Attending the lights grew dimmer and relationships compensate for it all the time.” a British school that was modeled after became more serious. Luckily, I was one Those days in the estancia instilled in ’s public (i.e. private) schools of the party regulars but I recall it was me a deep appreciation for the beauty and and which supplemented local teachers then that I became most aware of being serenity of the Uruguayan countryside. with staff from the United Kingdom, in different. It was difficult enough under The grasslands are flat, with a gentle roll, a country which regularly surprises the normal circumstances to gather the and in those days before the emergence world with its football (soccer) prowess, courage to ask popular girls to dance with of a vigorous forestry industry, trees were our girls played field hockey and the boys you or go out on a date; having to worry only solitary lines next to streams or water played rugby. I loved it from the start and about race just seemed more daunting holes. The naturalist W.H. Hudson, writing from the age of ten became a stalwart on than an imperfect nose or bad hair. Yet in 1885, called it The Purple Land. With the school teams. When we became old most of it was in my head since I don’t no mountains anywhere, looking around enough to play against our counterpart recall one instance where any girl said me, my gaze travelled free all the way to the British schools in Buenos Aires, I had the anything remotely racist. In retrospect, I distant horizon. You can ride all day and, privilege of being the captain of our team, don’t think I fared worse than the average unless you purposefully head to a house to the surprise (as I later found out) of our boy in school, and perhaps better, since I in the distance, you may literally not cross Argentine hosts. I went on to form part of remember my girl friends as being really paths with anybody. Once outside the ring the school’s First XV. Indeed, the proudest , fun and interesting, and those on around Montevideo, traffic is so light that sporting achievement of my life was, upon pedestals too high to reach (i.e., older) still today people by the side of the highway returning from college in the States, to play always remained friends and one, in due will wave at passing cars. for Old Boys, the club of the British Schools course, even married me. There was another great advantage alumni, and win Uruguay’s First Division While school life and partying were to being a minority of 0.01%. If we had Rugby championship with an undefeated far removed from my origins, China was emigrated to the United States, I suspect record. very present at home. My parents spoke it would have been hard for a Chinese boy Fortunately, I was also good at Chinese, virtually every meal was Chinese to escape the stereotypes set by both society schoolwork and that combination must and we all learned to appreciate Chinese

22 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR THE DIASPORAS

Michael Chu (first row, fourth from left) with the school rugby team that went to Buenos Aires. ingredients and delicacies that became harder and persevere more; with parents whip in hand and doling affection based available only when some ship like the unable to speak the language, we had on performance (she was saving that for one that brought us would make a stop in to make it on our own. She also told us her children-in-law.) As we were growing Montevideo. Our living room had the dark that in life you could lose everything (we up, she wielded an even more effective wooden Chinese furniture, the delicate were a case in point!) except one thing: weapon: unconditional love and limitless porcelain vases and the carved ivories your education. It must have sunk in. My faith in us. Being her children, of course that had come with us on the Boissevan. brother Alejandro was the only teenager we could do anything we set our minds When we got sick as children, the one insane enough in the whole of Uruguay to to, but if along the way we failed, she was bright spot was our father coming to sit attend the Deutsche Schule in the morning absolutely certain we had done our very on our bed to read us the adventures of and then rush to a vocational school in best. In this way, she ended instilling in the Monkey King, with his buddies Piggy the afternoon to learn to operate lathes, us the self-confidence that allowed us to and Sandy, escorting the Buddhist monk draft technical drawings and fix engines, aim as high as our imagination could take Tang Sanzang and the holy scriptures on followed by getting up before dawn to do us together with the natural presumption the Journey to the West, a 16th century his school homework. He did this every that we would give it our all. In fact, none masterpiece; or the tales of the 108 outlaw single weekday, and eventually ended up of us remember our parents ever asking rascals of the brotherhood of the marshes at MIT. My sister Lina in her spare time us if we had done our homework, let alone who would end up pardoned and saving from the Deutsche Schule became a master forcing us to study. Indeed, I realize now the empire in another great Chinese seamstress, with the largest diploma I have how unconventional our parents were, by classic, The Water Margin. ever seen. My eldest sister Anna left for both Asian and Western standards. We In timeless immigrant fashion, our college in the States at age fifteen, as did I. never got pocket money; instead, we were mother reminded us that we had to work Yet our mother was no tiger mom, shown the drawer where money was kept

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quite confused when that for business because patrons found us didn’t occur. very cute behind cash registers or at the Usually, the social bar mixing drinks. During Carnival, the interactions between the parade of swaying dancers, drummers and later wave of Chinese and floats would snake down the main avenue the earlier Cantonese at night and we were allowed to go to the economic migrants were roof balcony of the restaurant for a front- superficial, taking place at row view. As the music and the beat of the gatherings sponsored by drums floated up, we rained down confetti the Chinese Association on (and sometimes naughtier things) on the important Chinese national sidewalks filled with costumed children holidays and festivals. In and their parents. addition to class, there And so transpired my childhood and At a party in Punta del Este, summer 1970. was also the language adolescence until the time came to go off and told we should just take whatever we barrier, many of the more recent Chinese to university. My choice was Dartmouth needed. As a result, we thought about every coming from Shanghai and speaking no College, and a few months later, with my expenditure. At twelve, I got the key to the Cantonese, and the Cantonese speaking house, with the implicit trust that I would no Shanghainese or much Mandarin, know when to come and go, and who to the official lingua franca of the state, In retrospect, I don’t let in. Did they read it in some ancient commerce and the educated. But, having think I fared worse Chinese parenting manual or did they just lived a few years in Hong Kong, my parents bump into the realization that nobody has did speak Cantonese and they felt a special than the average boy a stricter taskmaster than oneself? appreciation for the openness and straight- in school, and perhaps My parents’ closest friends in Uruguay forward kindness of the earlier immigrants. were drawn from both waves of the My parents were still young, in their better, since I remember Chinese diaspora. On one hand were thirties and forties, and they became very my girl friends as being the Baos and the Lins, people like us friendly with a set of second generation that had been successful in business and Cantonese just ten years or so younger really nice, fun and displaced by the Communist victory. On than they. These young men would come interesting, and those weekends, the grown-ups got together home on their days off and play card games for mahjong marathons and big Chinese that would often include us and that were on pedestals too high to dinners. That provided ample time for full of banter and laughter. Sometimes, as reach (i.e., older) always the children to entertain ourselves with a treat, they would take my siblings and I only the minimum of adult supervision, to the movie theaters downtown to see the remained friends and ensuring that we had a great time. While latest films. one, in due course, even our parents spoke in Chinese, we spoke to Our Cantonese friends had a huge each other in Spanish and our interests, restaurant on the main avenue of married me. our banter and our humor were identical Montevideo that served the best Chinese to those of our Uruguayan friends. But food in Uruguay for lunch or dinner, but family and my friends waving and wishing when we were together, we had something you could also order great Uruguayan me well, I boarded the airplane at Carrasco in common so obvious that it didn’t have cuisine, from steak to veal Milanese, Airport and soon the green countryside to be acknowledged and we certainly tongue in vinaigrette, Spanish omelette or and my childhood receded in the distance. never dwelt on it, but that was invaluable pasta. In between lunch and dinner, the No longer a Chinese boy growing up in because it was so rare: we were with restaurant served afternoon tea, a custom Uruguay, I was now a Chinese Uruguayan the only peers who knew exactly what introduced by the English and readily heading towards my future. it was like to be growing up Chinese in adopted by the Uruguayans, complete Uruguay. Being a 0.01% minority meant with multi-level trays filled with finger Michael Chu is a Senior Lecturer of Busi- that it wasn’t only Uruguayans that had a sandwiches and cakes and pastries. On ness Administration at Harvard Business hard time bumping into Chinese people. many afternoons during school break and School and a co-founder and partner of For many years after I went to the States, weekends, my siblings and I would go to venture capital firm IGNIA in Mexico. He whenever I met somebody Chinese, even the restaurant and were allowed to “help” is also a member of the David Rockefeller in the most casual of settings, I assumed and to explore every nook and cranny of Center for Latin American Studies Execu- we would feel a special connection and was the cavernous place. I think we were good tive Committee.

24 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO ABOVE, COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR; OPPOSITE PAGE, (ABOVE), ASSOCIATED PRESS, (BELOW), COURTESY OF HEIDI GURCKE DONALD. THE DIASPORAS

Japanese Peruvians The Hostages Among Us By MARY JO MCCONAHAY

to the United States. The Naganuma brothers, baptized Catholics as Jose Antonio, Jorge Carlos and Julio Cesar, and their parents, in Peru called Luis and Maria, had been part of a vibrant Japanese Peruvian community of 30,000 persons. Kazuharu Naganuma (the brothers prefer to use their Japanese names now) joyfully remembered a big yard at their house with an attached commercial laundry, “all hand wash, with big paddles and metal tanks and clothes and sheets hanging outside and a sewing room to make repairs.” They spoke Spanish. Another brother, Kazushige, remembered how his older sisters once treated him to an animated movie that made fun of Japanese, featuring a General Tojo-like figure wearing big black-rimmed glasses, “with buck teeth” and other stereotypical Japanese custodied by Panama serve up food to their fellow citizens at Canal Zone quarantine features (perhaps You’re a Sap, Mr. Jap, station where they are presently under detention, Dec. 13, 1941. Crystal City tags, below. from Paramount). “I went home and talked about it, but I wasn’t offended,” Kazushige LIKE MANY AMERICANS, I KNEW THAT 120,000 said. “I was thinking of it as a Peruvian ethnic Japanese had been held in U.S. kid.” concentration camps during World War II. There were many more Peruvian kids But I had no idea about a secret program like him. It did not matter if the Latin that had kidnapped thousands of ethnic American residents were native-born Japanese in Latin America and delivered or naturalized citizens of the countries them to concentration camps in the States from which they were seized. The given with the help of compliant Latin American justification: to prevent a fifth column governments. from sabotaging the Allies. I discovered this startling historical The real reasons for the U.S. program episode while researching for a book included racial prejudice and the assumed on World War II in Latin America and hours they recounted their childhoods allegiance of Latin American Japanese to decided to track down people who might and described how their father and an Japan, with which the Allies competed have been affected by the secret program. older brother escaped to mountains for raw materials. Most egregious of all, I got an unexpected lesson in how history outside Lima when detectives came to Washington needed “Japanese” individuals can live literally around the corner. their house in , Lima’s port city. to exchange for certain prisoners of war— “Yes, I live two blocks away from you,” By then, in early 1944, everyone in the U.S. civilians stranded in Asia. Called said Kazumu Naganuma, a seventy-six- Peruvian Japanese community knew what Quiet Passages, the secret program run year-old graphic designer and active might be in store for them when strange by the U.S. State Department Special soccer coach. On the afternoon of our first men appeared at the door. Eventually the War Problems Division considered Latin interview in 2016, Naganuma and two of Naganumas’ father, Iwaichi, surrendered, American Japanese ideal pawns to trade his brothers, all Peruvian-born, walked and the whole family, mother (Isoka), for the trapped U.S. citizens. They were over to my house in San Francisco. For father and seven children were taken off perceived to possess even fewer claims to

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rights than imprisoned , most of whom were U.S. citizens. Ethnic Germans and some Italians from more than a dozen Latin countries were also forcibly brought to U.S. camps, but unlike these captives, most of the Japanese were unable to return to their Latin American homes after the war. All were purposely stripped of their identification papers on leaving the Latin nations where they lived. They arrived in the United States as “undocumented enemy aliens.” After I talked to the Naganumas, I visited other former detainees over the next months. They remembered being shuttled onto U.S. ships in Latin ports under U.S. military guard, delivered to New Orleans or San Pedro and transferred Right: Drawing by a German captive from Guatemala of kidnapped men from Latin America to a prison camp called Crystal City in who traveled in the holds of U.S. ships; Left: Libia Maoki with a photo of her son. the hot Texas desert. There they lived for years surrounded by barbed-wire fencing really too bad they got rid of us,” Libia’s and some suffering from tuberculosis, left and watchtowers, subject to daily muster. sister Blanca once said to an interviewer. Crystal City under the sponsorship of a For these conversations I never had to Of 2,200 ethnic Japanese forcibly priest in San Francisco. drive more than an hour from my home. taken from Latin nations during the war, Today camp survivors, and their A largely unrecognized face of the Latin 1,800 were from Peru, a country which children and grandchildren into the diaspora, I realized, might be found in our had exhibited a history of animus toward thousands, live scattered across the own backyards. Japanese immigrants. In May 1940, an United States, many in New Jersey, Libia Maoki, who is retired from a anti-Japanese march by teenage students because some captives chose “parole” to a position overseeing charters for a long- in Lima sparked rioting in the capital company that produced frozen vegetables distance bus company, sat across from me and small cities; rowdies and ordinary in a rural township thirty miles south of over coffee in a strip-mall diner outside neighbors trashed or burned six hundred , and families stayed in the Sacramento and recalled herself as a young homes, schools and businesses while the area. Others gravitated to Chicago, Los girl in Chiclayo, Peru, five hundred miles police stood by. Ten died. Angeles or Northern California where north of Lima. There, in semi-tropical Later the U.S. embassy official charged Japanese Americans were trying to rebuild surroundings, Libia helped her mother, with identifying threatening “aliens,” John lives. A number of Japanese Peruvians Elena, an industrious woman who had Emmerson, used Chinese collaborators found postwar racial prejudice too strong been a nurse in Japan, to pull taffy and to point the finger at suspect Japanese, on the mainland, and moved to Hawaii. wrap it in paper for sale. Her father, Victor, effectively playing one minority group In San Francisco, the Naganuma ran a sugar plantation canteen and a tire- against another. When the war was over, brothers were enrolled in school as Jimmy, repair shop. Libia watched agents sent by Peru refused to take back those who had George and Tony. Speaking English with the FBI arrest her father and take him been removed. a Spanish accent and looking Japanese, away, standing in a truck bed with other In the end six hundred “Japanese” they said new friends doubted their Japanese men and some ethnic Germans. prisoners from Peru were deported from story when they shared it. “They would Bereft of their breadwinner, Elena Maoki U.S. camps to the ancestral war-torn say, ‘That could not have happened— and her children were granted permission island, where many had never lived. Other how could they get away with it?’” said to go to the States, as long as they too families were forced to stay in Crystal City Kazumu Naganuma. “People don’t believe became prisoners in Crystal City. Like many for up to two years after the war was over— it happened. It’s not in the books.” of the Japanese targeted for kidnapping, in a Kafkaesque scenario, U.S. authorities Libia’s father and Iwaichi Naganuma, Mary Jo McConahay is the author of The officially regarded the prisoners as illegal the father of the Naganuma brothers, Tango War, The Struggle for the Hearts, aliens for having entered the country were prominent in the community and Minds and Riches of Latin America Dur- without documents, and they had no place had founded local schools. “In Peru they ing World War II (St. Martin’s Press). to go. In 1947 the Naganumas, worn out were preparing us to be leaders. So it’s

26 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTOS ABOVE: (RIGHT) COURTESY OF REGINA WAGNER; (LEFT) BY MARY JO MCCONAHAY. THE DIASPORAS

From Vendedor to Fashion Designer Korean Immigrants in South American Textile Industries By KYEYOUNG PARK

KOREAN IMMIGRANTS IN LATIN AMERICA ARE and manufacturers. By 2004, Korean shaping and developing fashion economies In 2001, about nine out merchants led the Brazilian clothing there. Upon arrival, Korean immigrants of every ten Koreans industry, and accounted for 40 percent to Argentina and Brazil may have been of its clothing production. In 2001, lonely, isolated and confused, experiencing residing in Brazil worked in Argentina, more than 80 percent physical and cultural distance from their in some part of the of Koreans involved in clothing homeland. But the textile industry swiftly manufacturing comprised slightly less became a vital part of Korean diasporic apparel industry. than half of the entire clothing industry, identity and belonging. or half of the market goods. Since 1963, about 200,000 Koreans in the home country, connecting skilled The textile industry has played have migrated to Latin American tailors, clothing and textile storeowners, an important role in many countries’ countries. These immigrants were from and garment factory owners. Vertical modern development, including Korea’s, the middle class, leaving Korea because and horizontal integration in the Korean until supplemented by electronics and of political and economic instability in apparel industry, in both Argentina later by service and post-industrial the aftermath of the Korean War. Korea and Brazil, helped Korean clothing sectors. Until the 1980s, Korea was sent its first emigrant groups to Brazil in manufacturers become competitive. one of the largest textile-exporting 1962, to Bolivia in 1964, and to Argentina Gradually, Koreans in Brazil and Argentina Asian countries to the United States. and Paraguay in 1965, to address its replaced Jewish immigrants, who had The involvement of the diaspora in population explosion and the country’s initially subcontracted their sewing work these industries was a natural fit. high unemployment rate and poverty, and to Korean immigrants. In 2001, about to garner foreign exchange. nine out of every ten Koreans residing in BRAZIL Korea was producing more profession- Brazil worked in some part of the apparel When Koreans arrived to Brazil, they als, managers and entrepreneurs than it industry. lived on whatever money they had brought could absorb within its limited land space Koreans controlled an estimated with them. When they moved to São Paulo, and lack of natural resources, pushing 60 percent of the garment industry some became peddlers (vendedores), the government to relocate its surplus and occupied 17 percent of Brazil’s clothes vendors or shoe repairers. Vende population to Brazil and Argentina, textile industry as retailers, wholesalers (abbreviation for vendedor) covers many which welcomed these immigrants for an agricultural “group settlement.” However, this “group settlement” was not successful, and immigrants began to concentrate in large cities such as São Paulo and Buenos Aires. There, they first peddled what they had brought, selling goods purchased at every port where their vessels had docked. Later, running out of goods to sell, they started to produce clothes, disassembling and using newly purchased clothes as templates to learn about local aesthetics and design. This activity developed into small sewing and apparel-making shops. Following this trend, Korean immigrants in the 1970s and 1980s brought capital, sewing and knitting machines, knowledge, experience, and skills in garment making, and their networks grew A wholesale shop of a clothing brand owned by a Korean entrepreneur in Bom Retiro, Brazil.

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Bras is three times larger than Bom Retiro but displays low-price clothing in high volume. According to journalist and writer Yoo Na Kim, whom I met over churrascaria (barbecue in Portuguese) in Higienópolis, as of 2008, one out of every seven shops in Bom Retiro belong to Koreans. There are 1,200 shops in this neighborhood: 1,000 are manufacturers and 840 are controlled by Korean families who offer more professional and higher quality services compared to two decades ago. Koreans in the Bom Retiro suburb supplying shops throughout Brazil are leaders in the wholesale clothing industry, generating approximately 30,000 direct and 20,000 indirect jobs. On average, each brand creates six new styles every day, each manufacturer producing 20,000 pieces of clothing monthly. Beyond detecting global ACEA (Association of Korean Entrepreneurs of Av. Avellaneda) trends, the Korean/Brazilian stylists and designers have to “tropicalize” in order to kinds of work, from selling clothes by of Brazil’s garment district still known as satisfy Brazilian demand. As of 2008, one going door-to-door to taking orders Koreatown. out of every three garments produced in after showing samples to wholesalers In Kathryne Cho’s study of Korean Brazil has passed through the hands of and retailers. Sales of Korean clothing immigrants in Brazil, Wongyu Lee, Korean immigrants. expanded because of their better quality the owner of Nabirang (now Collins) and reasonable prices, though Korean Confecção, recalls, “My wife and I worked ARGENTINA clothes in Brazil were almost ten times at home…For five to six months; we didn’t Upon arriving in Argentina, Korean more expensive than in Korea. By 1968, even go to the market. We barely ate. immigrants were initially housed in Koreans started to manufacture women’s Most of the times, we worked as a group emergency refugee shelters. Many Koreans apparel. with other families and they’d feed us. also lived in a neighborhood called “Little Early Korean immigrants already We worked more than sixteen hours per Seoul,” or “No. 109 village” (paekkucho’n), included clothing manufacturers. Susan day...including Saturdays” (The Korean a barrio in Flores that offered low-cost Kim, a North Korean businessman who Brazilians, 1999:21). Lee went from housing and hired cheap immigrant immigrated to Brazil in 1964 discovering making two to three pieces of clothing labor. There they specialized in small-scale a demand for clothing manufacturing. at a time to producing 50 to 70,000 per sewing, clothing sales and other trades, He brought equipment from Korea and month, about 2,000 pieces daily. Selling much like the Jewish immigrants before designed a type of nylon jacket which up to 150 pieces per day, at five to ten them. became a big hit among Brazilians. Kim’s dollars apiece, in 1999 he successfully As in Brazil, early immigrants included business was the beginning of the clothing built an enterprise that was generating clothing manufacturers. It was Hwa-sun manufacturing industry in Brazil. US$6 million annually, of which about 10 Cho who first brought a knitting and By the early 1970s, most Koreans to 15 percent was net profit. As of 2012, sewing machine with her in 1965. She and had moved to São Paulo, in the vicinity his children—one a fashion designer and her husband began a knitting business in of Glicerio and Conde de Sarzedas. the other a marketing lawyer--took over 1967. Cho passed on basic knitting skills While this area provided cheap rent and his business, opening their 100th retail and later she taught basic sewing and more accessible transportation, as well as stores establishment and their first wholesale intricate clothing-making skills. with Asian products, the neighborhood business. In 1966, Jong-oh Lee, a wealthy textile soon became ghettoized. By 1972, better About 2,000 Korean-owned business industrialist from South Korea who had re- economic conditions allowed Koreans to establishments flourish in the Bom migrated from Paraguay, brought over the relocate residentially to Aclimação and Retiro and Bras districts of São Paulo. Jacquard loom (a mechanical loom which establish new businesses in Mooca, Bras Bom Retiro creates fashion trends within simplified the process of manufacturing and eventually Bom Retiro—the center Latin America’s high fashion market. textiles with complex patterns such

28 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTOS BY KYEYOUNG PARK THE DIASPORAS

as brocade, damask and matelassé), and sweaters in Once; 600 retail stores in Korean immigrants monitor global fashion the yoko (“horizontally” in Japanese) Flores; and 800 stores in other provinces trends by traveling extensively to European knitting machine, overlocking machine such as Córdoba, Santa Fe, Tucumán, countries and the United States (and now and other sewing machines, as well as Jujuy and Mendoza— every city had to South Korea and China) for fabric and several technicians, operators of the yoko Korean retailers, who bought supplies trade shows. knitting machine. He first began using the from Buenos Aires. Korean family members are integrated yoko knitting machines t FW: story edits Hak-jae Lee, the president of the Korean in their family businesses. Many work in o finish piecework he received from Clothing Manufacturers’ Association in the fashion industry or in fashion-design a Jewish-owned factory, and in 1968, he Avellaneda, immigrated to Argentina and marketing-related trades, while began sewing work. in 1975. I met Mr. Lee at an asado party others attend top fashion design schools In 1972, Sang-lok Chae successfully organized by his association. Lee states in , , Milan, Los Angeles and produced and sold bathing suits under that as of 2001, almost one out of every New York. Christina Moon, faculty at New his own brand. The next year, Duk-yu ten Koreans make more than US$1 million. York’s Parsons the New School for Design, Hong, previously the sales manager of a There are several dyeing companies and observed that by 2000, 40 percent of her Jewish-owned sweater factory, produced other specialty businesses engaged in school were students from Asia, the vast and sold sweaters under his own brand. the production of bags, zippers, buttons majority from South Korea, including Other immigrants later followed suit. In and labels; others in fabric production/ some from South American countries 1976, some Korean merchants started selling, thread, embroidery and pressing, (Critical Sociology, 2014). Claudia, a to venture onto Once Street (the city’s not to mention garment manufacturing. graduate of the Fashion Institute of textile business area), buying thread from According to Lee, “Koreans revolutionized Design and Merchandising (FIDM), Jews and Italians and selling the finished the clothing industry as price[s] went down whom I interviewed in Los Angeles, is pieces to Jewish stores. Since 1978, several and the quality of clothing improved…. 25-years-old, married, and her husband Korean immigrants have manufactured Koreans brought important machines runs a Taekwondo studio in Encino. She and sold clothes, initially to small retailers and produced cheaply…Now thanks to us left Korea for Brazil at the age of three on the fringes of Buenos Aires. Koreans, things are cheap.” and now manages one of her parents’ In 1982, increasing numbers of Korean The Argentine government began to wholesaling clothing stores that employs immigrants ventured out of the capital encourage capital investment and allowed 25 to 30 people, both Latinos and Koreans, to run retail clothing stores in nearby Koreans to immigrate with the condition in managerial and designer positions, provinces. They were able to purchase that each person deposit US$30,000 (later equally divided between men and women. mostly women’s clothes from fellow increased to $100,000) in the Argentine Her language of preference is Portuguese, Korean wholesalers in Once; however, National Bank (Banco de la Nación). As but she speaks both English and Korean the quality of these clothes was slightly Kyung soo Chun wrote, after the Argentine at home: with her husband she speaks below average and sold for only half to two and Korean governments’ official English, with her parents, Korean, with her thirds the price. An increasing number of agreement on immigration, the 1985 Acto brothers, Portuguese, and a combination Korean immigrant manufacturers also de Procedimiento, Korean immigrants of all three with her friends. Like Claudia’s relocated to the high-quality clothing flowed in, reaching approximately 20,000 family, there have been a number of hub of Avellaneda—a previously Jewish between 1984 and 1986 (Discourse on Korean clothing manufacturers who re- residential neighborhood that had Korean Culture V4, 1990). migrated from South America since the developed into clothing wholesaling Korean immigrants stumbled into 1990s, due to the severe economic and district. The numbers increased sewing work to adapt to their new political problems that prevailed in South visibly from 1986 to 1987, as Korean environment in South America, and this American countries. In terms of global manufacturers transformed from suppliers work led to trade and work in the textile Korean diaspora, thanks to the clothing of brands to makers of brands and owners industry—with many Koreans across manufacturing industry, the Korean of their own stores. These manufacturers Latin America now in clothing retailing immigrant communities have developed organized as the Korean Merchant and wholesaling. As they secured their across the Americas. Association of Once in 1983 and in 1985 place among the middle class in São as the Korean Chamber of Commerce. Paulo and Buenos Aires, they were Kyeyoung Park is associate professor of By 2001, Argentina housed 3,000 increasingly celebrated as immigrant Anthropology and Asian American Studies Korean-owned business establishments. nouveau riche. at the University of California, Los Ange- In Buenos Aires alone, there were 600 While engaged in the entire spectrum les. She is the author of the award-winning Korean-owned wholesalers in Avellaneda; of the textile industry—import/export book The Korean American Dream: Immi- 380 retail and wholesale stores specializing trade, wholesaling, designing, marketing, grants and Small Business in New York in women’s clothing, cotton shirts, jeans retailing, and garment production— City (Cornell University Press, 1997).

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Maria Magdalena Campos-Pons, Finding Balance, 2015, 28 Polacolor Polaroid photographs on aluminum panels, 105.5 in. x 159.25 in.

Revisiting Circles and Circuits By ALEXANDRA CHANG

CHINESE MIGRATION WITHIN THE CARIBBEAN The exhibition Circles and Circuits: included in the exhibition, formed by began in 1565 with the Spanish Manila Chinese Caribbean Art takes on their peers, mentors, and family, while galleons, or La Nao de China—which these themes: History and Art of the “circuits” alludes to the many migrations, sailed from Manila to Acapulco and Chinese Caribbean Diaspora at the cross-connections, and flows of art, artists, created an imagined China within Latin California African American Museum and Chinese diasporic communities— America. The 1800s and early 1900s saw (September 15, 2017-February 25, 2018) from the Asia/Pacific to the Americas, an increase in labor migration tied to the and Contemporary Chinese Caribbean Africa, the British Commonwealth nations postcolonial legacies of the sugar and Art at the Chinese American Museum and Europe. The exhibition considered tobacco industries, and the construction (September, 15, 2017 - March 22, 2018) as intersections of Asian and African diasporic of railroads and the Panama Canal. a part of the Getty’s Pacific Standard Time migrations, Asian coolie (indentured) labor Merchants and entrepreneurs also came II LA/LA initiative that enabled projects at in the Americas, enslavement of Africans during this time and together they laid more than 70 cultural institutions across in the Americas, and resistance, taking the foundations of Chinese diasporic Southern California to explore Latin into account how personal relationships communities in the Caribbean. These American and Latino art in dialogue with and larger contexts of global migrations past histories and their legacies have and Los Angeles. and historic legacies of cultural, political, continue to shape the lives and works of The title Circles and Circuits references and economic power influence and inform artists in the Caribbean and its diaspora. the circles of influence around the artists artists’ work (above).

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Panama City, Kingston and Port of . Wearing a long blue Chinese dress and her hair These streams of movement of people and ideas created transnational networks twisted up, Campos-Pons paced slowly into and or “corridors” through which cultural around the courtyard, carrying a long sugar cane production was nurtured and developed in an interconnected way. Rather than deny in her hand, referencing the personal and historic the importance and realities of geographic impact of the industry in Cuba. place, and systemic structures of national borders and narratives, the exhibition While the history of Chinese in the of the African slave trade necessitated a instead suggests a perspective beyond Caribbean may have started with the new source of labor (see Wally Look the physical Caribbean into the spaces of romantic Spanish Manila galleons, Lai, Indentured Labor, Caribbean connected local and global communities, migration really intensified during the Sugar: Chinese and Indian Migrants affinities and legacies—and likewise mid-late 1800s through the early 1900s. to the British , 1838–1918 expands beyond the idea of derivative Young Chinese men, especially from (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University art into a corridor of international Fujian and Guangdong in southern Press, 1993). Circles and Circuits conversation, exchange and influence. China, signed on as contract laborers or concentrated on the work of artists who Circles and Circuits also focused on traveled as merchants between China and are part of the Chinese Caribbean diaspora the postwar period leading up to, through the Caribbean during this period when in North America, Cuba, Trinidad and and after Independence movements in the China experienced political turmoil due Tobago, Jamaica and Panama. Caribbean in the 1960s, as the impact of to defeats by the British during the Opium Larger immigrant populations and creating national identities on artists in Wars and internal peasant unrest during political,economic, and social-cultural the Caribbean became evident in the work the Taiping rebellion. Approximately 7.5 conditions—including the development of artists and writers, both domestically million Chinese emigrated globally during of national museums and art schools and in diasporic art circuits abroad. Artists the 19th century, with major destinations and training abroad—encouraged the sought primordial “authenticity” and new including Cuba, British West Indies and development of pipelines of thought with and old iconographies of nation-building, Panama. The majority of the Chinese peers in and through major international which looked to their Indigenous and multi- who arrived into the West Indies came hubs such as New York, Washington, ethnic histories. Their work emerged both between 1853 and 1866, after the abolition D.C., London, Paris, Havana, Martinique, as exemplary of and accomplice to the visual

Left, Maria Magdalena Campos-Pons, Poetformance, performance on Feb- ruary 23, 2018 at Pico House. Below, Maria Magdalena Campos-Pons, My Mother Told Me I Am Chinese, The Painting Lesson, 2008 (composition of 9 Polaroid panels, approximately 106.5 in. x 71.5 in.)

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Maria Magdalena Campos-Pons, My Mother Told Me I Am Chinese, China Porcelain, 2008 (hand-painted Chinese porcelain and Plexiglas shelf, approximately 90 in. x 91 in. x 55 in.) Below, Sybil Atteck’s Self Portrait, ca. 1970 (oil on board, 24 in. x 18 in., collection of Helen Atteck, Canada complex of nation-building, as well as visual section (1939). resistance (p. 33). Examples include the From 1945 to 1948 Atteck went to the work of Sybil Atteck, Carlisle Chang, and University of Washington School of Fine others who created and selected national Arts in St. Louis, Missouri, and studied symbols and visual aesthetics of power such under Max Beckmann, who influenced her as festival design and landscape painting, or use of abstraction, angular lines, and color ’s national flag and coat palettes. In 1950 she sailed to London on of arms. Carlisle Chang designed the coat a British Council scholarship, where she of arms and national flag for Trinidad after showed her work between 1952 through Independence, while Sybil Atteck served on 1959, including at the Royal Academy and the committee that oversaw the selection of the Commonwealth Institute. Her circle of artists and design. close friends, among them Boscoe Holder, Two female artists from Trinidad, Nina Squires, and Althea McNish, would Amy Leong Pang and Sybil Atteck, also travel to London to continue their were fundamental in the development careers (fig. 5). Atteck also showed at the of the artistic communities in Trinidad São Paulo Biennial, another important and Tobago in the 1930s and 1940s. international hub, in the mid-1950s and Pang founded the Society of Trinidad 1960s. She and her students were born Independents, a group of intellectuals ideas. C. L. R. James, who often wrote for from immigrant merchant families, and and artists from Trinidad and Tobago that the journal, became a leading figure in became heavily involved in defining art published The Beacon, a literary journal Pan-Africanism, and along with George education in Trinidad and Tobago and that ran between 1931 and 1933 (one Padmore played an important role in the newly independent nation’s visual and final special issue was published in 1939). the Caribbean Art Movement involving cultural landscape. Many of those involved with The Beacon literature and the arts. Pang was a major The contemporary artists included in also shaped the Caribbean Art Movement force in establishing a homegrown art Circles and Circuits and presented at the in London, with artists traveling between movement in Trinidad and Tobago, and Chinese American Museum in Los Angeles Europe and the Caribbean maintaining in teaching, writing and creating artwork held different viewpoints, and had different ties and forming pathways for shared for the Trinidad Guardian’s new art relationships with their Chinese Caribbean

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heritage and positionality within both the Chinese diaspora in the Caribbean and the Chinese Caribbean diaspora that resettled outside the Caribbean. Their works reflect this diversity through the range of intersecting topics they touch upon including: postcolonial histories, personal histories, transcultural aesthetics, gender, sexuality, the body, popular culture, countercultures, food, carnivals, and art history. One of the artists who was included in both parts of Circles and Circuits is María Magdalena Campos-Pons with her works Finding Balance (2015) and My Mother Told Me I Am Chinese (2008) (p. 31 and 32). During the run of the exhibition, the artist also presented her performance Poetformance at Pico House, a performance Nina Squires’s painting La Naissance – Birth of a Nation (left), 1956 (oil on canvas, 20 in. x 24 space in a historic building across from the in., The Collection of Senator Albert Sydney, Trinidad and Tobago Chinese American Museum in Los Angeles. Her work offers a space for Caribbean at the piazza. Similarly, the ceramics of the phrase with narratives about the identities outside of the more dominant My Mother Told Me I Am Chinese gesture pain and suffering of passage from one narratives of “black and white.” Her large- toward crossings with her use of Chinoiserie land to another, telling the story of labor, scale Polaroid installations triangulate the porcelain wares, famously traded between migration, and family histories. With the histories of the slave trade and Chinese China and Europe, and were used as long sugar cane, she untangled strips of coolies in the Caribbean working in the religious Santería vessels in Cuba. fabric lying on the ground that opened to sugar industry, as well as early political Her performance for Circles and form the shapes of Chinese pictograms meetings and merchant crossings in Circuits of the work Poetformance stems such as door, table, and bed, words relation to China, Africa and Europe. from her work FeFa. (p.31). A video of dark of the home. She asked the audience Finding Balance is a part of a larger blue waves was projected as a backdrop as to join with her in remembering and series of work called FeFa that Campos- the artist entered the the inner courtyard sharing their own stories, passing Pons and her partner Neil Leonard have of Pico House. The building is located in around a journal for people to add their installed at both the Havana and Venice El Pueblo, which serves as the original site stories. For Campos-Pons’s FeFa and her Biennale. For Finding Balance, the artist of Los Angeles. It is also just blocks away related body of work, draws upon circles wore a theatrical replica of a Chinese from Union Station, where the old Los and circuits, tying together globally Emperor’s robes, similar to those she Angeles Chinatown was located before it interconnected narratives about home, saw at the Museum of Archeology in was destroyed to create the station. Pico migration, and memory, and finding and Venice, where she presented 53+1=54+1= House is also located one block from what redefining the meaning of permanence 55. Letter of the Year, an installation of was once known as “Calle de los Negros” and locality. birdcages at the Venice Biennale. While and the site of the lynchings of Chinese at the Biennale, Campos-Pons staged a during the 1871 anti-Chinese massacre. Alexandra Chang is the Curator of guerilla performance, walking through the Wearing a long blue Chinese dress Special Projects and Director of Global Piazza San Marco wearing the robes and a and her hair twisted up, Campos- Arts Programs at A/P/A Institute at New birdcage on her head, which references a Pons paced slowly into and around the York University. An arts scholar and Yoruba headdressas well as an architecture courtyard, carrying a long sugar cane in independent curator, she co-organized of entrapment that cannot hold onto sound her hand, referencing the personal and the Diasporic Asian Art Network. She that can drift through its bars. historic impact of the industry in Cuba. is the author of Envisioning Diaspora: For FeFa and Finding Balance, the She approached audience members, Asian-American Visua Art Collec- artist also wore sandals purchased in , handing out small gifts and strips of tives from , Godzookie, to the completing an outfit to echo the presence fabric. Crossing the inner courtyard of Barnstormers (2008) and the editor of of merchants from China, Africa, and Pico House, she spoke, repeating the Circles and Circuits: Chinese Caribbean Europe who historically exchanged wares words “If I were a poet” and continued Art (2018).

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Nikkei Latin America Highlighting Histories, Diversities, Identities and Continuing Transnational Connections By MILLIE CREIGHTON

JAPANESE PEOPLE AND THEIR DESCENDANTS effects on people and their descendants immigration from Asia done under the have been part of the Latin American as a result of exposure to radiation from so-called gentleman’s agreement resulting ethnoscape for more than a hundred years. the atomic bombings of Japan at a time in potential immigration to the United People of Japanese descent whose “home” when some officials in countries such as States being diverted to Latin American countries are elsewhere than Japan, are the United States would like to increase countries; and a migrant wave following called Nikkeijin (people in a Japanese nuclear arms, reversing long-term struggles World War II, when many Japanese descent line) or more simply (and often to reduce the numbers of such weapons in emigrated to Latin America after the more commonly in the Americas) Nikkei. the world. overwhelming destruction of Japan during Latin America has been particularly Japanese immigrants began coming to the war. The earlier attempts to block important in showing how networking Latin America in the late 1800s when this immigration from Asian countries have among Japanese descent groups brought became possible after Japan was forced later been condemned as discriminatory about a global identity of such people as to lift its long policy (since the 1600s) of processes against particular peoples and Nikkei, and awareness of being part of maintaining a ‘closed country’ (sakoku) countries of the world, shedding potential a , a consciousness under whose terms non-Japanese could light on current attempts to restrict emerging in the last 20 to 30 years despite not enter Japan for the most part and immigration from certain Arab countries. the long existence of such groups in various Japanese could not leave it (except upon Brazil became home to the largest countries. receiving punishment of a death sentence). number of people of Japanese descent An examination of Japanese descent Once it was possible for Japanese to in the world outside Japan. São Paulo communities in Latin American countries pursue movement abroad, they did so, and became home to many , and their on-going ties with Japan sheds immigration to the Americas began. Many with the Liberdade area becoming a light on how people establish identities went to the United States and Canada, bustling Nikkei center area that still weaving together a sense of ancestral and many to Latin American countries. retains a concentration of Japanese heritage with attachments to the societies While immigration is on-going, three stores, restaurants, other businesses, and in which they live, while showing both convergence and divergence from ideas, concepts and values of their ancestral places. Such research also sheds light on other current issues, ranging from radiation effects to immigration. Ways in which Latin American countries were brought into the historic internment of people of Japanese descent during World War II, often little known about even in the United States where Latin American Nikkei were interned along with Japanese Americans, can help inform contemporary issues related to Traditional Japanese instruments at cultural festival Bunka Matsuri borders and concentrating people into encampment areas, including Latin periods of immigration to Latin America community groups. Japanese immigrants American children separated from family from Japan are particularly pertinent; also settled in Registro, near São Paulo members, into encampment areas (see early immigration to Latin America from but removed from the urban core, where Mary Jo McConahay’s story on p. 25). the late 1800s on; increased immigration Japanese immigrants set up tea plantations Nikkei communities in Latin America also to Latin America from the 1920s because with tea plants and seeds brought from provide important insights to on-going of U.S. desire to limit or eliminate Japan, and also processed the harvested

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Buddhist ceremony in honor of Japanese Immigrants

have been less integrated; they remain in involved Japan and the United States, at Hibakusha is a term residential enclaves such as the so-called a time when later effects of exposure to for surviving victims of “Okinawan colonies” or those residential radiation poisoning were not well known. agricultural communities largely Thus, among immigrants to Latin America the atomic bombings or comprised of people who immigrated were some who were seemingly healthy atomic testing elsewhere from Nagasaki. Many had been farmers despite exposure to the atomic bombings in Japan (the most common occupation at but who later developed cancers and other in the world. the time) and settled in such communities medical problems in higher numbers than (sometimes called “colonies”) to collectively expected in a general population due to tea leaves there. A heritage area to the restart agricultural activities in Bolivia. exposure. While similar cases occurred in history of Japanese has a large and prominent community Japan, immigrants to other countries, such Registro is maintained there, including of Nikkei. Peru also had a Nikkei president, as those in Latin America, had additional heritage buildings that housed workers . Initially having a person problems because they were not residents and factories that processed tea. of Japanese descent reach the top post of of the countries involved in the initial While Brazil has the largest number the country and become the president was medical treatment agreements (based on of persons of Japanese descent, their a point of pride for Japanese Peruvians, the idea that survivors lived in Japan or presence is marked in many Latin but unfortunately the president was later were returned U.S. servicepeople) and American countries where it reveals disgraced. Noteworthy, however, is that thus had to band together for recognition similarities and diversities in their histories his rise to popularity and the presidency of their cause. Issues also occurred over and contemporary existence as ethnic was in part thought to be related to his birth defects or medical problems in communities of Latin America. Mexico ability to merge values from the agrarian subsequent generations and establishing has an old, long-standing community background of Japan that resonated with the connection to radiation exposure of established over 120 years ago, which rural voters in Peru. parents or grandparents. Thus, like Bolivia celebrates its long presence in Mexico Colombia, as some other Latin which had a high number of settlers and takes pride in its dual tradition. American countries, has active hibakusha from Nagasaki due to relocation after the Argentina and Chile may have smaller members. Hibakusha is a term for destruction of the atomic bombing, other such communities, but they are ones that surviving victims of the atomic bombings Latin American hibakusha reveal that have been active in recent decades, with or atomic testing elsewhere in the world. issues related to war and use of nuclear many youth re-exploring their identities Latin American Nikkei communities have weapons did not end with the war, but as members of Latin American countries been important in understanding the long- need to be dealt with among survivors for with a sense of Japanese ancestry. Many term nature of atomic radiation poisoning decades and generations, and in areas of the Japanese immigrated to Bolivia after in human beings. Many of the agreements world far removed from the original blasts. the World War II period. There Nikkei to deal with medical issues of survivors Latin American countries were

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Sakuri Matsuri Japanese cherry blossom festival (above); REVI - National Forum for Young Leaders (below) particularly important in the rise of an are important in showing how people Latin American countries—while also internationalized ethnic identity of being perceive their own identities and build on grasping and maintaining a sense of Nikkei or someone of Japanese descent understandings of their heritage or ethnic Japanese ancestral or heritage identity— anywhere in the world along with the backgrounds along with their presence, reveal much about human international recognition and greater understanding of participation and identities as members and transnational flows, adaptation and the existence of a Japanese diaspora. Even of the countries in which they reside and/ identity-building along with the ability until the late 20th century, Japan was or have citizenship. Particularly from to construct diverse human societies and not thought to have a diaspora like many the 1990s Japan—needing additional collective national identities that allow for other countries including those from Asia workers but not wishing to open fully to or embrace multiple understandings of such as China. Scholars would often give immigration from outside—developed identity formation. reasons for the lack of a Japanese diaspora, programs and laws to allow Nikkei such as so-called cultural attitudes against elsewhere to come to Japan as the country Millie Creighton is a Japan specialist emigrating. Yet, Japanese individuals of their ancestral heritage, live and work and Associate Professor in the Depart- began moving and immigrating abroad there. Most of those who did so came ment of Anthropology at the University as soon as this was possible and by the from Latin American countries. While of British Columbia in Vancouver, Cana- late 1800s. What was absent was not a most of these were Japanese Brazilians, da. She has done extensive research on a Japanese diaspora but a common identity many Japanese descendants from Peru, range of topics within Japan and also on that linked people of Japanese descent in Mexico and Chile, among others,also went Japanese descent groups in the Ameri- diverse countries of the world. Then in the to Japan to reside (often for many years) cas. Her publications related to Nikkei late 20th century new organizations such and work. As a result, those within Japan in Latin America include “Metaphors of as the Pan American Nikkei Association learned that being of Japanese descent Japaneseness and Negotiations of Nikkei (PANA) facilitated gatherings and from abroad was not the same as being Identity: The Transnational Network- networking of Nikkei from throughout Japanese in Japan. These Latin American ing of People of Japanese Descent,” pp. the Americas, meeting alternately in a Nikkei developed a stronger sense of their 133-162 in Japanese and Nikkei at Home North American (including Mexico) and identity with the Latin American country and Abroad, ed. by Nobuko Adachi. (New South American venue. People from Latin they came from living in Japan, as they York: Cambria Press 2010). American countries in particular came realized they identified more strongly together to share their immigrant histories with their “home” country in which they and discuss their shared issues, developing had been born and raised than with their a consciousness of being Nikkei and of ancestral country of Japan, something being part of a Japanese diaspora, which is many were not aware of until they resided now also well recognized in scholarship on in Japan. Thus, the histories of Japanese or related to Japan and Japanese descent immigrants to Latin America, their diverse groups. communities in different areas of Latin Ongoing and renewed ties among America, and their greater understandings Latin American countries and Japan of their own identities as members of

PHOTOS: (ABOVE) COURTESY OF THE SOCIEDADE BRASILEIRA DE CULTURA JAPONESA E DE ASSISTÊNCIA SOCIAL; 36 ReVista FALL 2018 (BELOW) COURTESY OF THE HISTORICAL MUSEUM OF JAPANESE IMMIGRATION TO BRAZIL. THE DIASPORAS

The Japanese Brazilian Community Diversity and Creativity of Circular Migrations By REGINA MATSUE and RAFAEL SHOJI

THE LARGE COMMUNITY OF JAPANESE between the two nations is now 110 years of 781 people sailed into the port of Brazilians is often seen as a model old, and it is a complicated one. Santos aboard the Kasato Maru. At first, minority. Indeed, many Brazilians At the end of the 19th century, there most migrants intended to work hard for without any Japanese heritage are now were too many people in Japan. There several years, with the dream of striking taking pride in Japanese martial arts, were too few in Brazil, especially with it rich and one day returning gloriously food, culture and religions. Yet it wasn’t so much labor needed for its vast coffee to Japan. However, few immigrants that long ago that Brazilians of Japanese plantations. Thus was born an exchange actually returned. In the pre-World War I origin were being seen as a “yellow that would eventually make Brazil the period, the Japanese in Brazil became peril.” And because of Brazil’s cyclical country with the largest population of settlers organized independently or were periods of economic instability, many Japanese descendants outside Japan, promoted by the Japanese government, Brazilian Japanese now find themselves more than one million and a half people. rather than contracted workers. The as immigrants once more, now as second- The first wave of Japanese migrants to migration intensified in the 1920s and class citizens in Japan. The history Brazil arrived on June 18, 1908; a shipload 1930s; in the mid-1930s there were more

Children frolic at the Brazilian Festa Junina in Moka City, Japan.

PHOTO, ABOVE, BY REGINA MATSUE AND RAFAEL SHOJI. REVISTA.DRCLAS.HARVARD.EDU ReVista 37 LATIN AMERICA AND ASIA

than half a million Japanese in Brazil. Workers on coffee plantations later became independent farmers who settled together, forming Japanese enclaves known as colonies, scattered mainly around São Paulo and Paraná states. Social life revolved around Japanese customs, with little interaction with Brazilians. This increasing visibility of Japanese in Brazil propelled an anti-Japanese sentiment in the public and political sphere, rejecting this ethnic group as a “yellow element” not consistent with national identity. World War II and the ensuing years proved to be a tough challenge for the Right: Tanabata Festival in São Paulo, Brazil; Left: poster promoting Japanese immigration to Brazil. community. Japanese—including the Japanese Brazilians—had a nationalistic devotion to Japan and its main symbol In Brazil, family life and many Nikkei associations at this time, the Emperor. At the same time, Brazil itself had a nationalistic promote Buddhist rituals, typical Japanese festival authoritarian regime under the and traditions. dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas from the 1930s on. Caught between these two one that even led to murder and terrorist minority of (first generation) and nationalisms, the Nikkei (descendants actions from the Makegumi faction. The from the pre-war period remained of Japanese) community suffered fanatical Kachigumi even assassinated attached to Japanese traditions and made restrictions during World War II. In 1934, some members of Makegumi who spoke efforts to preserve their ethnic identity, the Brazilian government established a against the ideal of invincibility of Japan. the majority underwent an identity compulsory assimilation program to But despite the divisions, the Japanese crisis, which continued into the following foment nationalism; education was decided to remain, and Brazil became their decades. standardized throughout the country, adopted country, a possible homeland. The Japanese achieved considerable and teaching in foreign languages was Permanent residence in Brazil looked like a educational and socioeconomic success in strictly forbidden in 1937. The Japanese viable destiny among these migrants. Until Brazil—they had traveled a long and hard were not allowed to run their schools, the decade of the 1940s, nine out of every way from Japanese immigrant workers and their children were not allowed to ten Japanese lived in rural communities. to Nikkeijin as a positive minority. The study their language. In 1940, foreign After many years of hard work, these participation of Japanese officials and language publications and newspapers migrants began to ascend socially. By the government in the promotion of Japanese were prohibited, and two years later Brazil late 1950s, one out of every two Japanese culture and permanent settlement were broke off diplomatic relations with Japan. lived in Brazil’s urban areas. decisive for the Nikkeijin in Brazil. The With Brazil and Japan on opposing sides The second generation of Japanese boundaries of ethnic identity between in World War II, migrants took the brunt. born in Brazil (Nisei) became more the Nikkeijin and the Brazilians were After the war, many Japanese involved in Brazilian national life. The demarcated in a constructive way that was Brazilians, unable to understand the news Nisei saw themselves as individuals in also promoted by the Japanese soft power, media in Portuguese, refused to believe the process of transition. In the 1960s, which helped the image of the Japanese that Japan had been defeated. Their the Nikkeijin joined the middle classes Brazilians decisively as a model minority. education and worldview had centered and started to establish their economic, Although the community continued to on Japanese invincibility and superiority. cultural and religious bases in the urban be divided in terms of generation, waves These events provoked a traumatic centers with high concentrations of of migration, and prefectures of origin, confrontation in the community between Japanese migrants, such as Liberdade, the Nikkei could still be seen as an the Nikkei who believed in the Japanese a Japanese district in São Paulo. independent ethnic group. victory (Kachigumi) and those that Engagement in industrial and commercial Over the years, the Nikkeijin have accepted the Japanese defeat (Makegumi). activities increased and families started to become quite diverse and heterogenous. Class division in the community was invest in the education of their children. For example, in some communities in probably an essential factor in this split, In the first decade after the war, while a the countryside in which Nikkei from the

38 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO ABOVE, LEFT, BY THE AUTHORS; POSTER IMAGE COURTESY OF THE AUTHORS. THE DIASPORAS

third or fourth generation still use the contact with the larger Japanese society, migration; many of these migrants are term Gaijin to refer to people who have consuming Brazilian products and caught in this circle between Japan and no Japanese ancestry, and many prefer to media. The construction of a Brazilian Brazil, depending on the fluctuation of marry Nikkei. In contrast, many Nikkei Nikkei identity as a minority group in the socioeconomic conditions of these two are called Mestiços, because they are a mix Japan reveals the diversity within this countries. The fluctuation of the waves of of Brazilians and Nikkei (half or more than transnational community. At the same people coming and going is constant and half Brazilian). Indeed, some cannot even time as they are considered a positive also the maintenance of the recruitment be identified as Japanese descendants minority in Brazil, in Japan the Brazilians system, communities and facilities for the by appearance, but only by Japanese- are seen in a lower position than the . sounding surnames. In contrast, the nationals. Most have no political rights Although many of these Brazilians young generation of Nikkei cannot speak and are seen as second-class citizens, have little contact with Japanese except in Japanese and have little attachment to performing unskilled jobs that no the workplaces, many of their children are Japan or Japanese culture. However, there Japanese wants to do. raised in Japan with Japanese classmates. is a new group of people without Japanese Nikkei identity becomes negotiated However, these children performed poorly ancestry, who claim a certain level of bilaterally with the respective majority in school due to difficulties with the “Japaneseness.” In general, these people societies. In Brazil, the Nikkei are native language and bullying in the Japanese are practitioners of Japanese martial arts, in culture and language, but they do not school system, so they started to work religions, enthusiastic fans of J-pop or any share the “racial” type usually identified when they were teenagers in the factories. other Japanese-related activities. Many as Brazilian, so they are identified as In this sense, many of them are considered of these Japanese enthusiasts take their Japanese. In Japan, the Nikkeijin fit a lost generation, with no future in Japan self-identification seriously by travelling theoretically into the Japanese identity nor in Brazil, perpetuating their position and living in Japan for a period, learning constructed on the tradition of valuing as citizens of the second class in Japan. the Japanese language and the philosophy blood and race, but their lack of cultural Despite these complications, the behind these practices. and linguistic competence isolate them circular migration process brought much The Japanese contribution includes a from interaction with the Japanese. dynamism to both societies. Japan is in diverse range of fields, such as agriculture; In Brazil, family life and many Nikkei need of workers, and the presence of they are responsible for the increase associations promote Buddhist rituals, Brazilians exposes lots of old problems in production of some vegetables and typical Japanese festival and traditions. related to the minorities in the country fruits brought from Japan and adapted Therefore, the Japanese culture is not and it is challenging the government to Brazil. Japanese introduced martial completely strange to many Nikkeijin. and the civil society to find alternative arts, such as judo and Aikido which Conversely, in Japan, the Nikkeijin ways to deal with them. At the same became very popular among Brazilians. valorize Brazilian symbols such as samba, time, the Nikkei community in Brazil Japanese religions such as Buddhism and carnival and popular festivals, and in this is renovating its ties and contacts with new religious groups also attract many way try to reinforce positive aspects of Japan. The people who lived in Japan Brazilians, not to mention the Brazilian Brazil as a way of marking differences and come back to Brazil bring with fondness for Japanese food and arts. with the Japanese. Many Nikkeijin act as them a background and new ideas that Despite their success, the Nikkeijin is contextually expected by the majority have much impact in their community. also suffered from the country’s economic society in which they find themselves, and political instability. In the 1990s, justifying the label “Japanese” in Brazil Regina Yoshie Matsue is an anthropolo- Brazil’s economic crises together with and “Brazilian” in Japan—a dual diaspora. gist and professor at Federal University the need for blue-collar workers in The number of Brazilians in Japan of São Paulo (UNIFESP). She did ethno- Japan stimulated a substantial reverse was estimated at more than 300,000 graphical research among Brazilians in migration. The Japanese government during its peak. In 2008, however, Japan and in Brazil and has published allowed the Nikkeijin— the first, second during the Japanese economic recession, widely on Japanese Brazilians religion, and third generation—to legally work in Brazilian workers faced layoffs, and after identity, health and gender. Japan, mainly in demanding industrial 2011, following Japan’s devastation by jobs. These reverse immigrants are the earthquake, tsunami and nuclear Rafael Shoji is a researcher at the Center called Dekasegi (roughly translated as disaster, the number of Brazilians for the Study of Oriental Religions “working away from home”), echoing dropped to about 100,000. Now, Brazil (CERAL) at the Pontifical University of the epithet of their ancestors, but in is once again experiencing an economic São Paulo. He has published on Japanese reverse. In Japan, the Nikkeijin have crisis and 230,000 Brazilians are now and Chinese religions in Brazil, Brazil- built ethnic communities and are estimated to be living in Japan. This ian religions in Japan and Buddhism in known as “Brazilians.” Many live without movement could be called a circular Latin America.

REVISTA.DRCLAS.HARVARD.EDU ReVista 39 LATIN AMERICA AND ASIA

Fried Rice and Plátanos Chinese Cuban Restaurants and Global Migration Circuits By KATHLEEN LÓPEZ

IN NOVEMBER 1968, TWO FOOD CRITICS FOR ham, shrimp and one called simply special New York magazine enthusiastically From 1847 to 1874, are $1.05 each. It is the Cuban side of the announced the arrival of a new cuisine about 125,000 men menu that should be the most novel for in town: “Probably the only benefit that the average New Yorker. The scope of the has been derived from the U.S.-Cuba from southeastern familiar omelet is enlarged by the addition estrangement is the establishment of the Guangdong Province of either banana, shrimp or Spanish Cuban-Chinese restaurant as part of New sausage (from 85 to 95 cents).” York’s gastronomic life.” Chinese Cuban arrived in Cuba as While this Chino Latino cuisine may restaurants emerged in Manhattan from indentured laborers have surprised the magazine’s readers, Chelsea to the Upper West Side. At Asia it was perfectly comprehensible for the Pearl on 54th Street, Spanish-speaking for sugar plantations, influx of Cuban immigrants arrived since customers filled the plain formica tables railroads and mining the 1959 Cuban revolution. They would or sat at the counter for their fried rice and have been familiar with Havana’s Barrio traditional Cuban dishes. The reviewers prior to and during Chino, which by mid-century was one of noted: “The fried rice dishes are good and the period of gradual the largest Chinatowns in the Americas, or seem to be comfortably placed between encountered Chinese-owned restaurants the Chinese and Cuban cooking. Pork, abolition of slavery. and shops in provincial towns across the

La Fortuna, a former Chinese restaurant in Sagua la Grande, which had a large Chinese presence and was the birthplace of artist Wifredo Lam.

40 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO, ABOVE BY POK CHI LAU; OPPOSITE PAGE BY WILLIAM KELLY THE DIASPORAS

island. Indeed, the Chinese Cuban eateries in New York and elsewhere are one strand of a history of global migration circuits between Asia and the Americas. From 1847 to 1874, about 125,000 men from southeastern Guangdong Province arrived in Cuba as indentured laborers for sugar plantations, railroads and mining prior to and during the period of gradual abolition of slavery. The coolie trade ended after an investigative commission exposed its atrocities in 1874. Those who remained settled in Cuba as agricultural and urban workers, artisans, labor contractors and market gardeners or remigrated elsewhere. As early as the 1860s they established eateries and food stands in an emergent Chinese district of Havana, and within a few decades merchants from Hong Kong and San Francisco set up transnational firms for the import of food products and luxury goods from China. Food is a central motif in narratives about the Chinese role in the Cuban ajiaco (stew), a metaphor for the multiple ethnic components of Cuban national identity. The Chinese who participated in Cuba’s independence struggles beginning in 1868 and made interracial marriages and other alliances were key to a process of integration. War narratives emphasize the Chinese role in patriotic and noncombat auxiliary activities, such as delivering messages, preparing food and acquiring medicine and clothing for the rebels. In 1884, for example, a group of Chinese charcoal makers protected hungry Cuban insurgents from Key West from Spanish forces. Once they were out of danger, the Chinese welcomed the troops with coffee, as any good Cuban would do. The Cuban commander commented that “they Typical meal at La Caridad 78 Restaurant on Broadway in New York City. prepared a magnificent meal: rice with chicken, fried pork, plantain and sweet plantains, which were native-grown and supporters of Cuban independence and potato: a Creole meal” (Antonio Chuffat produced on small-scale farming plots. potential citizens in the new republic. Latour, Apunte histórico de los Chinos en (New West Indian Guide 2002) A Cuban These kinds of narratives undermined Cuba,[1927]. As Shannon Dawdy notes in nationalist movement similarly developed the more common racialized descriptions her article on food, farming and national in opposition to both foreign control and of the Chinese as a “yellow peril” that identity in Cuba, the foundations of an large-scale agricultural regimes. Although circulated throughout the Americas since emerging national cuisine were viandas the Chinese were recent arrivals, through the 19th century. or starchy roots and tubers such as sweet their preparation of a quintessential Chinese immigration to Cuba was potatoes, yams and manioc, as well as Cuban meal they were represented as officially restricted under the U.S.

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occupation in 1899 and into the republican dinners there with his friends (owners and wordpress.com/tag/la-caridad-78/) era, but the ban on Chinese laborers employees of the restaurant) and return Today only a handful of the original was lifted to boost sugar production home late.” Chinese Cuban restaurants that during World War I. With an influx After the revolution, the final stage of proliferated along Eighth Avenue and in of new immigrants, bustling Chinese the nationalization of private commerce the boroughs remain, due to high rents, communities took shape in Havana and in Cuba in 1968 produced an exodus of gentrification and an aging immigrant other provincial towns. Restaurants, middle-class entrepreneurs, among them generation. Kenny Yu’s grandfather had bodegas, laundries, shoe and watch repair Chinese immigrants. They settled in established a laundry business in Cuba shops, bakeries, photography studios and Cuban neighborhoods of Little Havana in in the 1920s, but fled the island after pharmacies, as well as cultural institutions Miami, along the west side of Manhattan, the revolution and opened a restaurant such as ethnic associations and theaters, and across the Hudson River in Union in Chelsea in 1970. Yu did not meet him lined the streets of Havana’s Barrio Chino. City, New Jersey, where they established until the age of 12, when his grandfather Everyday interactions and intimacies, small businesses. Now, fifty years later, brought family members directly from many of them around food and we see the fading imprint of these later China to the United States. Since high restaurants, fostered an environment in migrations upon urban landscapes. school Yu worked in the restaurant, which the Chinese became Cuban. They Chinese Cuban restaurants offer La Chinita Linda, and eventually took made ice cream with fresh tropical fruit, a utilitarian ambiance, simple paper it over. In a June 2003 interview with sold savory fried snacks on street corners placements adorned with a map of Cuba Larry Tung, Yu commented that “the and ran restaurants that served working- and ample portions for their mostly second and third generations are not class Cubans. Truck gardeners provided working-class patrons. Mi Chinita (later interested in the restaurant business. They fresh cabbage, lettuce, tomatoes, carrots Sam Chinita) on the corner of Eighth want to do other professional work, like and beets to the Cuban population. Avenue and 19th Street was known [becoming] lawyers and doctors.” (http:// Chinese vendors delivered produce for its chrome, railcar-inspired façade www.gothamgazette.com/citizen/jun03/ and fish door to door in provincial typical of New York City diners of the original_cuban_chinese.shtml) neighborhoods. Cuban women who era as well as for its ropa vieja (shredded The original Chinese Cuban restaurants married Chinese men often learned to beef in tomato sauce) and fried rice. At have expanded their offerings to account cook Chinese dishes and participated with La Caridad 78 on Broadway, the menu’s for shifting demographics and more their mixed-race children in religious and “special combination platters” consist of recent migrations from Latin America. community life. arroz frito especial with ham, roast pork At the remaining establishments, older In an October 2015 blog, journalist and shrimp alongside standards such Spanish-speaking Chinese staff are joined Tania Quintero Antúnez recalls carrying as plátanos maduros, chicharrones de by newer Chinese immigrants, including a metal container for take-out dinners pollo (fried chicken chunks) or costilla some from Peru and elsewhere in Latin from a Chinese restaurant just two ahumada (barbecue ribs). America. La Dinastia on 72nd Street now blocks from her house in her Havana Above all, Chinese Cuban restaurants refers to its cuisine as “Chinese-Latin” and neighborhood. In the 1950s, 15 centavos provide for their Cuban customers a offers other Caribbean specialties such as could buy a “complete” meal of meat, rice touch of nostalgia for a prerevolutionary mofongo. and beans and plátanos maduros. Her era. Lisandro Pérez, CUNY professor As anthropologist Lok Siu notes in a family also frequented La Estrella de Oro and expert on the Cuban presence in the 2008 Afro-Hispanic Review essay, these on Monte Street for fried rice, chop suey United States, was 11 when he left Cuba. Chinese Cuban restaurants—and Chino and maripositas chinas (fried wontons). He recalls frequenting El Wakamba Latino restaurants more broadly—claim (https://www.martinoticias.com/a/ in downtown Miami for fried rice and “a distinct ethnic cuisine and cultural salimos-a-comer-algo/105764.html ) plátanos maduros. In his Cuban New space within the urban landscape of The award-winning composer, conductor Yorker blog, Pérez describes the interior of New York City.” They challenge fixed and arts educator Tania León fondly La Caridad 78 during a 2012 outing: “The notions of national culture that subsume remembers her Chinese grandfather, décor (if we can call it that) is punctuated alternate identities. Census categories born in Cuba to two Chinese parents. He by yellowed magazine and newspaper and racial hierarchies fail to account for presented León with her first piano when reviews of the restaurant, and presiding the secondary migrations of Asians from she was five years old. She accompanied over all of it is a framed image of La Virgen Latin America and the Caribbean to the him to dragon parades that coiled through de la Caridad del Cobre, the restaurant’s United States. This neglect is beginning Zanja Street during the Chinese New Year namesake and the island’s Catholic patron to change, as scholars, writers and and to dinners at the famous restaurant saint, who looks over the restaurant’s artists increasingly explore the complex El Pacífico. In a personal communication tables with their Chinese zodiac paper identity formations of Asians from Latin in 2005, she recalled: “We would have placemats.” (https://cubannewyorker. America and the Caribbean who re-

42 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO OPPOSITE PAGE BY ISABELLE LAUSENT-HERRERA. THE DIASPORAS

explains: “I just wanted to know how I fit in my family. And I wanted to know how my family fit in a larger scope of history. We had studied immigration in school, but our textbooks never considered families like mine, families that were of blended heritage before they even set foot in America. We celebrated hyphenated ethnicities all the time in our diversity- conscious curriculums, but adding one more, like Cuban and Chinese American, didn’t fit any mold.” Today, as descendants of Chinese Cubans in the United States make their way to Cuba in search of family history, they are met with a Barrio Chino in transition. After 1959, the population of ethnic Chinese in Cuba had sharply declined, and only about one hundred of the prerevolutionary immigrant population remains. However, Culinary exhibit of typical Chinese dishes at Fifth Festival of Chinese Overseas, Barrio Chino, the Chinese presence in Cuba has Havana. (2003). resurfaced through state investment and migrate within the Americas, especially migrations of his cousins, including Emily infrastructure projects, Chinese products to the United States and Canada. They Lo’s father, a Chinese from Indonesia. such as bicycles and televisions, cohorts grapple with mixed-race identities, hybrid In her 2007 essay “A Cuban-Chinese of Chinese students learning Spanish, languages and histories of migration and Familia,” Lo relates how her father met and a handful of Chinese entrepreneurs. displacement. her Chinese Cuban mother in New Jersey: Festivals draw younger generations of Emily Lo’s family history is rep- “He was set up with my mother when she mixed Chinese Cubans. The remaining resentative of the twists and turns of global was nineteen and he twenty-nine, and Chinese ethnic associations run migration between Asia and the Americas. this was how my own Cuban-Chinese- restaurants in their former meeting Lo’s Cuban grandmother married a Chinese American familia came to be” (Cuba: Idea rooms to boost tourism and ensure immigrant who returned to China in 1949 of a Nation Displaced). survival. They maintain the tradition of and was never heard from again. Her Some Asian Latinos such as Emily Lo serving Chinese food alongside comida grandmother left Cuba with her young have embarked on journeys to learn more criolla and pizza, popular among mother in 1962 and found work as a about their family history. Lo laments: “I Cubans. Whether future reforms will be seamstress in a New York City factory. could never get stories out of Aida at our substantial enough to spur another influx Her grandmother’s niece, Aida, married lunches at La Nueva Rampa, a Cuban- of Chinese immigrant entrepreneurs is Chinese immigrant Jesus Loo, whose Chinese restaurant in Manhattan….We’d an open question. It is clear, though, that family owned restaurants in Cuba. When sit down and order rice and beans, bistec food and restaurants will continue to be Aida and Jesus left the island, they opened empanizado, breaded steak, and the kind an integral component of the Chinese a chain of Chinese Cuban restaurants in of tostones my grandmother and I used Cuban migration experience in the New York, including the flagship Asia to hand-make in our kitchen.” Although Americas. Número Uno on Eighth Avenue at 55th retired from the restaurant business, Aida Street. The Loos were among several Loo would easily fall into old patterns at Kathleen López is a faculty member in restaurant owners featured in a 1985 the eatery owned by her friends: “She the Department of Latino and Caribbean New York Times article by Marvine Howe grabs her own silverware from the tray in Studies and the Department of History at that noted the gradual disappearance the back. She finds the plastic pitcher of Rutgers, The State University of New Jer- of these establishments. Their children ice water and marches it head high to our sey. She is the author of Chinese Cubans: grew up speaking English, Spanish and table.” Lo describes her journey to uncover A Transnational History (North Caro- Chinese and helped out with the family her family history and frustrations with lina, 2013) and an expert on historical business. Jesus Loo’s restaurants in New the boundaries imposed by academic and cultural intersections between Asia York City helped to fund the trans-Pacific disciplines and U.S. racial categories. She and Latin America.

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44 ReVista FALL 2018 POSTER IMAGE COURTESY OF AARON LITVIN. THE DIASPORAS

One Day We Arrived in Japan A Transnational and Longitudinal Documentary By AARON LITVIN

challenging experience in Japan. unexpected outcomes. That’s why the I received grants and fellowships film took over a decade to make. Ana to do several years of field research in Paula and I imagined that the experience each country, and I wrote articles and of moving to a very different country theses that I presented at academic on the other side of the world would be conferences. But in the process, I realized transformative for everyone, and we that while my sociological research was wanted to capture that—but we didn’t good for identifying trends and making know how it would affect each family. We generalizations based on surveys and needed to allow a lot of time for life to interviews, it wasn’t really showing the take its course. We are deeply grateful to Aaron Litvin filming the documentary. lives of individual migrants and families. the protagonists of the documentary for In 2006, I was in São Paulo finishing a entrusting us with their stories. IN 2003, WHEN I WAS AN UNDERGRADUATE year of research and was about to go to To find the participants, we went to at Harvard, I started studying the Japan for 18 months of research there. It places in São Paulo where we knew people fascinating history of Japanese migration occurred to me that, just as I was about to would go if they were preparing to move to Brazil and the more recent Brazilian move from Brazil to Japan, thousands of to Japan: employment agencies, Japanese migration to Japan. Brazil has the largest Brazilian families were about to make the language classes, and NGOs that host population of Japanese descendants trip. I wanted to meet them, show their workshops about working in Japan. We (outside Japan) in the world. In 1990, faces, and give them the opportunity to tell interviewed dozens of families; some of the Japanese government passed a law their stories—not just through interviews, them decided not to migrate, or didn’t get allowing second- and third-generation but by following their journeys across the their Japanese visas, or decided to quit the Japanese descendants (the children and world for several years and letting them documentary—and we ended up following grandchildren of Japanese citizens) and share their own lives and experiences. five families in Japan for the first two years. their families to live in Japan and work So, I bought video and audio equipment Three of those families made it into the there. For many Brazilians of Japanese and, together with co-director Ana Paula final film: a mother and daughter, a young descent, this was an attractive option, as Hirano, set out to find Brazilians who couple, and a family of four with a small they could earn higher salaries by going to were about to go to Japan. That’s how child named Bruno. The families struggled Japan and working in factories. During the documentary One Day We Arrived in to adapt to life in Japan, as 5-year-old the past 28 years, hundreds of thousands Japan was born. At the time, we imagined Bruno grew up and became a teenager. of Brazilians of Japanese descent and their that we would see some major changes in We wanted the film to focus on the families have gone to Japan in search of the lives of the participants, but we didn’t migrant families and their stories directly higher salaries and a better life. foresee that this film would be a decade- and transparently. For this reason, there The migration is overwhelmingly for long journey and that we would witness is no voiceover narration or added music economic reasons: although most of the in great intimacy such dramatic and or sound effects, and there are also no migrants have Japanese heritage, my unexpected turns of fate. “talking heads”—everyone who appears surveys and interviews have shown that The great challenge of this film was in the film has a direct connection to one they go to Japan in search of financial that instead of just going to Japan and of the three families. We don’t pretend stability and a better life, not due to interviewing Brazilians there, or providing that the camera isn’t there or that every cultural ties or a desire for some mythical information and statistics, we wanted scene is somehow “pure” or natural; to the “return” to their ethnic homeland. When to follow people’s entire immigration contrary, I believe that the filmmaker can they arrive, most of the migrants do not experience from the beginning. We and should be a bit disruptive sometimes, speak much Japanese or identify with wanted to do something with the film creating situations and opportunities for Japanese culture and society; that fact, that no journalistic report could do: truth to surface. At the same time, I guess along with the physical and mental toll closely follow people’s lives for many years, I do appreciate a sort of simplicity and of exhausting factory work, is a major showing how their hopes and expectations purity in documentaries: I believe that reason why many Brazilians have such a withstand a challenging new reality and a powerful scene or interview conveys

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Bruno, age 8, in Okazaki, Japan: “When I started first grade at the Japanese school, I cried, because I didn’t understand what anyone was say- ing. It made me want to return to Brazil. I stood there thinking, ‘What are they doing? What are they saying?’ Then I thought, ‘I’ll stop doing what I want, and I’ll imitate them.’ And I was able to interact with them a little bit. Now I’m in second grade, trying hard to become a third grader. I understand everything now – I can talk with my teacher and with my friends.” (below), a worker in Japan. its own emotions and insights, without One Day We Arrived in Japan had pseudo-poetic voiceovers or tear-jerking its world premiere in May 2018 at the cello tracks. Essentially, we wanted to give Latin American Studies Association the migrant families a series of occasions Film Festival in Barcelona. It is now to share their lives and tell their own available for online viewing; see stories, without external material. We did www.onedaywearrivedinjapan.com that by recording verité footage, and by for details. creating opportunities for reflection, such as by showing the families past interviews Marlom Meirelles—a very talented Aaron Litvin spent 30 months in Brazil and footage of themselves. filmmaker from Pernambuco—became and 30 months in Japan during pre- The crew was just me and Ana Paula. the film’s creative consultant and co- production and production of One Day This allowed us to become very close to editor, and together we reviewed all of We Arrived in Japan. Litvin graduated the families in the film, which I think was the footage and edited multiple versions from Harvard College with a degree in fundamental to sharing their stories. We over the course of ten months. After that, Latin American Studies, earned an M.S. did some of the most powerful interviews we collaborated for two months with co- in Sociology from the University of São at their houses at two in the morning. editor Luelane Corrêa (who edited many Paulo, and is a Ph.D. candidate in Luso- I think that this intimacy is one of the of the films of legendary director Nelson Brazilian literature and Critical Media defining characteristics of the film. We Pereira dos Santos), revising the film and Practice at Harvard University. He was also collected and incorporated their adjusting scenes and transitions frame a Fulbright Scholar in Brazil and a Jap- home videos, and we used a variety of by frame. Then, during two intense anese Government Research Scholar at cameras and aspect ratios for our own weeks as editing consultant and finishing Sophia University in Tokyo. His e-mail footage, so as to differentiate between past editor, Felipe Lacerda (co-director of Bus address is [email protected] and present and to form layers of memory. 174, and editor of the Brazilian classic One Day We Arrived in Japan is the Central Station) helped us to develop a The directors express their sincere result of what turned out to be a massive more compelling narrative structure and thanks to Jorge Paulo Lemann, whose editing project—shaping more than 200 improve the film on every level. Finally, generous financial support allowed them hours of footage of three families, in two Ricardo Cutz did the sound editing and to complete the editing and post-produc- countries, over ten years, into a compelling sound mix, and the team at O2 Pós in Rio tion of the film. The David Rockefeller 80-minute film with a coherent and de Janeiro did the image post-production. Center for Latin American Studies engaging narrative structure. Ana Paula So, what started as a two-person project provided the initial grant 15 years ago and I did a lot of preliminary editing became a massive team effort. And for Litvin’s research on Brazil-Japan over the years, but after filming was hundreds of people from around the migration, and this year DRCLAS finally complete in 2015, four excellent world provided support and advice, for funded the directors’ travel to Barcelona filmmakers joined the team and made which we are extremely grateful. It has for the premiere of One Day We Arrived wonderful creative contributions. First, been quite a saga. in Japan.

46 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTOS ARE STILLS FROM “ONE DAY WE ARRIVED IN JAPAN.” COURTESY OF AARON LITVIN. TRADE TIES AND BEYOND

A friendly mascot greets visitors to a Chinese augmented reality company at the Mobile World Congress in Shanghai, June 2018.

Victor López Villafañe Development in Northeast Asia • Margaret Meyers Filling the Infrastructure Gap • Horacio J. Godoy New Pirates in the Caribbean? • Rebecca Ray Chinese Development Finance and the Andean Amazon Infrastructure Boom • Mario Henrique Ogasavara Waves of Asian Investments in Brazil • Renato Balderrama and Amado Trejo Made in China 2025 • Rosario Santa Gadea Understanding the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative • Gilmar Masiero China and Latin America Relations • Patricia Castro Obando A Commercial Hit That’s a Product of Censorship • Emiliano Valle Dragon Mart Cancún • Matt Ferchen China-Venezuela Relations

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Development in Northeast Asia A Perspective from Latin America By VÍCTOR LÓPEZ VILLAFAÑE

I’VE BEEN STUDYING NORTHEAST ASIA—MAINLY China, Japan and South Korea—for the past four decades, and I’d like to share with ReVista readers what I consider to be the principal differences and lessons the rapid development of these countries can offer Latin America.

ONE REGION, THREE POWERS After World War II, Japan became a world economic power. South Korea followed suit, and then finally after 1978, China. Nowadays, China is the second economic power in the world, Japan the third, and South Korea, the eleventh. Seventy years ago, the three countries were underdeveloped: their takeoff and economic growth have been exceptional in world history. And they became motors for Japan revived its economic growth with savings. the growth and development for the entire Asiatic region in terms of trade and mutual America between 1980 and 1990. Frequent and the Caribbean continue to be very investment. financial crises followed. In spite of all dependent on the export of resources and In Latin America, Argentina was this and because of their great economic primary materials, and this has given rise regarded as an emerging power at the potential, these two countries continue to new debates such as that about neo- beginning of the 20th century with great to figure as mid-size economic powers in extractivism as a form of evolution, but possibilities of becoming a world power, the world system. within the context of the exploitation of but that never happened. I remember As we might imagine, the great natural resources as an essential means in that famous joke attributed to Russo- countries of Latin America—unlike all economic operations. American economist Simon Kuznets when Japan, China and South Korea—did not he was asked about how countries should contribute to the internal development LESSONS FROM NORTHEAST ASIA be classified. He said that there were of the continent. Foreign trade and The region provides varied and developed countries and underdeveloped investments kept coming primarily from important lessons for Latin America. countries—and then there were Japan overseas. Mexico is a case in point. It has It seems to me that the intensity of and Argentina. No one could explain why a large economy, but it is a platform for industrialization policy in the three Japan, with so many limited resources, was trade for big U.S., Asian and European countries is one of them. In general, all of a developed country, and how Argentina companies, which focus their investments these cases were successful in transforming with such abundant resources was on taking advantage of closeness to the ample masses of urban and rural dwellers underdeveloped. U.S. market and of the low salaries paid to into workers in their new industries— Mexico and Brazil, the two other Mexican workers. The attempts at regional more than Mexico, Brazil and other Latin large countries on the continent, had integration up until now have suffered American countries have been able to do. spectacular economic growth between from this flaw. They do not depend on Over time, these new industries generated 1950 and 1970, which led them to be the region’s own economies by developing a cycle of change and technological dubbed Latin America’s great economic capability to restructure industrial and development, confronting the challenges miracles; however, this growth stagnated industrial platforms, making them that these processes of restructuring because of their high debt level which dynamic as happened in East Asia. The demanded. The job market absorbed many led to the so-called lost decade in Latin majority of countries in Latin American people, and later, in the face of industrial

48 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO, PREVIOUS PAGE, BY AMADO TREJO; ABOVE, BY MARÍA FERNANDA GARCÍA MÚNERA TRADE TIES AND BEYOND

and technological changes, workers’ salaries spiralling rural unemployment. Almost to strengthen the industrial, technological increased, creating a virtuous cycle and a million and a half jobs were lost in the and human resource factors to bolster increasing exports at the same time a new rural areas of Mexico between 1994 and the effects of trade integration within the dynamic domestic market was created. 2004. Other migrants left low-paying Mexican economy. Mexico has substantial In contrast, the industrial growth that jobs in the cities in search of the American exports but basically foreign companies was important in some Latin American dream. Salaries paid to workers in Mexico manufacure in Mexico and export to the United States. We should remember that Asian countries became export powerhouses in the world market without trade agreements, and that these were signed after the fact. Without an industrial policy, which was completely abandoned in Latin America in the last decades, the continent’s economies could not establish interconnections with their national industries, nor between their industries, and, indeed, in many cases industry did not even exist and foreign firms dominated the export sector. Thus, positive effects could not be generated in economic growth and job creation; technological transfer was limited. As a result, in the majority of Latin American countries, dependence on international oil prices and other natural resources continues

China mixes the traditional with the ultramodern. to determine economic growth. Thus, the power of control and management of the economies follows the cycles of As we might imagine, the great countries of Latin international prices. The continent is still—as the actual economic relation with America—unlike Japan, China and South Korea— China demonstrates—a provider of natural did not contribute to the internal development of resources to the world market. The stage of industrial development the continent. and import substitution in Latin America was carried out without native countries such as Mexico and Brazil, in are very low, and this basically constitutes technological development. This was the the stages of development in post-war a comparative advantage in keeping the other key to the difference with East Asia Latin America, was not sufficiently intense costs of goods down. But, mostly because where, as historian Bruce Cumings has to prevent marginal populations in the of these low wages, the domestic market pointed out, authoritarian bureaucracies countryside and the city from emerging lives with a permanent bottleneck. Levels placed emphasis on endogenous (without as the bottleneck generated by inadequate of poverty are maintained just as they external factors) industrialization and rural and industrial development. were in the past without new strategies to promotion of the export sector. In contrast, The case of Mexico again began to alleviate them. Latin American national industries were receive a lot of attention when its industrial I believe that the Mexican case is an developed, but they never could be strategy started to emphasize foreign example of what has been happening competitive in international markets. investment and international trade as to different degrees throughout Latin In almost all Latin American countries, the instruments with which to transform America. Many countries saw the NAFTA advanced technologies were implemented Mexico—according to its leaders at the experiment as a great promise that free through investments in industrial plants. time—into an economic powerhouse. Thus trade with the United States would shape There were no strategies to learn and to with the signing of the North American Mexico into an economic power similar transfer thse new technologies to local Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, to that of eastern Asia. It did not happen industries, as happened in Japan (more the migration of workers to the United that way, because integration was carried through the use of the acquisition of States accelated dramatically because of out without strategies and prior planning licenses and patents for technological use)

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and in South Korea. For decades now, the region. Groups of Korean migrants China has been acquiring and transferring and other Asian nations are also settling Filling new technologies to its national companies, in Latin America as living proof of the which now constitutes one of the points of dynamism of exchange that exists between conflict with the United States. the two regions. the Infra- Once the model of import substitution Investments and trade have increased had run its course in Latin America, notably in the last few years. Japan has structure a reliance followed on external debt, had an important economic presence implemented on a grand scale in Mexico, since the end of World War II and China Gap Brazil and Argentina during the decade with its enormous economic potential has China’s (Belt and) Road- of the ‘70s and the beginning of the ‘80s, become the primary trading partner for which then led to financial crises and low many Latin American countries. Trade blocks in Latin America growth. In contrast, Japan could fuel its with Asia now takes second place after industrial growth with financing that the United States for Latin America and By MARGARET MYERS was a product of internal savings, while the Caribbean. South Korea became greatly indebted Investment has also soared. For almost on the levels of the large Latin example, in 2008, total trade was already American countries. The difference in the 143,000 million dollars, and in 2017, it MUCH HAS BEEN MADE OF CHINA’S REMARKABLE Korean case is that the borrowed resources had spiralled to more than 250,000 inroads into Latin America over the past were destined with preference to export million dollars. Trade between Asia and two decades, and with good reason. In industries that could pay off the debt and Latin America increases on an average of 2017 alone, China exported $140 billion maintain growth. For its part, China has 15% yearly. If this pace continues, in the in goods, spent about $17 billion on carried out its economic development next ten years, Latin American markets mergers and acquisitions, and provided with large and permanent injections of will make up an enormously important $9 billion in state finance to the region. local credit derived mainly from local part of China’s world trade. In addition to announcing some new savings. Latin America’s debt in great Moreover, in these years, China’s investment initiatives in Peru and Brazil part was not destined to export industries, commercial penetration was decisive not in recent months, Beijing also recruited but to basic industries such as oil and gas only in helping many Latin American two new political allies—Panama and and to government expenditures, with countries withstand the world economic the Dominican Republic—from Taiwan’s the enormous possibility that a great crisis, but China became a primary or dwindling diplomatic partners in the percentage of this debt was channeled into secondary partner for many. In the case region. corruption, which is an endemic evil in the of Chile and Brazil, China passed the Now, as Latin America is gradually entire region. United States as principal trading partner. incorporated into China’s Belt and Road In Argentina, Costa Rica, Peru and Cuba, Initiative (BRI)—Chinese President RELATIONS BETWEEN ASIA AND China became the second most important Xi Jinping’s signature, connectivity- LATIN AMERICA market. The principal problem, as we based foreign policy—governments are Since the Spanish trading ships known have mentioned, is the fact that the trade increasingly looking to China to address as Manila Galleons engaged in regular is unequal, with Latin America selling the region’s glaring infrastructure trade between the two regions from 1565 raw materials and energy to China, while deficit. The hope is that Chinese state and 1815, and perhaps since the first China exports manufactured goods. This banks, such as the China Development Asian migrants set foot on Mexican soil, puts Latin America at risk of once again Bank and China Export-Import Bank, or the relations have existed, becoming very creating a cycle of dependency. other China-backed financial platforms, dynamic in the last decades between the such as the $40 billion Silk Road Fund or end of the 20th century and the beginning Víctor López Villafane is a professor at Asian Infrastructure Development Bank, of this 21st century. Migrations from Asia, the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, can provide some of the estimated $300 mainly from China and Japan, have created Mexico, and Professor Emeritus at the billion per year needed to modernize the one of the most important groups in almost Tecnológico de Monterrey. He studied region’s infrastructure in the next decade. all the countries on the continent. The China and Japan at the University of However, if history is any indication, population of Japanese origin in Brazil, for Tsukuba, Japan from 1977 to 1979. He China’s commitment to Latin American example, is the largest number of Japanese has received the Japanese government’s infrastructure development is unlikely outside of Japan, and in many countries Order of the Rising Sun for his contribu- to result in a slew of mega-projects in Chinatowns have become important tions to Asia-Pacific studies. He can be the coming years. Transport and energy because of China’s important presence in contacted at [email protected]. sector construction has been a primary

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region, ensure economic gains, or advance an especially high-profile project. Of all of China’s proposed infrastructure projects in Latin America, the Bi-oceanic Railway is arguably the most emblematic of BRI principles, including infrastructure-based connectivity and trade facilitation. If built, the mega-project would link Brazil’s soy heartland to the Peruvian coast, enabling safer and quicker transport of soy to China, and connecting fragmented railway segments across South America. The Michel Temer and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski governments in Brazil and Peru both shelved the project in 2017, citing environmental and other concerns, but Beijing continues to promote the railway and to favor a so-called “northern route,” running from Ica, Peru, to Santos, Brazil. The northern route would be the most cost-effective for China, but is widely recognized as the most environmentally and socially costly of three proposed Then-Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff and China’s Prime Minister Li Keqiang signed a options. Initial plans have it passing cooperation plan until 2021, including feasibility studies for a Bioceanic Railway Connection. through especially biodiverse areas, such focus of Chinese engagement with Latin on host government risk assessments as the Isconahua Reserve and Vale do Rio America for more than a decade, and is and feasibility studies when planning a Juruá, and through relatively untouched a centerpiece of Chinese policy toward project, despite a history of unfortunate forests in Brazil’s Mato Grosso, Rondônia the region. Even so, Chinese firms and outcomes. and Acre states. financiers only rarely deliver operational Take, for example, the involvement At present, China is perhaps the only infrastructure in Latin America, despite of China Three Gorges and China actor that could carry out a project of this relatively deep pockets and considerable International Water and Electric scale, but it’s hard to imagine that any appetite for risk. Corporation in the Rositas hydroelectric Chinese entity could do so without causing Despite some examples of successful dam in Bolivia, a priority project for considerable public backlash, reputational project delivery, occasionally at record President Evo Morales. A separate Chinese fallout or damage to the broader China- speed, Chinese investors are still wary firm, Hydrochina Corporation, was hired Latin America relationship. Latin of operating in Latin America. Many to perform engineering and financial American civil society and watchdog view the region’s distance from Asia as feasibility assessments and to take part in organizations have already made known prohibitive, and some countries’ regulatory designing the nearly US$1 billion project, the likely effects of northern route environments and bidding processes but none of the Chinese companies construction on tropical savanna and exceedingly complex or taxing. As Zuo involved sufficiently understood— forest, and on the hundreds of indigenous Pin of the Shanghai International Studies or were reportedly informed of—the communities living there. University noted in Chinese journal Guoji potential for opposition to the project To be sure, there are also examples Guancha in 2015, whether it’s part of the by local communities, whose concerns of Chinese companies taking necessary BRI or not, Latin America is considered a about displacement and food security precautions and complying with local difficult investment environment. have delayed the project indefinitely. The procedures and regulations, yet still Moreover, the frequent failure of potential effects on these communities grappling with Latin American political Chinese companies to practice due were such that the uncertainty in its various forms. Mexico’s diligence in the region has led to Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues annulment of a high-speed passenger unforeseen conflicts and resulting project eventually took up their demands. train line linking Mexico City to Queretaro delays. Preferring not to interfere in the In other cases, Beijing knowingly in 2014 reportedly shocked China Railway domestic affairs of host countries, many accepts high levels of risk in order to Construction Corporation, which had won Chinese infrastructure companies rely strengthen political partnerships in the a bid for the project as part of a Chinese-

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the extent to which Latin American governments are inclined to engage in policy coordination and strategic planning in the coming years. Chinese companies would benefit considerably from a register of regional projects that are not only badly needed, but also thought to be executable and sustainable by a variety of Latin American stakeholders. The Initiative for the Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA), an effort by South American governments to produce a new infrastructure network for the continent, including dozens of roads, waterways, ports, and energy and communications projects, is an important start. However, according to non- governmental organization International Rivers, few attempts have been made to Belgrano Cargas Project, Argentina assess the cumulative impacts of IIRSA’s ambitious plans. Mexican consortium. The agreement was as far back as 1999, for example, fourteen Chinese attention to the many rescinded after an outcry from Mexican years before Xi Jinping ever mentioned externalities associated with public works lawmakers and amidst speculation that the Belt and Road. and other projects would also improve public works projects benefited allies of None of this has stopped Chinese success rates. Beijing will continue Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto officials and executives from expressing to take on high levels of overseas risk and his Institutional Revolutionary interest in Latin American roads, rail, in support of political objectives, to Party. For China, which was actively ports and other forms of infrastructure in ensure energy and food security, and to seeking to export increasingly high-tech recent months. Chinese Foreign Minister promote economic growth in China, but products and services, Mexico’s about- Wang Yi called for “greater connectivity individual Chinese companies can learn face was an awkward development, integrating land and ocean” during the from the setbacks they’ve encountered especially considering that this deal was January 2018 China-Community of in Latin America as they pursue new highly publicized in the Chinese media. Latin American and Caribbean States projects. Many, such as mining company Chinese citizens took to the Internet en (CELAC) Forum. More recently, Chinese MMG in Peru and State Grid in Brazil, masse to condemn Mexico’s decision. Ambassador Jia Guide announced $10 are already arguably doing so. China’s Even so, China may very well participate billion in Chinese investment in Peru success in crafting a “community of in a resurrected version of the project, over the next three years, including shared destiny” with Latin America—a recently promoted by Mexican President- in the country’s telecommunications, cooperative framework promoted by elect Andrés Manuel López Obrador. construction and infrastructure sectors. Chinese officials in recent months—will Whatever the reason, setbacks for In addition, Panama, Trinidad and depend on the continued application of Chinese infrastructure companies are Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, and lessons learned by Chinese firms. Until its more the rule than the exception in most Bolivia joined the list of around seventy companies improve their rates of project Latin American countries. So, while we Belt and Road Cooperation Agreement completion in Latin America, China can may see a BRI-related uptick in Chinese signatories this year, while the Panama be expected to make only a marginal dent bids for regional infrastructure projects, City-David railway became an official in the region’s infrastructure deficit. Latin Americans would be well advised to BRI infrastructure project. More Latin temper their expectations. China is just as American and Caribbean states are Margaret Myers directs the Latin likely to attach the BRI label to existing expected to formalize their ties to the America and the World program at the projects—as it has in other regions—than BRI in the coming months, with the Inter-American Dialogue, a Western to pursue dozens of new high-profile expectation of securing China-backed Hemisphere affairs think tank head- deals. The Bangladesh, China, India and infrastructure deals. quartered in Washington, D.C. She tracks Myanmar (BCIM) Economic Corridor, a Whether any of this materializes will Chinese state finance to Latin American core component of the BRI, was conceived depend, among many other factors, on and the Caribbean annually.

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The 2,300-room Baha Mar resort hotel in the Bahamas received Chinese financing.

New Pirates in the Caribbean? The Rising Chinese Wave By HORACIO J. GODOY

ENGLISH PIRATES TROLLED THE CARIBBEAN Platt Amendment on the island, followed Petrocaribe. five hundred years ago seeking the best by Theodore Roosevelt taking Panama Today, a new global power is making plunder for the British Crown. Spanish to build the Canal, and finally Reagan waves in the Caribbean. It is the People’s colonizers of the Americas shipped the invading Grenada and Bush bombing Republic of China. In order to satisfy its gold and silver from this region to Europe. Panama. The Caribbean has been a focal voracious internal demand, China began Later, the United States rose to power and point of the major economic players of the to acquire the area’s natural resources defined the whole Americas as their area world now for five centuries. (bauxite, alumina, nickel) and agricultural of influence through the Monroe Doctrine. More recently, for a short period, Hugo products (sugar), as it did in the rest of The Caribbean lived a particularly Chávez’s Venezuela became an active Latin America. At the same time, it intense version of this doctrine. The 20th player in the Caribbean to fill a gap of an significantly increased its exports of century began with President McKinley increasingly indifferent United States, manufactured goods to these countries intervening to support the independence disbursing cheap fuel and financing and is now the largest or second-largest of Cuba from Spain and imposing the broken economies through the oil alliance trade partner for almost all the region.

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Moreover, in countries like Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica, to name a few, In order to satisfy its voracious internal demand, Chinese imports are up to five times larger than exports to the Asian republic. China began to acquire the area’s natural resources Since 2015, however, China started to (bauxite, alumina, nickel) and agricultural products go well beyond trade, to concentrate also on investment, especially in infrastructure (sugar), as it did in the rest of Latin America. such as roads, ports, tourism and energy. Through its development banks, the were exports to China. Chinese firms plans for a monumental deep-sea port on government has multiplied its loans have invested in Cuban infrastructure the coast of Jamaica’s Great Goat Island, to Latin America sixfold since 2007, with projects such as renewable energy with a price tag of 1.5 billion dollars, to according to the Council on Hemispheric research, hotel development and tourism. process cargo from the newly expanded Affairs, and the Caribbean is not the A new Air China Beijing-Havana flight Panama Canal. It would have been the exception. In a few years, China has has increased the number of Chinese biggest Chinese investment in the region become the major foreign investor in this visitors to Cuba since 2017 and is expected to date, but the project was brought to continent, surpassing the United States to grow further. a halt, and later virtually shelved, due and Europe. A closer look at some of , Grenada, Guyana, Panama to strong pressure from environmental these investments shows the magnitude and Suriname have all received a major groups that argued the area was an of China’s impact on the small Caribbean influx of Chinese funds, varying from ecological reserve, home to endangered nations. economic investments to gifts and direct local species. Known as the “Beijing highway,” aid. In 2017, Beijing went even further The Bahamas partnered with China Highway 2000, completed in 2016, is a and presented a new comprehensive on a number of high-profile investments state-of-the-art divided road that connects development plan for Grenada. This is a including trans-shipment ports and Jamaica north to south. The 41.6 mile blueprint for infrastructure development, luxury resorts to accommodate the artery that cost $732 million, linking the including highways, railways, deep-water growing tourist trade. In 2017, the Baha capital city of Kingston with the popular ports for cruise and cargo ships and a new Mar resort, a $4.2 billion project with beachside resort of Ocho Rios, may be economic center built around St. George, 2,300 rooms, finally opened its doors, the single biggest investment by China the capital. “Helping other nations to some four years behind schedule and in the Caribbean thus far. The highway design a national development plan is a with severe financial difficulties including was constructed by the China Harbor demonstration of our soft power,” said a bankruptcy of the initial owners and Engineering Co. (CHEC), a state-owned Chen Fengying, a fellow at the China hundreds of jobs lost. The import-export global company. Institute of Contemporary International bank of China finally sold the project to In return, the Jamaican government Relations (CICIR). “It is an equal and the Cheng family from Hong Kong, known has handed over to the Chinese 1,200 friendly gesture from China to other for its casino businesses in Macao. They acres of land along the road for the developing countries.” completed the works and inaugurated construction and development of hotels (although partially) the site only last year. and resorts. Three luxury hotels with up to CHINESE ADVENTURERS The construction of the Nicaragua 2,400 rooms are planned, as well as a host However, not all Chinese investments Canal, an allegedly $50 billion project to of other investments in the area. Despite have been so orderly and successful. be financed by private Chinese investors, some serious questions concerning jobs Largely encouraged and enabled by was to begin in 2013. Surrounded for local workers, environmental threats China’s central government, Chinese by secrecy and doubts regarding the to the sites, and potential negative effects firms set out to invest overseas with funds, the future of the project remains on local competitors, the Jamaican diverse qualifications and capacity. Civil uncertain. A recent study by Belgian- government continues to be very society activists in Latin America and the based research institute Porteconomics supportive of new Chinese investments. Caribbean have criticized a few of these shows that the project is rife with China has also expanded investment projects for employing and giving special uncertainties and challenges, as well as and trade in Cuba, despite their limited conditions to Chinese workers and lacking high economic and environmental costs. relationship during the Cold War. effective environmental impact policies. Additionally, Nicaragua does not have Trade between the two countries has Some projects have run out of funding, diplomatic relations with Beijing, as it still increased since 2010, and in 2016 China causing great economic distress, and recognizes Taipei. surpassed Venezuela as Cuba’s largest in others, the origin and intentions of trading partner, with a bilateral trade of investors have been opaque. WHY THE CARIBBEAN? $2.5 billion, only 257 million of which In 2016, for example, the Chinese had In 2016, China released its White

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go along with what China wants, that’s good too.’” Other observers contend that China has been investing systematically in the Caribbean in the last 15 years as part of Beijing’s diplomatic efforts to obtain the recognition of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) over that of Taiwan. Of the 19 countries in the world that maintain formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan, ten are in Latin America and, with the exception of Paraguay, all are in Central America and the Caribbean. In the years leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup, for example, China doled out $132 million to Caribbean countries in aid and flexible loans. The soft touch rendered some fruits. In 2005, after Grenada severed ties with Taiwan and recognized Beijing, it received a token of appreciation from the mainland Chinese government: a $55-million cricket stadium. The Chinese are constructing beachside resorts in the Caribbean. A 2008 diplomatic truce between China and Taiwan came to an end in 2016, Paper on Latin America and the Review Commission (UCESC) report, that when Taiwan elected nationalist Tsai Ing- Caribbean and introducing guidelines “China’s engagement with the Caribbean is wen of the Democratic Progressive Party for the region, complementing its first primarily economic in nature and appears as president. China’s push for switching 2008 paper on the region. The White to be tied to Beijing’s broader efforts to gain recognition became stronger then, and Paper lays out broad principles of peace access to key markets.” it has been paying off lately. In 2017, and stability, non-interference and It makes sense to claim that in Latin after a Chinese conglomerate funded mutually beneficial relationships, which America, China had initially focused on and completed expansion of the Panama are to be the basis of China’s engagement assuring access to the region’s natural Canal, Panama cut ties with Taiwan and with South America. China has become a resources. However, Caribbean economies recognized the People’s Republic. The member or observer state in most regional are too small to be significant for China’s Dominican Republic followed suit, and international organizations, from the Inter- trading plans. This region accounts for less in May 2018 announced its severance of American Development Bank (IADB) to than one percent of the Asian country’s relations with Taiwan and recognition of the Community of Latin American and trade. But viewed from the Caribbean Beijing. Prior to this decision, China had Caribbean States (CELAC), a regional perspective, China’s partnership is indeed promised $800 million in infrastructure organization including all countries except very significant. investments, including the Yuna River the United States. It is also an active Other studies emphasize China’s Project, a construction of low-cost housing partner within the Caribbean Community intention to contribute to South-South and a trash recycling/energy generating of the English, French and Dutch-speaking cooperation for development. This plant. countries, known as CARICOM. explanation is particularly strong given A third explanation of Beijing’s Why would the second biggest the scarce attention that the region interest in the Caribbean is geopolitical. economy in the world bother to develop has been receiving from its traditional Some specialists consider that China, such tight relations with the small nations partners, the United States, Europe and responding to its global strategic plans, of the Caribbean? South America. Nevertheless, as expert is defying the U.S. influence in the area. “It’s the economy,” most analysts Evan Ellis has noted, “China’s Caribbean “Beyond market access, China’s increased answer. They argue that trade, as in the involvement does not represent an presence in Caribbean affairs can be whole world, is China’s main motivation. altruistic Sino-Marshall Plan. Beijing talks understood as a subtle jab at American Caitlyn Campbell states, for example, about ‘win-win,’ but actually this means Western Hemisphere dominance at a in a U.S.-China Economic and Security ‘China winning, and if Latin America will time when Washington is pushing Beijing

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in the South China Sea,” says University of Akron China specialist Jared Ward. Although Ward explains that China Chinese Development does not represent a direct threat to U.S. security today, he argues China’s footprint Finance and the will grow and challenge U.S. power. There are no indications so far Andean Amazon that Chinese growing influence in the Caribbean poses a security challenge Infrastructure Boom to the United States. China’s military By REBECCA RAY and security presence in the region is minimal. Cooperation, loans and institutional relations are indeed growing in the military and security sectors, but WHILE DIPLOMATIC TENSIONS SIMMER experiencing an infrastructure boom with seem to be mostly token gestures, like between the U.S. government and its help from international development sending military support troops and counterparts in Latin America and in finance institutions (DFIs). This region is medical units with the UN mission for China, the South Americans have been particularly challenging for infrastructure the recovery of after the earthquake growing closer to the Chinese, particularly planning, as it boasts the richest or offering other countries vehicles for in the area of development finance. Six biodiversity in the hemisphere as well as rapid police deployment. South American nations (Argentina, the “uncontacted frontier”—the highest For the last five centuries, the Caribbean Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador and concentration of voluntarily isolated and has seen rising and declining powers Venezuela) have applied for membership uncontacted indigenous communities navigate its waters, and what happened in in the Asian Infrastructure Investment on earth. Figure 2 shows international that region reflected shifts in power in the Bank, and China has also invited Latin DFI-financed infrastructure projects world. It is no different today. The United American and Caribbean (LAC) countries approved and completed between 2000 States seems to be in retreat. In 2013 to join the “Belt and Road Initiative” of and 2015, compared to new projects Secretary of State John Kerry announced infrastructure links between Asia and and those still in the pipeline. The last the end of the Monroe Doctrine. He the world. This coming year, the Inter- 15 years saw 64 projects completed, stressed the need and desire of the United American Development Bank (IDB) will including many hydropower dams along States to re-engage with the region, but hold its annual meeting in China. the edge of the Amazon basin and in the this has not yet taken place and, under the Andean highlands. Since then, 58 new current circumstances, seems unlikely that CHINA’S EXPANDING PRESENCE projects have already been completed it will happen in the near future. IN ANDEAN AMAZONIAN or approved, and they are expanding Thus the real question for the INFRASTRUCTURE further into the Amazon basin itself. The Caribbean leaders is not whether China’s China’s presence in LAC has not only Andean Amazon is at a crucial juncture economic and political influence will been growing in size but also shifting for determining how this unfolding affect the United States, but rather how from a focus on extracting raw materials infrastructure boom will unfold. they are going to take advantage of their toward financing infrastructure necessary developing relationship with China. to produce and transport them. Figure 1 SEE FIGURE 2 They could seek a different historical shows the last decade of Chinese merger Chinese policy banks—the China path, so that the newcomers are not yet and acquisition investment in LAC. Development Bank and the Export- another wave of pirates in this sea, but While the first several years were focused Import Bank of China—play major roles in visitors who will help to produce greater on extraction, electricity generation this expansion. As Figure 3 shows, Chinese autonomy and a more prosperous future and distribution have dominated more DFI infrastructure finance in the Amazon for their citizens. recently. basin is growing quickly. While Chinese DFIs accounted for fewer than one in 10 Horacio J. Godoy is currently working SEE FIGURE 1 projects between 2000 and 2015, they are in London on a paper about China’s China’s shift toward LAC financing one-fourth of new projects—and involvement in Latin America. For a infrastructure finance comes as the one-third of those in the Amazon basin decade he has been a professor of Inter- Andean Amazon—the western Amazon itself. national Relations at the Universidad basin and central Andean highlands del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia. of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia—is SEE FIGURE 3 Twitter: @hgodoy9

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LAC undoubtedly need infrastructure, FIGURE 1: Chinese Mergers and Acquisitions in LAC, 2008-2017 and China’s participation will help fill that Source: Rebecca Ray, 2018. China-Latin America Economic Bulletin: 2018 Edition. Boston University gap. Marianne Fay and Mary Morrison, writing for the World Bank in 2007, TOTAL CHINESE M&As 20 estimated that the region will need to Ag., food, bev. 17.5 Extraction expand its infrastructure investment from Manufacturing its current level of less than two percent 15 Electricity 14.0 Other services of GDP (the least of any middle-income region) to between three and six percent 11.0 10.0 of GDP to diversify away from reliance 10 on raw materials. Further World Bank research in 2017 concluded that to fulfill 6.5 Billions of USD its promise of improving living standards, 4.7 5 3.8 LAC infrastructure investment will also need to improve in quality, accessibility 1.3 1.7 0.2 and sustainability. 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 CHINESE POLICY BANKS AND ESRM FIGURE 2: International DFI-Financed Infrastructure Projects in Ecuador, LAC’s need for infrastructure Peru, and Bolivia. Completed Projects, 2000-2015 New and Pipeline Projects improvement—not just expansion— Source: Rebecca Ray, Kevin Gallagher, and Cynthia Sanborn. (2018). “Standardizing Sustainable seems well matched with China’s pursuit Development? Development Banks in the Andean Amazon” Boston University. of “a new type of international relations INFRASTRUCTURE LEGEND TERRITORY LEGEND with win-win cooperation at the core”

Highways Amazonian diversity of its relationship with LAC (Ministry Ports High biodiversity in 4 species Railways groups: mammals, birds, of Foreign Affairs, 2016). However, Urban rail ampibians and plants Airport 3 groups 2 groups Chinese DFIs have a particularly passive Hydoelectric dams 1 group Amazon basin Thermoelectric plant Biofuel plant Water bodies approach to environmental and social Solar farms Major rivers, lakes Wind farms Minor rivers, lakes risk management (ESRM), which may Salt fats, Bolivia Indigenous territory leave them vulnerable to attracting riskier projects in an already sensitive region, potentially impacting China’s goals of cooperation-based diplomatic relations. Table 1 (next page) shows the ESRM approaches of major DFIs in the Andean Amazon region. They range from a passive “light green” approach to a highly active FIGURE 3: Infrastructure projects in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, by financing “dark green” approach. Table 1 divides and location Source: Rebecca Ray, Kevin Gallagher, and Cynthia Sanborn. (2018). “Standardizing Sustainable DFIs into columns depending on whether Development? Development Banks in the Andean Amazon” Boston University. these projects require a formal system of environmental and social safeguards COMPLETED PROJECTS, 2000-2015 NEW AND PIPELINE PROJECTS (“conditional harmonization”) or rely on borrower standards (“national recognition”). China, basin 5% China, non-basin, 3% It divides them into rows based on whether they offer concessional assistance China, Western to help borrowers reach the applicable Amazon DFIs, standards (“capability enhancement”) basin, 24% non-Amazon Western Western DFIs, basin, 26% or rely on the current state of national DFIs, non-Amazon institutions (“capability deference”). Amazon basin, 52% basin Western DFIs, Chinese DFIs—together with Brazil’s Amazon basin, 50% 41% national development bank BNDES— occupy the “light green” quadrant, “national recognition with capability deference.” Chinese DFIs’ passive ESRM approach

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TABLE 1: ESRM Approaches of International DFIs Active in the Andean Amazon Source: Rebecca Ray, 2018. China-Latin America Economic Bulletin: 2018 Edition. Boston University

NATIONAL RECOGNITION CONDITIONAL HARMONIZATION

QUADRANT 1: “LIGHT GREEN” QUADRANT 2: “YELLOW GREEN” CAPABILITY BNDES IFC DEFERENCE CDB OBD INVEST (IIC) CHEXIM US EXIM

CAPABILITY QUADRANT 3: “BLUE GREEN” QUADRANT 4: “DARK GREEN” ENHANCEMENT CAF IBD IBRD (WORLD BANK)

TABLE 1: ESRM Approaches of International DFIs Active in the Andean Amazon Source: Adapted from Kevin Gallagher and Fei Yuan. (2017). “Standardizing Sustainable Development: A Comparison of Development Banks in the Americas,” Journal of Environment & Development 26(3), 243-271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496517720711

is not without benefits. Their lack their rejections, so it is unknown which that three factors are crucial in mitigating of formal safeguards accelerates Chinese-financed infrastructure projects environmental and social risks: stakeholder their approvals, avoiding what Chris have been rejected elsewhere. However, engagement; robust environmental impact Humphrey calls the “hassle factor” of bank records show that planners for some assessments (EIAs); and transparency and traditional development finance. The of the region’s largest flagship projects— accountability. (For more on this work, see World Bank’s new Environmental and such as Ecuador’s Coca-Codo Sinclair dam Rebecca Ray, Kevin Gallagher, and Cynthia Social Framework may partly address —sought Chinese financing only after years Sanborn. “Standardizing Sustainable these delays by relying on borrowers’ of seeking approval through DFIs with Development? Development Banks in “country systems” of assessment and more active ESRM approaches. the Andean Amazon” Boston University, monitoring. Nonetheless, at present 2018.) CCS case study researchers (María the World Bank and IDB both face ESRM IN ACTION: THE CASE Cristina Vallejo, Betty Espinoza, Francisco significant disadvantages in this regard: OF COCA-CODO SINCLAIR Venes, Víctor López, and Susana Anda) Humphrey has calculated that IDB Over the last two years, Boston found major shortcomings in the project’s approval takes an average of 5.8 months University’s Global Development Policy management in each of the crucial areas. and World Bank projects in LAC take 14 Center has partnered with colleagues CCS sits among small, non-indigenous months (“The ‘‘Hassle Factor” of MDB at FLACSO Ecuador; Universidad del communities, which are not covered by Lending and Borrower Demand in Latin Pacífico in Lima, Peru; and INESAD Ecuador’s guarantee of prior consultation America.” In S. Park & J. Strand (Eds.), in La Paz to explore the extent to which for indigenous nations. Instead, these Global Economic Governance and the various approaches to ESRM contribute communities had a socialización process in Development Practices of the Multilateral to project outcomes. Among the case which project details were communicated Development Banks. London: Routledge). studies examined was Coca-Codo Sinclair and community concerns noted. Despite these advantages, Chinese DFIs’ (CCS), Ecuador’s largest hydroelectric Interviews with community members deferential ESRM framework may attract dam. CCS was financed by the Export- show a near-universal understanding that projects that have failed to pass other Import Bank of China (CHEXIM) and CCS promised ample employment for DFIs’ safeguards processes – or which built by Sinohydro, though the project was local workers and opportunities for local pose enough risk to make traditional DFI previously considered by the Inter-American contracting of worker lodging. However, financing time-consuming or potentially Development Bank (IDB). Across all six the lack of formal commitments meant impossible. DFIs do not regularly publish case studies in three countries, results show that the community had little recourse

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when the contractor brought workers platform collapse, and eventually a worker financed by DFIs with the most stringent from another Sinohydro worksite in coastal strike. After that point, Labor Minister standards—the World Bank and Inter- Ecuador and housed them in a separate Francisco Vacas visited the site to spur a American Development Bank—would worker camp, leading to significant social resolution; fieldwork interviews show that have universally positive outcomes, which conflict and numerous protests. conditions improved thereafter. Ideally, did not emerge in any of the case studies. CCS’s environmental impact was an effective system of transparency and Nor are strict national regulations assessed in two stages, corresponding accountability would have entailed active sufficient, though governments ultimately to two loans: one for the dam and one project monitoring and evaluation, with oversee enforcement of social and for associated high-tension power lines. the goal of preventing these instances of environmental norms. Ecuador, Peru, and No comprehensive assessment of the worker deaths, illnesses, and conflict. Bolivia’s standards are among the world’s entire project was performed, nor were Chinese policy banks’ deferential most ambitious, covering indigenous cascading risks between the two project approach to ESRM enabled an ambitious consultation, labor rights and liability for parts considered, as would have been project like CCS to be approved quickly and environmental damages. However, none required if it had received IDB financing. with few bureaucratic hurdles. But flagship of the case studies showed adequately No catastrophic environmental problems projects like CCS stretch the need for implemented national standards. have occurred yet but given the proximity monitoring beyond national institutions’ Instead, this research shows that of the active Reventador volcano and the experience and create incentives to safeguards succeed or fall short depending prevalence of earthquakes in the area, this overlook due diligence to save time, save on the strength of collaboration between simplified EIA process may leave CHEXIM money or save face. By establishing its banks and national authorities. Effective with unanticipated risks. own standards like the World Bank or safeguard implementation appears to Finally, CCS’s full environmental IDB do, or by helping national institutions be associated with mutually-reinforcing impact is unknown, because of lagging enforce their own standard like CAF does, networks of support from both sides. transparency. Coca-Codo Sinclair CHEXIM could help prevent similar DFIs and national governments have was charged with performing its own problems in future projects. similar—but not identical—project goals, environmental audits (an arrangement and answer to different constituencies. that presents serious conflicts of interest) DISCUSSION: IMPORTANCE Through collaboration in project oversight, but has not published them as required. OF MUTUALLY-REINFORCING they can ensure that a wider range of Labor problems have also been exacerbated NETWORKS concerns is considered, and a broader array by inadequate accountability. Unsafe labor Despite these problems, our work of resources harnessed to address them. conditions prevailed during construction suggests that bank safeguards alone In the context of maximizing overall despite worker complaints, until after an cannot determine the environmental benefits, Chinese policy banks’ deferential outbreak of typhoid fever related to unsafe and social impacts of infrastructure approach to ESRM gives them a distinct water, the deaths of 13 workers from a projects. If that were the case, projects disadvantage relative to other DFIs in the region. LAC’s burgeoning relationship with China has brought new partnerships and opportunities for development finance, but also new risks. Pursuing those opportunities while mitigating the risks will be crucial in ensuring a truly “win-win” relationship.

Rebecca Ray is a post-doctoral research fellow at the Boston University Global Development Policy Center. She holds a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Massachusetts-Amherst and an MA in international development studies from the George Washington University Elliott School of International Affairs. She is the lead editor of China and Sustainable Development in Latin America: the Social and Environmental Dimension Environmental and social safeguards must be provided for Amazon communities. (Anthem Press, 2017)

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Waves of Asian Investments in Brazil China, Japan and South Korea By MARIO HENRIQUE OGASAVARA

CHINA, JAPAN AND SOUTH KOREA ARE THE MOST critical economic and political powers in the East Asian region. Latin America represents an important destination of foreign direct investment, particularly in the Brazilian market. Brazil, which has the world’s fifth largest population and its eighth largest economy, is considered to have a large growth potential as one of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Despite its current domestic political and economic crisis, the country has weathered such situations successfully in the past. Remarkably, Brazil received waves of investments from these Asian countries throughout its history, in various entries and patterns. Chinese President Xi Jinping (right) meeting with then-Peruvian president FIRST ASIAN WAVE: JAPANESE Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (across from him) in Da Nang, Vietnam, in 2017. INVESTMENTS The Japanese-Brazilian relationship cotton-related firms, there are also other began in 1908 when the first Japanese ship Japanese companies set up subsidiaries Between 2010 and 2015, Kasato Maru arrived in Brazil with 165 in Brazil, such as Pilot Pen Corporation, the Chinese government immigrant families to work in agricultural Ishikawajima-Harima, Ajinomoto, fields, especially in coffee cultivation. Yanmar Diesel, and Toyota Motors, invested US$ 37.5 billion Currently, Brazil is the country with the which was the first Toyota car assembly in the country, which largest Japanese community outside plant established abroad. This first boom Japan, estimated at more than 1.6 million of manufacturing investments exhibited is a significant amount people, a priceless asset in strengthening two special features. First, compared to surpassing Japan as the the bonds between both countries over the Japanese standards at that time, the the past century. Japanese investments investment was substantial. Second, these leading Asian investor in in Brazil started in 1935 following a companies established full- or majority- Brazil. trade mission from that country, and owned subsidiaries. many Japanese companies related to the The second boom of Japanese the Japanese-Brazilian Program for the cotton textile industry began to establish investments occurred in the 1970s as Cerrado Development (PRODECER), subsidiaries there. To mediate the trade Japanese companies and Brazilian involving JICA (Japan International between Japan and Brazil, some Japanese state-owned enterprises embarked on Cooperation Agency) and the Brazilian trading firms and banks opened offices in large joint projects (known as “national government aiming at expanding the Brazil and created the Japanese Chamber projects”) making significant raw-material agricultural production of soybeans in the of Commerce. investment. During this period, Japanese Cerrado region. Japanese investment boomed in the firms invested as minority owners in The third boom of Japanese 1950s, when Brazil began to attract the ventures related to petrochemicals, investment occurred from 2008 attention of Japanese companies as a aluminum, pulp and paper industries. through 2016 with an average of US$3 potential market for manufacturers and a Another important joint investment billion flow of investment per year. It supply source of raw material. Besides the related to the “national projects” was started with the celebration of the 100th

60 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO COURTESY CÉSAR GAMBOA, DAR, PERU. TRADE TIES AND BEYOND

anniversary of Japanese immigration to in less developed regions in Brazil. were the first Asian people to arrive in Brazil, prompting many Japanese firms to Based on statistics from the Brazilian Brazil. However, the economic Chinese- invest in the steel sector, in bio-energy and Central Bank, the second boom of Korean Brazilian relationship intensified only the automotive industry. For instance, the investments took place from 2010 through two hundred years later, but then it had establishment of a joint venture between 2012 with an average of US$1 billion of a very intense impact on this bilateral Sumitomo Metals and the French company commitments yearly. The funds went to connection. In 2009, for the first time, Vallourec aims at producing seamless steel the establishment of manufacturing plants China became the largest Brazilian trade pipes in Brazil to supply the national and in the steel, construction machinery, and partner, surpassing the United States. international markets. Likewise, Mitsui automotive sectors. Dongkuk Steel Mill Most of the trade is related to the export & Co. and Petrobrás established a joint and Posco established a joint venture with of commodities that are products of venture to implement bioethanol related Vale, a Brazilian multinational firm in the Brazilian firms. projects. metals and mining sector. Chinese investments started mainly In the automotive sector, Japanese In the automobile sector, Hyundai in the second decade of the 21st century, companies such as Toyota (6th), Honda Motors already had manufacturing but at four different moments. Between (8th) and Nissan (10th) have been in the plants in Brazil since 2004. However, 2010 and 2015, the Chinese government top ten carmakers in terms of sales volume its passenger cars became increasingly invested US$ 37.5 billion in the country, in the Brazilian market in 2017. Together, popular in that country as demand for which is a significant amount surpassing these three companies had 12.2% of market high-quality yet affordable vehicles rose in Japan as the leading Asian investor in share in 2014 and increased to 18.4% in the subsequent years. To take advantage Brazil. The first boom occurred in 2010 2017. Notably, Japanese companies are of this growing success in the Brazilian focused on business related to commodity well ranked in car segments that provide market, Hyundai opened a new major products. An example is an acquisition of the best profit margins in the automobile production plant in 2012 with more the operation of the major oil company, industry: sedan and SUV (Sports Utility than US$700 million of investment and Repsol’s Brazilian subsidiary, for US$7.1 Vehicle). For the sedan segment, Toyota developed a new car model (HB-20) billion by Sinopec Group, strengthening Corolla and Honda Civic represented 67% tailored to the Brazilian consumer. HB-20 the presence of China in the natural of total volume sales, while Honda HR-V is a small car with a beautiful design that resource sector of the Brazilian market. and Nissan Kicks had 33% of sales in the quickly gained a reputation for excellent The second boom (2011-2013) SUV segment. The excellent performance quality and value as a “premium” brand occurred in the manufacturing sector. in sales volume required reinvestments in quickly. Before the launch of the HB-20, Chinese firms established manufacturing some production plants. New plants have Hyundai was ranked as the ninth-largest plants in the machinery and equipment been built in other cities such as Itirapina carmaker in Brazil, an industry that was (Sany Group), automotive (Chery (Honda), Porto Feliz (Toyota) and Resende dominated by Fiat, Volkswagen, GM and Automobile Company), electronics and (Nissan). Ford, and was listed behind Toyota and communication sectors. The latter refers Honda. In 2017, Hyundai became one of to Huawei and Lenovo, which increased SECOND ASIAN WAVE: KOREAN the top five carmakers in Brazil, surpassing their business operations during a INVESTMENTS the Japanese automakers Toyota (6th) and favorable period of economic growth The second wave of Asian investment Honda (8th). Also, HB-20 became in 2017 and expansion of the Brazilian consumer in Brazil came from South Korea. the second-largest model in volume sales market. The third boom occurred Although the immigration of Koreans in the small car segment. in late 2013 with the establishment to Brazil started officially in 1963, which Hyundai also established, through its of Chinese banks, such as the China inaugurated a potential relationship subsidiary Hyundai-Rotem, a production Construction Bank Corporation that between Brazil and South Korea, the first plant of trains to supply regional transit acquired Brazilian Bic Bank, and the boom of Korean companies began twenty systems as well as a commuter railway in investment of Industrial and Commercial years later in the 1990s. The investment other cities in Brazil. This train factory Bank of China (ICBC) to support the boom came particularly in the electronics aims at becoming Hyundai’s second- internationalization of yuan and the sector with Samsung and LG establishing largest plant in the world. While it was trade and investment between China production plants in the Free Zone of initially focused on the Brazilian market, and Brazil. Manaus (Amazon state). In addition, it now seeks to serve the broader region. More recently, the fourth boom (2014- some companies in the automobile 2015) is related to the massive amount of industry, such as Hyundai and Asia THIRD ASIAN WAVE: CHINESE investment in the infrastructure sector, Motors, took advantage of the financial INVESTMENTS mainly related to the construction of incentives provided by the Brazilian The third Asian wave of investments energy power plants, and the acquisition government to establish assembly plants came from China. In 1810, the Chinese of assets in the transmission and

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in this sector. The Japanese company China Three Gorges Kumon, which provides an afterschool program for reading and math, ranks as (CTG) became the seventh largest franchising chain in consolidated as the Brazil with 1,400 units. Two Japanese companies are intensifying their presence primary private in retail by using a franchising model. energy generator by Daiso Japan—a 100-yen shop—and Miniso, a Japanese fast-fashion designer acquiring assets of brand that specializes in household and Dulke Energy (US$1.2 consumer goods including cosmetics, stationery, toys and kitchenware. billion), Triunfo (R$1.7 Korean firms are focusing on the billion) and Jupiá and high technology sector. For instance, Qualcomm Technologies and USI (a Ilha Solteira (R$13.8 subsidiary of South Korean ASE - billion). Advanced Semiconductor Engineering) established a joint venture of US$200 generation of energy. For instance, State million to install a semiconductor Grid acquired US$1 billion in assets of module factory dedicated to the design, Plena Transmissora and CPFL for R$15 development, and fabrication of modules billion, gaining the participation of 13% and components for smartphones and of the Brazilian market of the energy IoT (Internet of Things) devices in Brazil. distribution. China Three Gorges (CTG) Meanwhile, Chinese firms are looking for became consolidated as the primary the new mobility sector. Didi Chuxing, private energy generator by acquiring the world’s largest mobile transportation the assets of Dulke Energy (US$1.2 platform acquired 99, the Brazilian billion), Triunfo (R$1.7 billion) and company which operates a ride-hailing Jupiá and Ilha Solteira (R$13.8 billion). business and is the main competitor These figures show that although to Uber in Brazil. Didi Chuxing had the Chinese investments came later effectively invested US$900 million than those of other Asian countries, in this company to accelerate market they came in amounts showing an growth in Latin America further and exceptional commitment to the economic bring more transportation choices to the relationship. region’s citizens. What about the future, is a new ASIAN INVESTMENTS IN RECENT boom of Asian investments coming to TIMES Brazil? The trends show a continued In most recent years, these three commitment to the country with other central Asian countries (Japan, South opportunities in agribusiness, high Korea and China) continue to invest technology sector, renewable energy in the Brazilian market but focus on sources and the infrastructure sector. different sectors. For instance, although Brazil had suffered from a severe Mario Henrique Ogasavara is a Profes- economic crisis, the sales volume of sor of International Business at ESPM the franchising sector has continuously São Paulo, Brazil, Chair of the Academic increased on average by 8.2% per year. Division of Strategy in Organization of The World Franchise Council confirms the Brazilian Academy of Management the representativeness of this sector (ANPAD), Regional Coordinator of the showing that Brazil ranks as the world’s Society for Global Business and Econom- fourth in the number of brands offered ic Development (SGBED) and Associate through the franchising model. We can Coordinator of the ProAsia-Asia Studies highlight some Japanese companies Program at the University of São Paulo.

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“Made in China 2025” Industrial Transformation with a Global Reach By RENATO BALDERRAMA AND AMADO TREJO

“MADE IN CHINA 2025” (MIC 2025) IS A NATIONAL to put the brakes on a slowdown in the best ecosystem for entrepreneurship and strategy announced by the Chinese State economy in the medium term. This plan, innovation at the global level, competing Council in 2015 to develop and consolidate drawn up by the Ministry of Industry and neck and neck with the United States— China’s manufacturing industry to Information Technologies (MIIT, after its the two most important epicenters of convert it into a world power with the English acronym), has very specific goals, startups and spinoffs in the world. And capability of influencing international projected not only until 2025, as its name it’s important to understand where Latin standards and supply chains. It also would indicate, but until 2049, the 100th America stands in all this. What is the plans to become a leader in innovation at year anniversary of the founding of the region doing to avoid being left out of an international level. Likewise, through People’s Republic of China. Revolution 4.0 [referring to cyberphysics the modernization of its productive In just a few years, China has not only systems]? Latin America is experiencing structure, the central government plans become “the world’s factory,” but also the a process of deindustrialization, above all

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in countries like Peru, Chile, Argentina Germany’s “Industry 4.0” blueprint, but and Colombia. Those countries decided the Chinese version is broader because it Most Latin American to strengthen their raw materials sector, focuses on issues of quality, consistency primarily for exports to Asia, however, in finished products, security and countries, especially in general, they did not bet on designing enviromental protection, among others, in the private sector, strategies for the use of technology to that are considered strategic for the make those exports more profitable and country’s development. The plan is not continue to see China with added value. an isolated effort, but was developed in as a market for our raw Mario Castillo, head of the United the context of interconnected policies Nations Economic Commission for that seek to increase local innovation materials and, perhaps Latin American and the Carribean through so called “emerging strategic in some cases, a way of (ECLAC) Office for Innovation and industries,” which include the 13th New Technologies, comments, “The Fifteen-Year Plan (2016–2020), a new attracting investment in region didn’t do its catching up during plan for science and technology and infrastructure. the third revolution [referring to several for the development of regional automation and the Internet] and strategies, according to the U.S. Chamber create a decisive presence for Chinese because of that the debate has become of Commerce report, Made in China technology at an international level. The about the public policies necessary to 2025: Global Ambitions Build on Local implementation of the program has been put in place to take advantage of the new Protections, 2017. provided with substantial funding. wave of development.” According to the The MIC 2025 has nine strategic goals: The funds destined to coordinate latest 2018 Bloomberg global index for to foment innovation; promote integrated financial support for domestic firms to innovation, in the ranking of the fifty most manufacturing with the use of digital innovate are generally in the form of innovative countries in the world, there is and high technology; strengthen the loans and subsidies for research and not a single Latin American country. And general industrial base; improve product development. The goal is to set up 40 it is not only highly developed countries quality and create Chinese global brands; innnovation centers by 2025 to develop on the list: South Africa, Tunisia and concentrate efforts on ecological means integration mechanisms for information Morocco all made the list. of manufacturing; restructure industries technology in manufacturing; to Most Latin American countries, for greater efficiency and production; construct 1,000 green factories by especially in the private sector, continue improve service industries; globalize 2020 to determine the best emission to see China as a market for our raw Chinese manufacturing industries; carry practices; to move toward self- materials and, perhaps in some cases, out technological innovations in ten sufficiency by importing no more than a way of attracting investment in priority sectors with high value-added. 20% of raw materials by 2025; and to infrastructure. However, no country as yet The ten sectors designated as priorities promote research and local development, is designing strategies to take advantage for development include advanced particularly in the areas of airplanes, of the entreneurship ecosystems that marine equipment and high-technology alternative-energy vehicles and medical have been developed in cities such as ships; trains and related advanced equipment, according to the U.S. Beijing, Shanghai and Hangzhou, where commitment; aviation and aerospace Chamber of Commerce China report. an enormous number of successful equipment; agricultural machinery and entrepreneurs are concentrated. technology; biopharmaceutical products INDUSTRIAL DISRUPTION AT THE What Latin America does not seem and high-level medical equipment; INTERNATIONAL LEVEL to understand about MIC 2015 is the integrated circuits and new information If MIC 2025 has a strongly internal opportunity cost of not taking advantage technologies; manufacturing control focus in the sense of strengthening of the technology and capital for and robotic equipment; vehicles using China’s capacity for modernization and entrepreneurship China has at its disposal new energy technology; and new and innovation through its national industries and, as I will explain, is its priority for the advanced materials. through the stimulation of so-called local next decades. It is now not a matter of The Chinese government seeks innovation, at the same time it seeks to seeing how much we can export to China, through MIC 2025 to provide expand internationally in two directions. but how we create patents in China to incentives for local innovations and self- First, technology must grow the later manufacture in the Southeast and sufficiency in strategic sectors for the accelerated acquisition through purchase South of Asia through Chinese business country’s development and leadership and fusion, as well as investment in foreign networks and from there to market to the at an international level. It seeks to firms, primarily in the United States and entire world. gradually provide a substitute for foreign Europe, with the participation of quasi- MIC 2025 draws its inspiration from technology in Chinese industry and to state firms, as well as private Chinese

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companies, which seek technological firms. This effort is not new, given for the norms of international trade and solutions that would take years to develop that, since the end of the last decade, would prevent them from expanding in a themselves. Some analysts sustain that in the Chinese government has made an just and competitive form in the Chinese the long run China could obtain control effort to internationalize its businesses. market. Thus, President Donald Trump’s of the majority of profitable supply What is different now is its capacity for tariff barriers made under the argument chains and production networks. This mobilization both in terms of financial of national security ccould be interpreted could produce tensions between China resources as well as the exponential in this context. and technologically highly developed growth Chinese technology firms can have In the face of this abundance of capital, countries because of the need to protect as change agents, including as disruptors, technology and talent on the Chinese side, their national industries from fusions and in other latitudes. what will be the strategies of developed adquisitions that are considered strategic Both factors are worrying several economies—and developing countries— for each country, as has been evidenced countries and global corporations who to generate public policies to strengthen in the recent tension between China are looking for more access to the Chinese national science and technology, to avoid and the United States over the possible market as suppliers of the products and the increasing digital gap and, as a result, acquisitions of U.S. companies dedicated services spelled out in MIC 2025, as well a lag in economic development and to the manufacture of micro-computers as having reservations about the clauses competitiveness in the near future? and infrastructure equipment by finance concerning technology transfer to local groups of Chinese origin. firms who seek to establish operations in Renato Balderrama is the director of Second, through the efforts of the that country. The primary argument of the Center for Asian Studies at Universi- central government to support its the Chambers of Commerce of the United dad Autonóma de Nuevo León (UANL), large technological conglomerates in States and the European Union, as well México. the global market as major providers as other international actors, is that this of goods and services, they compete plan could have a degree of protectionist Amado Trejo is the coordinator of the with other international and regional connotations that could generate obtacles UANL’s representative office in Asia.

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National involvement is necessary for the development of rural China. Understanding the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative Renewing China-Latin America’s Economic Cooperation? By ROSARIO SANTA GADEA

THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE IS AN EXAMPLE design a good and efficient strategy on Insertion in Asia-Pacific.” This research of how the Chinese invoke their millenary how we could be involved in the Initiative. paper, originally written in Spanish, will history in their current strategies. In 2013, be published, first, in theJournal of Latin President Xi Jinping called upon the ADVANCING RESEARCH ON American Studies of ILAS-CASS, in a spirit of the Silk Road, a two-millennia BRI AND LATIN AMERICA Chinese version. Subsequently, the book, trade route that connected China to Recently, I have had the opportunity including all of my contributions, will be Central Asia, Africa and Europe, to build to study this question. The Community released, in both Chinese and Spanish the New Silk Road Economic Belt and the of Chinese and Latin American Studies versions. The present article is based on 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, hence (Comunidad de Estudios Chinos y this research. the nickname Belt and Road Initiative Latinoamericanos, CECLA), together I have had a second recent opportunity (BRI for short). with the Institute of Latin America to deepen my understanding of the The BRI has progressively become a of the Chinese Academy of Social BRI, since I participated at the “2018 global initiative for China. One expression Sciences (ILAS-CASS), based in Beijing, Seminar on China Issue Experts for of that is the invitation made, a year ago, undertook a book project, The Belt and BRI Countries” invited by the Chinese in May 2017, by President Xi to Latin Road Initiative and Latin America: New government. This seminar was organized American countries, to become part of it. Opportunities and New Challenges, to by the Graduate School of the Chinese In January 2018, the Second Ministerial comprehensively explore and analyze Academy of Social Sciences (GSCASS), Meeting of China- Community of how Latin American countries could be under the sponsorship of the Ministry Latin America and the Caribbean involved in the BRI, with the contribution of Commerce of China. It took place in States (CELAC) Forum issued a special of researchers from China and Latin Beijing, between June 28th and July 18th, declaration about the BRI. However, the America. The cases of Argentina, Brazil, 2018, and included a field trip to Yunan declaration is still very general. Basically, Chile, Mexico and Peru are analyzed. Province in the southwest of China. It it says that China explained the Initiative I was invited to write the Peruvian certainly enriched my perspective on and the Latin American and Caribbean country-specific chapter that I entitled this topic and helped me to understand countries listened with interest. “The BRI and Peru: Strategic Vision that the BRI is not only an international The task now for us is deepening our from the Perspective of South American initiative for China, it is also part of a understanding of the BRI in order to Physical Integration and Competitive national strategy to bring development

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Above, Belt and Road Forum; map (center) from the Wall Street Journal based on information from Xinhua, U.S. Department of of Defense, Gaz- prom, Transneft and the United Nations, 2014; Below, connectivity between South America and Pacific Asia and its potential. to the western and southern parts of the improving connectivity for making more America in the Chinese Initiative requires country that are less advanced than the efficient trade and investment with China. the extension of the 21st Century Maritime eastern and coastal areas. A second key concept of the Initiative Silk Road to the Pacific Ocean,—more a My perspective is shaped by my decade- relates to “economic corridors.” There are bit later about this subject. long work on the physical integration of six economic corridors designed so far My fourth point concerning the way South America, first, as a government between China and the countries involved official and, later as a research scholar in the BRI. Building economic corridors is (Santa Gadea, 2012). This background more than just providing infrastructure. helped me to trace the convergence It is necessary to generate the conditions between key concepts of the scheme of for development in the areas connected physical integration in South America by the infrastructure through productive and those of the BRI. Both approaches integration, logistic facilities and other move from a sectorial to a territorial vision complementary measures. The BRI tends of development, in which connectivity to promote development within a specific should be achieved through investments territory, which is connected by the in “integration infrastructure” as a key infrastructure, and this is the importance to understand BRI is that we should not element for territorial development. of the economic corridors. reduce the Initiative to investments in I believe that this convergence The third principal concept I found in infrastructure. There are five pillars in the of approaches could serve as a basis Chinese Initiative: for renewing the agenda of China’s • Coordination of economic policies cooperation with South America, and or development strategies. Peru in particular. • Free trade (within the corridors). • Financial integration including, UNDERSTANDING THE BRI among others, banks and funds • Four principal points stand out. First, created to finance projects, for the key concept of the BRI is connectivity. example, the Asian Infrastructure This concept relates, principally, to InvestmentBank (AIIB). Investment the provision of infrastructure in the in infrastructure. the BRI is that it refers to connectivity by areas of transportation, energy and • People-to-people links. communications—three basic foundations land and by sea. As already mentioned, of development. However, the BRI the BRI is the combination of the Therefore, national involvement in the should not necessarily account for all the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Initiative should include ways of working infrastructure needs of member countries Century Maritime Silk Road. And this in the five pillars and not only in one. In since the idea is to connect those countries differentiation is very important for Latin general, the spotlight on the BRI put more with China. Therefore, we should focus on America. In fact, the involvement of Latin attention on its infrastructure component,

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but in fact it is more like a comprehensive program for economic integration. Now let’s consider the reasons that have been driving China to undertake such an endeavor. At its national level, analysts point out that the Initiative would contribute to reducing the development gaps between the hinterland (the less developed regions) and the coast of China, through a greater integration of the former with the neighboring economies (Cai, 2017) and also with the more advanced regions of China. The BRI seeks to create strategic drivers for the development of the interior of the country (Niu, 2017) and it would generate new internal trade, reducing transportation costs (Amighini, 2017). At an international level, it would create new markets for China, not only for the export of goods, but also for the relocation of productive overcapacity in some industries such as steel and cement (Amighini, 2017). Another advantage is the creation of a regional production chain, with China as a center for advanced manufacturing, innovation and establishment of new standards (Cai, 2017). Additionally, the BRI would allow China to attain a position of leadership in the world and strengthen ties with neighboring countries. In this sense, it could be considered as an example of globalization (Niu, 2018).

CONVERGENCE OF CONCEPTS BETWEEN BRI AND SOUTH AMERI- CAN PHYSICAL INTEGRATION Very important matching points exist between the key concepts of the BRI, particularly the “economic corridors,” and those of the South American physical Above: One Belt, One integration, especially the so-called “axis Road; Left: Axes of Inte- of integration and development,” defined gration and Development, originally within the Initiative for the 2018 (COSIPLAN-AN Integration of the Regional Infrastructure IRSA); Opposite page: “Next Stop Vancouver.” of South America (IIRSA). In both cases, connectivity is crucial for economic development and it is important to plan and implement Peru is geographically located in the Rim, particularly between China and investments in infrastructure, particularly central part of South America with its South America. Therefore, the extension on transport, energy and communications coast in the Pacific Rim. Because of this of the BRI to South America would with the perspective of regional and global geographical location, Peru could be a imply building a trans-Pacific economic integration. hub in South America for intermediate corridor between China and the region PERU AND THE BRI trade between both sides of the Pacific and, I believe, Peru could be the point of

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connection of that corridor on our side of the Pacific. This would necessitate the establishment of an efficient and regular direct maritime connection between South America and China with Peru as a hub. The idea is to consolidate cargo from other South American countries, mainly Brazil, in Peruvian ports, to reach a greater scale and make viable and more attractive (compared to other routes) such direct maritime traffic with Asia through the South Pacific, reducing logistics costs in international trade between China, Peru and the rest of South America. Physical integration in South America through a direct trans-Pacific connection infrastructure, is a recent and growing is a necessary complement of such direct between the subcontinent and China, it is tendency. transpacific maritime routes and the necessary to undertake in-depth studies to One important thing is that Chinese projects for bioceanic railways in the region assess the feasibility of such a trans-Pacific investment in infrastructure could not be a should be re-examined in this perspective. economic corridor. The studies should government-to-government arrangement. Two of these projects consider reaching a include logistics costs, travel time and Chinese firms have to act according to the Peruvian port. The first one is the Brazil- frequency of ships, making comparisons regulations of a market economy. This Peru Bioceanic Railway project, which has between the trans-Pacific alternatives and means that they would have to participate been analyzed by a trilateral governmental the traditional maritime routes. in international tenders and compete for group composed of China, Brazil and Peru. This is a vision for the extension of the the projects with firms from all over the At present, this project is on hold due to BRI to Peru and South America. Other world. The association with local firms is a its extremely high cost and its potential countries and other regions should build good strategy. They also need to learn how negative environmental effects. However, their own vision, too, and start a dialogue to operate in Public-Private Partnerships the basic study that supports these with China on that basis. (PPPs). conclusions has not been made public. It In sum, there is much to do to, first, is necessary to do so in order to undertake HOW TO COOPERATE WITH CHINA complete a strategic vision; second, design further assessment. The other project is the I believe that some countries have the trans-Pacific economic corridor and Central Bioceanic Railway, promoted by more instruments than others for this third, assess its viability. Government, Bolivia and connecting this country with cooperation. In the case of Peru, for business sector and academia should Brazil and Peru; feasibility studies are now example, we already have a Free Trade cooperate in that effort with a long term view. underway. Agreement with China. We are one of I argue that a comparative assessment the only three countries in Latin America Rosario Santa Gadea is Director of the is necessary, not only of railways but of that have this type of agreement. We Center for China and Asia-Pacific Studies the entire set of connections, including also have the status of Comprehensive at Universidad del Pacífico, Lima, Peru. port conditions and land and maritime Strategic Alliance with China, meaning She is a Doctor in International Econom- connections. For example, some analysts that we have the possibility to coordinate ics from the Université de Paris Ouest point out that the distances to Asia, from economic strategies through the dialogue Nanterre La Défense. She has been a Fel- the Atlantic and the Pacific ports, are not mechanisms already in place. Peru also low at the Weatherhead Center for Inter- very different, while the cost of transport has been accepted as a member of the national Affairs of Harvard University. by land, when it is necessary to cross the AIIB. Therefore, we have advanced in Andean mountain range, is very high. This several of the five pillars of the BRI. The author thanks Leolino Rezende, who assessment suggests that large volumes With regards to investments, China collaborated with the preparation of of cargo generated in the center of the concentrates mainly in extractive sectors, this article. He has been Assistant to the continent would not actually be diverted principally mining. Due to the importance Director at the Center for China and Asia- to Pacific ports. of mining, Peru is the second destination Pacific Studies and currently is pursuing While the potential for South America of Chinese investments in Latin America, a Master’s degree in International Rela- to be part of an extension of the 21st after Brazil. However, the arrival of tions at Peking University. Century Maritime Silk Road is perceived Chinese firms in others sectors, such as

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China and Latin America Relations A New “Win-Win” Partnership? By GILMAR MASIERO

AFTER MORE THAN THREE DECADES OF HIGH context, in late 2013 on a trip to Central rates of economic growth making China A much bigger project Asia and Southeast Asia, President the world’s second-largest economy, its estimated at US$50 Xi Jinping announced the ambitious government continues to emphasize its Belt and Route Initiative. Later he status as a developing country. Now the billion is the Nicaragua announced the formation of the Asian international community is intensely Canal that rivals the Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), debating China’s role in the global open to the contribution of any country. economic and political order. Should China Panama Canal. Several countries have adhered to the continue to support the existing economic treaty establishing this Bank, and several order, which has mostly benefited its rise others will do so in the coming years or should it seek the creation of a new demonstrating, to a certain extent, their order? What development strategy should support for the Initiative. the country adopt in the coming decades Likely and unlikely partners must regarding the world and Latin America? understand the Chinese global strategy for The first alternative may somehow limit sustainable and “win-win” relationships. In Chinese potential for expansion and the 2016, the outbound direct investment from second brings more significant risks and China surpassed the inbound investment, at responsibilities as well. These alternatives US$183.2 and US$126 billion, respectively. raise significant questions for Latin In 2015 China became the second more America: it has been among the regions substantial investor in the global economy. receiving a significant percentage of China’s In the last five years, outbound mergers external investments, particularly in the and acquisitions have grown 33% per areas of energy and natural resources. year. The Chinese investment drive should China could gradually seek to deter U.S. continue due to the discrepancies between power and replace it with something the massive accumulated reserves mostly similar or entirely new. That would mean in U.S. Treasury bonds and the investments exchanging long- established relationships returns in productive assets (see Yuning with U.S. partners for others who are not Gao, China’s Global Investment: Structure, so well known to the Chinese. Will Latin Uncertainties and challenges of all Route, and Performance. In Direction of American countries, large or small, move kinds are present in the role that China Chinese Global Investments: Implications from the sphere of influence of the United must play on the world stage or in global for Brazil, Anna Jaguaribe (coordinator)– States to that of China? governance. It is possible to develop Brasília: FUNAG, 2018). China could also continue to support the arguments that support any of these From 2005 to 2016, Chinese outward existing order and maintain multilateral competing views and find data and facts investments focused on sectors related to and bilateral integration and cooperation that legitimize them nationally, regionally energy (38%), metals (14%), real estate initiatives, in some way complementing or globally. Latin American countries (9%), and transport (8%). Africa, Latin or expanding the existing order. It could must maintain awareness of both Chinese America, Australia and certain Asian still gradually broaden the benefits of a internal and external developments in countries received most of the investments higher international insertion, and power order to take advantages of the new—and in the areas of energy and natural resources. in a balanced manner, without, however, each year stronger—economic and political Europe and the United States, which in the paying for them. In this scenario, Latin ties to the region. previous years were the general focus of American countries may manage the The Chinese economy faces increas- the Chinese State Companies became the pressures of the United States and China ing challenges, and its international focus of investments in services, telecom and be able to follow their own path of performance can solve some of its technology and high-end manufacturing. development. problems while creating others. In this On average the geographical distribution

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that both Panama (2017) and El Salvador (August 2018) have broken formal diplomatic relations with Taipei, switching their allegiance to China. The goals of Chinese foreign policy— as well the Chinese principles of morality, virtue, tradition, culture and history— are all present in all Chinese government documents and speeches. By carefully reading these documents, we can explore the official rhetoric of the Mao Zedong time of “struggle” and “revolution” to our present days of “peaceful development” to reassure the internal and external community about a “harmonious world.” It seems that the China external policy is mostly defensive: mainly to prevent from the formation of an anti- Chinese bloc and to focus on internal development. The dynamic and rich Chinese development experience from the death of Mao to its current rising international presence is the most extraordinary political and economic development experience ever seen in human history—exporting its culture through the mushrooming Confucius Institutes in Latin American and other Unloading new locomotives in the Belgrano Cargas Project, Argentina. countries as well as building roads and routes abroad. of Chinese global investments from 2005 the initiative is open to any country to Hopefully, the goals of the Chinese to 2016 was 23% to Europe, 17% to the participate, but it seems that there are no external policies of sovereign indepen- United States, 11% to East Asia and plans to extend the routes to the Americas. dence, territorial integrity and national another 30% equally distributed among In the Americas, besides the increasing development will be respected while Australia, South America and West Asian trends of trade and investments, the dealing with Latin American large or countries. In a declining trend, African Chinese are also leading the studies for small countries. These countries must nations represent the other 9%. a transcontinental railway connecting be aware of increased Chinese presence The amounts of investments and trade the Brazilian Atlantic coast to the in the region and develop their own patterns are not solely influenced by the Peruvian Pacific coast. A much bigger strategies of development to improve the country-specific advantages but also project estimated at US$50 billion is standard of living of their population. by the level of economic development the Nicaragua Canal that rivals the If poor South and Central American of China. It is also strongly affected by Panama Canal. This project has met countries are moving from the U.S. sphere the Chinese foreign policy that from the strong opposition from locals and of influence to the Chinese one, they must end of 2013 have been discussed under environmentalists because of its potential do it wisely. They must be aware that in the idea of building a New Silk Road. damages to the environment. It has also all win-win relationships with China, or Chinese leader Xi Jinping launched The been delayed by financial constraints of the any other country, there will be a bigger Belt and Road Initiative in 2013 to build Hong Kong-based HKND (HK Nicaragua winner than the other. up infrastructural connectivity through Canal Development) Group. The channel the high-speed economic development and other projects in Nicaragua, if finished, countries of East Asia at one end to will give China a major foothold in Central Gilmar Masiero is a professor at the the developed European economies at America, a region traditionally influenced University of São Paulo and coordinator the other end. In the official rhetoric, by the United States. It is worth noticing of the ProAsia-Asia Studies Program.

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A Commercial Hit That’s a Product of Censorship In the Name of Alpaca By PATRICIA CASTRO OBANDO

HOW DO YOU PICTURE “ALPACA” IN CHINESE on a slight shift in the written characters, the traditional concept of “harmony” in characters? With the December 2017 “Caonima,” the Chinese name for the 2005, calling for the construction of a inauguration of the official store of the “Grass Mud Horse,” is morphed into a society and world free from disagreement Peruvian Alpaca brand in a prestigious huge insult, with the alleged reference to and dissent. Beijing mall, and the launching a month the desert instead becoming the Chinese Harmony imposed by decree brought later of an online store with Peruvian name for the female sexual organ. with it a radical increase in repression in alpaca clothes and accessories, a language The enemy at which these punsters 2008, the same year the Olympic Games game became reality with the faraway and were aiming their darts was already well took place in Beijing. Chinese social mysterious alpaca as its protagonist. A known in the rural slang, where to call media was “harmonized,” a euphemism to clever effort to evade Chinese censorship someone “a crab” refers to a braggart announce the elimination of publications ended up popularizing the soft touch who uses force to gain power, a practice that protested against the Chinese of alpaca and led to an outstanding that often occurs in regions far from authoritarian system. It was in this context commercial success. the central authority. With a masterly that the “Grass Mud Horse” came into It all began with the tale of the “Grass mixture of tones and characters in the being. Mud Horse” at the beginning of 2009— Chinese names, the cyberspace parody With the complicity of words that created by the denizens of the Internet turns the river crab’s “three wristwatches” sound alike and the aspect of sweetness to defy censorship through sound-alike or “Sangebiao” into “Three Represents” and innocence that contrasted with its words typical of the Chinese language. and “Harmonious Society,” political name in Chinese, the alpaca became a Alpacas—the animals—were totally concepts invented by Chinese leaders. celebrity. A wide range of personalized unknown in the land of the dragons, but “Three Represents” was the principle products, as well as photos, videos, Chinese social media created a character formulated by then-General Secretary illustrations and online games deluged of a quasi-mythical beast that became a of the Community Party Jiang Zemin in the Internet forums and went from there banner-carrier for freedom of expression 2002 that officially opened the doors of to retail stores. A children’s video with real in China. And the mythical animal became the country to a new wave of business alpacas had more than a million views on associated with a real one—the alpaca in entrepreneurs. Two decades after the YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/ the faraway Andes. start of the process of reform and the watch?v=01RPek5uAJ4), when YouTube In the magical world of the Internet— opening of 1980, the already existing was still allowed in China. Children much more magical in China where economic disparity between regions found special pleasure in cuddling toy “seditious” postings simply disappear—the was accentuated. To alleviate the social alpacas stuffed with the actual fiber, story of the “Grass Mud Horse” was born, tensions caused by this uneven growth, which were slowly beginning to be the first of a series of “the ten mythical Chinese leader Hu Jintao brought back commercialized in China. creatures of Baidu,” a type of alpaca that supposedly inhabits the “Gobi Mahler” desert. Its enemy was the River Crab, who wore three wristwatches and had invaded the creature’s turf to devour its grassland. At the end of the story, the Grass Mud Horse defeats the River Crab and expels him and his three wristwatches forever. What seemed to be a children’s story turned into the Chinese Internet users’ tricky way of challenging the capacity of the censors to detect and control ciphered messages. By changing tones and relying

72 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTOS COURTESY OF PATRICIA OBANDO CASTRO TRADE TIES AND BEYOND

From a children’s soft cuddly toy to a high-end fashion show, alpaca has made a hit in China.

The Chinese name for alpaca might have eluded the censors, but the soft Alpacas—the animals—were totally unknown in texture of the fabric attracted children and the land of the dragons, but Chinese social media grabbed the attention of local merchants. At the end of 2008 and all throughout created a character of a quasi-mythical beast 2009, the imports of fine-combed alpaca that became a banner-carrier for freedom of products surged in the Chinese market. Peru became the major supplier, since expression in China. it has at least four million alpacas, the largest quantity in South America. In collections of Mirva Trujillo (Qaytu), fibers such as cashmere and mohair 2010, 59 percent of Peruvian alpaca fiber Henry Vela (Velavera) and José Miguel competed with alpaca in market share, as exports went to China. Valdivia (JMV), among other Peruvian all were popular with sophisticated local ALPACA TAKES OFF ON CHINESE designer brands, were featured on Chinese consumers who demanded good value and FASHION RUNWAYS runways. original designs. But the anti-censorship The Peruvian Embassy in Beijing and These fashion shows—four in total symbolism was swift to give alpaca an PromPerú, a Peruvian governmental by 2017—highlighted the high quality of upper hand. export commission, organized the first Peruvian clothing, not just its textiles. The 2014 ExpoPerú in Beijing—the alpaca clothing fashion show in 2013. It Peruvian alpaca was especially popular largest Peruvian export event overseas— featured 24 pieces by Chinese-Peruvian in the north of China, where winters are consolidated the presence of Peru as a designer Sumy Kujon. Subsequently, the very cold. Other natural high-quality guarantor of quality and creativity. That

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groups, well-known designers and other key people in Chinese society. Alpaca has also helped to drive the commercial relationship for other products. At this time, China makes up 26 percent of the country’s exports, ten percent more than Peru exports to the United States. Thus, between January and May 2018, exports reached US$5.3 billion, the highest number ever achieved for the first five months of the year. According to official sources, this is because of the increase in textile shipments, including alpaca, to China. Alpaca in China has also shifted its language identity. “Grass Mud Horse” (Top) The Alpaca Store offers its goods in an upscale mall; (Below) alpaca stars in fashion shows. is now stuck in some older corner of the same year, the cooperation of PromPerú through this online platform. Internet, while in the country’s elegant with the Beijing Institute of Fashion Just as in the physical store, the malls and on its fashion runways, alpaca Technology (BIFT) led to a series of virtual store is under the umbrella of shines with its official name in Chinese, agreements allowing several prestigious the Peruvian Alpaca “Alpaca del Perú” “yangtuo,” although its palindrome Chinese designers to participate in Perú brand, and the clothes sport a label with “tuoyang” is still admitted. In the collective Moda—the most important fashion fair this logo as a symbol of authenticity and Chinese imagination, the Andean animal in Peru—and also led in internships in quality. Both projects testify to the high is now described as something like a China for young Peruvian designers such value that Peruvian alpaca products have goat, which is “yang,” and a camel, which as Silvia Paredes and Vania Tafur. reached in China. During the opening of is “tuo,” but never again like a horse— In the three years following that the physical store, World Link founder especially one made of grass and mud. expo, Peruvian exports of alpaca fiber Huang Minghui said before hundreds of continued to increase, driven by Chinese leaders in the Chinese textile sector that Patricia Castro Obando is a Peruvian demand. This growth was sustained by an he “felt very satisfied to bring the warmth journalist and a doctoral candidate in increase in production and export prices. of the Andes to China.” Anthropology who has lived in China Between January and November 2017, In a ceremony held hours before the for the past 15 years. She was the corre- the primary destination for Peruvian store inauguration in the historic Beijing spondent for the Peruvian El Comercio exports was China, going from US$15.1 Hotel near the Forbidden City, the World in Beijing. @chinaes1planeta million in 2016 to US$48 million in 2017, Link group received authorization for the registering an increase of 217 percent. use of the official brand “Alpaca del Perú.” Peru is the world producer and exporter This Chinese firm has invested in the first of alpaca fiber, producing 4,500 tons of multibrand Peruvian shop, located in the fiber annually with 60 percent exported. emblematic Wangfujing Mall’s World Link works with the Commercial Office THE ALPACA STORE IN BEIJING of Peru in Beijing (OCEX Beijing) and Peruvian alpaca fashion became PromPerú to spotlight alpaca clothing solidly positioned in December 2017 and accessories produced in this Andean with the opening of a multibrand store country, in this highly competitive run by the Chinese firm World Link and Chinese market. with the official inauguration of an online Fashion shows in the store windows pavillion of Peruvian alpaca products at and two live alpacas in a corral in front the gigantic Jingdong (JD.com), the main of the shop greet well-off consumers. In Chinese direct-sales online platform this manner, “Alpaca de Perú” and World (E-tailer). JD boasts 413 million online Link work to commercialize the products shoppers and more than 198 million of six Peruvian firms through a network active clients. It is expected that Peruvian of contacts that includes malls, import firms will take in US$1.5 million yearly

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Dragon Mart Cancún Opposing the Mega Mall By EMILIANO VALLE

THE ANTI-CHINESE RHETORIC WAS UNMISTAK- also the official reason for its shuttering: able: “[The Chinese] are a dirty people... environmental damage. There are a They come and they bring their whole couple of reasons why this would make family...They occupy the area and it sense. First, the presence of two marine ends up being an invasion because they research centers near the town of reproduce and grow in the areas they get Puerto Morelos (Universidad Nacional to. They are like a plague. A dirty plague.” Autónoma de México and Instituto Hearing this type of racist language made Nacional de Pesca) may have contributed me realize that the opposition to Dragon Many interview to heightened awareness of environmental Mart Cancún (DMC) was more complex issues, which could have motivated the than it first appeared. subjects were involved townspeople to oppose DMC. Second, As a college student looking for a in the sale of artisan the town has a history of environmental thesis subject, I became intrigued by advocacy. In 1998, community efforts DMC when I learned of its closure goods and worried that succeeded in having Puerto Morelos’s for violating environmental law. I was DMC would facilitate coral reef designated a marine protected familiar with the area, and this was the area. Thus, residents had a record of only major development project in the the sale of cheap, concern for environmental health and region that I knew to have been cancelled Chinese knock-offs had experienced success in their advocacy for environmental reasons. So in the efforts. summer of 2015, I traveled to Puerto that tourists would buy However, over the course of 80 Morelos, Mexico, to find out more about instead of their wares. interviews with mostly working-class the project, and why many locals seemed inhabitants of the Cancún/Puerto Morelos to support DMC’s closure. area, it became evident that strong The project had been conceived as project (after initial building had begun) environmental conservation rationale a mega mall and exhibition center— because of its violation of environmental was negligible compared to other modeled after the Dragon Mart in law. The DMC project was charged with considerations. Particularly apparent Dubai that had been constructed a destruction of forested area and improper was the nationalistic rhetoric used by decade earlier—and was to be built land use—federal offenses punishable by interview subjects. This nationalism between Cancún and the town of fines or jail time. manifested itself in two ways: support for Puerto Morelos. It was designed to sell The closure of the project for economic protectionism and anti-Chinese products from international suppliers environmental reasons surprised me. I language. directly to Mexican and Latin American knew of massive resorts that had been Interview subjects voiced concerns businesses and the general public. In the built nearby that had damaged local that DMC’s part-Chinese ownership and final iteration of the proposed project, a mangrove forests. Although mangroves exhibition of Chinese products would hurt Chinese company, Chinamex Middle East are federally protected, those projects their wallets and the Mexican economy. Investment & Trade Promotion Center, were ultimately completed. I was also Many interview subjects were involved in had a 10 percent investment in the effort surprised by the strength of the local the sale of artisan goods and worried that while the other 90 percent was owned community’s opposition to DMC. While DMC would facilitate the sale of cheap, by two Mexican business groups. On the following the project from afar, I had Chinese knock-offs that tourists would DMC website, the project director billed learned of several meetings and a march buy instead of their wares. They also it as an important step toward helping against the project. I wondered if the noted the cheap price of Chinese goods Cancún become “the largest commercial enthusiastic opposition to DMC was in their daily lives and felt that “Mexican- center in the Americas.” However, in because of serious concerns about the made” products were being pushed out late January 2015, the Federal Attorney project’s environmental impact. of stores and rendered unaffordable for Environmental Protection in Mexico Indeed, the most obvious explanation compared to Chinese manufacturing; (PROFEPA), ordered the closure of the for why people opposed the project was having a store directly selling these

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products to consumers would only make things worse. The residents of the The people I interviewed worried about the Cancún/Puerto Morelos area most likely hardships they might face because of an did not know the specific history and development of Mexico’s trade deficit abundance of Chinese products, and they with China, but they were aware of the Mexican manufacturing industry’s open expressed their concerns regarding Mexican opposition to the project and of increased manufacturing and how that would impact el Chinese product presence in the area. The people I interviewed worried about pueblo mexicano—the Mexican people. the hardships they might face because of an abundance of Chinese products, and respective books The Chinese in Mexico, than the multinational corporations that they expressed their concerns regarding 1882-1940 (2010) and Chinese Mexicans: amassed large profits off Mexican soil and Mexican manufacturing and how that Transpacific Migration and the Search for labor. Nevertheless, in writings and in would impact el pueblo mexicano—the a Homeland, 1910-1960 (2012). They tell cartoons, people of Chinese ancestry were Mexican people. They were anxious about the story of more than 60,000 Chinese portrayed as immoral, unclean people unfair competition. migrating to Mexico in the late 19th and parasitic to Mexican businesses and Their comments showed the and early 20th centuries, at least partly Mexican prosperity. These insults levied importance of nationalist sentiment in the caused by the United States’ passage of against Chinese Mexicans a century economic opposition to DMC. Using the the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. They ago bore a striking resemblance to the phrase “el pueblo mexicano” both indicates then describe, along with Elliot Young, wording used by interview subjects. concern for the Mexican people as a whole how anti-Chinese sentiment coalesced The modern-day characterization and unites the working class and business in northern Mexico during the Mexican of the Chinese, and especially Chinese owners into a homogenous “pueblo.” Revolution of 1910. businesses, in a negative manner shows By calling the economic competition The Mexican Revolution was, why this earlier period can help us that DMC would have brought “unfair” at its core, an uprising of the lower understand the opposition to DMC. to Mexico and Mexicans, interview classes against the excesses of wealthy Just prior to the Revolution, large participants framed the potential landowners and bourgeois class multinational corporations were major economic harm in patriotic, nationalist interests. One target of this ire was exploiters of Mexican land and resources; terms. Interview subjects made it clear foreign corporations that had been free interview subjects predicted a similar that they were angry that this gigantic to make vast profits off Mexican land. result when discussing the implications project had initially been approved as they Elliot Young documents in Alien Nation: of DMC. Just like many Mexicans were saw no benefit in it for Mexicans. They Chinese Migration in the Americas from frustrated with money flowing out of wanted government action to protect and the Coolie Era Through World War II the country in the early 1900s, many support Mexican business, not facilitate (2014), how this backdrop, combined interview subjects felt the DMC would foreign competitors. with the relative financial successes of facilitate Chinese profit extraction from Once I began to probe these nationalist the Chinese immigrant businesses in Mexico. In both cases, the Chinese sentiments, the people I interviewed often northern Mexico, led to a crystallization populations played minor roles, but described fears of a Chinese colony being of anti-Chinese racism. In some towns served as easy scapegoats. In the early built to house the workers and vendors in northern Mexico, organizations were 1900s, the Chinese Mexicans were who would work in DMC. Interview set up to protect Mexican businesses and occupying a petite-bourgeoisie class that subjects saw this as a problem because to oust Chinese-Mexican businessmen. sold services and small wares to customers the Chinese were considered “unwilling These anti-Chinese groups quickly —they were not business executives or to assimilate,” “dirty,” and “greedy.” One spread to southern states and amassed heads of extractive industries in Mexico, person even noted that “Mexicans don’t over two million members in the 1930s. but were nevertheless objects of ridicule trust the Chinese and would make it These organizations fomented feelings during and after the Revolution. With difficult for them to assimilate even if they of nationalism by asserting that the DMC, the Chinese company backing the wanted to. We have even had problems economy should be structured around project only had a 10 percent stake in with anti-Chinese violence in Mexico.” benefitting Mexicans (those the project and no plans for a “Chinese Robert Chao Romero and Julia with a mix of European and Indigenous colony” were ever presented, but fears of Maria Schiavone Camacho give detailed heritage), not recent Chinese immigrants. economic opportunity going to foreign accounts of the development of this anti- These businessmen of Chinese heritage workers stoked racial resentment. In Chinese sentiment in Mexico in their mainly ran small-scale businesses rather both cases, the Chinese served as targets

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for anger stemming from government policies that inadequately supported the working class. Yet, rather than voice grievances tied to socioeconomic class, interview subjects illustrated that race and nationality were the important factors connecting them to a larger identity. By defining, or imagining, themselves in relation to people from a different race, with different customs, and a different culture, interview subjects sidestepped power and class divides in Mexican society in order to construct a unifying rhetoric in opposition to a project that they felt would benefit the Chinese more than it would Mexicans. Interview subjects did not have any special affinity for Mexican manufacturing, the entity that was perceived to be put most at risk by the project, but still spoke about protecting Mexico’s economy and its people. These opinions and conceptual frameworks point to a larger, deeper dissatisfaction with the type of trade liberalization that DMC’s director touted, and that Mexico has aggressively pursued since the structural adjustment programs of the 1980s. Liberalization of the Mexican economy in the past few decades has opened more sectors of the economy to China-Venezuelan Relations competition from foreign firms, putting A Perfect Storm By MATT FERCHEN Mexican workers at risk. These feelings of frustration and anger have been reflected in recent years on a worldwide scale. Populations that have felt abandoned IN THE SPRING OF 2012 RESEARCHERS FROM It was just around the time of the by their governments’ disbursement of China’s biggest Latin America-focused ILAS invitation that I had become economic gains have turned to right- think tank, the Beijing-based Institute curious to understand more about wing populists who promise a brighter of Latin American Studies (ILAS) at China’s rapidly expanding oil, finance future for them through racial exclusion the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and diplomatic relationship with and economic protectionism. Unless invited me to give a talk. ILAS hosts Venezuela’s Hugo Chávez. So even leaders of countries, such as Mexico, do suggested they would be especially though the topic of Venezuelan political a better job implementing initiatives that interested in hearing my thoughts on risk was new to me, I chose that as the equitably allocate the economic gains what Chinese researchers, businesses focus for my presentation. I argued that of globalization, they should expect a and policy makers should understand across a number of dimensions, from similar flavor of opposition to that faced about political risk in Latin America. I rising social and political polarization by DMC—claims of unfair competition found that choice of topic particularly to politicization and mismanagement and the surfacing (or resurfacing) of racial intriguing given what I’d been hearing of the oil sector to Chávez’s growing prejudices. about rising anxiety about how political health concerns, Venezuela presented risks tied to the Arab Spring posed a an array of formidable political risks— Emiliano Valle is a graduate of Har- challenge to China’s rising commercial probably second to none in the Western vard College ’16 and entered Harvard interests in regions like Africa and the Hemisphere, for any investor or lender, Medical School this fall. Middle East. including China. The almost universal

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Meridith Kohut made this image of pro-Chávez graffiti in Caracas. The photographer is receiving a Maria Moors Cabot citation this year for her excellent work in Venezuela.

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response from the ILAS participants was petroleum reserves, was thus seemingly a fungible funds that no other international that even though they acknowledged the perfect partner for China, which is today creditors would or could provide. In worrying trends in Venezuela, ultimately the world’s largest crude oil importer. Even addition, by emphasizing China’s socialist China’s economic and diplomatic interests as Venezuela has descended into crisis, and revolutionary bona fides (as faded there would not be adversely affected China has at least officially continued to or imagined as they may be), Chávez since, after all, Venezuela had a lot of oil emphasize the natural “complementarity” also found China to be a convenient, if and China needed a lot of oil and besides, of the relationship as a kind of stabilizing often reticent, partner in his Bolivarian had a lot of money to pay for it. ballast amidst the storm. Revolutionary agenda at home and Fast forward over six years and the Yet from the beginning, the China- abroad. question of how China should understand Venezuela relationship has stood out On the Chinese side, what may initially and manage political risk in Venezuela among all of China’s ties to commodity- have been another largely practical has become one of the most important, rich countries, not just in South America trade and investment relationship with if too often ignored, questions not just in but globally. Venezuela’s former larger- a commodity-rich South American China’s relationship with Latin America, than-life leader, Hugo Chávez, and what country soon turned into something but in its broader efforts to be seen as Henry Sanderson and Michael Forsythe quite bigger and different. Instead of an agent and leader of development have dubbed China’s “superbank,” just buying Venezuelan oil as India has on the world stage. This relationship of the China Development Bank (CDB), done, China’s state-owned CDB set up a superlatives (Venezuela has the world’s together created a loans-for-oil and series of multi-billion dollar loans-for-oil largest oil reserves, China is the world’s diplomatic partnership that was intended deals. At the time and still today, these largest oil importer, China has lent more to showcase the possibilities of the type loans constituted China’s largest outlay money to Venezuela than any other of South-South cooperation ushered in by of finance to any other country not just in country in the world, etc.) and larger- China’s emergence as a global actor, but Latin America but globally, and quickly than-life personalities (at least on the that instead serves as a cautionary tale of made China Venezuela’s largest source of Venezuelan side) has long since become a hubris and unintended consequences. sovereign finance. Part of what explains debacle. And while Venezuela’s deepening On the Venezuelan side, Chávez saw the CDB’s eagerness to lend to Venezuela economic and humanitarian crisis has China as a crucial partner in his efforts in these years was that the bank, under the attracted global headlines and concern, to use control of the nation’s abundant leadership of its seemingly untouchable China has neither acknowledged its role petroleum supplies to implement his president and Chinese Communist Party and interests in Venezuela’s crisis nor scion, Chen Yuan, was looking to establish sought to address the plight of the closest its credentials as China’s principal financier country it has to an ally in the Americas. Even as Venezuela has of global energy deals. It was also no mere How did this dysfunctional coincidence that around the time of the relationship come about and what does descended into crisis, largest loans, including one for $20 billion it tell us about China’s ties with Latin China has at least in 2010, that massive new sources of America and its even more high-profile liquidity were sloshing around the Chinese efforts at global development and South- officially continued to financial system in the wake of Beijing’s South leadership? emphasize the natural response to the global financial crisis. “complementarity” of Thus Chávez and the CDB convinced A PERFECT STORM themselves that theirs was an economically On its surface, the China-Venezuela the relationship as a and politically astute and viable relationship fits into the broader pattern kind of stabilizing ballast partnership. Yet by the time I gave my of raw materials-based trade, investment talk at ILAS in 2012, a growing sense of and financial ties between China and amidst the storm. unease about Venezuela was spreading in South America in the first decade or Beijing, including concerns about Hugo so of the 21st century. The China-led radical domestic and foreign policy Chávez’s ill health. By the summer of commodity boom from around 2003- agendas. Not only did expanded exports 2014, Chávez had died and been replaced 2013 ushered in massive new trade flows of petroleum to China fit into Chávez’s by a leader in whom China had far less of agricultural (soy), mining (copper and rhetoric of diversifying away from export confidence, and the global price of oil iron ore) and energy (oil) commodities dependence on the United States, but had plunged. The Venezuela political, from South America to China, which massive loans-for-oil deals with the economic and humanitarian crisis that rapidly became the number one trade CDB (to the tune of $40 billion prior has followed has not only been a disaster partner for countries like Brazil, Chile and to his death in 2013) provided a steady for the people of Venezuela, but it has Peru. Venezuela, with the world’s largest supply of economically and politically also undermined every element of China’s

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interest in the relationship. The near oil resources in a sustainable way. Or, complete meltdown in Venezuela’s oil given China’s growing role as an important production has meant that its government energy and infrastructure lender in Latin has been unable to service the original America and globally, an honest and terms of the loans, which eventually came open reckoning with China’s experience to total more than $60 billion, including in Venezuela could serve to avoid similar not just a form of de facto default but mistakes down the road. also lower-than-agreed oil shipments One final thought stays with me as I to China. Probably more consequential, reflect on these years of researching and however, is that Venezuela’s oil production writing about China and Venezuela. It is crisis has contributed to a rise in global oil that for most of that time I was a professor prices over the last year, raising China’s ties between Venezuela’s paramount in a Chinese university (I left Tsinghua total oil import bill. From almost every leader and one of China’s state-banking University last summer), and even though possible angle, then, the China-Venezuela champions, could not be derailed. There in every publication and every classroom relationship has become completely was further belief that through its loans- and public presentation I gave what I dysfunctional for the governments, for-oil deals, China would both guarantee viewed as constructively critical view, businesses and citizens of both countries. oil flows and loan repayments while I was never once directly or indirectly remaining immune from any vicissitudes dissuaded from such a stance. In fact, quite BROADER LESSONS of Venezuelan economics or politics. the opposite was true as I was frequently Unsurprisingly, neither the Chinese Although all of these assumptions have invited for media interviews, think tank nor Venezuelan authorities publicly been upended in Venezuela, yet China has conferences and business confabs where it acknowledge that their relationship has made similar calculations in its lending was clear that I would voice my concerns failed to live up to the high expectations and investment relations with other about the direction of China-Venezuela their leaders had set well over a decade ago. resource-rich developing countries not ties or of China-Latin America relations To be sure, China has dramatically scaled just in Latin America but also in Africa in general. All that may come as a surprise back the scope of its lending in recent and Asia. To be sure, it’s hard to find given the well-deserved reputation China years, but at each new sign of Venezuela’s another equivalent of Chávez’s Venezuela has gained for sensitivity to criticism of its further descent into crisis, Chinese foreign in Latin America, but Mugabe’s Zimbabwe foreign policy or for the lack of intellectual policy leaders simply make formulaic or Hun Sen’s Cambodia offer analogues freedom in Chinese academic institutions. statements about their hopes for “stability” in China’s Africa and Southeast Asian They listened politely, but I wish in Venezuela. Yet China has refused to play relationships. Moreover, the massive China’s foreign policy and bank officials any public role in Latin American regional debt-based relationship that China built would heed my calls for a more sensitive efforts, such as through the Lima Group, up with Venezuela is a warning sign for and empathetic approach to their foreign to help Venezuela find a more sustainable debtor and lender alike as China seeks to policy toward Latin America and other path forward. In short, China has chosen to lend and invest hundreds of billions of developing country regions, one that does wash its hands of its role in first facilitating, dollars through its global Belt and Road not threaten to unnecessarily repeat the and then failing to help resolve, Venezuela’s infrastructure plan. past mistakes of other global powers. crisis. Beyond just the details of what FINAL THOUGHTS Matt Ferchen is a nonresident scholar at has gone wrong in their one-on-one In the more than six years since that the Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global relationship, China-Venezuela ties have original ILAS presentation, I have been Policy, where he runs the China and the broader, if too often underappreciated, writing, speaking and teaching about the Developing World Program. From 2008- implications in a number of ways. In view slow-motion train wreck that is China- 2017 he was a faculty member in the of that discussion I had with the ILAS Venezuela relations. I have done so not out Department of International Relations researchers back in 2012, it is clear that of a sense of schadenfreude; certainly the at Tsinghua University where he taught Venezuela was and remains an important United States has made bigger mistakes in courses on Chinese political economy test case for how Chinese researchers as Latin America and elsewhere, but out of and China-Latin America relations. In well as government and business officials a sense that something could and should 1997 he completed the China and Latin understand, or misunderstand, political be changed. For example, as a country that American Studies programs at Johns risk in Latin America and beyond. is working to improve climate governance Hopkins SAIS for his Master’s degree There was a strong belief in China that both at home and abroad, China could and went on to get a Ph.D. in Govern- complementary oil-based linkages, engage with Venezuela to think of ment at Cornell before joining Tsinghua grounded in seemingly unshakeable innovative ways to develop the country’s and Carnegie-Tsinghua.

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James A. Dettleff K-dramas Flow into Latin America • Andrea Bachner How to Think Globally Manual Azuaje-Alamo Living Between Distant Shores • Yuan Wang and Theodore Macdonald Shared Sentiments Inspire New Cultural Centers • Ana Paula Kojima Hirano Telluric Connections, Bodies in Transit Ilana Boltvinik and Rodrigo Viñas Transoceanic Traveling Trash

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K-dramas Flow into Latin America A Look at Korea’s Cultural Products By JAMES A. DETTLEFF

I WAS AT CHILE’S SANTIAGO AIRPORT SOME Korean pop groups and television decades. Martial arts films and video months ago when I heard a group of dramas broke frontiers and arrived on games from Asia also flooded the world, young ladies chanting and cheering. I Latin American soil more than 15 years as did the comic books, known as . couldn’t really understand what they ago. Their popularity has increased These products were mainly targeted at were saying, while running with short thanks to the easy access to these the male audience, but a few products— steps from one place to another. Their products through the Internet, and to such as Candy Candy, Sakura Card- chanting continued in what sounded like thousands of fans around the world who captors and some manga shojo—were Japanese or Korean, until I recognized upload, classify, and share these songs aimed at the female audience. But at the some words: Super Junior. The k-pop and episodes to the delight of the South turn of the century, that changed. group was leaving Chile after a successful Korean government. Japan has been a huge production and massive concert, and their fans were The Asian products have been part of center of , TV shows, , following them until their last moments the Latin American culture for decades. pop music and such. But by the end in the country. The next day there was TV cartoons from Japan—animes—are of the 20th century other production barely a note about it in an interior page part of the regular schedule since the mid centers started to expand. South Korea of a Chilean newspaper, and only some 60’s when Astroboy was first broadcasted, was one of them, and cultural industries seconds’ mention on a TV news program. followed by Street Racer (Meteoro, in Latin played a role as well as politics. After the How come a musical group with so many America), Knights of the Zodiac, Dragon country restated its political relationship and loyal fans had no publicity in the Ball, Mazinger Z, Rurouni Kenshin, only with China, Korean TV dramas and media? Welcome to the hallyu experience. to name a few that followed in the next pop music groups started to appear on

Yoon Eun-hye stars in OK Drama.

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China’s television and music venues. Up until then, Japanese doramas—TV fiction shows, called that after the English word drama—ruled the Asian market, as did the J-pop, Japanese boy band or girl groups that sang and danced catchy themes mainly attracting young audiences. South Korea’s entertainment industry also worked on training aidorus—after the English word idols—young men and women who became models, singers or actors/actresses. At the same time, new television stations changed the format of their dramas, shortening them and creating original soundtracks (OST) for the shows, which were usually performed by pop singers, creating a synergy between music and television industries, and later fashion and make-up industries. The Korean government supported them as a way to promote an image of a modern and Above, OK Drama; below, Sakura dynamic Korea. one hand, k-dramas have young female To differentiate their national products die-hard fans who are willing to watch from Japanese ones, Korean songs are the series over and over, despite having known as k-pop, and their TV series as watched it before in Korean, subtitled, k-dramas. A performance in Beijing of or even on other TV stations. On the HOT—a k-pop boy band—had a huge other hand, the broadcasting companies success, taking by surprise the Chinese that have aired the k-dramas have low media, which started to talk about the ratings, with these programs often being Korean wave: the hallyu was born. their most watched shows. The low cost Hallyu means wave or flow, and is used of buying a k-drama compared to the to describe the cultural phenomenon that audience the station gains seems to make includes music, television dramas and country’s image in the context of the 2002 it a profitable business. films from South Korea. These products Soccer World Cup, and offered k-dramas The problem of depending on these didn’t only succeed in China but also in to the national public broadcast station, k-dramas is that it will not allow those Japan, Taiwan, and many other TV Peru. Since there was no money to stations to grow but just to survive, and Asian countries. Thanks to the Internet pay for the products, the embassy offered there is always the risk that the audiences they reached several other regions of the them for free if the station would also will start to fade away. But for now, we world, with young females as their main broadcast promotional videos of Korea. still see in Peru and other Latin countries audience. Blogs and web pages started to Since then, k-dramas continued to be young people dancing to the music of appear offering episodes of k-dramas, and shown in the country: until 2010 by TV k-pop, buying magazines with news and fans started to watch them even without Peru, then by Panamericana—a private pictures of their aidorus, or running speaking Korean. Some websites started a broadcasting company—and since 2016 around the airport to have a last glance collaborative work to subtitle the episodes: also by Willax, a small TV station that is when their Korean stars leave the country. the fansubs were born. Web pages that trying to increase its share of the Peruvian allow people to learn Korean were easily television market. found, and in 2013 the applications to One would imagine that these series James A. Dettleff is an Audiovisual Pro- take the proficiency test in Korean had are a huge success with the audience, but fessor at Pontificia Universidad Católica quadrupled compared to 2004. it isn’t so. They barely reach two points on del Perú, and a Ph.D(c) in communica- K-dramas arrived to Latin America the ratings, which is pretty low for what is tions at Universidad Católica de Chile, in the early years of this century, when expected on Peruvian television. So how researching TV series and films as part of Mexico started dubbing them. In Peru, the have they survived more than 15 years the cultural memory of the internal war Korean embassy wanted to promote the on Peruvian television screens? On the in Perú.

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How to Think Globally Between China and Latin America By ANDREA BACHNER

THE HOLLYWOOD ACTION FILM PACIFIC RIM, literature and culture on one hand and Chinese from an English translation—by directed by Guillermo del Toro and Latin American studies on the other, only pointing to the shared marginal position released in 2013, features the Pacific as my third book project engages explicitly of Latin American countries and China an abyssal gateway through which alien and in detail with both cultural traditions vis-à-vis Europe and the United States. monsters from another dimension enter together. In time, of course, Magical Realism was the world. The film’s human heroes When I started research on the a Latin American export success that fighting in giant robots in order to connections between Chinese and Latin inspired writers all over the globe, not least contain the aliens set on conquest and American cultures some years ago, I was in China. But it is more than a fascinating destruction show a rather skewed picture in for several surprises. I wasn’t prepared detail that the Sino-Tibetan Tashi Dawa of our imaginary of the Pacific. The Pacific for the sheer wealth of relations and (writing in Chinese) chose to reflect Rim invoked in the title, as the film resonances between the two cultural critically on Magical Realism and the suggests with its main protagonists, a U.S. realms that I began to encounter. Most dynamics of world literary emulation. He American with his Japanese love interest, people might have heard of the Manila started his 1985 novella “Tibet: Souls Tied involves North America and Japan, while galleons—carrying goods from China— to a String” by having his persona inspired characters from Russia and China serve as with their direct trade route between the by the globally circulating song “El cóndor expendable sidekicks. Pacific islanders are and Mexico from the 16th to pasa” to compose an imaginary (and highly only precariously included—in the form the 19th century. But it is not common metafictional) Tibetan scene. of victims. In spite of Guillermo del Toro’s knowledge that voices in Spain were And on and on it went. Until my brain, cultural roots, Latin America is completely clamoring for a conquest of southern my copious hand-written notes, and my absent from the picture—as if the Pacific’s China as an addition to the empire in the computer were crisscrossed by a complex rim did not extend south. sixteenth century. The fact that Chinese tangle of connections between the two coolie laborers shaped the economy cultures: ones that traced routes taken by of 19th-century Cuba has been widely people and ideas, ones that tracked literary In time, of course, researched. But the important role of influences, but also ones that probed exotic Chinese coolies in Cuba’s Ten Years’ War fantasies of the cultural other or that Magical Realism was a and the War of Independence, especially marked surprising analogies. Rather than Latin American export highlighted by leftist historians after the a picture of harmonious mutuality, what Cuban revolution, was news to me. Many emerged was a cacophony of felicitous success that inspired Latin American writers were inspired by intersections and superimpositions, writers all over the China—at least in their imagination-- but also of cultural frictions, unequal of what appeared as an exotic, far-away exchanges or mistranslations. And yet, globe, not least in China. culture to most. We may think of Jorge for me, the multiple, dynamic, relational Luis Borges’ imaginary of a Chinese constellations at work testified to the Most spectators would not have noticed novel that includes all possible decisions power and productivity of intercultural this omission or would have dismissed and their consequences in his “The work against all odds. it as unimportant. After all, del Toro’s Garden of Forking Paths,” or the excessive As I was unearthing new relations Pacific Rim is not a geopolitical treatise chinoiserie of Rubén Darío’s “The Death between Latin American and Chinese or a reflection on cultural interactions of the Empress of China.” But countering cultures, I felt profound unease at having in the Pacific, but a light-hearted action the Orientalist visions of China in Latin been taken by surprise to begin with. blockbuster. But that’s precisely the America, the first Latin American literary Why hadn’t my work discovered and problem: some ways of thinking, some text (at least to my knowledge) to be explored this comparatist motherlode ways of mapping the world are so deeply translated into Chinese was selected out of earlier? True, I didn’t precisely custom- ingrained that it’s difficult to see beyond a spirit of solidarity among weak nations: design my formation in comparative them. My own research trajectory is a leftist writer and intellectual Mao Dun literature with a view to working on case in point. In spite of having trained prefaced his 1923 translation of Darío’s Chinese-Latin American connections. as a comparatist with a focus on Chinese “The Veil of Queen Mab”—rendered in Instead, I kept adding new languages

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Space, Transformation and Movement Three Chinese Artists in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Vuelta de Rocha, La Boca, Buenos Aires, January 2015. A multitude of entranced spectators surround the illuminated edges of Riachuelo de La Boca, the old port neighborhood of fishers and humble workers in the south of Buenos Aires. A spectacle of movement and dance accompanies the forms in movement and the lit-up landscapes in the sky and on the water. The Chinese fireworks artist Cai Guo-Qiang has transformed this spot under the title “Life is a milonga: Fireworks Tango for Argentina.” Cai conceived this explosive project, inspired in the history of tango, as a dialogue between cultures in which elements of nature are integrated into the hu- man landscape in an unpredictable, fluid and open manner. (Text by Verónica Flores; Photo by Tatsumi Masatoshi, courtesy of Cai Studio.)

Fundación Proa, La Boca, Buenos Aires, December 2017. Ai Weiwei disembarks in Buenos Aires. There, where in yesteryears, the painter Benito Quinquela Martín observed the arrival of cargo ships from his studio while he painted the daily life of immigrant workers. In the historical and colorful context of Caminito, right in front of a prow looking out on the river, Ai installed a monumental mass sculpture, made of 1,254 steel bicycles, referring both to the most traditional form of transportation in China, but with a playful nod to conceptual artist Marcel Du- champ. Architecture in movement, a metaphor for permanent change in the culture, this gigantic work recontextualizes daily objects to reveal the dissolv- ing force of mass industrial production. The wheels spin infinitely, surprising passersby, while they evoke the creative spirit of the artist and his capacity to act for social transformation. (Text and photo by Verónica Flores)

San Telmo, Buenos Aires, April 2015. Eighteen inter- twined bodies pose silently, making up a long fixed chain. They wear various shades of yellows and tans, the colors of the tiny soybeans whose pres- ence in the background slowly becomes apparent. It is an optical illusion carried out for this photo-per- formance through the mimicry of the models and the camouflage techniques meticulously designed by the Chinese artist Liu Bolin. The powerful liv- ing image is a subtle and ingenious invitation by the artist to reflect on the forms of invisibility and dehumanization created by the global economy. An incessant line of spectators—sometimes up to 500 people—went to look at the installation. (Text by Verónica Flores; Photo courtesy of the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Buenos Aires.)

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and cultures to my comparatist’s portfolio and Latin America, though of increasing unchartered barbarity. On the other, since depending on time and opportunity, and interest to scholars in history, sociology Columbus’s erroneous superimposition driven, above all, by the fuzzy criterion and economics, still occupies a marginal of China and the Americas, we have not of personal fascination. But upon further position in cultural and literary studies. ceased to fantasize about Latin America reflection, something else was at play This work falls outside of disciplinary and China as closely linked; for one, in here, something that had very little to do boundaries or is severely curtailed by the periodically resurfacing hypotheses with my own serendipitous intellectual them. It is also marked by the politics of common cultural roots between pre- development. Instead, what I had and positionalities of academic traditions. Columbian cultures and China or early happened upon pointed to an intellectual For instance, scholars within Latin contact and interaction between them. problem beyond the specific examples American studies have long studied Too close for comfort and yet worlds of China and Latin America that I had literary Orientalism and have begun apart, the imagination that thinks both singled out for an analysis of alternative to focus more attention on diasporic cultural regions together also embodies Pacific networks. Our way of mapping circuits. But until recently, most of their the extremes of thinking comparatively, the world was in need of updating. As research has been limited to sources in pitting sameness versus total difference. we are busy either complaining about or Spanish and Portuguese. Scholars in Between uncanny closeness and lauding globalization, the very logic of China and Taiwan, while increasingly unbridgeable distance, Latin America thinking about different parts of the world competent in the languages of Latin and China are spheres multiply connected is profoundly biased, provincial rather America, are often bound by disciplinary by histories of migration, commerce and than global. After all, why are some places expectations: for instance, to produce collaboration, as well as tied together widely represented while others receive ambitious surveys rather than fine- by analogies, cultural resonances, and next to no attention? And why do we grained analyses. Literary scholars cultural fantasies. In my work, I use find connections between some countries are often too caught up in histories of the complex networks of intersections and regions self-evident but imagine translation, literary influence, or the between China and Latin America as a other spaces as if they were disconnected intercultural experiences of individual laboratory for rethinking intercultural islands? And what assumptions determine intellectuals to look at a bigger global analysis. This involves a radical the comparisons we trace between and interdisciplinary picture. Historians, reimagining of comparison—as flexible different cultures? who have done much to allow us to think and multi-focal, as an operation that Of course, Latin America and Chinese about Latin America and Asia together, assumes that its objects are internally cultures represent merely one of many for example, by reconstructing histories hybrid and fuzzy rather than clearly cases of a biased global imagination. But of immigration, do not account for the delimited, and as a method that often I have found this example particularly elusive yet important web of imaginaries has to work with uneven dialogues, weak instructive. For one, both regions are that forge intercultural thinking. In links, hallucinatory superimpositions, and no longer (or have never really been) addition, this kind of research moves tenuous affinities. I view this work not peripheries to Europe’s center or uneasily even within more capacious merely as the methodological navel-gazing appendixes to North American power, frameworks. For the field of transpacific of the field of Comparative Literature as they have come to occupy important studies, some parts of China and Latin in which I situate my research. Instead, geopolitical, economic and cultural roles. America are entirely too continental. And such an approach forces us to critically And yet, on many people’s imagined map, a world power such as China doesn’t quite reassess how we think globally. After all, Asia and America still seem to occupy the fit into the category of the global South to define what is comparable and what opposite ends of a flat, discontinuous either. And what about all the cases that incommensurable forms the basis for an space, embodying the antipodes of East fall outside of neat patterns of geopolitical understanding of cultural difference and, and West. Concurrently, increased stress panoramas, economic networks, diasporic potentially, the grounds for an ethics of on the North-South division within the movements or literary influence? interculturality. American continent has transformed the One of the most exciting insights border between the United States and for me has been the sheer polarity that Andrea Bachner, associate professor of Mexico into “la frontera” (the frontier) par marks how we think of China and Latin Comparative Literature at Cornell Uni- excellence, bracketing reflections on the America together—or rather apart: on the versity, is the author of Beyond Sinology connection between Asia and the South one hand, they have often been treated as (2014) and The Mark of Theory (2018). of the American continent. Overshadowed antipodes, situated at opposite ends of the Her third book, After Comparison: by the conventionalized binaries of East world map and thus embodying divergent China, Latin America, and the Politics and West and North and South, as well as negative mirror images of Western of Sameness, is close to completion. She divided by the boundaries of disciplines imagination: China’s inscrutable, decadent received her Ph.D. in Comparative and areas, comparative work on Asia civilization versus Latin America’s Literature from Harvard in 2007.

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Living Between Distant Shores A Decade Reading Latin American Literature in East Asia By MANUEL AZUAJE-ALAMO

ESTA MECÁNICA, [LA DE DEPENDER DEL the best paellas in Tokyo. I would go there student at Harvard—I visited all the estado] de alguna manera, desoreja a los Saturday mornings for a literature fix, and other Centros Cervantes in East Asia: the escritores mexicanos. Los vuelve locos. then take the stairs one flight up to eat a stately branch in Beijing, an annex of the Algunos, por ejemplo, se ponen a traducir Spanish lunch while listening to flamenco Spanish embassy; the branch in Shanghai, poesía japonesa sin saber japonés y otros, music. embedded in one of the fanciest parts of ya de plano, se dedican a la bebida. (2666 Back then, as a Master’s student, I the French Concession, within walking 161-162, my italics) had no idea of what the future held, but distance of that odd block where the (This dynamic [of depending on the some years later—after I became a Ph.D. American and Iranian consulate almost state], somehow, emasculates Mexican writers. It makes them crazy. Some, for example, set out to translate Japanese poetry without knowing Japanese, and others, quite simply, take up drinking).

The lines above take place in Mexico City. We are in the world of the late Chilean writer Roberto Bolaño’s masterpiece of a novel, 2666, and a Mexican character is describing—to his interlocutors, literature scholars from Europe—that one of the signs of the intellectual malaise that afflicts some Mexican writers is an inexplicable desire to translate Japanese poetry without knowing any Japanese. The lines quoted above are only a tiny fragment of a massive novel, and yet they have has stuck with me all throughout my graduate studies. The scene from this novel takes place in the Mexico of the 1990s, but I read it neither in Latin America nor at Harvard, but years ago, when I was still a Master’s Degree student at the University of Tokyo. The café where I immersed myself in Bolaño’s world was in the middle of Tokyo, on an avenue facing the outer moats of the Imperial Palace. Less than a five-minute walk from that intersection, there stands the Tokyo branch of the Centro Cervantes, where, back then I—a Spanish-speaking student living in Japan—used to borrow a weekly dose of Latin American fiction from its vast library. The Centro Cervantes at Tokyo is a six-story building, housing a library and, one floor above it, a Spanish restaurant where you could have one of The author poses in front of the Chinatown gate in Nakasaki, Japan.

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face each other; and the minuscule branch in South Korea, comprised of a couple of rooms in a university office, a budget operation that opened during the recent years when the Spanish economy almost collapsed and has thus remained— regrettably—stunted. Those centers are my reflections of Latin America and East Asia. Like walking into an air-conditioned room in the middle of a sweltering summer or huddling into a reading room with a fireplace to escape from the Cambridge winter, walking into these centers from streets with signs written in letters such as , , or meant more than a change in location: it was a change in Olympic Bird Nest Stadium in China. mindscape, a complete reversal, soothing, many of its haikus, made them his own coming back—however far away—to the poems. Without knowing any Japanese. mother tongue even as for the past 20 Octavio Paz: Mexico’s one and only years I had lived in voluntary exile from Nobel-prize winner, its national poet, the Venezuelan regime. was bête noire for Bolaño and the poets ••• of his coterie; no wonder Bolaño would But I get ahead of myself. I was writing feel inclined to mock his translational about Bolaño’s 2666, and that passage overreach. where the Chilean-born novelist says— And yet, in Latin American letters unprompted, untriggered, and out of the Octavio Paz is not alone. During the 20th blue—that Mexican writers who write century, for a Latin American writer to be translations of Japanese poetry without interested in Japanese literature was not knowing any Japanese have one too many an oddity, but a common step in his or her loose screws in their heads. What was poetic development. Jorge Luis Borges, Bolaño talking about? in an early book review of a translated Bolaño was writing about Octavio Paz. Japanese novel, is casual enough to write, Or, rather, he was mocking Octavio Paz. in his usual off-hand manner, that “Hacia At least that is what—after having 1916 resolví entregarme al estudio de las read hundreds of pages by both Bolaño literaturas orientales” (“Around 1916 I and Paz—my dissertation research is decided to dedicate some time to the study increasingly suggesting. Se ponen a of Oriental literatures”): 1916, that is to traducir poesía japonesa sin saber japonés, say, when Borges was merely 17 years old. Bolaño would know: he was still living in Fittingly, during the 1980s, nearly 70 after Mexico City in 1970, the year in which Paz that early encounter with Asian literature, published the greatly edited—and much Yonsei University historical site in Seoul, Korea. Borges paid two visits to Japan. By then he more widely sold—second edition of the had completely lost his sight, but this did book that was the Mexican writer’s longest back even further. Having lived in India not impede his perception of his beloved translation from Japanese literature: his and Japan for the first time as a diplomat Japanese culture; as he would say in an Spanish-language translation of Matsuo between 1952 and 1954, Paz met a young interview during the 1980s, he could not Basho’s classical haiku narrative The Road Japanese diplomat in Mexico in 1955 see the temples, nor see the stone steles to the Deep North, or, in Paz’s Spanish, Las who would go on to help him translate and their inscriptions, but he could touch sendas de Oku. into Spanish the haikus of Matsuo Basho. them, and this tracing of his blind fingers Octavio Paz’s fascination for East Asian The little book came out in 1957, but it over the smooth wood and rock provided poetry predated the 1970 edition of Las was not until 1970 that Paz—now, after a more intimate contact with Japanese sendas de Oku by at least two decades, all those years, working alone—revised culture. Blind, Borges composed his and his interest in East Asian culture goes the translation of the book and recreated

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late-period poetry mnemonically inside Chinese Cultural Revolution (no, really, it trying to copy the now nostalgia-ridden his head, relying on poetic forms to hold did). One of my parents’ closest university modernism of Hong Kong architecture: already-composed verses in suspension friends was a Venezuelan of Chinese skyscrapers built on a tropical island while he went on to work on the new lines. descent. This man’s last name was that of fighting the marine wind and water. El This is how he wrote the original haikus a Chinese dynasty, so here I will just call chino Tang traveled to that city for the collected in his last poetry collections, The him “Tang.” first time in his life when he was close to Cypher and The Gold of the Tigers. This, Tang was like an uncle to me, an uncle 40 years old, to meet the estranged side by the way, is also how he translated a from faraway lands. He would often visit of his family that his own side had not classic from Japanese literature, Sei our house, and stay over talking with my met since the Cultural Revolution. In Shonagon’s highly allusive essay collection parents until the wee hours of the night. As Hong Kong, my uncle Tang explained, The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon. Working a five-year-old, I was convinced that he was all sorts of Asian and Chinese people from an English version, Borges and his related to either Bruce Lee or , or gathered, and many of them did not wife would sink everyday into the world of both, and I always asked him to spar with speak the local dialect, so in order the medieval Japanese court—described me, a request that he would often brush to communicate they would trace in the English language that Georgie had away with a hearty Latin American laugh. Chinese characters with their fingers learnt as a boy from the British side of his For us, in my family, he was el chino Tang, on the palms of their hands. Speaking, family—and come out at the end of the even though he had never put his foot on writing, to each other in this way, a sort day with pages of Borges’s succinct and any part of the Asian continent, and even of communication was achieved. With elegant Spanish. though Tang’s father, scarred from his exile, no Mandarin or Cantonese, uncle Tang Like Borges, Brazilian poet Haroldo had not made enough of an effort to teach lived for a whole season in Hong Kong, de Campos, debuting in the decade his son any Chinese. The el chino moniker and when he returned to Venezuela he of the 1950s, was also fascinated with was given to him in the Venezuelan marveled his nephew with stories of the Japanese poetry, especially by the Chinese manner, without racial overtones, the same island. characters that it used in its writing way that in my family I was called el negro, “You could live there too,” he said system. He had a radical approach to and my cousin el rubio. to me one of those times. “You would poetry, and, along with his brother Of course, Tang was not alone; there just need to know a dozen of Chinese Augusto de Campos and the poet Décio have been whole generations of Chinese characters to get by. They would look Pignatari, founded the movement poesia and other East Asian immigrants to at your face and think you’re from deep concreta in Brazil. The Chinese script so Latin America. I know about that now, in Inner China. You would just need to fascinated de Campos that in 1977 he but back then I was still a kid, living in know some characters.” collected, edited and translated a whole the surreal peaceful family life of pre- Now, decades later, I know “some” volume collecting essays on the poetics Bolivarian Revolution Venezuela, and el characters, or just about enough to of East Asian characters, Ideograma: chino Tang was the only Asian person I read novels in Japanese, Chinese and Logica Poesia Linguagem (Ideogram: knew, and, man, was he interesting. Korean. Japan is now my adopted home, Logic Poetry Language). Some 15 years Following that, my family moved having lived here for more than a third later, he would also translate—likewise to the United States for some years. I of my life. But it all started because one without speaking Japanese—the Noh picked up English, and, in the way that evening uncle Tang traced some Chinese theater piece, The Feather Mantle. many do, in picking up a new language characters on the palm of his hand, and The renowned Uruguayan poet Mario I also picked up, without noticing, new then on the palm of mine. Benedetti also composed poetry based ways of seeing. And before I knew what I would like to think that past writers on Japanese models. His late poetry happened, my family moved back to from Latin America also have had collection Rincón de Haikus—fittingly Venezuela during middle school, and experiences like this, and that is why they published in 1999, as the new Asian there was a parilla with el chino Tang, came back, now and again, to the Asia of century was about to begin—became a and there was his Hong Kong story. their imagination. bestseller not only in his native Uruguay, Hong Kong. After many Hong Kong but also in other parts of the Latin movies, three Hong Kong visits, and Manuel Azuaje-Alamo holds an M.A. American continent. the whole oeuvre of the director Wong from the University of Tokyo and from Why did Japanese literature attract Kar-Wai, my heart is convinced, even Harvard University. He is currently so many fans from the ranks of eminent as my mind knows better, that the a Ph.D. Candidate at the Department Latin American authors? best neighborhoods of Caracas—those of Comparative Literature of Harvard There are limits to my ability to explain neighborhoods built in the modern style University, and is writing his doctoral why it attracted them, but I can explain and which were, once, the promise of a dissertation in Tokyo. He can be reached why it attracted me. It all started with the better tomorrow now betrayed—were at [email protected]

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Shared Sentiments Inspire New Cultural Centers Wuayusa and Incense By YUAN WANG and THEODORE MACDONALD

IN THE EARLY AFTERNOON OF JANUARY 3, 2018, in the mountainous village of Shicang, Zhejiang Province, China, firecrackers burst into the air and flags waved in the wind as a parade of Clan Que members stepped out of their newly built ancestral temple. Behind them marched a band of local drummers, and cymbal players and suona trumpet performers played high-pitched folk music. Headed by Que Guande, a respected clan member and village chief, they walked through the gates, marching to village shrines and temples where, with incense burning, they paid tribute to the local spirits. They then carried the spirits’ statues to the new ancestral temple, informing these divinities that, in the evening, the Clan’s ancestor souls would return. It had been 172 years since the first Clan Que ancestor temple had been inaugurated—and 46 years since it had been removed. The marchers’ faces were solemn and proud. They were the patrons of this temple where their souls would remain after death, join their ancestors, and enjoy worship by their descendants in a rapidly changing world. Four days earlier, and several hours before dawn, in the Ecuadorian Amazonian community of Arajuno, Margarita López, a teacher and eldest daughter of a famous shaman (yachaj), and her husband, Cesar Cerda, former president of the Organization of Indigenous Peoples of Pastaza (OPIP), sat with their children to drink wayusa tea, a daily ritual linking them to the spirit world. They Burning incense to welcome the return of their ancestors’ spirits. were at the foot of Pasu Urcu, the hill that houses local spirits, and inside the They then carried the spirits’ statues to the new Puka Rumi Community Center, which was created to illustrate the harmony ancestral temple, informing these divinities that, between their Kichwa community and in the evening, the Clan’s ancestor souls would the biodiverse, spirit-laden forest which surrounds it. They were not alone. For return.

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the next several days, other leaders population displacement. Initially, the against their will. And after 1989, as the of the local ethnic federation, ACIA Que Clan members settled in small huts Deng economic opening was introduced, (Association of Indigenous Communities and worked as subsistence farmers. In many gradually took advantage of modern of Arajuno), elevated the domestic ritual time some noted nearby iron deposits housing. to a large public event, Wayusa Upina, and began smelting. Several were quite inviting people from the surrounding successful and shifted from small farmers ARAJUNO: SPIRITS AND communities. The celebration seeks to to manufacturers. By the mid-Qing SUBSISTENCE restore Sumak Kawsay, the good life, that Dynasty (1800s), the Que Clan’s change in About 8,000 people now live on requires communal and spiritual ties as status was displayed in more than thirty the right bank of the Arajuno River in well as a degree of political and economic ornate estates which copied, and often the recently established municipality self-determination, amidst rapid embellished, the rich ornamentation of of Arajuno, with parks, stores, bank, environmental and political changes. the wealthy original inhabitants. However, bars, churches, schools and several large In most ways Shicang and Arajuno the Que Clan retained the basis structure government offices. Claims on these could not be more distinct. They are of their ancestral Fujian houses. That was ancestral lands, however, began in 1912 at literally worlds apart—geographically, essential. The most important household the foot of Pasu Urcu. At the time, Pasu culturally and historically. But both now space was the central incense hall, used Urcu was simply an ancient rest stop share sentiments about cultural and for worshiping the ancestors. Associated with no permanent residents on a trail spiritual losses and a desire to rebuild responsibilities and duties were not merely linking Kichwa settlements across various some of that communal life while adapting obligatory tasks but, rather, a foundation rivers. Some communities crafted small to inevitable, often positive but sometimes underlying the moral values ​​of the village. drums, violins and woven bags to trade alienating, economic and political In 1846 Que Tiankai, a rich Que for blowguns, poison for their darts, and changes. The two sentiment-sharing Clan businessman, constructed the first salt. Each exchanged shamanic skills and communities did not connect through community ancestor temple. While provided ritual curing. spirits, shamanism, or anything magical. tracing the genealogy and constructing the Two such travelers, Domingo Cerda The similarities were simply noted by the temple, Clan Que elders dispatched a four- and Roque Volante Lopez, well-known authors, who have worked separately for person team back to Fujian’s Shanghang, shamans, left their main settlement on the years in one of the areas and, recently, their original hometown. There this Upper Napo River and set up temporary were fortunate enough to visit the other. delegation acquired the ancestral spirits’ residence near Pasu Urcu to enjoy the Comparisons were obvious. Each village incense burners and furnace ash. Holding hunting and fishing, and to escape feuds. was originally settled by migrants with a the incense burners in their hands to Compared to the more densely populated strong sense of community and spiritual assure continuous burning and climbing areas to the north, Pasu Urcu’s environs ties. Both were later challenged by the numerous mountains along a trade were ideal. Fish and game were plentiful. national “modernization” policies, leaving route, they carried the ancestor incense And at the foot of Pasu Urcu, a large a spiritual vacuum of sorts. Each is now and its spirits to Shicang. After that was section of the adjacent river’s flood plain, actively restoring local history, spirituality done, all the members of Clan Que placed the isla, provided a relatively large and and agency amidst growing national and their ancestors’ tablets, or the tablets of the fertile site for subsistence gardens. Later, globalized economies. Their new cultural newly deceased, inside the temple. They the new residents cleared a plaza whose centers are a shared way of saying “Let’s lived comfortably amidst their history for obligatory maintenance, organized by decide some of the future through the a while. However, as iron commerce grew the shaman through communal labor, past, as we did before.” nationally and globally, prices dropped or minga, architecturally centered the and wealth declined.— reflected clearly developing community. SHICANG: ANCESTORS in architectural history. Without funds Unlike Que Clan, Arajuno’s original AND ARCHITECTURE to build new houses, families crowded settlers were not a single lineage. Families Among the approximately 6,000 into the old estates. In 2006, when we from various parts set up houses nearby, Shicang villagers now spread along the historical researchers first visited Shicang, became friends and later intermarried, Shicangxi River, more than 4,000 belong it was obvious that several generations resulting in residence-based kindred to Clan Que. These ethnic Hakka arrived of the same family were living in the known as muntun. It was not that during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing same house, sharing the courtyard and ancestors and lineages did not matter; (1636-1912) dynasties. They migrated passageways. And they continued joint on the contrary, kinship, as well as place, out of the densely populated Shanghang responsibilities for the maintenance of formed the sense of community, provided County in nearby Fujian Province after the incense halls. In 1972, however, the identity, and shaped relations. But large lands in Zhejiang Province opened status of the community temple and family groups and settlements were often up because of rebellion, warfare, and related aspects of spiritual life changed broken up by sudden illness and death,

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a bus station and public toilets. It has widened the road, enabling daily shuttle buses between the county seat and the village. Material life has improved. Some of the crowded, deteriorating old estates are being converted into museums and tourist attractions, with trained tour guides. The Que Clan’s priorities were illustrated during one of our visits. A regional ministry had dropped off plans to convert the old houses into tourist attractions, based on attractive but inauthentic designs drawn up by an external architect. For the Shicang residents, there was a sense that something was missing…the spiritual and moral links to ancestors. Community leaders spoke to the author, an architectural historian, who then met with regional officials to express disagreement with the alien design. Fortunately, for budgetary reasons, the drawings did not become architectural Parading to local spirit temples, inviting them to new Ancestor Temple. reality. Another, more serious, concern was frequently attributed to shaman feuds. territory became coterminous with the political. In 1972, the old ancestor temple Some kin groups were also separated by supai’s control over resources. A territorial of Clan Que in Shicang was demolished abusive labor demands, ranging from agreement developed, which tied muntun and replaced by a primary school. public works to rubber gathering to members to their land and consequently Though not clearly stated, it was fairly debt servitude, all under the control of to each other, through spirits. Arajuno obvious to community members that government officials or local patrons. residents, though far less focused on tight the move reflected the Maoist/Cultural Feuding, though conflictive between genealogies and ancestor worship than Revolution’s (1966 to 1976) opposition groups, nonetheless tightened relations Shicang dwellers, nonetheless developed to, and elimination of organized religion. within the muntun, where the yachaj’s a strong sense of kin-based community Community spiritual concerns persisted ties to spirits, supai, were understood to and self-identity grounded in spirit-based when, in 2004, the primary school insulate and protect muntun members. links to place and family. building was declared to be structurally And while some Kichwa from the Upper But in the 1970s, spiritual ties and dangerous. The school was temporarily Napo were hauled off as far as Peru to community bonds in both Shicang and relocated. The Que Clan responded gather rubber or obliged to work on Arajuno were challenged by government gradually. local farms and ranches, most of those policies. The Chinese and Ecuadorian In the late spring of 2013, after who settled in Arajuno were fortunate governments, coincidentally and for a five-hour drive from Shanghai, the enough to obtain essential manufactured radically different reasons, mandated author returned, still impressed by objects (tools and cloth) and pay off the changes which produced disruptions to the old residential houses with their related debts to Upper Napo patrons by community and the spiritual world. rammed earth walls and black tiles, a panning for gold along the river banks. rural landscape which was distinct from Though the patron-client economy was MATERIALIZING LIFE: “MODERN” the “modern world.” She later attended truly exploitative, the residents were able STATE POLITICS AND POLICY a meeting held by Clan Que Committee to farm, hunt, and fish locally. To do so Today in Shicang, as in most Chinese for Ancestral Temple Reconstruction successfully, local yachaj had to establish villages, many young adults leave to work to discuss her rendering (architectural close ties with the Pasu Urcu supai, who in the cities and send the money back to drawings) of an ancestral temple plan were understood to own and provide their parents and children who remain based on the older villagers’ memories. access to these essential resources. As in the village. New red-brick buildings The Que Clan liked the plan, and then the spiritual ties increased and relations with modern amenities have sprung up moved quietly towards recreating the intensified, Kichwa understanding of with government support. Shicang’s local government has also built a parking lot, ancestor hall, temporarily calling it a

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“culture center.” In January, 2016, Que Longxing, the organizer of the ancestor temple project, showed the author a booklet “Records on Rebuilding the Weizeng Tang Ancestor Temple” prepared by the villagers. Many Clan Que members also wrote to government officials. Two letters were even sent to the national prime minister. Receiving no response from any government office, a few members of Clan Que moved a huge iron incense burner into the vacant lot to demonstrate the right of occupation. The villagers called all these actions the “Baoji Campaign (Protect the Base).” Some were then arrested and detained for a night. The Communist Party’s secretary of the village (also a member of Que family) was later removed from his position for failure to Traditional Kichwa wedding drummer/chanter and violin player, now electronically amplified. prevent the protest. Nevertheless, under that it was best (i.e., highly visible) to raise At the time it struck me as ironical, yet the pressure of Clan Que’s actions, the cattle, and were provided with bank credit understandable, that this spiritual leader, local government decided to leave the to do so. Consequently, land use patterns who daily seesawed between subsistence disputed site alone. Nonviolent action in Arajuno changed radically. By 1975 horticulture and production for the and community mobilization won the day portions of every 50-hectare plots were market, private property and communal politically. And the ancestor hall began to converted to pasture. While the broader land, the muntun and government fill a personal spiritual gap, which many sense of territory and spirit ties did not initiatives, should rage at actions that sense in current-day China. disappear, private property became the whittled away at the symbols of his primary concern, challenging the earlier previous authority and status, while at ARAJUNO sense of communal territory. the same time acting in a manner that Beginning in the 1960s, as part of The induced privatization created encouraged such behavior. He was caught the agrarian reform that took place tense social and political relations with between contradictory desires to maintain throughout Latin America, the Ecuadorian colonists and among the Kichwa as well, his previous role and prestige, while also government encouraged colonization confusing the indigenous sensibilities that attempting to maximize his personal of Amazonian lands. Unaccepting, or at had formed the community. To illustrate, economic condition. Many shared that least unaware of indigenous perceptions in 1975, while surveyors from the agrarian confusion, as individual families began of territory, government officials regarded reform agency were working in Arajuno, to experiment with independent forms of the forested areas around villages like some members of the community became social and economic life, away from the Arajuno as tierras baldías, idle lands, and angered by the principal yachaj’s efforts to unifying spiritual and communal ties. thus available to settlers. A few colonists acquire more land on the riverside garden Fortunately, perceptions changed moved in and acquired government- area, the isla. They suggested that a large in 1979, when young leaders founded awarded, 50-hectare plots near the center section of that communal land be divided ACIA, an organization inspired by of town. Some indigenous residents also in half—one section, including the plaza, other indigenous ethnic federations began to request and receive such plots. would go to the yachaj and his family that emerged throughout the Amazon But initially there was little impact on the while the other section would remain for as oil and agribusiness interests, as well old sense of territory and community. The communal agricultural use. Although the as expanding colonization, increased spirits were alive and well. division would have given the yachaj a threats to indigenous territories. The However, a more aggressive, national- large piece of land, he reacted violently, organizations regularly battled with economic, agrarian reform took place after arguing that members of the muntun colonists and oil developers. And in 1972, when oil development began in the should be made to realize their obligation 1992 Arajuno residents participated in Amazon. By 1974, as property owners, the to maintain the plaza, which reflected the a massive, multiple-day, protest march Kichwa of Arajuno were required to visibly organization of the muntun, where he was from the provincial capital of Puyo to exploit their land holdings. They were told the internal authority figure. Quito. Shortly thereafter, the government

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formally recognized indigenous rights to ceremoniously linking themselves to the a number of large territories, including past, as when the founding yachajs first Telluric Arajuno. Gradually the presence of linked themselves to the supai in 1912. colonists and cattle diminished, and In both Shicang and Arajuno, new Connec- communal land holdings re-emerged. As culture centers are linking old communal in Shicang, nonviolent protest redirected sentiments to changing worlds. They do government actions and resuscitated so in positive ways, by providing a sense of tions, Bodies spiritual life. order and culture that, communities agree, is often lacking as states rush to modernize, in Transit GROUNDING THE FUTURE or even revolutionize economies and Un cuerpo en Fukushima These changes are not a movement societies. The two communities are not backward in time. Like the incense unique in China or Latin America. They in Santiago del Chile wafting in Shicang’s ancestor hall, were observed by coincidence, and the Arajuno’s guayusa upina ceremonies underlying sentiments invite future By ANA PAULA KOJIMA HIRANO and Puka Rumi Culture Center, are cultural comparisons as China’s presence not simple folkloric answers or utopian in Latin America expands. responses to current and future needs. Throughout China ancestor worship is on Yuan Wang, an architectural historian, ON A SUMMERY MORNING IN SANTIAGO, the rise, not in opposition to any economic was a 2011 Harvard-Yenching Institute Chile—January 20, 2016—my mother development or government planning, but Visiting Scholar, and is an Associate Pro- and I decided to go to the Gabriela simply to fill a perceived gap in people’s fessor, Department of History, Shanghai Mistral Cultural Center. My mother was lives. In Amazonian communities the new Jiao Tong University, China. returning to Brazil the next day, and I language of Sumak Kawsay, the good life, was going off on a solo trip to the south of also expresses a need by communities to Theodore Macdonald, an anthropolo- Chile before returning to Cambridge. As take more control of future economic gist, is a Lecturer in Social Studies and a we explored the architecture of the space development. It suggests a pause, time Faculty Affiliate at DRCLAS, Harvard. and its many rooms, we encountered an and space to allow thinking and encourage Although he began working in Arajuno exhibit called “A Body in Fukushima.” discussion as oil and logging companies in the mid-1970s, his current interests Fukushima was for me the birthplace of now sit perched at the edge of Arajuno’s were rekindled as his Harvard Social my ancestors from my mother’s side, and territory. ACIA members, consequently, Studies student Megan Monteleone (now by a stroke of luck she was there with me. are asking the government to recognize an Associate in the Latin America Divi- We entered a dark silent room, with its their territory as a CTI, circumscripción sion at Human Rights Watch) researched walls painted black. The white frames territorial indígena, a space for exercising her DRCLAS Hammond Prize-winning with pictures of the now phantasmagoric self-determination. And at home they are thesis, Guayusa Upina. abandoned town and its debris stood out. The lower stage of the exhibition, with its ivory bound screens, accentuated the colorful futons carried by a pale, black- haired woman wearing opaque colored kimonos. “A Body in Fukushima,” performed by Eiko Otake and photographed by William Johnson in the vicinity of Fukushima Daiichi Reactor reminds me of images from the film Dreams by Kurosawa. The photographs, taken in a ghost town, seemed to have come out of an incubus. The spaces portrayed in the pictures existed, the town existed, the people once existed, but they were all washed away by the tsunami. Any life that was spared had to flee from the town, as the radiation was everywhere and remains still there with Villagers at a wedding dance. its invisible and silent poison. Eiko, as the

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angel of history, wanders around trying to escape radiation, came true. to make sense of what was left. Her body, My mother was actually born in dressed in traditional Japanese clothing, Fukushima. Sometimes I forget it, since kimono, stands out in the frames she went to Brazil when she was only a amidst emptiness and horror. In some few months old, on a 56-day trip to the pictures, she carries with her a bright port of Santos. Her boat, Santos-Maru, colored futon—sometimes red, other crossed the oceans full of Japanese times purple. It stands out as a silent immigrants who came to work in the scream, while Eiko’s pale face seems to coffee plantations. My grandfather loved be grieving with a quiet sorrow. She is the nature, and he wanted to be able to work phantom who perambulates aimlessly in the land, planting fruits and vegetables, this haunted place where it is forbidden and start a new life with his family in for any human being to enter. This was Brazil. My grandmother didn’t want to one of the most beautiful and horrifying go, but she did not have a choice. She left experiences I had in Chile. Fukushima behind without knowing if she After the 2011 earthquake and would ever go back. Baby Toshimi almost tsunami and the following meltdown did not make it, since she contracted in the nuclear plant, Fukushima will measles, a highly contagious disease, be remembered as the place of one of do not include the possible future deaths and was almost thrown overboard for the most dreadful disasters in history. caused by diseases associated with this it. Luckily, she survived, and here I am Nearly 20,000 people died, and about catastrophe. The Kurosawa dream, in telling this story of bodies in transit and 2,500 went missing, and these numbers which families are running away trying telluric connections.

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On that day at the cultural center, I thought “what a surprise and an This moment of displacement—the earth moving extraordinary bit of serendipity to have an exhibition on Fukushima in Chile!” It was under us shaking the soul of the ones who lived on something of a shock to find this exhibit it, and in the context of this exhibition—touched by chance in Chile when the largest population of Japanese heritage outside me in a soft spot removing me from an unstable Japan is in Brazil; however, I could only zone within myself. see this exhibition when I went to Chile. Why Chile and not Brazil? Brazil is located Santiago de Chile had been struck by a on his writings on the earthquake. He on the South American Plate and it is out terrible earthquake, 8.8, which became the remembers having read instructions, in a of the reach of significant earthquakes. subject of Juan Villoro’s book 8.8: the fear Japanese manual, on how to survive violent The same cannot be said for our in the mirror: A Chronicle of the Chilean tremors. They recommended keeping a kit “neighbor” without shared borders. The Earthquake. Villoro was in Santiago for a handy with a flashlight, a whistle, and a haunting disaster in Fukushima, echoed conference on children’s literature when pound of rice. The Japanese, as well as the in Chile, a country that shares the same the earthquake struck. He had already Chileans and the Mexicans, know what it fear as Japan. This upside-down-reflected experienced the 1985 earthquake in is like to live with the possibility of having country is also susceptible to earthquakes Mexico—one that left more than 10,000 their lives interrupted by seismic waves. and tsunamis. Japan and Chile—both very dead, thousands of injured, and hundreds Japanese astronaut Soichi Noguchi saw the long, narrow countries— are the farthest of thousands of homeless. As he puts it, aftermaths of the 2010 Chilean earthquake from each other among the countries that “We Mexicans have a seismograph in our from space and sent a message to Chile “We share the Pacific Ocean. Nonetheless, the soul, at least the ones of us who survived pray for y[ou].” fear of natural disasters affects both the 1985.” He lived once again in his body the Witnessing “A Body in Fukushima” in Japanese and the Chileans, who both fear and the trauma one can feel when the the context of Chile and with my mother might wonder from time to time why their earth shakes one’s spirit. The 2010 Chile made me think of different kinds of ocean is called Pacific. earthquake and tsunami caused more than bodies, of narratives of displacement, fear, A year before the accident in Fukushima, 500 deaths. Villoro also mentions Japan death and “disbelonging.” This moment of

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displacement—the earth moving under us shaking the soul of the ones who lived on The beauty of the performing art, and in this it, and in the context of this exhibition— touched me in a soft spot removing me specific case, “A Body in Fukushima” is that it from an unstable zone within myself. The can trespass frontiers, it can touch the audience connection with my Japanese family was fading away. My mother is one of its last through the senses and make us understand links, but it is a very fragile link, since she sorrow, pain, fear, even without writing or saying cannot really speak Japanese and is not in contact with her relatives still in Japan. those words. She embraced Brazil in a way that makes with each other, and yet, being a minority far from each other, but they share many me forget her place of birth. in this world can be a reason for a lot of ties, including some Japanese Chileans The year I went to the exhibition was sorrow and pain. The body that carries going as far back as 1860 when a Japanese after the passing of my grandparents. our soul is also as ephemeral and in ship docked in Chilean shores. There is I was never able to tell them that I also transit as the earth. also a deep and telluric tie through their appreciated the culture and the place Eiko Othake says about her performance earthquakes, a connection through the where they came from. All the bullying “By placing my body in these places, I fear and through the possibility of having and prejudice that I suffered while thought of the generations of people who a whole city destroyed together with the growing up, and I still suffer, for being used to live there. Now desolate, only time lives and bodies of the people in it. What Asian, made me try to suppress and filter and wind continue to move.” makes this exhibition also universal, is anything that could be associated with I read her comment only after writing that it touches on something that all of us them. I rejected that “other” culture, my own impressions on this exhibition, will face one day, death and solitude. without understanding that I didn’t have and it resonated greatly with me and my Sometimes you have to be in contact to deny their Japanese connections and family, but I am sure it also resonates with with the disaster and horror to realize their race. Why is it so hard for us Latin many of the souls in transit in this world. that there is a thin line that separates Americans to understand that Brazilians, William Johnston, who photographed the ones who are still in this world and in the same way as Chileans, or Mexicans, Eiko’s performance in Fukushima, says the ones who have vanished away. Time or many other Latin Americans, or North “By witnessing events and places, we is implacable, and the “angel of history” Americans, are in part Asian, physically, actually change them and ourselves in wanders around, trying to make sense but also in some ways culturally? What ways that may not always be apparent but of the destruction. Being in front of are we Americans, if not a mix of several are important. Through photographing these pictures with my mother in Chile different cultures, ethnicities, races, and Eiko in these places in Fukushima, we made me have to face again a past that even, languages? are witnessing not only her and the places I wanted to forget. Villoro said in his The beauty of the performing art, themselves, but the people whose lives book that he had to go to the end of the and in this specific case, “A Body in crossed with those places.” In the same world to find another “first occasion” to Fukushima” is that it can trespass way that Villoro was able to connect with write about the earth that opens up. I frontiers, it can touch the audience the fear and the sensation of dislocation also had to go to Chile and see “A Body through the senses and make us during the earthquake, Raul Zurita in Fukushima” to be able to speak of the understand sorrow, pain, fear, even was able to connect with the dreams of traumas of my body, and have another without writing or saying those words. Kurosawa. Zurita’s “Dreams for Kurosawa” chance to be able to connect with Japan. All surfaces—from the water to the is full of dead bodies within the geography earth, from the photos to the mirrors of Chile, going from the Atacama’s desert and windows, from the concrete to the to the sea. Bodies that disappeared during Ana Paula Kojima Hirano is a doctoral glass, from the confines of our skin the Pinochet dictatorship—it could also student in Harvard’s Department of to our soul, and from the imaginary have been the dream of Kurosawa or the Romance Languages and Literatures. As boundaries created by us humans, to the bodies and lives that were washed away by a Ph.D. student, her studies have focused walls, all those surfaces—can be fragile the tsunami in Fukushima. on Latin American literature and film and ephemeral. Seeing Eiko wandering “A Body in Fukushima” was part theory and the intersection between around in a land that lost its soul, as a of a larger project entitled “A Body in history and fiction, and her thesis is on ghost who is trying to understand what is Places.” Eiko is lending her body and Brazilian filmmaker Eduardo Coutinho. left of humanity, made me think that the her performances to build bridges and She also co-directed One Day We Arrived body that carries our soul shouldn’t be a connections between the viewers and the in Japan, a documentary film about barrier for us humans to have empathy places. Chile and Japan seem to be very immigration from Brazil to Japan.

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Transoceanic Traveling Trash BY ILANA BOLTVINIK AND RODRIGO VIÑAS (TRES)

OBJECTS WITH CHINESE CHARACTERS FLOAT millions of objects and various lifeforms time,” writes Maite Zubiaurre in her article up on beaches in Mexico and Peruvian hitch rides and travel from one location on garbage for the 2015 winter issue of bottle caps land in distant Australian to another—including from Asia to Latin ReVista. Zubiaurre was referring to trash sands. Since 2014, the Mexican art-based America and back again. Trash is one on land. We wish to expand her statement research group TRES has been devoted to of these privileged objects that can still by concentrating on the arguably vaster collecting and investigating marine debris move freely in the vast sea if it has the and less controlled regions of national and in its Ubiquitous Trash Project. appropriate weight which will determine international waters. Much of the oceanic realm still remains the direction of movement, utilizing Moved by ocean currents and winds, a mysterious abyss on which hundreds of currents or wind. “Trash moves, all the marine debris composed mostly of plastic

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can travel enormous distances. One famous example involved a cargo ship that lost 28,800 colorful plastic bathtub toys (notorious for the rubber duckies, that render them very identifiable) en route from Korea to Washington. The Ocean Conservancy Report of 2010 asserts that sixteen years later, many of these items had drifted as much as 34,000 miles, enough to circle the

Plastic will linger on earth long after human beings have disappeared, and probably will be able to visit more corners of the globe than any of us. planet almost one-and-a-half times. Not only does plastic travel far, but, as Figure 1. Simulation of the trajectories through the Pacific Ocean when realizing Shakespeare said of truth, it lives long drifters in the sea of Hong Kong (22˚13’31.1”N 133˚56’02.8’E). after; beyond our lives. Plastic will Model developed by the Laboratorio de Oceanografía Física of the Instituto de linger on earth long after human beings Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM (National University of México). Authors: Víctor Kevin Contreras Tereza, David Alberto Salas de León, Rosalinda Monreal have disappeared, and probably will be Jiménez, María Adela Monreal Gómez. able to visit more corners of the globe than any of us. The movement of the currents (figure 1)

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Eight of the top ten countries that filled hermaphroditic aquatic invertebrate a short distance from the impact made the oceans with plastic in 2010 are that happens to thrive on plastic. by the 19th-century painting The Raft of Asian: China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sometimes referred to as moss animals, the Medusa (Le Radeau de la Méduse) Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, bryozoans proliferate on ocean plastic by Théodore Géricault. Not because “the and Bangladesh, according to an article fragments, which become vessels that can evil that men do lives after them,” citing published in the February 13, 2015 Los carry them to other continents. After the Shakespeare once again, but because Angeles Times. The trend continues 2011 Japanese tsunami, an astonishing the beach became the setting for endless today. What part of this ends washed up transoceanic biological migration was entanglements of correlated information, on Latin American beaches? Exact data set into motion. An article published amalgamations and proof that we are are incomplete and difficult to obtain. in Science Magazine in February 2018 all connected: Asia and Latin America, Studies on these movements are almost documented the 289 living invertebrate humans and non-humans. What we do in nonexistent, particularly in the global and fish species from Japan that arrived China affects Latin America, what is done south, because of lack of resources. The during a five-year period in the central in Hong Kong marks Australia, , graphic simulation (Fig.1) created by and eastern Pacific Ocean (on coastlines Russia and Mexico—thus the name the Physical Oceanography Laboratory from Midway Atoll to Hawai‘i Island, Ubiquitous Trash. in UNAM, Mexico City, in collaboration and from south central Alaska to central Trash has the capability of voyaging with the Ubiquitous Trash Project, shows California). Millions of objects, from small through water at local and global scales. It that a piece of plastic on the Island of plastic fragments to whole fishing vessels, has no clear frontier. Trash from anywhere Lantau, Hong Kong, can end up in the served as transportation for these critters. can be found everywhere. The beach, in its very nature dissolves boundaries— coasts of Chile and with patience in Certainly if the study was continued anything can wash up, from anywhere— the Atlantic Ocean via the circumpolar southward, many more items would have and, what does wash up tells us a great deal current of the Antarctic. been found in Latin American terrain. This about not only what people leave behind, Many citizen based initiatives around information inevitably leads us to question but also who and how we are: a collective the world have committed their time the prejudices and knowledge we have about the relationship between plastic and message in a bottle. Once upon a time the to tracking marine debris. During the life, mobility and travel. oceans separated us from faraway lands; last 12 years, the Australian Marine We at TRES investigate the traces and now they seem to bridge us together. Debris Initiative and the community stories that these objects and organisms organisations and individuals involved have to tell. For this art team, trash in the collection and provision of data, TRES (Ilana Boltvinik + Rodrigo embodies, among other amazing qualities, detected 143 items from Latin America. Viñas, Mexico City) is an art research col- a hidden code for understanding post- Water, milk, detergent and shampoo lective founded in 2009 that has focused capitalist distribution and consumption bottles; an even higher sum of bottle on exploring the implications of public patterns in the world, as well as a space and garbage through artistic prac- caps; whole chicken packages; a plastic supplementary alternative: that of free tices that concentrate on the method- crate; car wash and solvent containers trajectories on ocean currents and the ological intertwining and dialogue with from countries such as Argentina, Brazil, mobility this provides for diverse objects science, anthropology, and archaeology, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and species. In an interdisciplinary effort, among other disciplines. Of particular Peru and Uruguay, washed up on the TRES has collaborated with specialists in interest has been the inquiry on the Eastern seaboard and particularly on the biology, sociology and archeology, amog subject of garbage as a physical and northern shores of Australia. Although others, to map out the possibilities of this conceptual residue that entails political some items come from shipping, some paradoxical material we named plastic, so and material implications. They are the of these objects have traveled via ocean present and useful in our daily lives, but that 2016 recipients of the Robert Gardner Fel- currents many miles and countless years. simultaneously produces much disdain. lowship for Photography at the Peabody This is equally true for certain marine Our obsession with traveling trash Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology organisms, in particular some species began in Hong Kong. Some beaches of at Harvard with which they are currently of bryozoans, a strange and fascinating Lantau Island resemble a post-apocalyptic investigating Australian beaches. tiny (typically about 0.5 millimeters) landscape that took our breath away; www.tresartcollective.com

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Clockwise: a cart in the middle of garbage dump, Mexico, 2007; ghosts of the dump Hong Kong lighter.

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Understanding Social Protections A REVIEW By LORENA BARBERIA

Social Policy Expansion in engaged in pushing for social powerful social movement Latin America by Candelaria policy reform. In the absence coalitions in Brazil and Garay (New York: Cambridge of social mobilization, Argentina, contributed University Press, 2016, social policies will be more to the adoption of broad- 393 pp.) restrictive and will be reaching benefits. However, provided to a smaller pool of Garay shows that these The welfare state emerged “outsiders” in a more state- social movement coalitions in middle-income countries centric welfare system design. operated in different ways. In in Latin America during the Using comparative policy the case of Argentina, social first half of the 20th century analysis and process tracing movements primarily relied when health care services since the establishment on pressuring the government and pensions were granted of benefits for insiders in through protests whereas, to workers with formal sector the first half of the 20th in Brazil, social movements jobs. However, for most of the century, Garay tests her worked through institutional 20th century, workers who theory with empirical rigor channels. In contrast, social were hired outside the formal based on original data from movements were mostly market and their dependents considerably lower in Mexico multiple sources. Looking absent in the cases of Mexico did not have access to social and Chile, about half of all for possible explanations, and Chile, and as a result, protection. This was all senior adults in low-income she selects four countries powerful conservative parties too common in a region households were also covered that vary in their level of negotiated with opponents characterized by massive by pension support programs. the institutionalization in Congress to produce more labor informality, segmented In Social Policy Expansion of the party system, the restrictive benefits. labor markets and relatively in Latin America, Harvard presence of social movement In addition to the high unemployment. Kennedy School Associate coalitions, and the size of the chapters detailing the book’s In the last decade of the Professor of Public Policy outsider population (with theoretical framework and 20th century and the first Candelaria Garay seeks to Argentina and Chile having a final chapter exploring the decade of the 21st century, explain the factors that have relatively smaller outsider broader implications beyond a stunning transformation driven this dramatic inclusion populations compared to the book’s case studies, the took place—several Latin of these informal and rural Mexico and Brazil). Garay author’s seminal contribution American democracies workers and their dependents argues that increased is the four chapters devoted extended social protection to in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and electoral competition drives to in-depth case studies for these citizens in the informal Mexico. Garay theorizes that incumbents to advance each country. Garay shows and rural sectors (often large-scale nondiscretionary nondiscretionary social that inclusive social policy referred to as “outsiders”). social policy expansion programs as policymakers expansion took place during Indeed, by 2010, Argentina is driven by two factors: consider that these programs very distinct democratization and Brazil were providing partisan competition for low- make them less vulnerable stages in Argentina and universal health coverage to income voters in elections to accusations of engaging Brazil. In the case of Brazil, their populations, pensions and large-scale grassroots in politically-motivated Garay traces the two major were granted to between 80 social mobilization. Universal policies to secure electoral expansions to incorporate and 100 percent of adults or nearly universal and more support and as opposition outsiders that took place aged 65 and older in low- generous benefits, termed parties in Congress are underscoring the gradual income households, and inclusive social policy design more likely to support social character of the process which income-support transfers by the author, are more likely policies that have a less led to the incorporation of were provided to school-age to be provided in cases in discretionary character. She deeply excluded populations. children on a massive scale. which social movements concludes that electoral The first expansion, While coverage rates were and labor allies are actively competition combined with and arguably the most

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comprehensive, coincided dramatic turnaround to level of benefit. In the case Garay’s volume makes with the return to democracy extend social policy coverage of Mexico, social policy a seminal contribution to in the late 1980s and early was preceded by heightened innovations only began in the scholarship on redistributive 1990s and resulted in the electoral competition early years of the democratic politics in developing creation of a universal public for low-income voters in transition following the democracies. It draws health system and pension the 1999 election (fifteen end of 71 years of rule by attention to a neglected and reforms to incorporate rural years after the return to the Partido Revolucionario major transformation that workers. These reforms democracy in 1983) and Institucional (PRI). The has taken place in Latin were primarily driven by increased social mobilization Vicente Fox administration America—the dramatic social movements that of the unemployed and expanded the conditional expansion of nondiscretionary successfully lobbied for social informal poor workers who cash transfer program started social policies in the last service delivery to include subsequently forged alliances under Ernesto Zedillo, and decade of the 20th century community participation with unions. Faced with introduced a health insurance and the first decade of the in councils in order to mounting protests and social program that provided full 21st century. Garay provides promote accountability and upheaval in the late 1990s coverage to the extremely extensive and in-depth responsiveness. The second and early 2000s, programs poor, but charged insurance empirical evidence to trace expansion centered on to strengthen the primary premiums proportional to the political dynamics that income-support programs health system, provide household income to the rest explain why welfare coverage for households (Bolsa income assistance and of households. Following advanced more significantly Escola and Bolsa Família). subsidize prescription drugs the 2006 election of Felipe in some middle-income Of the two, Garay argues were successfully introduced Calderón and fueled by countries more than others that the increasing need for during the Duhalde interim alternative policies advanced in Latin America. The book parties to secure the votes of presidency in 2002. Similar to by opposition parties, is particularly noteworthy outsiders is most important Brazil, inclusive social policy nondiscretionary social because it contradicts in explaining this second expansion also took place in policies were once again the predominant view in policy expansion. Incumbent two waves in Argentina with expanded by the Partido de contemporary political President Fernando Henrique the second and later wave Acción Nacional (PAN), a science that emphasizes Cardoso and the PSDB under the Nestor Kirchner conservative party ruling as a patronage and clientelism initiated a broad income administration between minority government. as the key determinants for transfer program targeting 2003 and 2007 being In the case of Chile, understanding social policy the poorest households in the more comprehensive social policy expansion only provision in Latin America. the year before the 2002 one. In this wave, social occurred sixteen years after Future scholars seeking to election, but his party still movements including the transition to democracy as understand social policies and lost to Luiz “Lula” da Silva the unemployed workers’ the center-left Concentración their effects in Latin America of the Worker´s Party (PT). organization and their union party began to experience a will have to reconcile their This income subsidy program allies successfully agitated constant and more credible theories and results with the was subsequently expanded for the universalization of challenge to its dominance powerful arguments advanced starting in 2004 even though contributory pensions to of the presidency from the in this volume by having to the Lula administration had provide high benefit levels UDI and RN conservative consider how the transition to initially sought to prioritize comparable to those of low- opposition parties. However, democracy influences welfare an anti-hunger program as income formal workers to health reforms were meager state developments differently its key social policy. Garay non-contributory seniors and limited to providing depending on political argues that is because a with coverage increasing to services for indigent and context. policy coalition made up incorporate 97% of seniors low-income outsiders. Most of PT politicians who had formerly excluded from the of the most social policies Lorena G. Barberia is a implemented cash transfers pension system. enacted in Chile were directed professor in the Department subnationally was more In the two cases with at increasing the percentage of Political Science at the effective in lobbying for a more limited social policy of noncontributory pension University of São Paulo. She more straightforward top- expansion, Garay contends coverage while there was is also a research associate at down program in the context that social movements a moderate expansion in the David Rockefeller Center of electoral competition. played a more limited role conditional cash transfers for for Latin American Studies at In the case of Argentina, and as result, benefits were school-age children from low- Harvard University. Garay contends that the restricted in scope and income households.

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Guatemalan Youth as Citizens in Waiting A REVIEW By MARTHA C. FRANCO

Youth in Postwar Guatemala: ethnography, Bellino depicts schools: International Education and Civic Identity how the “postwar” legacy Academy and Paulo Freire in Transition by Michelle J. comes alive through the Institute in Guatemala Bellino (New Brunswick: education Guatemala’s youth City, and Sun and Moon Rutgers University Press, receive and through their and Tzolok Ochoch in rural Rutgers Series in Childhood everyday interactions with areas with predominantly Studies, 2017, 270 pp.) family, friends, and others. indigenous students. Through The book is divided into rich narratives, Bellino offers What happens when eight chapters with the first descriptions of the inner young people must two chapters discussing the workings of Guatemalan simultaneously grapple with impact of civil war on the history classrooms and an uncertain future burdened current violence. Bellino the school hallways where with the legacy of conflict, also discusses the role of students attempt to make violence, and impunity? education in exacerbating the sense about what they learn Michelle Bellino provides conflict itself, specifically by formally and what they some answers to a question excluding indigenous groups have learned through other that echoes throughout understand their role in its from access to education. means. As she mentions in many conflict-affected areas, future. Moreover, through an her introduction, Bellino also Guatemala in this case. The idea of children and analysis of curricular texts, spent some time living with Presently, much media young people as the beacon Bellino finds that students some of the students’ families coverage about Guatemala of hope for the future is often were taught neutralized during her ethnographic spotlights the violence that invoked by many yet this versions of the armed conflict fieldwork. This allowed her to propels many of its citizens to rhetoric is often devoid of that lacked discussion about spend time outside of formal flee. Thus, the public image any concrete understanding the power struggles that school settings with some of of places like Guatemala of how young people see occurred during the war. the youth. In effect this gave becomes synonymous with themselves and how they Throughout the book, Bellino access to everyday violence, danger, chaos are being prepared to take Bellino establishes the idea interactions that might go and impunity. What these on the future. Bellino’s book that Guatemalan youth are unseen and form a critical portrayals often ignore is provides concrete examples of positioned as citizens in piece of the extrapolation the people— particularly what this youth development waiting or “wait citizens” of the concept of wait the young people—who are process looks like. (p.11). This position of “wait citizenship. learning to be citizens and Specifically, she examines citizenship” allows youth Thus, she is able to attempt to forge a future for what this process looks like to “conceive of their private listen as Alejandro’s themselves and Guatemala. for youth confronted with the autonomy over their own mother explains why the Understanding what the reality of a fragile postwar moral development but see family sees the state as the process of learning to be state like Guatemala. From little capacity to impact the perpetuator of violence citizens in a fragile state is 1960 to 1996 Guatemala broader social, political, and against the most vulnerable not as clean-cut as it may endured a civil war that is economic reality that they and her insights allow the seem. Michelle Bellino’s book referred as the armed conflict share with morally corrupt reader to understand why focuses exactly on this process (el conflicto armado), and others” (p. 11). Alejandro is frustrated with by examining the multiple the legacy of this period The position of his conservative peers and ways in which Guatemalan remains present in the lives Guatemalan youth as citizens teachers at the International youth learn about their of Guatemalan citizens, in waiting becomes animated Academy (p.46). Unlike the country’s violent history, especially in the lives of its in the next four chapters rest of his elite peers who grapple with the turbulent youth, Bellino notes. of the book which take the travel with bodyguards, present, and attempt to Using a multi-sited reader into four different Alejandro comes from a

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modest background, and that affect schools like the “state fragility conveys to while they hope and wait for his parents are activists who International Academy. young people that the state a better future. attend protests and rallies to While the students are is unwilling or unable to Bellino ends by support indigenous rights, taught to embrace a more protect and provide for them emphasizing that Guatemalan taking a critical stance against critical understanding of or uphold their basic rights” youth continue to wait. the state. Yet Alejandro the conflicto armado, they (p.205). As such, Guatemalan Although this might be true adopts a more fatalistic view also must realize that for youths’ lives “have come to for some, the reality for a few on the future of Guatemala their communities “postwar” increasingly be defined by others is that instead of waiting and ultimately decides to justice is nothing but an the risks they are willing to they have chosen to flee. The leave the country for college. elusive concept. Collective take and the precautions they number of Guatemalan youth Juxtaposed with action and fighting for their apply to mediate those risks” crossing multiple borders to Alejandro’s experience at pueblo allows the students of (p. 210). flee the dire conditions of the the International Academy, Tzolok Ochoch to challenge While some students, country reminds us all that the schooling experience some of the aspects of wait like Alejandro, take on there is only so much waiting of the youth attending citizenship. more fatalistic views on how one can risk when life is on the Tzolok Ochoch focuses on The final two chapters of collective action can create a line. Bellino’s book can serve recognizing the injustices Youth in Postwar Guatemala better Guatemala, others— as an introduction for those the indigenous community provide an in-depth like the students of Tzolok seeking to understand what has felt at the hands of the analysis and synthesis of Ochoch—are taught that propels many Guatemalan state. Importantly, at Tzolok the various themes Bellino hope lies in collective action. migrant youth to leave. For Ochoch the school leaders saw throughout the four Both stances produce varying many of these young migrants guide their students to school sites. In her analysis, forms of risks for students. A waiting is no longer a risk they understand the importance of she shows how youth from fatalistic view can lead some are able to take. collective action to hold the different backgrounds, to further disengage with the state accountable to the needs locations, and understandings state and seek options outside Martha C. Franco is a Ph.D. of the various indigenous of the conflicto armado of it. Collective action can student at Harvard Univer- communities. Given the are positioned as varying expose students to violence sity. Her research focuses fact that Tzolok Ochoch is a forms of wait citizens and and retaliation from those on how Central American rural boarding school that how they navigate various who continue to oppress unaccompanied minors are educates mostly indigenous forms of risks as well. For vulnerable communities. incorporated into U.S. public students, Bellino notes that some waiting is the least Ultimately, the Guatemalan schools and the nation more its isolated environment risky option in hoping youth in this study grapple broadly. You can often find provides a semblance of safety for a better Guatemala. with a history that is ever- her searching for the best Sal- away from the urban violence Bellino emphasizes that present in their daily lives vadoran coffee in town.

Contemporary Human Rights and Latin America A REVIEW By THEODORE MACDONALD

Evidence for Hope: Making Francisco’s St. Francis Hotel, for most of his life. This Brazil and Guatemala since Human Rights Work in the drank heavily, and wound apparently rare case captured the 1980s, as democracy, 21st Century by Kathryn up in a bedroom atop an the news. In 2017, however, one of the pillars of human Sikkink (Princeton: Princeton unconscious young actress. multiple public accusations rights, grew. University Press, 2017) She died several days later of often-violent sexual abuse Recently several Latin from a ruptured bladder. exposed dozens of movie, American countries—Brazil, On September 5, 1921, His size was blamed for the television and media stars. Venezuela, Bolivia, and Roscoe “Fatty” Arbuckle, accident and, though found On quite another higher Ecuador—have threatened to Hollywood’s then best-paid not guilty of murder, he was level, data on violence has leave or cut off funding to the star, attended a party in San blacklisted in Hollywood increased significantly in Inter-American Commission

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on Human Rights. LATIN AMERICA’S and drafted statements that In late June the United “LEGITIMATE” were presented to the “Big States quit the UN Human CONTRIBUTION Powers.” Lobbying by Latin Rights Council and then TO HUMAN RIGHTS American nations and non- condemned Special Much of the earlier writing governmental organizations Rapporteur Philip Alston’s on Latin American human (NGOs) led to the inclusion report on extreme inequality rights notes that the passage of human rights language in and poverty in this country. of the American Declaration the 1945 UN Charter. And What’s happening? It of Rights and Duties of Man the “language adopted was looks like an explosion of (April 1948) preceded the not the language of the great human rights violations and Universal Declaration of powers, but rather of the the demise of institutions Human Rights (UDHR), Global South; it was only that support them… by eight months. However, adopted by the great powers unless you factor in the the American version is not in response to pressure “#me too movement,” widely known or cited (This from small states and civil consider a greater range But, fully aware of human reviewer wrote a New York society.” Sikkink also points of violations, and utilize behavior, she predicts no Times op-ed article that to even greater pressure new data-gathering tools. teleological utopia, and was questioned by editors from Latin American Viewed through such lenses, thus supports her colleague for citing the little-known counties and diplomats human rights standards are Thomas Risse’s Non-Ideal declaration) and it could in the crafting of the 1948 improving. This is the tenor human rights theory, which appear that Latin Americans Universal Declaration of of much of Kathryn Sikkink’s “tells us what we ought to do simply “jumped the gun” or Human Rights. They pressed highly personalized and far- given that others will not do had a smaller constituency. for the inclusion of economic ranging review of human what they ought to do.” In However, Sikkink carefully and social rights, stressing rights, at a time when others brief, we must continue to demonstrates that the creation the duties of states as well suggest that the human keep an eye on people. of the American Declaration individual rights. While rights movement is on the The book covers a wide was quite different in several these efforts were not always wane, unrepresentative or range of topics, including important ways. successful, the persistent somehow misdirected. historical legitimacy, As World War II actions clearly illustrate Drawing heavily on her effectiveness of law and was coming to an end, that international human own and others’ political activism, and practical international relations rights are not the exclusive science data, Sikkink argues future recommendations. talk and policy planning creation of a few Global that “human rights activists Sikkink suggests that shifted from Frank Delano North superpowers, as some have been effective in readers may want to jump Roosevelt’s heavily rights- suggest. creating new issues, putting around according to their focused Four Freedoms Adding to this regional these issues on the agenda, interests. Doing so, this speech and the related perspective, Sikkink details and constructing a changing reviewer first considers U.S.-Great Britain Atlantic the inclusion of women standard of accountability Latin America’s contribution Charter (1941) to a narrower in the drafting of the UN for what constitutes a to human rights, where focus on security, with Charter and the subsequent human rights violation.” So, Sikkink’s experience is several treaties among the Universal Declaration of despite contrary claims, even greatest, her history of “Great Powers” that did Human Rights. While the from the United Nations, Global South’s involvement not include much human role of Eleanor Roosevelt the world is not getting is most detailed, and her rights language. Sikkink is widely documented, two worse. Activists are simply conclusions are hardly details how Latin American Latin American women— expanding reporting into debatable. The review then counties, and dogged Berta Lutz of Brazil and areas like domestic violence shifts to her disagreement diplomats there, voiced Minerva Bernardino of the and “unofficial” police with intellectual historian strong concerns about Dominican Republic—were actions. This, she argues, Samuel Moyn’s critique of exclusion of human rights extremely active in the is part of a new normative the contemporary human language in these treaties, endeavor. Though often agenda, consistent with rights movement and its emphasized social and opposed, even by women, psychologist Steven Pinker’s distance from neoliberalism’s economic issues, organized Lutz and Bernardino were view of a historical decrease contribution to global international conferences able, for example, to shift the in violence among humans. economic inequality. language in that declaration

106 ReVista FALL 2018 BOOK TALK

rise of strong neoliberalism. America. Here the situation Though often opposed, even by He mentions that some supports Sikkink in her women, Lutz and Bernardino Marxist theorists such as argument for improvements. Naomi Klein suggest “that National and international were able, for example, to shift the human rights movements laws and constitutions in language in that declaration from “all were to blame for collusion support of indigenous rights, or at last distraction from largely social and economic, men are born free and equal in dignity the truth.” For Moyn have grown significantly and rights “to “all human beings.” this is “exaggerated and in Latin America. Previous implausible,” and he adds UN Special Rapporteurs on that “the human rights Indigenous Rights, Rodolfo from “all men are born free chronology, there is no doubt movement surely did not Stavenhagan and James and equal in dignity and that Latin Americans played bring the neoliberal age Anaya, both Latin American rights “to “all human beings.” a strong and long-lived role in about.” Moyn’s emphasis specialists, agreed that laws Sikkink recognizes the development and practice lies not so much on the have improved, but both that Latin America’s early of human rights. links but the failure of many have lamented the large gap role often goes unnoticed However, other accounts human rights scholars and that exists between laws and because later Cold War of events at about the same activists to support the practice. concerns dominated public time and in the same Latin sort of economic and social Here, indigenous peoples attention. For example, as American region are not rights that go beyond mere are not simply waiting. a Bogotá meeting drafted so optimistic in regard to subsistence, or sufficiency, The aspects of the broad the American Convention, human rights. Among the and aim toward equity and laws that most draw their the popular leftist leader, many critics of the optimistic equality. No doubt Sikkink attention and actions focus Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was view is intellectual historian shares some of the interest, on territorial and economic assassinated on the streets Samuel Moyn, whose detailed and Moyn certainly likes questions. The cry is no of the city. That sparked global histories cannot be human rights. So, one longer “States, give us goods! ” decades of clear violations fully detailed here. But the could suggest that the two but rather, “Consult us with of human rights. Elsewhere, focus of the debate can be books were like ships that regard to economic issues, notably in Guatemala introduced by remaining in simply crossed in the night generally natural resources (1954), governments, often the Southern Cone. and the writers need to sit on our lands, and let us supported by the CIA, down and chat. However, at help to determine how to shifted focus to fierce anti- HUMAN RIGHTS VERSUS a December 2016 panel at share that wealth.” This is Communism. After the ECONOMIC EQUALITY Harvard, they continued the not a cry in the dark for new 1959 Cuban Revolution Moyn’s The Last Utopia debate. rights but simply a request to such sentiments and related (2010) and numerous essays Part of the difference is implement existing human human rights violations introduced his concern methodological. Moyn draws rights laws through dialogue. spread to the Southern Cone. with the near parallel rise almost entirely on high- In many areas, it’s working, During that period Sikkink of both human rights and level conferences, scholarly and where it doesn’t. the began her work on human neoliberalism, leading work and public statements indigenous groups keep up rights and related actions, to global inequality. This to develop his intellectual the pressure. This exemplary illustrating, for example, the obviously drew Sikkink’s history. Sikkink argues from case—groups realizing group imaginative and effective attention and efforts to archival historical research, rights—not only supports “Boomerang Effect” of the refute. However, Moyn’s political science literature part of Sikkink’s argument international human rights longer and recent (2018) and quantitative surveys to but perhaps illustrates movement. As democracies historical study, Not Enough: ascertain the facts. They both a means toward Moyn’s reappeared, legal and Human Rights in an do a good job. However, as egalitarian ends. legislative actions inspired Unequal World, more clearly seen by this anthropologist, her well-documented illustrates his argument, both seem to have drawn Theodore Macdonald, argument describing a and can be seen by looking little interpretation, directly anthropologist and Faculty “Justice Cascade,” a surge of at Chile in the 1980s, when or indirectly, from those Affiliate at DRCLAS, has new laws and constitutions and where the movement who historically suffer worked on indigenous rights in support of human rights. away from Pinochet’s gross violations, namely, and with indigenous leaders Accepting this focus and dictatorship paralleled the indigenous peoples in Latin since the 1980s.

REVISTA.DRCLAS.HARVARD.EDU ReVista 107 BUILDING BRIDGES

Energy Innovation Energy Innovation Ecosystems in Rural Mexico BY FRANCISCO ACUÑA, GUILLERMO CEDEÑO, RAMON SANCHEZ, KEITH SHARP, JOHN SPENGLER AND JAMES RITCHIE-DUNHAM

THE HARVARD APPLIED LEADERSHIP IN which received the 2017 APEC ESCI that narrow the gap between the two Renewable Energies Program is making Best Practices Award, is described in a Mexicos, the rural and the urban one, a difference in rural Mexico by engaging documentary and casebook. and provides a model of social innovation universities and local indigenous The program proved that shifting particularly relevant to countries facing communities throughout the country to away from thinking in terms of centralized rapid urbanization. To formulate ways focus on the challenges of sustainable investments with low return on invested to replicate this program, we are meeting energy. Almost three hundred university capital (ROIC), in favor of high-impact, now with Mexico’s ministers of economy professors and researchers have proposed economically resilient, national renewable and social development. innovation ecosystems for 93 renewable energy and energy-efficiency projects, We found that indigenous communities energy and energy efficiency projects that results in reproducible local innovation in rural Mexico can bring their natural and were developed and funded. ecosystems with a much higher, more social capital to engage in equitable ways The program created 953.3 MW of resilient, and more equitable ROIC. with worldwide systems. This includes wind energy, 512 MW of photovoltaic Rural indigenous communities and global financial, social and environmental energy, 1.36 MW of biomass electricity, 40 rural universities can provide large- metrics, as well as intellectual capital. Such million liters of ethanol/year, 7.2 million scale renewable energy sources by engagement can lead to large-scale carbon liters of biodiesel/year, and 9 million democratizing access to expertise and emission reduction through renewable liters of bio-jet fuel/year. This project, financing. This creates opportunities energy and energy efficiency; provide

108 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO COLLAGE COURTESY OF THE AUTHORS. BUILDING BRIDGES

equitable access to energy efficiency and return. Lands available for energy Alternate Frame. Another way of renewable energy; and generate local and agricultural developments belong framing these investments, however, is to economic wealth. directly or indirectly to rural farmers connect rural communities rich in social Traditionally, rural indigenous and/or indigenous populations, which and natural capital and local institutions communities in Mexico are completely brings another level of social interactions rich in intellectual and human capital with disconnected from global investment which, if not treated correctly, becomes global markets willing to de-risk their markets and know-how because of a factor for tension instead of social capital investments, in one ecosystem. issues of human development, economic change. Such connections seem to achieve greater connections, and isolated social and Traditional Frame. National energy impact, lower risk and higher resilience political structures within Mexico. investments usually focus on the return with these investments. This approach We asked ourselves what kind of on invested capital (ROIC)—economic reframes economic costs and externalities organizational form could match these capital invested and the economic costs as social and natural capital. unmet needs with their natural and social incurred. Social and natural risks and An analysis of the ecosynomics—the capital—underutilized resources in the damages are labeled as “externalities,” thus social science of the agreements that guide modern world? avoiding any negative impact on a project human interaction—of these underlying We first had to take a look at how ROIC. This framing leads to federal agreements shows how participating national investments in energy and investments in large-scale energy sources faculty were able to integrate social, agricultural industries generally behave driven by large firms and governmental natural, intellectual, and economic and then examine an alternate framing agencies in major urban centers. capital in energy-innovation ecosystems that highlighted new possibilities, and Generally speaking, the resource-poor within their communities, driving wealth how it worked in Mexico. rural universities transfer encyclopedic creation for future generations. Observed Behavior. In many countries, knowledge and obsolete technical skills recent development of new energy sources with low practical social impact to the All co-authors except James Ritchie- requires very high economic investment students, lacking the experimental Dunham participated in the Harvard and comes with very high social and pedagogic component to resolve local Applied Leadership in Renewable Ener- natural costs. While investing in new issues. The social-capital-rich indigenous gies Program. Ritchie-Dunham served energy sources might be “the right thing communities are poor in the financial and as a member of the Center for Health and to do,” it is very expensive, achieving intellectual capital to exploit their wealth Global Environment advisory board. low social impact and poor economic in natural human capital.

CORRECTIONS With apologies to all the librarians in the world, the volume and issue number of the Spring/Summer 2018 issue is volume 17, number 3, not volume xviii, no. 3, or volume xiii, no. 3. Thanks to David Wright, editor of the Directory of Periodicals, for being the first to catch our mistake.

In the article “Words Matter” by Gisela Heffes, statu nasquendi should have read statu nascendi.

In the article “Preparing Students to Lead Social Change” by Ramon Sanchez, Erika Eitland, Jie Yin and John Spengler, the photo credit were reversed between May Woo and Erika Eitland. Erika Eitland took the photos of the coffeeshop and the dog. May Woo took the photo of the limestone carver.

The caption on page 15 should have read:

Frances Gallardo (Hurricane series), 2011-2012, variable dimensions, cut paper, collage. Clockwise from upper left: Carmela, Carmen, Luis, Cynthia.

REVISTA.DRCLAS.HARVARD.EDU ReVista 109 LATIN AMERICA AND ASIA

The Best of ReVista 2017-18

The Best of ReVista WINNER, PROFESSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHER CATEGORY 2017-18 is a prize for NICOLO FILIPPO ROSSO for “Woman and Son at Manaure Hospital, Colombia” the best photograph published in ReVista in the previous academic year sponsored by DRCLAS publications and ARTS@DRCLAS.

This is the contest’s third year. This year’s

winning photographs Nicolo Filippo Rosso is an Italian photographer based in Colombia chosen by a jury of pro- fessional photography WINNER, EMERGING PHOTOGRAPHER CATEGORY experts are by Nicolo OSCAR NEGREIROS/OJOS PROPIOS/ILAS/COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY for “Biosphere Reserve Project Huascaran, Peru.”” Filippo Rosso and Oscar Negreiros. Hon- orable mention in the professional category goes to Maxi Jonas and in the emerging photographer category to May Woo.

This year’s contest was funded by the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism class of 1970. Oscar Negreiros is a member of the photo collective of community members learning photography in Peru (Ojos Propios)

110 ReVista FALL 2018 THE BEST OF REVISTA 2

THIS YEAR’S JUDGES Ilana Boltvinik is a Mexico City-based artist and member of the art research HONORABLE MENTION, PROFESSIONAL CATEGORY collective TRES, which focuses on MAXI JONAS for “Whales, Argentina.” exploring the implications of public space and garbage through art. She is the recipient (together with collective member Rodrigo Viñas) of the Robert Gardner Fellowship for Photography Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard.

Stephen Ferry is a photojournalist and the author of La Batea (with Elizabeth Ferry), I Am Rich Potosí: The Mountain that Eats Men and Violentology: A Manual of the Colom- bian Conflict. He has contributed to the New York Times, GEO, TIME and National Geographic and also works as a visual investigator with Human Rights Watch.

Maxi Jonas is an Argentine photographer based in Puerto Madryn Andrea Josch is the editor-in-chief of the South American photography magazine Sueño de la Razón. She is a HONORABLE MENTION, EMERGING PHOTOGRAPHER CATEGORY researcher and director of the Masters MAY WOO for “Limestone Carvers, Mexico.” in Photography Investigation/Cre- ation of the School of Visual Arts at the FINIS University, Santiago de Chile.

João Pina is a photojournalist and a 2018 Nieman Fellow. He is the author of several photo books, including 46750, a visual account of Rio de Janeiro, and Condor, a tribute to the memory of the victims of the secret military operation in the Southern Cone known as Operation Condor.

Adriana Zehbrauskas is a Brazilian documentary photographer based in Mexico City, Mexico. Her work covers mostly issues related to migra- tion, religion and the aftermath of the violence related to the drug wars in Mexico. She contributes regularly to The New York Times, BuzzFeed News, The Washington Post and others. She received one of the first Getty Images Instagram Grants and was awarded May Woo is a scientist in San Francisco, California, and a recent graduate of the the Best Female Photojournalist by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Troféu Mulher Imprensa (Brazil).

REVISTA.DRCLAS.HARVARD.EDU ReVista 111 LAST LOOK

Shicang shaman, inviting the return of the ancestors’ souls, while walking on fire.

112 ReVista FALL 2018 PHOTO BY YUAN WANG DAVID ROCKEFELLER CENTER FOR LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES

VISITING SCHOLARS AND FELLOWS PROGRAM

THE CENTER Founded in 1994, the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University works to increase knowledge of the cultures, economies, histories, environment, and contemporary affairs of past and present Latin America.

THE PROGRAM Each year the Center selects a number of distinguished academics (Visiting Scholars) and professionals (Fellows) who wish to spend one or two semesters at Harvard working on their own research and writing projects. The Center offers nine fellowships that pro- vide support for one semester. Applications from those with their own resources are also welcome.

Visiting Scholars and Fellows are provided shared office space, computers, library privileges, access to University facilities and events, and opportunities to audit classes and attend seminars. The residential fellowships cover round-trip travel expenses, health insurance, and a taxable $25,000 living stipend while at Harvard. Appointments are typically for one or two semesters. Recipients are expected to be in residence at the University a minimum of twelve weeks during the semester. APPLICATIONS DUE FEBRUARY 1ST

THE APPLICATION DAVID ROCKEFELLER CENTER FOR LATIN Applications should be submitted electronically to [email protected] AMERICAN STUDIES or via the online application form. For the form and further details please visit http://www.drclas.harvard.edu/scholars . 1730 Cambridge Street CGIS, South Building David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies Cambridge, MA 02138 Phone: 617-496-1588 HARVARD UNIVERSITY [email protected] NON-PROFIT ORG U.S. POSTAGE PAID BOSTON, MA PERMIT NO. 1636 1730 Cambridge St., Cambridge, MA 02138

CONTRIBUTORS

108 Francisco Acuña participated in the Harvard Applied Leadership Studies and the Department of History at Rutgers. 48 Víctor López in Renewable Energies Program. 87 Manuel Azuaje-Alamo is a Ph.D. Villafañe is a professor at the Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Mexico. Candidate at the Department of Comparative Literature of Harvard 90 and 105 Theodore Macdonald, an anthropologist, is a Lecturer in Social University. 84 Andrea Bachner, associate professor of Comparative Studies and a DRCLAS Faculty Affiliate.70 Gilmar Masiero is a professor Literature at Cornell University, received her Ph.D. in Comparative at the University of São Paulo and coordinator of the ProAsia-Asia Studies Literature from Harvard in 2007. 102 Lorena G. Barberia is a professor Program. 37 Regina Yoshie Matsue is an anthropologist and professor at in the Department of Political Science at the University of São Paulo. Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). 25 Mary Jo McConahay is the 63 Renato Balderrama is the director of the Center for Asian Studies at author of The Tango War, The Struggle for the Hearts, Minds and Riches of Universidad Autonóma de Nuevo León (UANL), México. 98 Ilana Boltvinik Latin America During World War II. 50 Margaret Myers directs the Latin is an artist and a member of the Mexico City art research collective TRES. America and the World program at the Inter-American Dialogue. 60 Mario 72 Patricia Castro Obando, a Peruvian journalist and a Ph.D. candidate Henrique Ogasavara is a Professor of International Business at ESPM São in Anthropology, has lived in China for the past 15 years. 108 Guillermo Paulo, Brazil. 27 Kyeyoung Park is associate professor of Anthropology Cedeño participated in the Harvard Applied Leadership in Renewable and Asian American Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles. Energies Program. 30 Alexandra Chang is the Curator of Special Projects 56 Rebecca Ray is a post-doctoral research fellow at the Boston University and Director of Global Arts Programs at A/P/A Institute at New York Global Development Policy Center. 108 James Ritchie-Dunham served as a University. 18 Michael Chu, a DRCLAS Executive Committee member, is member of the Harvard Center for Health and Global Environment advisory a Senior Lecturer of Business Administration at Harvard Business School. board. 4 Cynthia Sanborn is Vice President for Research and a Professor of 34 Millie Creighton is a Japan specialist and Associate Professor in the Political Science at the Universidad del Pacífico in Lima, Peru.108 Ramon Department of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia in Sanchez participated in the Harvard Applied Leadership in Renewable Vancouver, Canada. 82 James A. Dettleff is an Audiovisual Professor at Energies Program. 66 Rosario Santa Gadea is director of the Center for Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú.77 Matt Ferchen is a nonresident China and Asia-Pacific Studies at Universidad del Pacífico, Lima, Peru.108 scholar at the Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy, where he runs the Keith Sharp participated in the Harvard Applied Leadership in Renewable China and the Developing World Program. 104 Martha C. Franco is a Ph.D. Energies Program. 37 Rafael Shoji is a researcher at the Center for the student at Harvard University whose research focuses on Central American Study of Oriental Religions (CERAL) at the Pontifical University of São unaccompanied minors. 53 Horacio J. Godoy has been a professor of Paulo. 108 John Spengler participated in the Harvard Applied Leadership International Relations at the Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia, in Renewable Energies Program. 2 Karen Thornber is Victor and William for a decade. 94 Ana Paula Kojima Hirano is a doctoral student in Harvard’s Fung Director of the Harvard University Asia Center. 63 Amado Trejo is the Department of Romance Languages and Literatures. 12 Rosario Hubert, coordinator of the UANL’s representative office in Asia. 75 Emiliano Valle Harvard Ph.D. ‘14 in Romance Languages and Literatures, is Assistant is a Harvard Medical School student and a graduate of Harvard College ’16. Professor of Spanish and Portuguese at Trinity College (CT). 8 Guo Jie is an 98 Rodrigo Viñas is a a member of the Mexico City art research collective associate professor with the School of International Studies at the Peking TRES. 90 Yuan Wang, an architectural historian, was a 2011 Harvard- University, China. 44 Aaron Litvin is a Ph.D. candidate in Luso-Brazilian Yenching Institute Visiting Scholar. literature and Critical Media Practice at Harvard University. 40 Kathleen FEATURED PHOTOGRAPHERS AND ARTISTS: MARÍA FERNANDA GARCÍA López is a faculty member in the Department of Latino and Caribbean MÚNERA, OSCAR OIWA AND HARUO OHARA.