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2018 Finishing Sophocles: An Attempt to Recreate a Fragmented Satyr Play Charles Benjamin Vancini

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Table&of&Contents&

Table!of!Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………3!

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………...4!

Chapter!One:!Field!Work!in!Athens!And!Existing!Fragments…………………………………..9!

Chapter!Two:!Creation!of!the!Text!...……………………………………………………………………19!

Chapter!Three:!Textual!Comparison……………………………………………………………………33!

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………42!

Bibliography.……………………………………………………………………………………………………..46!

Appendix!A:!My!Personally!Adapted!Ichneutae)Text…………………………………………….49!

Appendix!B:!Full!Account!of!Field!Work!in!Athens……………………………………………….76!

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INTRODUCTION:&

For!ancient!Athenian!playwrights!such!as!Aeschylus,!Sophocles,!and!

Euripides,!participation!in!the!annual!Athenian!City!Dionysia!represented!the! ultimate!honor.!During!this!grandiose!festival!glorifying!the!god!Dionysus!(patron!of! theatre,!wine,!drunkenness,!and!religious!ecstasy),!participants!competed!against! each!other!by!writing!plays,!which!delegations!of!citizens!staged!and!performed!for! the!Athenian!crowds!over!a!fiveTday!period.!At!the!end!of!the!last!day,!during!a!large! celebration!judges!crowned!winners!for!both!tragic!and!comic!playwrights!with! victory!wreathes.!Those!contending!in!the!comedy!category!would!write!one! comedic!play,!while!those!seeking!to!win!the!tragedy!prize!would!write!four!plays! for!the!competition,!three!traditional!tragic!plays!(such!as!Aeschylus’!Orestia),!and! one!tragiTcomedic!satyr!play.1!!

For!the!City!Dionysia,!five!comedic!writers!each!submitted!one!play,!while! three!tragic!writers!each!contributed!four!plays.!Thus,!between!the!tragedians!and! comedians,!every!year!for!several!decades!City!Dionysia!participants!created!and! performed!17!different!plays!for!this!one!(albeit!the!largest)!theatre!festival!alone.2!

However,!despite!this!plethora!of!significant!dramatic!literature,!which!playwrights! created!on!an!annual!basis!for!numerous!decades,!very!few!Classical!Greek!plays! exist!today!with!their!full!text!intact.3!Unfortunately,!only!a!few!dozen!tragedies! remain!fully!preserved,!while!only!one!such!satyr!play!survived,!Euripides’!Cyclops.)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Graham!Ley,!A)Short)Introduction)to)the)Ancient)Greek)Theatre)(Chicago:!University! 2!W.!B.!Worthen,!The)Wadsworth)Anthology)of)Drama.)6th)ed.!(Boston:!Wadsworth,! 2011),!11.! 3!Ronald!W.!Vince,!Ancient)and)Medieval)Theatre:)A)Historiographical)Handbook,) (Westport:!Greenwood!Press,!1984),!39.! ! 5!

Consequently,!theatre!scholars!can!only!study!one!complete!example!of!an!entirely! unique!and!separate!genre!of!Classical!Athenian!drama.!Although,!modern!directors! and!performers!still!maintain!several!options!when!seeking!to!produce!classical!

Greek!tragedies,!they!only!have!one!example!when!seeking!to!perform!satyr!plays.!!

! While!only!the!one!complete!work!is!still!in!existence,!scholars!have!located! several!partial!scripts!of!other!satyr!plays.4!Among!the!most!complete!of!these! fragmented!scripts!is!Sophocles’!Ichneutae,!in!English!entitled,!The)Trackers.5)As!is! typical!of!every!satyr!play,!Ichneutae!takes!an!established!and!wellTknown!Greek! myth!and!inserts!a!chorus!of!satyrs!(led!by!their!frequently!intoxicated!master!

Silenus)!into!the!central!plot.!In!this!instance,!the!sun!god!Apollo!enlists!Silenus!and! his!satyrs!to!help!track!down!the!infantTaged!but!ever!mischievous!Hermes,!who! cleverly!stole!some!of!his!sacred!cattle.!Apollo!promises!Silenus!and!his!cohort! rewards,!including!wealth!and!freedom,!provided!they!can!successfully!track!down!

Hermes!and!retrieve!the!cattle.!Just!over!450!lines!of!Sophocles’!original!play! survive!in!a!readable!format!today.6!The!remainder!of!his!work!was!either! destroyed,!or!is!lost!and!remains!unfound.!In!comparison,!Euripides’!Cyclops!totals! around!700!lines,!making!the!remains!of!Ichneutae)approximately!twoTthirds!the! length!of!the!only!satyr!play!surviving!in!its!entirety.!!

! This!loss!provides!a!unique!opportunity!for!students!of!theatre!history!and! playwriting,!such!as!myself.!Existing!knowledge!of!Greek!Mythology!informs!us!how! the!play!likely!ends,!but!the!script!itself!remains!incomplete.!However,!enough!of!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!Ley,!6.! 5!Kirk!Ormand,!A)Companion)to)Sophocles,!(Chichester:!WileyTBlackwell,!2012),!155.! 6!Sophocles!&!Richard!Johnson!Walker,!The)Ichneutae)of)Sophocles)With)Notes)and)a) Translation)(London:!Burns!&!Oates,!1919),!497.! ! 6! original!text!survives!that!one!could!feasibly!propose!a!conclusion!in!the!style!of!the! original!playwright.!With!thorough!research!into!Greek!mythology!and!satyr!plays,! and!a!certain!amount!of!creative!effort,!I!endeavored!to!write!a!plausible!ending!to!

Sophocles’!Ichneutae)that!would!render!it!both!faithful!to!the!original!mythological! tradition,!and!stylistically!stageable.!In!doing!so,!ideally!my!play!could!serve!as!an! example!of!what!a!readable!and!performable!satyr!play!may!have!looked!like!during!

Sophocles’!own!era.!In!addition!to!providing!a!new,!performable,!and!historically! informed!script,!this!project!would!present!a!working!model!for!future!artistT scholars!interested!in!pursuing!similar!researchTbased!projects.!!!

! In!this!thesis!I!documented!my!process!over!the!course!of!the!project,! provided!insight!about!discoveries!made,!and!offered!experienced! recommendations!for!further!research!on!satyr!plays.!It!begins!with!Chapter!One,! which!contains!a!brief!overview!of!my!time!conducting!fieldwork!in!Athens.!Within! this!section!I!also!discuss!my!research!regarding!the!existing!fragments!of!

Sophocles’!original!work!as!they!exist!today.!Under!the!guidance!of!Professor!AlT

Saber,!I!conducted!preliminary!research!on!satyr!plays!and!their!unique!role!in!the! greater!Athenian!dramatic!tradition,!during!the!spring!semester!of!2017.!The! purpose!of!such!research!was!to!prepare!myself!with!as!much!knowledge!regarding! the!structure,!content,!and!performance!of!satyr!plays!as!possible,!in!order!to! attempt!to!replicate!a!complete!work.!After!taking!the!majority!of!the!summer!off! from!research,!in!the!early!days!of!August!2017!I!traveled!to!Athens,!Greece!itself!to! conduct!firsthand!field!research!about!ancient!Athenian!society!and!how!culture,! religion,!and!drama!intersected!and!the!role!satyr!plays!occupied!within!that! ! 7! intersection.!In!order!to!accomplish!that!goal,!I!took!extensive!notes!on!every! historical!site!and!museum!I!visited,!and!listed!the!main!findings!and!observations! in!this!thesis,!with!the!more!thorough!fieldwork!documentation!of!my!trip!provided! in!Appendix!B.!

! With!the!completion!of!my!research,!I!moved!into!using!the!knowledge! gained!throughout!the!initial!process!to!begin!drafting!my!working!text!of!Ichneuate,! which!took!place!over!four!months!in!the!fall!of!2017.!In!chapter!Two,!I!detail!my! methods,!and!the!various!insights!and!challenges!I!encountered!during!my!writing! process.!I!focused!a!large!portion!of!the!chapter!on!interactions!with!Sophocles’! original!text!(as!I!understood!it!from!various!translations),!and!how!I!shaped!them! into!my!own!words!while!still!remaining!faithful!to!his!original!line!and!character! intentions.!I!also!discuss!the!choices!I!made!regarding!my!created!end!of!the!play,! and!why!I!decided!to!end!the!play!the!way!I!did.!Chapter!Two!concludes!with! reflections!on!the!numerous!criticisms,!praises,!and!notes!I!received!after!hosting!a! reading!of!a!draft!of!the!complete!text!with!Professor!AlTSaber!and!several!peers.!!

! In!order!to!evaluate!the!merits!of!my!completed!text,!Professor!AlTSaber! suggested!I!create!a!textual!analysis!between!my!completed!work!and!another! similar!endeavor!in!order!to!assess!how!my!work!compares!to!others’!within!the! greater!realm!of!adapted!and!completed!satyr!plays.!So,!Chapter!Three!contains!an! analytical!comparison!between!my!completed!Ichneutae!and!Roger!Lancelyn!

Green’s!adaptation!of!the!same!play.!In!this!analysis,!I!work!to!document!the!ways!

Green!and!I!approached!our!adaptations!in!similar!manners,!and!when!we! completely!differed.!Afterwards,!I!labored!to!explain!and!defend!my!choices! ! 8! regarding!the!instances!where!we!differed!artistically!and!editorially.!In!the!same! regard,!I!also!sought!to!justify!why!Green!made!the!choices!he!did,!while!keeping!in! mind!our!varying!respective!audiences!and!resources!available!at!the!times!we! wrote!our!individual!texts.!!

! From!there,!I!provide!a!conclusion!to!my!work!which!summarizes!what!I! learned!from!the!project!as!a!whole!and!its!significance!within!the!greater!scope!of! research!conducted!about!satyr!plays.!Additionally,!there!are!also!two!appendices! following!the!thesis’!conclusion.!The!second,!Appendix!B,!as!previously!mentioned,! contains!the!full!account!of!my!time!spent!conducting!firsthand!field!research!in!

Athens.!Appendix!A!contains!the!final!draft!of!my!completed!Ichneutae)text,!so!that! the!reader!can!reference!any!aspect!mentioned!over!the!course!of!the!thesis.!!

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CHAPTER&ONE:&FIELD&WORK!IN!ATHENS&AND&EXISTING!FRAGMENTS&

! During!the!spring!semester!of!2017,!while!writing!my!initial!prospectus!draft! for!this!project!I!applied!for!and!won!the!Bess!H.!Ward!Honors!in!the!Major!research! scholarship!at!Florida!State!University.!The!monetary!reward!I!received!allowed!me! to!travel!to!Athens!for!a!week!in!August!to!conduct!firstThand!field!research.!During! my!time!in!Greece,!I!was!able!to!journey!to!and!visit!many!ancient!sites!I!first! encountered!during!my!initial!research!conducted!out!of!books.!At!these!sites,!as! well!as!at!the!various!museums!and!publically!offered!cultural!history!markers! scattered!across!the!city,!I!saw!hundreds!of!ancient!pieces!of!archaeology,!art,!and! other!artifacts!from!the!time!period!as!well.!While!the!contents!of!this!chapter!only! present!a!summary!of!the!most!significant!pieces!of!knowledge!I!gained!from!my! experiences,!I’ve!attached!the!full!account!of!my!extensive!travels!in!and!around!

Athens!in!Appendix!B!of!this!thesis.!!

! I!hoped!to!conduct!such!a!trip!in!order!to!gain!valuable!insight!into!how! ancient!Athenians!lived!their!various!lives.!I!wanted!to!learn!how!military!officers! might!differ!from!spiceTtrading!merchants,!and!how!both!might!differ!from!political! administrators.!Additionally,!I!intended!to!learn!what!these!individuals!might!have! in!common!as!Athenian!citizens!as!well.!Through!my!research!I!hoped!to!examine!as! many!surviving!artifacts!as!possible!to!gain!a!broad!understanding!of!how!Athenian! society!functioned.!I!could!obtain!such!knowledge!from!books!and!pictures!in! theory,!but!I!knew!that!direct!engagement!with!the!artifacts!themselves!and!their! cultural!caretakers!proves!the!best!method!for!garnering!knowledge.!Consequently,! the!most!ideal!place!for!me!to!conduct!research!into!ancient!Athenian!life!and! ! 10! practices!is!Athens!itself.!Being!Greece’s!capital,!the!city!contains!a!whole!host!of! museums!and!archeological!sites!concerned!with!numerous!different!aspects!of!

Athenian!life,!including!theatre,!visual!arts,!commerce,!religion,!domestic!life,! agriculture,!and!war.!So,!traveling!to!Greece!proved!as!much!a!necessity!as!a!luxury,! and!the!knowledge!I!obtained!there!proved!invaluable!during!the!rest!of!my! research!project.!!

! On!August!4th,!2017,!my!first!day!in!Greece’s!capital!city,!several!things! became!immediately!clear!to!me!after!just!a!few!hours!of!hiking!and!exploring.!The! first!of!these!was!that,!from!my!knowledge!of!ancient!and!military!history,!it!seemed! the!ancient!Athenians!constructed!their!cityTstate!in!a!practically!ideal!defensive! location.!I!realized!this!after!hiking!up!to!the!Acropolis!and!taking!in!the!view!from! the!center!of!ancient!Athens!(which!occupied!only!a!small!portion!of!what! constitutes!modern!day!Athens).!From!the!top!of!the!massive!hill!in!the!middle!of! the!city!I!observed!how!ancient!Athens’!remains!sits!centrally!in!a!valley,! surrounded!on!nearly!every!side!by!a!series!of!mountains!that!form!a!protective!ring! around!every!land!route!into!the!city.!Such!mountains!would!form!an!ideal!natural! barrier!to!keep!out!invading!armies!over!land,!give!defenders!the!high!ground,!and! allow!them!to!see!enemies!approaching!from!miles!away!in!any!direction.!

Furthermore,!even!if!invaders!managed!to!cross!over!the!mountains!and!proceed! down!into!the!valley,!the!valley!itself!provides!further!protection!in!the!form!of!a! series!of!steep!hills!and!plateaus!that!the!Athenians!could!then!further!retreat!up,! the!largest!of!these!being!the!Acropolis.!So,!any!force!seeking!to!capture!the!city!by! land!would!have!to!fight!two!steep!uphill!battles!in!order!to!capture!the!entire!city.!! ! 11!

! Ancient!Athens!also!had!the!benefit!of!being!only!a!few!kilometers!from!a! large!harbor,!from!which!they!could!trade,!and!also!observe!the!seas!for!possible! threats!from!that!direction.!I!knew!from!previous!classes!and!research!that!during! the!few!hundred!years!preceding!the!rise!of!Alexander!the!Great!and!the!

Macedonians,!Athens!became!a!preeminent!naval!power!in!the!Mediterranean.7!At! its!height,!it!rivaled!the!strength!of!larger!ancient!powers!from!the!time!such!as!the!

Persian!and!Egyptian!empires.!Further!research!in!Athens’!museums!showed!me!the! extent!to!which!Athenians!dominated!the!area!and!prospered!both!militarily!and! financially!as!a!result.!Inside!the!Acropolis!Museum!and!Greece’s!National!Museum! of!Archaeology,!I!saw!thousands!of!artifacts!gained!through!the!prosperity!that! comes!with!controlling!larger!amounts!of!subjugated!territory.!!

These!museums,!as!well!as!others!throughout!the!city!(such!as!the!Keramikos! museum!I!visited!on!August!7th!and!the!Cycladic!Art!Museum!I!visited!on!August!9th)! contain!remains!of!golden!jewelry,!precious!stones,!ornately!decorated!jars!for! foreign!herbs!and!spices,!and!other!relics!and!art!from!the!dozens!of!temples! scattered!throughout!the!ancient!city.!However,!it!is!worth!noting!that!not!all!of!the! artifacts!were!necessarily!found!in!Athens,!many!of!them!were!found!in!other! regions!of!Greece!and!then!brought!to!Athens!to!be!displayed!in!the!nation’s!capital! city.!Furthermore,!not!all!of!the!artifacts!in!these!museums!came!from!the!same!time! period!that!Sophocles!and!his!peers!were!writing!satyr!plays,!so!not!all!of!them!were! relevant!to!this!project’s!research.!Research!conducted!by!archeological!scholars,!as!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!Kenneth!M.!Tuite,!"Athens."!In!World)History:)Ancient)and)Medieval)Eras,!ABCTCLIO,! 2018.!https://ancienthistory2TabcTclioT com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/Search/Display/575672.! ! 12! well!as!art!historians!establishes!that!many!of!these!artifacts!came!from!hundreds!of! miles!away,!demonstrating!the!depths!of!both!the!Athenians’!trading!prowess,!and! the!degree!to!which!they!set!down!imperial!roots!in!the!lands!they!journeyed!to.8!!

! As!I!learned!from!the!Acropolis!museum,!in!many!cases!(including!in!5th! century!Athens),!the!security!and!economic!wellTbeing!provided!by!a!strong!empire,! or!in!this!case,!a!cityTstate,!are!precisely!what!a!society!requires!in!order!spur!both! technological!and!artistic!advances.!Such!conditions!allow!a!privileged!section!of!the! population!to!focus!on!scientific!or!artistic!pursuits!outside!of!agriculture!and! military!service,!such!as!mathematics!or!theatre.9!This!privileged!group!was! comprised!solely!of!free!Athenian!men,!meaning!well!over!half!of!the!city’s!true! population!did!not!experience!the!benefits!of!its!prosperity.10!While!one!can!learn! this!concept!in!a!classroom,!it!all!becomes!much!clearer!when!one!physically!walks! through!a!museum!and!sees!the!evolution!of!a!cityTstate’s!military,!economy,! technological!prowess,!and!arts!all!flourishing!together!as!the!centuries!progress.!!

! This!context!is!precisely!what!I!observed!and!learned!during!my!time! conducting!research!in!Athens.!Imperial!expansion!provided!Athenians!with!vast! resources!and!the!means!required!to!defend!them,!allowing!for!the!arts!and!sciences! to!advance!beyond!most!other!comparable!cityTstates!and!empires!from!the!time.!

Thus,!Athens!produced!not!only!the!theatrical!talents!of!Aeschylus,!Sophocles,!and!

Euripides,!but!also!the!philosophical!genius!of!Plato!and!Aristotle.!Each!of!these!men! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!Colette!Hemingway!&!Seán!Hemingway,!Ancient)Greek)Colonization)and)Trade)and) their)Influence)on)Greek)Art,!The!Metropolitan!Museum!of!Art,!July!2007.! https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/angk/hd_angk.htm.! 9!The!Archaic!Acropolis!Gallery,!Acropolis!Musuem,!Athens,!Greece,!August!7th!2017.! 10!SueTEllen!Case,!"Classic!Drag:!The!Greek!Creation!of!Female!Parts,"!Theatre) Journal)37,!no.!3!(1985).! ! 13! benefitted!from!the!security!provided!by!a!wellTorganized!imperial!system!with!an! easily!defensible!capital!at!its!core.!Such!an!imperial!system!necessitated! subjugation!of!other!territories,!and!Athens!maintained!their!burgeoning!empire!by! controlling!the!militaries!of!their!Delian!League!allies.!Their!paternal!and!controlling! attitudes!towards!their!supposed!allies!eventually!led!to!internal!revolts!and!a!lack! of!true!allies!when!war!with!Sparta!and!the!Peloponnesians!sparked.!!

I!would!also!be!committing!a!disservice!to!the!museums!if!I!failed!to!mention! their!frequent!conveyance!of!how!prideful!the!Ancient!Athenians!were!of!their! various!accomplishments.!According!to!Christina,!my!stateTcertified!tour!guide!from!

Alternative!Athens,!ancient!Athenians!saw!themselves!as!the!smartest,!strongest,! and!most!talented!people!in!the!world.11!Their!pride!manifests!itself!in!their!selfT created!mythology,!which!includes!a!tale!of!how!Poseidon!and!Athena!competed!to! be!the!patron!god!of!the!city;!Athena!eventually!won!by!gifting!them!the!world’s!first! olive!tree.!Athena,!being!a!goddess!of!not!only!war!but!also!of!wisdom!and!arts,! increased!their!strength!and!skill,!further!separating!them!from!the!ranks!of! ordinary!men.!Whether!as!a!result!of!divine!influence,!or!the!benefits!of!creating! arguably!the!first!democracy!(although!it!was!hardly!a!true!democracy,!given!the! lack!of!rights!for!women!or!the!enslaved!populations),!the!Athenians!actually! comprised!an!intelligent,!organized,!and!militarily!strong!people.!Consequently,!they! led!the!united!Greek!states!in!the!Persian!War!against!Xerxes!and!ultimately! emerged!victorious!despite!the!Greeks!being!vastly!outnumbered.!Their!victory! seemed!to!give!them!confidence,!since!in!the!following!decades!they!began!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11!Christina,!Alternative!Athens:!"Highlights!of!Greek!Mythology!Tour,"!Athens,! August!10,!2017.! ! 14! quickly!establish!imperial!systems,!further!confirming!the!might!of!Athens!and! further!enhancing!their!sense!of!pride!as!the!defenders!of!Greece!and!its!rightful! protectors.!Plays!from!this!time!demonstrate!such!as!Aeschylus’!The)Persians) demonstrates!how!the!Athenians!perpetuated!ideas!of!Athenian!glory!and! superiority,!despite!the!Greeks’!victory!stemming!from!a!collective!effort,!of!which!

Athens!was!only!one!(albeit!significant)!part.!!

Greece’s!present!day!museums!(such!as!the!Acropolis!Museum!and!the!

Museum!of!Archeology)!do!not!shy!away!from!the!proud!colonial!nature!of!Classical!

Athens,!and!in!their!museums!they!present!both!the!positive!and!negative!aspects!of! the!system!in!tandem.!For!example,!in!one!of!the!first!wings!of!the!Museum!of!

Archaeology!proudly!displays!Classical!Athens’!pottery,!figurines,!architecture,!and! jewelry,!all!made!possible!at!least!in!part!by!their!subjugated!territories.!However,!a! few!wings!later!visitors!come!to!artifacts!and!artwork!on!display!from!the!Roman! era,!and!informational!plaques!in!this!section!detail!how!Athenians,!in!their!pride,! challenged!the!Spartan!alliance!in!the!Peloponnesian!War,!and!how!after!their!loss! they!never!truly!returned!to!the!levels!of!domination!previously!experiences.!Their! new!weakness!eventually!left!them!unprepared!to!repel!Alexander!the!Great!and!the!

Macedonians,!who!later!ceded!the!territory!to!Rome!after!their!own!decline.!

Consequently,!although!Athens!remained!an!intellectual!and!artistic!hub!in!the!

Mediterranean!region,!it!was!never!again!a!center!of!significant!military!or!economic! power.!!

! When!the!Athenians!surrendered!power!to!the!Macedonians!and!Romans,! satyr!plays!faded!from!the!realm!of!dramatic!tradition.!Consequently,!playwrights! ! 15! stopped!producing!new!satyr!plays,!choosing!to!occasionally!perform!existing!satyr! plays,!and!as!a!result!history!contains!solemn!few!examples!of!satyr!play!texts! despite!the!significant!number!of!works!Greek!playwrights!produced!every!year.!As! mentioned!previously,!Euripides’!Cyclops)is!the!only!text!that!remains!preserved!in! its!entirety.!Editors!generally!place!the!length!of!this!text!somewhere!between!750T

800!lines,!and!since!it!is!the!only!complete!work!available!to!study,!scholars!operate! under!the!assumption!that!this!was!a!typical!length!for!a!satyr!play.!Approximately!

450T500!lines!remain!from!Sophocles’!Ichneutae,!and!as!a!result!classics!scholars! generally!assume!that!this!fragmentary!text!constitutes!somewhere!between!half!to! two!thirds!of!the!complete!work.12!!

After!examining!these!preserved!fragments!(although!they!frequently!appear! partially!destroyed),!I!concluded!that!they!provide!ample!evidence!for!the!reader!to! know!what!Ichneutae’s!plot!concerned,!where!it!took!place,!and!which!characters! featured!in!it.!Ancient!Greek!plays!came!with!no!indications!of!which!characters! spoke!which!lines,!but!editors!generally!agree!on!when!characters!spoke!by!using! context!clues!provided!by!the!dialogue.13!For!example,!in!Ichneutae’s!first!50!lines,!a! character!enters!and!proclaims!to!all!mortal!men!that!their!sacred!cattle!are!missing,! that!they!traveled!all!over!the!greater!Mediterranean!world!searching!for!them,!and! that!anyone!who!locates!them!shall!have!a!valuable!reward!of!gold.!The!speaker!also! declares!that!they!are!now!searching!in!the!area!around!Mount!Cyllene.!From!these! opening!lines!we!directly!learn!not!only!the!setting,!but!also!additionally!important! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!Sophocles!&!Roger!Lancelyn!Green,!Two)Satyr)Plays:)Euripides)Cyclops)and) Sophocles)Ichneutai.!(Harmondsworth:!Penguin!Books,!1957),!13.! Sophocles!and!Walker,!489.! 13!Vince,!42.! ! 16! clues!as!to!the!identity!of!the!speaker,!including!the!knowledge!that!the!speaker!is! incredibly!wealthy!and!can!move!over!large!amounts!of!land!very!quickly,!likely! making!them!a!god.!!

! Furthermore,!as!central!elements!of!their!religion,!every!ancient!Athenian! would!immediately!recognize!Apollo,!the!god!of!the!sun,!archery,!music,!poetry,!and! prophecy!as!a!passionate!owner!of!a!sacred!type!of!cattle!and!they!would!also! recognize!Mt.!Cyllene,!a!large!wellTknown!landmark!in!the!Peloponnesian!Peninsula,! as!the!birthplace!of!Hermes.!From!there,!it!becomes!clear!that!the!speaker!is!Apollo! and!that!Ichneutae)is!a!retelling!of!the!myth!of!Hermes’!birth!and!subsequent! abduction!of!Apollo’s!cattle.!Similar!logical!deductions!allow!editors!such!as!Walker,!

Green,!Patrick!O’!Sullivan,!Christopher!Collard,!David!Grene,!and!Richmond!

Lattimore,!among!others,!to!ascribe!lines!to!the!appropriate!character!from!the! story!with!a!certain!degree!of!consistency!in!their!edits!across!multiple!centuries! and!places!of!origin.!!

! By!continuously!making!these!academically!informed!inferences,!editors!can! begin!to!establish!a!picture!of!what!occurs!in!Ichneutae.!As!mentioned!previously,!in! his!opening!monologue!Apollo!laments!the!loss!of!his!sacred!cattle!and!promises! generous!rewards!to!anyone!who!can!track!them!down.!Silenus,!in!his!greedy!and! everTcontinuing!pursuit!of!all!vices,!senses!an!opportunity!to!gain!his!freedom!and!a! large!amount!of!gold!as!well.!He!accepts!Apollo’s!challenge!and!enlists!his!sons,!the! satyrs,!to!find!the!lost!cattle.!They!begin!to!search,!and!at!their!father’s!command,! humorously!do!so!like!dogs!tracking!prey.!They!continue!in!this!manner!until!they! eventually!manage!to!find!some!strange!looking!cattle!tracks,!but!their!success!is! ! 17! fleeting!as!they!hear!a!mysterious!sound,!presumably!the!world’s!first!lyre.!The! strange!sound!deeply!frightens!the!Chorus,!and!Silenus!finds!the!satyrs!in!a! panicked!state!searching!for!the!source!of!the!noise.!Silenus!proceeds!to!berate! them,!detailing!how!much!braver!and!more!noble!he!is!than!them,!before!also! becoming!frightened!when!he!hears!the!noise.!!

! From!there,!the!text!proceeds!to!detail!how!the!satyrs!hear!a!beautiful!voice! signing,!and!follow!the!sound!to!the!mouth!of!a!barred!cave.!When!no!one!answers! their!repeated!summons,!they!resolve!to!make!a!large!amount!of!noise!until!the! inhabitants!come!out.!Their!plan!succeeds!as!Cyllene,!a!mountain!nymph,!emerges! to!boldly!scold!them!and!explain!to!them!that!the!newborn!god!Hermes!is!inside.!

She!tells!how!Hermes!created!the!first!lyre!and!how!he!keeps!it!in!a!leather!bag,! which!leads!the!satyrs!to!believe!the!cattle!are!inside!and!that!Hermes!consequently! must!be!the!guilty!party.!Cyllene!adamantly!denies!these!charges!and!retreats!back! inside.!Here,!the!text!breaks!off!and!only!a!few!scattered!words!and!phrases!remain! preserved;!however,!given!how!the!rest!of!the!play!mirrors!The)Homeric)Hymn)to)

Hermes,)Apollo!likely!returns!to!confront!his!evasive!and!lying!brother.!During!this! confrontation,!the!two!make!amends!when!Hermes!offers!his!newly!invented!lyre!to!

Apollo,!which!instantly!gratifies!the!musical!god!so!greatly!that!he!immediately! drops!his!quarrel!with!his!young!brother.!!

! Assuming!Hermes!does!make!an!appearance,!as!the!myth!and!the!text’s! remaining!fragments!seems!to!indicate,!Ichneutae)then!features!four!distinct! characters,!in!addition!to!the!unknown!number!of!chorus!members.!Euripides!and!

Sophocles!typically!used!15!chorus!members!in!their!tragedies,!while!Golden!Age! ! 18!

Athenian!comedies!usually!consisted!of!24!members.14!Classical!scholars!do!not! know!how!many!chorus!members!played!in!a!satyr!play,!and!consequently!cannot! know!if!Ichneutae)breaks!from!tradition,!as!the!text!does!not!offer!any!indication!as! to!their!number.!!

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14!Albert!Weiner,!!"The!Function!of!the!Tragic!Greek!Chorus."!Theatre)Journal)32,!no.! 2!(1980):!205T212.! ! ! 19!

CHAPTER&2:&CREATION&OF&THE&TEXT&

& To!begin!crafting!my!version!of!Sophocles’!play,!I!started!by!collecting!several! different!translations!of!the!play,!from!a!variety!of!different!scholars!and!time! periods.!The!most!important!of!these!were!Richard!Johnson!Walker’s!1920!edition! and!Christopher!Collard!and!Patrick!O’Sullivan’s!2013!edition.!Similar!to!the!idea! behind!this!project,!Walker’s!edition!attempted!to!fill!the!gaps!in!lines!where!the! text!breaks!off,!while!Collard!and!O’Sullivan’s!text!functioned!as!a!present!day!

English!translation!of!the!literal!individual!words!exactly!as!preserved.!Between! these!two,!and!other!translations!for!reference,!I!gained!a!thorough!idea!of!what!the! fragments!were!conveying!and!how!scholars!believe!the!words!fit!into!the!larger! context!of!Ichneutae.!!

! I!started!the!writing!process!itself!by!first!creating!my!own!interpretation!of! the!existing!fragments!of!Sophocles’!words.!Since!I!cannot!read!or!translate!Ancient!

Greek,!I!relied!heavily!on!existing!translations!to!form!this!part!of!the!play.!Working! from!the!beginning!of!Ichneutae)and!continuing!onwards!toward!the!end!of!what! remains!of!the!text,!I!first!carefully!examined!the!exact!translations!of!the! fragmented!text!provided!by!Collard!and!O’!Sullivan.!Then,!I!crossTreferenced!these! translations!of!the!individual!words!against!the!complete!lines!generated!by!other! translators!such!as!Walker!in!their!filledTin!versions!of!the!play.!!

! By!necessity,!the!first!section!I!began!working!on!was!Apollo’s!exposition! monologue!at!the!beginning!of!the!play.!Here,!the!god!of!prophecy!immediately! provides!the!audience!with!the!setting!and!the!context!of!Ichneutae.!The!fragments! make!clear!that!Apollo!declares!to!all!the!fact!that!his!cattle!disappeared!without!his! ! 20! knowing,!that!their!loss!greatly!affected!him,!and!that!everyone!should!know!of!his! terrible!loss.!Then,!Apollo!details!to!his!audience!how!he!searched!all!over!the! known!world!for!them,!listing!several!places!throughout!Greece!and!the!

Mediterranean!such!as!“(the!territory)!of!the!Thessalians,!Boeotia,!Dorian,!and!

Mount!Cyllene.”15!Since!Apollo’s!speech!abruptly!stops!at!times,!and!large!portions! of!it!are!missing,!modern!interpretations!often!expand!this!section!to!include!more! locations!that!Apollo!searched,!such!as!Athens,!Delphi,!Corinth,!Troy,!Argos,!Lake!

Stymphalus,!and!even!Libya.!While!Apollo’s!list!clearly!included!more!locations,!it!is! impossible!to!know!which!Sophocles!listed!out,!so!I!chose!a!sampling!of!locations! that!my!research!indicated!Ancient!Athenians!would!have!been!aware!of,!including!

Argos,!Delphi,!and!Corinth.!Knowing!their!sense!of!selfTimportance,!I!also!included!a! reference!to!“the!most!holy!city!of!Athens,!a!suggestion!originating!with!Walker.”16!

! Since!Apollo!promised!a!reward!to!anyone!who!could!locate!the!cattle,!

Silenus!then!arrives!to!take!up!the!challenge!and!delivers!a!shorter,!mostly! preserved!speech.!Because!most!of!the!original!text!remains!preserved!in!complete! sentences,!I!could!easily!adapt!this!section!into!my!own!words!without!needing! much!artistic!interpretation!or!creation.!However,!the!conversation!between!the! two!in!the!following!lines!only!contains!a!few!intermittent!words!in!their!entirety,! including!four!lines!missing!altogether.!Consequently,!I!largely!created!for!myself!

Apollo!and!Silenus’!exact!bargain!and!the!promise!of!his!freedom!in!addition!to!the! gold,!using!the!remaining!words!as!the!basis!for!their!invented!dialogue.!During!my!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!Patrick!O’Sullivan!and!Christopher!Collard,!Euripides)Cyclops)and)Major)Fragments) of)Greek)Satyric)Drama!(Oxford:!Aris!&!Phillips,!2013),!347.! 16!Walker,!439.! ! 21! research,!I!discovered!that!Richard!Johnson!Walker!believed!Apollo!gave!Silenus!his! golden!staff!as!a!godly!sign!of!his!mission!and!as!a!sort!of!guarantee!in!lieu!of!an!up! front!payment,!the!golden!staff!confirming!his!ability!to!bestow!more!gold!upon!the! old!drunkard.17!I!adopted!this!conclusion!in!my!text,!and!it!manifests!itself!both!in! stage!directions,!and!in!dialogue!from!Apollo!near!the!play’s!ending.!!

! A!question!exists!as!to!why!Apollo!might!offer!a!further!reward!of!freedom!to!

Silenus!after!initially!offering!just!gold!his!initial!speech.!From!the!preserved! fragments,!it!is!only!apparent!that!Silenus!offers!words!of!confusion!and!then!Apollo! clarifies!that!they!will!go!free.18!Walker,!in!his!text,!solves!this!problem!by!having!

Silenus!posit!that!he!cannot!accept!Apollo’s!gold!because!he!is!a!slave,!to!which!

Apollo!responds!that!he!will!free!him,!thus!giving!him!a!second!gift!that!allows!him! to!accept!the!first.!My!understanding!of!Silenus’!character!(as!demonstrated!by!his! actions!throughout!the!rest!of!the!text!and!his!actions!in!Cyclops)!led!me!to!believe! that!Silenus,!in!his!vile!cunning,!was!craftily!manipulating!towards!a!greater!reward,! so!I!incorporated!the!basis!of!Walker’s!dialogue!with!a!stage!direction!to!clarify!

Silenus’!motivation.19!

! I!encountered!a!challenge!as!to!how!to!ascribe!lines!to!the!chorus!and!its! individual!members!in!the!next!exchange,!which!takes!place!between!Silenus!and! the!chorus.!Silenus!summons!his!sons,!the!band!of!satyrs,!to!begin!the!search,! informing!them!that!they!will!soon!be!rich!and!free!should!they!prove!successful.!As! stated!previously,!scholars!do!not!know!how!many!members!performed!in!a!chorus!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17!Walker,!10.! 18!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!349.! 19!Walker!441T443.! ! 22! in!satyr!plays,!and!they!can!only!make!educated!guesses!as!to!their!numbers.!In!my! text,!I!chose!to!create!a!chorus!of!four!satyrs,!with!each!satyr!possessing!their!own! distinctive!personality!and!characteristics!derived!from!Sophocles’!existing!text.!

While!at!some!points!they!all!collectively!exhibit!typical!satyr!behavior!

(drunkenness,!frightfulness,!greed,!lust),!when!interacting!amongst!themselves!they! behave!more!individually,!each!functioning!according!to!an!adjective!I!decided!and! assigned!after!first!creating!unassigned!lines!of!dialogue!according!to!my! interpretation!of!the!translated!fragments.!!

! I!made!this!choice!because!the!fragments!suggested!a!level!of!individualism! amongst!the!satyrs.!My!primary!evidence!for!this!assertion!is!the!presence!of! seemingly!individual!commands,!which!seem!out!of!place!in!lines!traditionally! ascribed!to!a!Greek!chorus.!!For!example,!in!one!the!first!chorus!speeches,!the! fragments!include!the!words!“off!you!go!at!a!run”!and!later!on,!“chase!over!there.”20!

These!commands!indicate!Silenus!assigned!specific!tasks!to!specific!members!of!the! chorus.!!

! Furthermore,!the!translated!fragments!also!frequently!make!use!of! individually!possessive!parts!of!speech,!such!as!the!words!“mine,”!and!“your,”! signaling!personal!ownership!of!something!as!opposed!to!the!collective.!Examples!of! this!include!dialogue!such!as!one!satyr!stating,!“you’ve!missed!your!way”!while! another,!exclaims!“you’re!mine!”!This,!in!contrast!with!other!lines!where!translators! give!the!satyrs!lines!referring!to!themselves!as!a!group!with!words!such!as!“our,”! and!“we.”!Consequently,!the!translators!must!then!have!seen!different!parts!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!351.!! ! 23! speech!in!the!original!ancient!Greek!text,!at!times!referencing!the!individual!and!at! other!points!the!collective.!So,!Sophocles!in!his!original!text!established!a!precedent! for!possibly!assigning!portions!of!the!chorus’!speech!to!individual!members!in!the! fragments!mentioned!above.21!I!reflected!this!conclusion!in!my!text!by!actually! dividing!the!majority!of!the!chorus’!dialogue!into!four!distinct!characters,!while!still! leaving!certain!lines!belonging!to!the!collective!chorus.!I!selected!these!collective!

Chorus!lines!based!on!whether!there!appeared!to!be!any!song!or!dance!attached,! and!whether!the!lines!contained!any!references!to!the!individual!such!as!the!kind! detailed!before.!!!

! After!the!satyrs!interact!amongst!themselves,!the!play!then!moves!onto!the! beginning!of!the!search!for!Apollo’s!cattle.!During!this!section!Silenus!orders!his! sons!to!search!like!hounds,!and!I!suggest!the!text!was!indicating!that!the!satyrs! should!actually!search!on!all!fours!like!dogs!for!comedic!effect.!I!concluded!this!due! to!Silenus’!sentiment!a!few!lines!later!that!they!had!begun!to!do!something!pleasing! him.22!Logically,!this!suggests!a!shift!in!how!they!were!searching!in!response!to!his! aggressive!commands,!and!thus!manifesting!theatrically!as!literal!doglike!behavior.!

At!several!other!points!throughout!the!play!I!inserted!stage!directions!in! parentheses!in!order!to!help!clarify!some!of!the!comedic!moments!that!might!not! otherwise!appear!entirely!obvious!to!the!reader.!Another!example!of!one!of!these! editorial!stage!directions!appears!later!on!when!the!nymph!Cyllene!is!chastising!the! satyrs!for!their!rude!behaviors!and!makes!a!reference!to!“stretching!bald!heads,”!a! reference!to!the!satyrs’!phalluses.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!359.! 22!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!351.!! ! 24!

! Stage!directions!like!those!mentioned!above!proved!to!be!another!necessary! theatrical!element!to!negotiate!within!my!adapted!Ichneutae.)While!the!intentions!of! lines!such!as!those!mentioned!in!the!previous!paragraph!may!seem!understandable! to!certain!informed!readers,!I!chose!to!clarify!them!in!stage!directions!to!make!it! absolutely!obvious!to!anyone!reading!my!text!exactly!where!and!how!these!physical! jokes!play!out.!Similarly!to!how!ancient!Greek!scripts!did!not!contain!notes! indicating!when!each!specific!character!was!to!speak,!Sophocles’!scripts!also!never! included!stage!directions;!so!editors!must!infer!all!implied!physicality!solely!from! the!characters’!dialogue.!Consequently,!every!line!of!the!play!contains!the!potential! to!require!an!accompanying!stage!direction,!and!some!of!these!are!easier!to!identify! than!others.!Apollo’s!loaning!of!the!golden!staff,!for!example,!is!a!debatable!line!that! seemingly!accompanies!a!means!of!guaranteeing!his!ability!to!uphold!his!deal!with!

Silenus.!While!the!lending!of!his!staff!is!only!one!possible!way!out!of!dozens!for!

Apollo!to!show!Silenus!the!extent!of!his!wealth,!it!represents!a!wellTresearched!and! defensible!notion.23!

! Sophocles’!lack!of!stage!directions!also!presents!difficulties!as!to!when! characters!enter!and!exit!the!stage,!as!well!as!when!sound!cues!are!to!take!place.!For! example,!as!the!satyrs!continue!their!hunt!for!the!cattle,!they!eventually!hear!a! confusing!and!somewhat!frightening!noise,!the!sound!of!the!first!lyre,!which!halts! their!search.!Silenus!angrily!chastises!them!at!length!for!their!cowardliness!and!then! urges!them!onward!again,!before!he!himself!becomes!terrified!after!he!finally!hears! the!sound.!Again,!ancient!Greek!playwrights!did!not!write!stage!directions,!so!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23!Walker!10.! ! 25! editors!must!infer!any!unspecified!actions!such!as!sound!cues!for!a!lyre,!as!well!as!

Silenus’!subsequent!exit.!Identifying!the!presence!of!the!lyre!sounds!proves!fairly! obvious!to!the!informed!reader,!who!would!know!that!in!the!myth!of!Hermes’!theft! of!Apollo’s!cattle,!Hermes!invents!the!lyre!and!gives!it!to!Apollo!at!the!end.!Hermes’! nymph!caretaker!Cyllene!even!mentions!his!invention!of!it,!and!how!he!formed!it! later!in!the!fragments.!Consequently,!when!the!satyrs!hear!a!mysterious!sound!that! they!have!never!heard!anything!similar!to,!one!can!infer!that!it!is!the!sound!of!the! first!lyre.!!

Such!cues’!places!in!the!text!are!apparent!due!to!the!shifts!in!subject!and!tone! in!the!dialogue!after!they!take!place.!For!example,!Silenus!instructed!his!sons!to! search!like!dogs!and!was!aware!of!this!tactic!so!it!does!not!make!sense!that!he! would!berate!them!for!searching!this!way!later.!But,!with!no!indicated!shift,!in!line!

125!of!the!fragments!he!berates!them!for!stooping!low!to!the!ground!in!a!new! manner!of!searching,!apparently!different!than!what!he!commanded.24!Clearly,! something!affected!the!satyrs’!search,!and!a!few!lines!later!the!satyrs!complain! about!their!father!not!hearing!what!they!just!heard.!His!exit,!is!similarly!easy!to! determine,!due!to!the!fact!that!in!line!204!he!makes!it!clear!he!wants!to!leave,!and! then!shortly!afterwards!no!lines!of!dialogue!make!any!sense!to!attribute!to!his! character.!Therefore,!his!character!must!have!left!the!stage,!which!creates!the!need! for!a!stage!direction.!!

! After!Silenus!exits,!Cyllene!emerges!from!her!cave!to!condemn!the!satyrs!for! making!so!much!noise,!as!well!as!to!provide!more!mythological!exposition!regarding!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!353.!! ! 26! the!birth!of!Hermes.!In!several!instances,!the!stories!Cyllene!tells!directly!mirror! those!in!the!Homeric!Hymn!to!Hermes.!Examples!of!this!include!Hera’s!anger! regarding!Zeus’!infidelity!and!his!fathering!of!a!son!outside!their!marriage,!and!also! specific!details!of!how!Hermes’!created!the!lyre.!However!at!other!points!in!her! exposition,!such!as!her!own!presence!in!the!myth!(which!does!not!feature!a!Cyllene! character!at!all)!and!certain!elements!regarding!the!timetable!of!events,!the!play! diverges!from!the!Hymn.25!These!instances!where!Cyllene’s!tales!diverge!from!the! traditional!mythology!are!examples!of!where!Sophocles!took!artistic!liberties!with! the!myth.!!

During!this!exchange!Cyllene!also!teases!the!satyrs!over!their!comedic!lack!of! comprehension!about!Hermes’!construction!of!the!lyre,!playing!a!guessing!game! with!them!about!what!animal!Hermes!used!to!form!the!instrument!(the!correct! animal!being!a!tortoise).!Some!of!the!humor!in!this!section!(as!well!as!in!other! portions!of!the!play)!contains!references!and!comparisons!to!animals!and!phrases! that!modern!audiences!would!not!necessarily!understand!without!context.!One! example!of!this!is!when!she!jokingly!tells!the!satyrs!their!guess!of!an!Etna!Horned!

Beetle!is!a!good!guess,!but!ultimately!not!correct.26!Another!comes!earlier!in!the! play!when!Silenus!furiously!accuses!the!satyrs!of!being!bent!over!and!farting!like!a! monkey.27!While!the!average!presentTday!reader!would!likely!not!understand!these! references,!since!the!text!is!well!preserved!and!comprehensible!within!the!context!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25!Diane!J.!Rayor,!The)Homeric)Hymns,!!(Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,! 2004).! 26!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!369.! 27!O’Sullivan!and!Collard,!353.!! ! 27! of!the!larger!situations!and!conversations!taking!place,!I!largely!left!them!as!they! originally!appeared.!!

! Shortly!after!this!comedic!section,!I!transitioned!into!the!process!of! continuing!onwards!after!the!missing!fragments!break!off.!At!the!end!of!what! remains!of!the!text,!Cyllene!becomes!angered!over!the!satyrs’!repeated!insistence!of!

Hermes’!guilt!(which!they!believe!based!on!dung!found!near!the!cave!and!Hermes’! supposedly!keeps!his!lyre!in!a!leather!bag).!Then,!the!words!abruptly!stop,!and!we! only!have!a!few!intermittent!words!preserved!to!fill!in!the!entire!ending!of!the!play.!

From!my!knowledge!of!the!Homeric!Hymn!to!Hermes!as!well!as!my!research!from! classicists!on!Ichneutae!and!satyr!plays!in!general,!I!had!a!fairly!specific!idea!of!how! to!complete!the!play.!Clearly,!as!in!the!Hymn,!Apollo!must!appear!and!summon!

Hermes!from!the!cave,!and!afterwards!the!two!must!discuss!Hermes’!theft!and! become!reconciled!over!the!gift!of!the!lyre.!!

! For!my!ending,!I!chose!to!draw!my!inspiration!from!the!dialogue!contained! within!the!Homeric!Hymn.!In!that!text,!Apollo!confronts!Hermes,!who!although!just! an!infant,!proves!to!be!cunning!and!humorous!in!his!rhetorical!defense!of!his!crimes.!

This!version!of!Hermes!frequently!cites!his!status!as!a!newborn!and!someone!with! no!education!as!proof!that!he!could!not!have!stolen!Apollo’s!cattle.!Examples!of!this! include!his!insistence!that!his!chief!concerns!are!simply!for!his!blanket!and!for!sleep,! and!that!he!could!never!steal!cattle!because!as!a!newborn!infant!he!has!no!idea!what! cows!are.28!Hermes’!speeches!are!tactful!and!seemingly!logical!if!not!for!the!obvious!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!Rayor,!61.!

! ! 28! fallacies!created!by!Hermes’!extraordinary!growth.!Although!Hermes!amuses!his! older!brother!with!his!wit,!he!cannot!fool!Apollo,!and!he!insists!that!Hermes! confesses!and!return!what!he!stole,!which!Hermes!refuses!to!do.!When!Apollo! threatens!to!take!him!to!Zeus!for!judgment,!Hermes!shifts!tactics!and!plays!a!song! on!the!lyre!for!his!brother,!knowing!as!the!god!of!music!he!could!never!resist.!

Hermes!then!gives!him!the!instrument!as!a!peace!offering,!without!ever!actually! admitting!his!guilt.!Apollo,!delighted!to!be!the!owner!of!this!new!way!of!creating! music,!eagerly!accepts;!with!the!condition!that!Hermes!swear!to!never!steal!from! him!again.!!

! I!adapted!the!Hymn’s!plot!straight!into!my!ending!of!Ichneutae!while! maintaining!the!presence!of!the!satyrs!and!Silenus.!In!my!text,!I!decided!to!have!

Cyllene!withdraw!back!into!the!cave,!and!then!have!the!satyrs!summon!Apollo!for! his!argument!with!Hermes.!Originally,!I!planned!to!leave!every!character!present!for! the!climax!of!the!play,!but,!as!noted!by!O’Sullivan!and!Collard!in!their!writings!on!the! text,!during!the!time!period!when!Sopcholes!wrote!Ichneutae,!there!were!never! more!than!three!nonTchorus!characters!onstage!together!at!a!time,!as!there!were! only!three!actors!employed!in!each!contestant’s!City!Dionysia!entry.29!Since!Apollo! and!Hermes!are!the!two!characters!needing!to!have!a!conversation!(according!to!the!

Homeric!Hymn),!they!obviously!needed!to!be!onstage!for!the!end!of!the!play;! meaning!in!order!for!the!text!to!by!stylistically!appropriate!either!Silenus!or!Cyllene! could!not!witness!their!discussion!and!needed!to!be!offstage.!Although!Euripides’!

Cyclops)set!a!precedent!for!Silenus!not!necessarily!being!present!for!the!play’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!O’!Sullivan!&!Collard,!338.! ! 29! climax,!it!had!been!several!pages!of!text!since!he!exited!earlier,!so!to!me!it!seemed! natural!for!him!to!reappear.30!

Silenus’!reappearance!allowed!me!to!further!develop!his!morally!bankrupt! character,!as!I!understood!it!from!Sophocles!and!Eurpides’!surviving!fragments.!In! what!survives!of!satyr!plays,!Silenus!frequently!showcases!a!willingness!to!change! his!opinions!and!demeanor!to!please!those!around!him!and!further!his!own!gains!at! the!expense!of!others,!as!demonstrated!by!his!character!in!Cyclops.)In!Euripides’! play,!Silenus!quickly!strikes!a!bargain!to!trade!his!master’s!supplies!to!Odysseus!in! exchange!for!his!wine!(which!he!proceeds!to!drink!excessively),!only!to!immediately! accuse!Odysseus!of!theft!the!second!the!Cyclops!reappears!and!sees!a!stranger!with! his!food.!Given!that!it!is!one!of!the!few!wellTestablished!understandings!about!satyr! plays,!I!wanted!my!text!to!reflect!Silenus’!opportunism!and!willingness!to!betray!his! companions!in!my!text.!So,!in!my!Ichneutae,!when!Apollo!reappears!and!Hermes! pleads!his!innocence,!Silenus!quickly!dismisses!his!sons’!accusations!against!

Apollo’s!brother,!as!foolish.!However,!when!he!realizes!that!his!sons!actually! correctly!charged!Hermes!with!his!crimes,!Silenus!quickly!takes!credit!for!their! accomplishments!and!demands!his!owed!reward.!Through!his!words!and!actions! near!the!end!of!the!play,!I!wanted!it!to!be!clear!that!Silenus!is!morally!depraved,! even!more!so!than!the!rest!of!the!satyrs!(who!demonstrate!more!loyalty!than!

Silenus!in!Euripides’!play),!who!are!not!meant!to!be!admirable!characters!by!any! means.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!Euripides,!and!David!Kovacs,!Cyclops);)Alcestis);)Medea!(Cambridge,!Mass:!Harvard! University!Press,!2014),!127.! ! ! 30!

! Continuing!with!issues!of!characterization,!because!of!their!lecherous!and! generally!deplorable!characters,!the!question!of!if!Silenus!and!the!satyrs!receive! their!promised!freedom!and!gold!at!the!end!of!the!play!became!a!difficult!plot!point! for!me!to!resolve.!To!their!credit,!the!satyrs!eventually!did!track!down!the!correct! thief!and!the!stolen!cattle,!without!much!help!from!their!father.!However,!to!reward! them!would!mean!rewarding!the!drunkenness,!greed,!cowardliness,!and!lust!they! demonstrated!throughout!the!play.!In!contrast!with!the!necessary!plot!elements!I! needed!to!mirror!from!the!Homeric!Hymn,!when!it!came!to!my!resolution!of!Silenus! and!the!satyrs’!stories,!I!realized!I!possessed!a!greater!degree!of!artistic!freedom.!!

In!Euripides’!Cyclops,)Odysseus!and!his!crew!save!the!satyrs!from!the!Cyclops! by!blinding!him,!and!they!indicate!their!intention!to!sail!home!with!him!together.!

Meanwhile,!readers!never!hear!from!Silenus!again!after!the!Cylclops!mistakes!

Silenus!for!a!goddess,!and!forcefully!drag!him!off!(presumably!for!a!nonconsensual! sexual!encounter).31!Consequently,!although!the!main!characters!of!the!myth! resolved!their!stories!according!to!the!tradition!of!Homer’s!Odyssey,!the!auxiliary! characters’!fate!contained!mixed!levels!of!happiness.!In!order!to!complete!my! adaptation!of!Ichneuate,!I!needed!to!decide!whether!to!adopt!this!same!treatment!of!

Silenus!and!his!sons.!!

Due!to!the!comedic!nature!of!Ichneutae,!Silenus,!and!the!satyrs,!I!found!it! logical!that!the!audience!would!enjoy!the!drunken!satyrs!and!their!amoral!father,! and!thus!would!root!for!them!despite!their!innumerable!faults.!So,!it!seemed!fitting! to!me!that!the!satyrs!receive!their!earned!rewards!at!the!end!of!the!play.!They!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Kovacs,!127.! ! 31! fulfilled!their!promises!to!Apollo,!and!moreover,!as!the!central!characters!of!the!play! it!seemed!suitable!to!me!that!they!received!a!happy!ending.!After!initially! considering!excluding!Silenus!from!also!receiving!his!promised!freedom!and! happiness!as!Euripides!seemed!to,!upon!a!subsequent!rereading!I!decided!that!since!

Apollo!felt!so!moved!by!his!brother’s!music!as!to!forgive!his!theft,!then!he!surely!was! in!a!generous!mood,!and!would!also!then!grant!Silenus!his!reward!as!well!despite! his!obvious!failures.!I!drew!this!conclusion!from!the!fact!that!in!the!beginning!of!the! play!Apollo!spends!dozens!of!lines!lamenting!the!theft!and!detailing!how!greatly! their!loss!affected!him;!however,!he!forgives!all!of!it!when!Hermes!plays!him!music! and!gives!him!the!new!instrument.!Therefore,!I!determined!that!he!clearly!felt! extraordinarily!forgiving!in!the!moment,!and!if!he!could!forgive!his!brother!for! stealing!his!sacred!property,!then!surely!it!was!not!a!complete!stretch!to!imagine!he! also!forgave!Silenus!for!his!halfThearted,!cowardly!efforts,!and!still!delivered!his!gold! and!freedom!as!originally!promised.!

! After!completing!my!initial!draft!of!the!text,!with!assistance!from!Professor!

Samer!AlTSaber,!fellow!undergraduate!level!theatre!researcher!Cristian!Mercado! and!I!arranged!for!a!joint!table!reading!of!our!respective!plays.!Over!the!course!of!a! few!hours!a!group!of!colleagues,!peers,!and!instructors!read!aloud!both!of!our!plays.!

Then,!they!provided!us!with!detailed!feedback!about!our!work.!I!learned!several! things!from!this!event!about!my!text,!my!writing!style,!my!personal!shortcomings,! and!my!successes.!Beginning!with!the!areas!where!I!needed!improvement,!despite! my!best!efforts,!my!original!draft!contained!a!host!of!misspellings!and!typos.!On!a! more!technical!level,!a!number!of!the!readers!critiqued!that!at!times!the!characters’! ! 32! stakes!appeared!inconsistent.!They!pointed!out!how!a!threat!from!a!god!would!be!a! truly!terrifying!event,!and!the!satyrs’!fear!needed!to!reflect!that!danger!more! truthfully.!In!the!following!draft,!I!sought!to!make!each!character’s!emotions,! especially!fear!and!nervousness,!more!in!tune!with!the!magnitude!of!the!events!in! the!play.!!!

! Another!common!critique!stemmed!from!an!issue!rooted!in!a!positive!note! about!one!of!my!attempts!at!humor.!In!my!text,!I!made!an!effort!to!make!Hermes’! argumentative!rhetoric!regarding!his!innocence!somewhat!ridiculous,!in!that!it! sounds!intelligent!but!does!not!actually!hold!credibility!when!examined!in!the! slightest.!Despite!this,!Apollo!and!Silenus!initially!believe!him!and!angrily!turn!on! the!satyrs!for!accusing!him!of!theft.!The!readers!liked!this!decision!and!the!effect!it! created,!but!they!felt!I!could!better!serve!myself!by!making!the!conversation!even! more!ridiculous,!making!the!gods’!speeches!unintelligent!while!the!satyrs!appear!to! be!the!only!ones!speaking!rationally.!While!I!understood!their!advice,!I!ultimately! did!not!significantly!alter!this!dialogue!as!I!believe!the!humor!works!on!it!its!own!as! is,!and!since!I!intended!for!the!satyrs!to!appear!as!unintelligent!(and!consistently! drunk)!characters,!I!did!not!want!them!to!appear!significantly!more!reasonable!and! scholarly!than!their!godly!counterparts.!!!

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& ! 33!

CHAPTER&3:&TEXTUAL&COMPARISON&

While!this!project!does!present!a!production!ready!adaptation!of!Sophocles’! original!work,!I!am!not!the!first!individual!to!attempt!this!task.!Several!others,! including!famed!Inklings!author!Roger!Lancelyn!Green!also!endeavored!to!complete! the!play!in!their!own!fashion.!Green,!in!addition!to!his!considerably!extensive!work! as!a!biographer,!also!gained!renown!during!the!20th!century!for!his!adaptations!of! early!English!texts!such!as!the!tales!of!King!Arthur!and!Robin!Hood,!for!modern! audiences,!particularly!schoolchildren.!However,!in!addition!to!his!adaptations!of! some!of!the!oldest!known!EnglishTlanguage!collections,!Green!also!adapted!ancient! works!from!not!only!Greece,!but!also!Egypt!and!Norway!as!well.!In!1957!he! published!Two)Satyr)Plays)in!which!he!not!only!created!a!modern!adaptation!of!

Euripides’!Cyclops,)but!also!examined!the!existing!fragments!of!Sophocles’!Ichneutae! in!order!to!create!an!informed!and!suitable!ending!to!a!second!satyr!play.!Despite! being!published!over!50!years!ago,!this!short!anthology!of!satyr!plays!is!still!housed! in!university!libraries!around!the!world.!!

! Since!Green’s!work!represents!one!of!the!most!widely!remembered!and! enduring!attempts!at!creating!a!finished!Ichneutae,!after!finalizing!my!own!version! of!the!play!I!reflected!on!my!work!by!comparing!it!to!Green’s.!In!order!to!do!so,!I! reread!Green’s!play!while!paying!special!attention!to!the!choices!he!made!with!the! fragments!and!how!I!responded!when!given!the!same!fragments.!In!many! circumstances!we!made!similar!choices!regarding!how!to!adapt!the!text,!while!in! other!instances!our!tactics!diverged!entirely.!Ultimately,!both!works!stand!on!their! own!as!readable!and!producible!plays,!and!each!presents!an!honest!reworking!of! ! 34!

Sophocles’!original!words,!while!also!presenting!a!canonically!and!stylistically! plausible!ending!to!the!play.!

! One!instinct!Green!and!I!both!followed!was!our!idea!to!at!times!break!up!the! chorus’!dialogue!into!individual!lines!assigned!to!specific!satyrs.!Similarly!to!how!I! divided!their!lines,!Green!assigned!many!(although!not!as!many)!of!their!lines!to! individual!roles!such!as!First!Satyr,!Second!Satyr,!etc.!In!my!version,!I!used!Satyr!1,!

Satyr!2,!Satyr!3,!and!Satyr!4,!and!I!sought!to!distribute!the!lines!between!them!all!as! evenly!as!possible!while!still!only!ascribing!lines!I!believed!worked!with!their! established!characters.!In!his!edition,!Green!gave!lines!to!five!distinct!satyrs,!which! suggests!that!we!heard!almost!the!same!exact!number!of!individual!voices!within! the!chorus.32!However,!our!approaches!also!differed!in!that!Green!did!not!choose!to! distribute!the!lines!evenly!amongst!his!satyrs.!First!Satyr!speaks!a! disproportionately!large!amount!compared!to!his!brothers,!and!each!succeeding! satyr!has!fewer!lines!than!the!one!before,!with!Fifth!Satyr!only!receiving!one!short! line.!!

! Green!also!only!gives!the!satyrs!individual!lines!for!approximately!the!first! third!of!the!play,!after!which!they!only!ever!speak!collectively,!including!plenty!of! moments!where!I!chose!to!continue!dividing!up!the!lines.!The!exact!moment!where! they!stop!speaking!individually!occurs!after!Silenus!hears!the!lyre!after!initially! doubting!his!sons!and!flees.!This!choice!initially!confused!me,!as!I!saw!no! immediately!discernable!reason!for!the!sudden!change!in!dialogue!structure!at!this!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!Roger!Lancelyn!Green,!Two)Satyr)Plays:)Euripides)Cyclops)and)Sophocles)Ichneutai.! (Harmondsworth:!Penguin!Books,!1957),!61.! ! ! 35! particular!moment!in!the!play.!However,!after!careful!analysis,!I!realized!that!by!this! point!in!the!text!the!satyrs!had!already!delivered!the!majority!of!the!interjectory! lines!traditionally!ascribed!to!them.!With!the!bulk!of!these!interjectory!lines!already! delivered,!the!Chorus!could!theoretically!all!speak!together!for!the!remainder!of!the! play!without!the!lines!seeming!confusing!or!out!of!place.!Consequently,!I!understand! the!logic!behind!Green’s!choice,!but!ultimately,!I!perceived!a!greater!degree!of! individuality!amongst!them!and!continued!to!give!them!coinciding!individual!lines! throughout!the!rest!of!my!text.!!

! We!also!differed!when!it!came!to!how!we!assigned!large!portions!of!dialogue.!

Green!ascribed!nearly!all!the!dialogue!with!Cyllene!to!Silenus!instead!of!the!Chorus! as!I!(and!most!other!editors!as!well)!did.!Green’s!decision!initially!confused!me,! because!the!extant!fragments!tell!us!that!after!hearing!a!noise,!a!speaker!

(presumably!Silenus)!suddenly!indicates!their!urgent!need!to!leave!the!hunt.!These! lines!imply!the!speaker!experienced!immense!fear!of!the!unidentifiable!noise.!Since!

Silenus!is!the!only!character!onstage!with!the!satyrs!at!this!point,!the!character! speaking!could!only!be!Silenus,!the!Chorus,!or!possibly!an!individual!member!of!the!

Chorus.!!

From!analysis!of!several!different!versions!of!Ichneutae,!I!realized!that! translators!and!editors!never!formed!a!consensus!regarding!a!small!series!of!lines! where!someone!says!“oh,!there!”!then!the!speaker!in!the!next!line!asks,!“what!is!it?”! and!the!following!line!says!“I’m!not!going!to!stay.”!Depending!on!which!lines!editors! ascribed!to!which!characters,!the!individual!characters’!circumstances!change! significantly.!Some!ascribe!the!first!two!parts!to!Silenus!and!then!designate!the! ! 36! satyrs!wanting!to!flee,!while!others!view!the!dialogue!as!three!distinct!lines!starting! with!Silenus,!meaning!he!is!the!one!wanting!to!leave.)Although!both!Silenus!and!the! satyrs!are!cowards,!one!party!proves!more!cowardly!than!the!other!and!gets! chastised!by!the!braver!party.!Furthermore,!depending!on!how!the!editor!interprets! the!broken!fragments!of!the!following!lines,!the!cowardly!party!might!actually!exit! in!addition!to!having!their!character!attributes!altered.!!

In!my!interpretation,!I!fell!into!the!camp!that!viewed!the!three!phrases!as! being!completely!distinct!from!each!other,!and!thus!being!three!distinct!lines!in! conversation,!making!Silenus!the!coward!and!then!having!him!exit!as!he!intended!to.!

However,!Green,!as!well!as!other!classicists!such!as!Richard!Johnsons!Walker!and!

Anne!Mahoney,!each!saw!the!exchange!differently.!Some!translators!choose!to!have! the!satyrs!chastise!Silenus!into!staying!despite!his!fears!while!others!designate!the! satyrs!or!potentially!just!one!of!them!trying!to!leave.33!The!differences!likely!stem! from!a!phrase!used!several!lines!later!that!translates!to!“nor!sneak!off!and!clearly,”! in!English.34!Whomever!the!editor!viewed!as!trying!to!leave!shaped!how!they! handled!this!confusing!encounter;!some!viewed!this!as!the!Chorus!berating!Silenus! for!wanting!to!leave,!while!others!saw!it!as!the!opposite.!!

Although!their!interpretations!are!perfectly!logical,!I!reached!my!own! conclusion!for!two!distinct!reasons,!one!built!upon!the!other.!First,!in!Euripides’!

Cyclops)Silenus!breaks!with!the!Chorus!in!several!different!instances!and!at!one! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!Anne!Mahoney,!"Sophocles,!Tracking!Satyrs,"!Perseus!Digital!Library,! http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg008.perseusT eng1:203T220.! Walker,!461.! Green,!66.! 34!O’!Sullivan!&!Collard,!361.! ! 37! point!even!flees!from!the!Cyclops,!leaving!his!sons!alone!with!Odysseus!to!face!the!

Cyclops’!wrath.!Therefore,!from!what!we!know!of!Silenus!from!the!surviving!canon,! it!is!not!unlike!him!to!abandon!his!sons!at!a!moment’s!notice!after!experiencing!fear,! so!I!concluded!that!the!line!“I’m!not!going!to!stay,”!belonged!to!Silenus.!!

Second,!since!I!determined!Silenus!was!the!character!trying!to!flee,!I! subsequently!needed!to!decide!whether!he!was!ultimately!successful,!or!if!the!satyrs! managed!to!convince!him!to!stay!with!their!following!lines.!After!reflection,!I! remembered!that!Silenus!was!the!Chorus’!father,!and!therefore!an!authority!figure.!

Consequently,!he!likely!would!not!experience!any!inhibitions!about!disobeying!or! disappointing!his!sons,!as!they!were!his!subordinates.!With!this!in!mind,!I!decided! that!if!Silenus!wanted!to!exit,!he!was!fully!capable!of!doing!so!and!nothing!his!sons! might!attempt!or!say!could!stop!his!departure.!In!my!text,!the!satyrs!delivers!their! subsequent!lines!about!not!sneaking!off!to!each!other,!and!are!referencing!the! absent!father!as!an!example!of!how!not!to!behave.!So,!while!I!understood!the! thought!process!behind!Green!and!the!other!editors’!interpretations,!I!favor!my!own! and!feel!there!is!adequate!evidence!to!support!my!argument!as!well.!As!a!result!of! these!decisions,!my!version!of!the!play!significantly!differs!from!Green’s!after!this! point.!While!in!Green’s!text!Silenus!converses!with!Cyllene,!in!my!text!he!is!already! offstage!and!the!Chorus!speaks!those!lines.!!

Not!long!after!the!previous!point!of!divergence,!the!fragments!break!off,!and! in!similarity!my!own!work,!Green!grounds!his!ending!firmly!in!the!Homeric!Hymn!to!

Hermes.!Consequently!our!endings!are!alike!in!many!ways,!including!Apollo’s! eventual!return,!Hermes’!humorous!and!tricky!defense,!and!Hermes’!gifting!of!the! ! 38! lyre!to!Apollo!at!the!very!end!in!order!to!make!amends!for!his!crimes.!Additionally,! we!also!treated!the!Chorus!in!similar!ways,!with!both!of!us!choosing!to!have!them! dance!along!when!Hermes!plays!the!lyre,!and!both!choosing!to!have!Apollo!grant! them!their!freedom!at!the!end.!Green’s!text;!however,!makes!no!explicit!mention!of!

Silenus’!fate,!as!Apollo’s!gifting!of!freedom!comes!in!response!to!the!Chorus’! reminder!of!his!promises.!Apollo!acquiesces!to!them,!but!does!not!mention!Silenus! by!name!or!any!other!indication,!only!ambiguously!saying,!“You!shall!be!free.”!The!

“you”!in!this!scenario!could!be!everyone,!including!Silenus,!or!just!the!satyrs! comprising!the!Chorus.!As!their!father!and!partner!in!the!hunt!(in!this!version,!an! admittedly!faithful!one),!it!seems!probable!that!the!collective!“you”!would!seem!to! include!him.!But!Silenus,!rarely!one!to!remain!silent,!does!not!vocalize!gratitude!or! joy!along!with!the!satyrs.!Since!Green’s!choice!seems!to!be!out!of!character!for!

Silenus,!his!decision!is!somewhat!puzzling.!!!

Green’s!ending!of!the!play!also!differs!from!my!own!in!that!he!reintroduces!

Apollo!much!later!than!I!chose!to,!and!he!plays!a!noticeably!smaller!part!in!Green’s! version!as!a!result.!Both!of!our!texts!feature!a!sort!of!interrogation!of!Hermes!as! depicted!in!the!Hymn,!and!our!texts!use!similar!language!and!rhetoric!to!showcase!

Hermes’!craftiness!and!humor.!In!my!text,!Apollo!(accompanied!by!Silenus)!returns! shortly!after!the!fragments!break!off,!following!Cyllene’s!furious!retreat!back!into! her!cave.!Meanwhile!the!satyrs!can!think!of!no!other!way!to!force!Hermes!to!emerge! from!within,!so!they!summon!Apollo.!Apollo!calls!Hermes!out!from!the!cave,!and!

Hermes!appears,!knowing!to!stay!inside!would!likely!anger!his!powerful!elder! brother!and!simultaneously!insinuate!his!own!guilt.!However,!Green!employed!a! ! 39! different!approach!to!force!Hermes!out,!choosing!to!have!Silenus!claim!that!Apollo’s! rage!at!discovering!his!brother’s!theft!could!spark!a!war!between!the!gods,!and!in! her!fear!Cyllene!begrudgingly!agrees!to!produce!the!child!from!within.!!

These!distinctions!necessarily!produce!different!circumstances!for!Hermes! and!whomever!he!addresses!his!roguish!speeches!to.!Although!we!both!created! playful!and!clever!lines!in!the!spirit!of!the!original!Hymn,!in!my!text!Hermes!protests! his!innocence!to!Apollo,!while!in!Green’s!text!he!professes!his!innocence!to!Silenus.!

Ultimately,!I!chose!to!give!the!conversation!to!Apollo!and!have!him!summon!Hermes! because!I!felt!that!only!another!god!could!posses!the!authority!to!call!Hermes!and! have!him!actually!obey.!In!the!Homeric!Hymn!to!Hermes!the!eponymous!character! is!frequently!defiant!and!deceptive!to!all,!including!his!mother!(in!Ichneutae,)Cyllene! fills!this!role!of!caretaker!due!to!his!mother’s!fatigue),!and!he!answers!to!no!one!but! himself!until!Apollo!appears!and!puts!the!fear!of!his!father!Zeus!in!him.!

Consequently,!I!propose!that!even!if!Silenus!put!the!fear!of!war!between!the!gods!in!

Cyllene’s!thoughts!and!she!shared!those!concerns!with!Hermes,!he!would!not!care! enough!until!literally!faced!with!the!actual!threat!in!person.!Thus,!in!my!text! although!the!satyrs!demand!he!emerge,!Hermes!does!not!appear!until!the!satyrs! summon!Apollo!and!he!commands!him!to!emerge!and!answer!for!his!supposed! crimes.!

Finally,!I!must!address!issues!stemming!from!differences!of!style!and!genre! between!the!two!texts.!In!the!introduction!to!his!text,!Green!states!how!he! attempted!to!strike!a!balance!between!playing!up!the!burlesque!elements!of!satyr! drama!while!still!being!faithful!to!the!original!texts.!He!stresses!how!satyr!play’s! ! 40! language!should!be!“simple…!and!at!times!colloquial,”!and!how!in!his!text!he!sought! to!“present!the!effect!of!the!satyr!play:!the!lightThearted!easing!of!tension!after!the!

Tragedies.”35!Green!originally!wrote!his!text!over!60!years!ago,!but!the!language! remains!current,!conversational,!and!understandable!to!modern!readers.!He! achieved,!and!continues!to!achieve!this!despite!his!extremely!privileged!upbringing! as!well!as!his!reworking!of!the!play!into!nearly!unbroken!iambic!pentameter,!both!of! which!can!provide!challenges!in!comprehension!for!readers,!especially!as!time! progresses.!

!Green’s!work’s!accessibility!is!conceivably!due!to!Green’s!primarily!intended! audience!being!children,!and!Ichneutae!reflects!this.!For!example,!the!endings!of!his! lines!nearly!always!rhyme,!an!invention!Green!added!since!Sophocles’!original!

Greek!did!not!maintain!constant!rhyming.!Additionally,!although!Green!does!not! hide!or!edit!out!several!overtly!sexual!references!throughout!the!play,!he!is!also!not! as!graphically!explicit!as!he!could!be.!I!believe!that!Green,!aware!that!children!would! be!reading!his!book,!made!a!concerted!effort!to!moderate!the!play!while!still! preserving!the!intentions!of!the!lines.!!

In!creating!my!own!text,!I!also!sought!to!make!the!lines!accessible!to!readers,! albeit!without!the!intention!for!them!to!be!accessible!to!children!specifically.!More! specifically,!I!intended!for!the!satyrs!to!speak!most!colloquially!(colloquial!in!this! instance!meaning!U.S.!American!English),!with!Silenus!and!Cyllene!(as!immortal! nature!deities)!being!more!formal!and!then!the!gods,!Apollo!and!Hermes,!speaking! the!most!removed!language!from!everyday!English.!However,!I!did!not!model!any!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!Green,!12.! ! 41! character’s!speech!after!conversational!American!English,!as!I!employed!the!use!of! certain!older!words!and!phrases!in!some!instances.!When!these!older!phrases! appear!in!my!text,!it!is!usually!the!result!of!my!trying!to!remain!faithful!to!Sophocles’! original!words,!as!I!understood!them!from!their!translations.!In!other!instances,! sometimes!the!characters!articulate!difficult!to!understand!references!specific!to!

Athenian!culture,!such!as!when!Silenus!says,!“you’re!lying!down!there!like!a!monkey! in!a!bush.”!My!research!informed!me!that!Athenians!deployed!this!phrase!when! referring!to!something!close!to!the!ground!and!doubled!over.36!Since!phrases!such! as!this!are!not!idiomatic,!they!are!certainly!difficult!for!any!modern!reader!to!fully! understand.!I!preserved!obscure!references,!such!as!the!one!above,!because!I!believe! readers!can!usually!infer!their!meaning!from!context!clues.!Additionally,!in!this! section!of!the!fragments!the!lines!are!incredibly!well!preserved,!and!whenever! suitable!I!tried!to!keep!as!much!of!Sophocles’!original!phrasing!as!possible.!!

In!that!regard,!my!text!is!also!similar!to!Green’s,!although!he!took! considerably!more!liberties!with!the!existing!text!than!I!did.!Despite!that,!our!texts! prove!nearly!identical!as!far!as!individual!line!meanings!and!intentions!go.!The! exception!to!this!is!our!assigning!of!certain!lines!to!different!characters,!but!even!in! those!instances!our!understandings!of!the!dialogue!bears!strong!similarity.!We!also! both!concluded!the!play!in!a!similar!manner,!with!the!satyrs!receiving!freedom!and!

Apollo!receiving!the!first!lyre.!We!differed!primarily!in!our!execution!and!writing! styles,!but!either!text!serves!as!a!functional,!producible,!and!faithful!interpretation! of!Sophocles’!classical!play.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!O’!Sullivan!&!Collard,!353.! ! 42!

CONCLUSION&

Sophocles’!fragmented!play!provided!me!we!with!an!incredibly!unique! opportunity!both!as!a!scholar!and!an!artist.!Ichneutae’s!partial!preservation!grants! presentTday!researchers!such!as!myself!generous!access!to!Sophocles’!original! words,!but!also!leaves!open!room!for!debate!and!interpretation!as!to!what!the! unpreserved!material!contained.!Concurrently,!the!play’s!origins!from!the!Classical!

Athenian!era!make!the!text!public!domain,!and!thus!render!it!fluid!as!translators!and! adaptors!interact!with!it.!Consequently,!no!editor’s!text!is!a!universally!correct! translation!or!recreation!of!Sophocles’!complete!play,!in!English!or!in!any!other! language.!What!the!existing!fragments!provide!then,!for!this!play!or!any!other! partially!preserved!work!of!satyr!drama,!is!an!open!forum!where!informed!artists! can!explore!existing!translations,!propose!unique!interpretations!of!their!own,!and! measure!the!merits!of!their!work!against!the!existing!body!of!scholarship!and!art! inspired!by!the!fragments.!!

To!be!clear,!since!I!am!unable!to!read!the!Ancient!Greek!language,!I!did!not! interact!directly!with!the!fragments,!but!rather!interacted!with!them!using!a! multitude!of!English!translations!and!adaptations,!with!one!work!(O’!Sullivan!and!

Collard)!serving!as!my!primary!translation!of!all!the!individual!fragments.!Their! work!continuously!sought!to!provide!literal!translations!without!the!artistic! extrapolation!opted!for!by!Walker,!Greene,!and!others.!However,!despite!the! intended!word!for!word!literalness!of!that!translation,!circumstances!still!forced!me! to!interact!with!Sophocles’!words!from!a!secondThand!perspective.!Consequently,!I! created!a!play!built!on!a!work!of!creative!fiction!based!on!translations!of!another! ! 43! work!of!creative!fiction,!which!was!itself!based!on!a!popular!religious!origin!story.!I! worked!with!existing!artifacts,!and!scholarship!about!those!artifacts,!to!create!a!new! artifact,!one!that,!although!fictional!in!nature,!is!no!less!legitimate!due!to!the! integrity!and!respectfulness!undertaken!throughout!my!process.!!

I!must!acknowledge!how!the!generosity!and!openness!that!Greece’s!present! day!cultural!guardians!exhibit!towards!foreigners!such!as!myself!allowed!me!to! explore!classical!Athenian!culture!in!a!manner!inaccessible!to!most.!Rather!than! shelter!and!preserve!their!cultural!treasures!they!choose!to!display!them!openly!to! the!world!for!easily!affordable!rates.!At!many!museums!and!archeological!sites,! these!guardians!even!offer!student!pricing!options,!further!increasing!accessibility! to!their!classical!legacy.!Throughout!my!time!conducting!fieldwork!in!Athens!I!felt! welcomed,!supported,!and!encouraged!in!my!goals!for!this!project.!!

Their!hospitality!and!generosity!in!turn!affected!how!I!interacted!with!their! cultural!artifacts.!Given!how!freely!they!shared!their!knowledge!with!me,!I!felt! perfectly!comfortable!adapting!the!text!and!taking!artistic!liberties!with!what! remained!of!Sophocles’!original!work.!I!sensed!that!as!long!as!I!dealt!with!their! cultural!history!in!a!respectful!and!honest!manner,!I!had!complete!permission!to! interact!freely!with!everything!they!could!offer.!My!understanding!of!ancient!Athens! would!have!been!completely!different!and!severely!lacking!had!I!not!traveled!there! to!conduct!firsthand!fieldwork!research,!so!I’m!grateful!I!was!fortunate!enough!to! receive!the!opportunity!to.!!

My!sense!of!comfort!when!interacting!with!Sophocles’!text!generated!by!my! field!research!proved!invaluable!over!the!course!of!this!project!as!I!dealt!with!issues! ! 44! of!commonality!between!various!translations.!Accomplished!and!wellTversed! classicists!meticulously!translated!each!of!the!texts!I!drew!from!for!this!project,!and! their!respective!texts!differ!in!many!ways.!Consequently,!I!experienced!firsthand! how!each!English!translator!interpreted!the!ancient!Greek!language!in!their!own! distinctive!ways,!and!that!I!must!scrutinize!every!decision!from!every!translator! must!for!its!merits.!Ultimately,!I!dedicated!a!great!deal!of!attention!to!why!classicists! treated!the!text!in!the!manner!they!did,!and!how!those!decisions!affect!the!existing! canon!of!knowledge!about!Ichneutae.))

!Additionally,!through!my!fieldwork!and!other!research!I!came!to!appreciate! the!unique!role!satyr!plays!occupied!in!Athenian!society,!and!how!that!role!differs! from!most!modern!Western!religious!traditions.!Being!a!crucial!part!of!the!City!

Dionysia,!satyr!plays!were!inherently!religious,!a!celebration!of!the!god!Dionysus! and!everything!he!stood!for.!However,!unlike!more!modern!approaches!to!religion! and!worship,!this!pagan!festival!employed!the!use!of!a!form!of!drama!focused!on! parodied!retellings!of!religious!stories.!Athenians,!despite!the!seemingly! blasphemous!nature!of!the!performances,!revered!them.!Since!they!comprised!a! quarter!of!a!playwright’s!entry!into!the!competition,!judges!even!scrutinized!and! judged!them!against!each!other!in!order!select!a!winner!of!the!entire!festival.!

Consequently!I!concluded!that!for!these!Athenians!worship!took!a!starkly!different! form!than!typical!modern!Western!forms!today.!They!did!not!view!satyr!plays!as! offensive!for!their!mimicry!of!the!gods!and!religious!events,!but!celebrated!and! glorified!them!as!necessary!celebrations!of!Dionysus,!the!god!of!theatre!and!wine.!! ! 45!

Despite!the!numerous!challenges!associated!with!recreating!an!ancient! partially!destroyed!script,!such!work!can!prove!incredibly!rewarding!if!treated!with! the!proper!academic!and!artistic!respect!it!commands.!Over!the!past!eighteen! months!I!researched!this!relatively!unstudied!but!infinitely!rewarding!art!form!and!I! grew!increasingly!respectful!the!more!I!interacted!with!the!texts!and!knowledge! about!them.!Such!works!represent!the!very!foundations!of!comedic!tropes!and! parodies!still!popular!in!entertainment!media!worldwide.!Although!my!work!is!only! one!attempt!out!of!dozens!attempting!to!recreate!Sophocles!and!his!counterparts’! lost!treasures,!I!still!believe!I!positively!impacted!the!existing!canon!about!not!only!

Ichneutae,!but!also!all!literature!regarding!satyr!plays!in!general.!Such!work!is! crucial!to!understanding!the!origins!of!Western!theatre!as!we!understand!it!today,! and!no!artist!should!feel!too!intimidated!to!interact!with!the!foundations!of!their! craft.!!

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BIBLIOGRAPHY&

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APPENDIX(A:(MY(PERSONALLY(ADAPTED(ICHNEUTAE!TEXT

MT.$CYLLENE$IN$THE$ARCADIA$REGION$OF$GREECE

(Apollo&enters&carrying&a&golden&staff&and& sacred'symbols'of'his'personage.'This' usually&includes&a&bow&and&arrow,&a&laurel& wreath,(and(rays(of(light.(A(lyre(is(another( common%symbol%of%Apollo,%but%must%NOT% be#included#in#this#instance)

APOLLO !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Let$it$be$known$to$all,$both$mortal$men$and$gods$above$that$I$swear$to$deliver$a$ chest&full&of&gold&to&he&that&can&return&my&lost&cattle&from&afar.&Their&loss&is&difficult& for$me$and$so$weighing$upon$my$soul$that$I$find$myself$with$a$passion$constantly$ dreaming)of)seeing)my)dear)milch)kine,)hearing)the)rumbles)of)my)bulls,)and) smelling(the(sweet(scent(of(my(heifers.(But,(they(are(all(gone(now,(and(I(search( everywhere'in'vain'for'their'tracks'while'they'roam'far'from'the'place'of'their'birth' and$where$they$rightly$belong,$and$now$reside$with$another,$but$in$all$my$days$I$ never%dreamed%that%anyone,%be%they%short0lived%mortal%or%immortal%god,%would%have% the$audacity$to$wrong$me$so$egregiously$and$expect$to$escape$my$divine$wrath.$ Since&this&tragedy&first&befell&me,&dismayed&and&fearful&I&have&searched&thoroughly& and$made$it$formally$known$to$all$above$and$below,$so$none$can$claim$ignorance$to$ this%injustice%that%makes%me%search%the%land%in%this%degrading%manner. I"have"visited"the"entire"realm"of"the"Locrians!that!dwell!at!Opus.!Swiftly,!I!departed! from%there%and%traveled%to%the%fertile%plains%of%Thessalia!and!to!the!nearby!rich!cities! of#Beotia."Then,"I"hastened"onward"to"Corinth"and"seeing"nothing"there,"labored"on" to#my#oracle#at#Delphi#but#they#were#nowhere#to#be#found.#From#there#I#sprinted#on# to#the#Attic#Country#and#the#most#holy#city#of#Athens,#and#yet#my#oxen#were# nowhere'to'be'found.'Leaving'there,'I'journeyed'to'Argos'of'the'Dorians'and'its' nearby'hill,'and'leaping'onwards'I'came'quickly'to'this'same'Lake'Stymphalus,"and" this%same%towering%and%most%difficult%to%scale%Mount%Cyllene,%so%known%by%its% plentiful)rosin,)and)now)I)declare)to)any)and)all)in)this)forest:)If)there)be)any) shepherds'tending'their'flocks'or'other'peoples'of'this'country'quietly'tending'coals' for$their$fires$who$can$hear$my$cry,$or$even$any$river$nymph3born$satyrs$native$to$ the$mountains,$unto$all$of$you$I$proclaim$this$message:$Whoever$amongst$you$can$ recover&the&prized&oxen&of&the&great&healer&shall&have&this&as&their&reward,&more&gold& than%he%can%count!

(Silenus)enters)

SILENUS As#soon#as#you#spoke#and#I#heard#your#pained#words,#for#they#were#most# thunderous*with*your*proclaiming*them*to*the*whole*country,*I*sensed*the* importance+of+this+affair,+so,+I+came+as+quickly+as+an+old+man+like+myself+could+be+ expected'to.' 50

I"greatly"desire"to"prove"myself"a"friend"and"upstanding"citizen"to"you,"most"holy" Apollo,&so&I&ran&all&the&way&here&in&hopes&that&I&could&be&the&one&to&track&down&your& lost%cattle.%Then,%I%would%humbly%accept%your%most%generous%reward,%exactly%as%you% described(it,(which(I(trust(you(will(remember,(was(to(be(“more(gold(than(I(can( count.”(So,(I(will(command(each(of(my(children(to(look(everywhere,(keeping(both( eyes$wide$open.

APOLLO Silenus,)I)will)deliver)to)you)gold)as)you)have)never)seen,)if)you)first)swear)to)uphold) your%end.

SILENUS Lord,&I&will&return&your&lost&cattle,&but&first&can&you&somehow&guarantee&you&can& uphold'your'promises?'All'this'gold'you'spoke'of'before?

APOLLO

(Hands'Silenus'the'staff,'which'he' reverently(and(excitedly(accepts)

Do#we#have#an#accord#satyr?

SILENUS My#lord#Apollo#we#do!

(Forming)a)plan)to)angle)for)an)even) greater&reward)

!But!know!this,!great!Apollo,!I!cannot!hold!this!gift!as!all!my!possessions!rightly! belong'to'someone'else.

APOLLO Do#not#presume#to#call#my#possessions#another’s#the#second#they#fall#into#your# hands.''

SILENUS My#lord,#I#meant#that#all#my#possessions#belong#to#my#master#so#I#can’t#hold#this# staff%or%receive%the%reward%you%have%so%generously%promised.

APOLLO Satyr,'if'you'can'truly'do'as'you'have'promised'I’ll'give'you'another'gift'to'further' confirm(the(first. 51

SILENUS My#lord,#what,#what#do#you#mean?#What#kind#of#reward#could#you#possibly#give#to# do#such#a#thing?#

APOLLO I"mean"that"if"you"return"my"oxen"to"me"you"and"all"your"kin"shall"go"free,"with"the" other&promised&rewards.&

(Enter'the'CHORUS'of'satyrs'who'begin'to' search'for'signs'of'the'lost'cattle.)

CHORUS Everyone(of(you(come(and(look(high(and(low(and(see(if(anywhere(anyone(can(spot( the$footprints$belonging$to$the$missing$cattle.$

SATYR&1 Here!%What’s%this?%What%the.

(Confusion)as)SATYR)2)runs)into)Satyr)1)

SATYR&2 AH#HA!#What’s#this?

SATYR&1 Hey$you!$You)

SATYR&2 Shhhhhhhh,"we"must"search"for"the"thief"of"the"god’s"oxen"in"silence"brother!

SATYR&1 I"

SATYR&3 SILENCE!(We(have(to(be(quiet(or(else(the(thief(will(hear(us(and(then(we’ll(never( succeed&in&finding&the&cattle.

SATYR&2 And$to$fail$means$would$mean$no$gold,$no$freedom,$and$surely$some$very$angry$ words&from&our&father.

SATYR&4 How$will$we$find$them?$How$can$we$succeed$where$a$god$failed?$This$unseen$thief$ might¬&even&move&on&foot.&What&if&he&can&fly?! 52

SATYR&1 I"will"find"them!"I"must,"because"if"I,"or"any"one"of"us"succeeds,"the"lot"of"us"win" freedom'not'only'for'ourselves,'but'for'our'dear'old'father'as'well.'

SATYR&3 Let$the$god$Apollo$who$is$now$our$dearest$friend$be$with$us$and$help$us$complete$ these%tasks.%Especially%now%having%seen%examples%of%his%godly%wealth.

SILENUS Oh#Fortune,#goddess#and#divinity#guiding#us!#Grant#that#I#may#succeed#in#this# business'to'which'I'run'eagerly,'to'track'down'the'booty,'the'prey,'the'treasure,'and' the$stolen$cows$that$have$been$taken$from$Phoebus$Apollo.$If$anyone$has$seen$or$ heard&of&them&and&tells&me&now,&he’ll&be&my&friend&and&a&perfect&patron&to&a&god!

CHORUS Everyone(hurry!(Let(every(man(declare(if(he(has(seen(the(cattle!(If(anyone(out(there( lies%you’ll%gain%nothing%but%a%god%for%an%enemy!

SILENUS

(Addressing*the*audience*at*first) Does%anyone%have%any%knowledge%that%could%help%us?%It%seems%I%must%be%getting%on% already,(come(on(now(everyone(of(you(fools,(track(the(scent!(Sniff(all(over(even(the( breeze%in%case%somehow%they’re%in%the%air.%No%no,"do"it"like"dogs!"Bend"over"double" and$follow$the$scent$right$up$close$like$a$hunting$dog.$Look,$that$way,$he’s$got$it!$ Search'that'way!

(The%satyrs%begin%to%search,%imitating% dogs)

SATYR&1&&&3

The$god,$the$god,$the$god!

SATYR&4

I"smell"it"too!

SATYR&3 Look$there!$Cattle$tracks!$It$looks$like$we$have$him$now!

SATYR&2 Stop!&Don’t&step&on&them&you&fool&you’ll&ruin&them!&

SATYR&3 But$here$they$are!$The$hoof.prints$of$cows!$These$must$be$their$tracks! 53

SATYR&2 Shhhhhh,$a$god$is$leading$our$expedition$and$you’re$all$bleating$like$goats.

SATYR&4 How$well$are$we$doing$my$friend?$Are$we$truly$closer$to$achieving$what’s$needed$ here?%What%about%you?%What%do%you%think?

SATYR&1 I"think"so,"and"so"do"they"over"there!"Absolutely!"For"everything"there"is"a"clear" indication.)See!)See!)And)there)again)are)the)hoof2prints!)Take)a)good)look!)

SATYR&3 Hmm#this#is#the#actual#size#they#would#be.

SATYR&2 All#of#you,#go!#And#at#a#run,#and#keep#your#ears#open!#If#we#hear#any#whistling#of# cows%

SATYR&4& I"don’t"hear"anything"except"for"your"voice!

SATYR&1 But$here,$I$swear$these$must$be$the$actual$tracks$and$path$of$the$cattle$we$seek.$ They%clearly%must%be.%

SATYR&3 Hey$now,$what’s$this?

CHORUS By#Zeus!#These#hoof-prints#have#been#turned#around#and#go#back#the#other#way!# You$can$see,$they$face$backwards!$Let’s$have$a$closer$look$at$those$things.$What$is$ this?&What&sort&of&arrangement&of&prints&is&this?&The&prints&in&the&front&have&been& changed(to(go(backwards,(and(all(the(others(are(all(tangled(together(in(opposite( directions!+What+a+strange+confusion+must+have+took+hold+of+the+cowherd.

(At$this$moment,$a$mysterious$noise$is$ heard,'the'sound'of'the'first'lyre.'Upon' hearing(it,(the(satyrs(all(drop(and(press( their&ears&to&the&ground,&believing&it&came& from%there)

SILENUS Now$what$sort$of$technique$for$tracking$have$you$invented$here$eh?$Just$what$is$it?$ Can$you$really$track$in$this$sudden$new$way$bent$over$like$this$nearly$to$the$ ground?(What(sort(of(tracking(is(this(way(of(yours,(I’ve(never(seen(it?(I(don’t( understand)it.) 54

You’re'lying'down'there'like'a'hedgehog'in'a'bush,'or,'no,'you’re'all'bent'over'and' farting(at(someone(like(a(monkey!(What(is(this?(Where(on(earth(did(you(learn(it?(In( what%sort%of%place%could%you%learn%it?%Explain%yourselves!%I’ve%no%knowledge%of%any% such%way%of%tracking.%

(The%satyrs%attempt%to%explain%themselves% and$what$they$saw,$staying$low$to$the$ ground'and'trying'to'locate'the'source'of' the$noise)

SATYR&1 I"

SATYR&2 We#

SATYR&3 It#was'

SATYR&4 You$see'

SILENUS What%is%it?%Who%do%you%fear?%What%is%it%you’re%all%looking%at?%What%is%wrong%with% you?%What%is%this%frenzy%you’re%all%in?%Are%you%looking%for%buried%millets%of%barley?% Why$are$you$all$so$silent$now$who$were$so$very$talkative$before?

CHORUS Father'listen!

(A#pause.)

SILENUS How$can$I$listen$when$no$one$is$speaking?

CHORUS Do#as#we#say#and#just#listen!

SILENUS You’re'no'help'at'all'to'me!'Its'silent!

CHORUS Listen'father,'for'a'while'longer'and'you’ll'hear'the'noise'that'so'terrified'and' confused)us)here.)It)is)one)no)mortal)has)ever)heard! 55

SILENUS Tell$me,$why$are$you$frightened$of$a$simple$noise$exactly?$You’re$all$so$weak$your$ unholy'bodies'must’ve'been'moulded'out'of'soft'wax,'or'perhaps'of'the'softest' animal&crap!&You&who&see&a&monster&in&every&shadow,&scared&of&everything,&you’re& spineless'and'disorganized'and'foolish'servants.'In'my'eyes'your'nothing'but' stomachs,)mouthes,)and)dicks!)During)emergencies,)you)say)you’re)loyal)but)you)do) nothing!(And(to(think,(you(ungrateful(creatures(have(me(for(a(father,(who,(in(his( prime,'through'his'unquestioned'manhood'left'many'a'“memorial”'in'nymph’s' bedchambers.+They+remember+how+I+never+ran+away,+I+never+got+scared,+and+how+I+ certainly*never*cowered*at*noises*made*by*grazing*cattle.*You*all*tarnish*my*feats*of* strength(in(their(memories(the(moment(you(hear(some(new0fangled(noise(from(a( herdsman)somewhere!)How)can)you)be)frightened)of)something)you)haven’t)seen,) it’s%childish?%Are%you%letting%go%of%the%heaps%of%gold%Apollo%spoke%of%and%promised%to% give%to%you,%and%more%importantly%the%freedom%that%he%promised%us?%You’re%sleeping% on#a#once#in#a#lifetime#opportunity#if#you#let#this#slip!#If#you’re#not#going#to#come# back%and%track%these%cattle%and%the%thief%to%where%they’ve%gone,%you’ll%be%sorry%for% your%cowardice%and%letting%out%a%noise%of%your%own.

SATYR&3 Father'come'lead'us'yourself'if'there'is'really'nothing'to'be'afraid'of.

SATYR&1 If#you#come#you’ll#see#for#yourself#how#wrong#you#are!

SILENUS I’ll$come$with$you$then$just$to$win$the$argument.$I’ll$follow$like$a$hunter$with$his$ hounds.(On(with(you(then(dogs,(go(on(to(that(fork(in(the(road(and(I’ll(stay(and(direct( from%here.%%

(The%satyrs%spread%out%in%the%area%in%front% of#Silenus,#imitating#hunting#dogs,# sometimes'calling'out,'sometimes' bumping(each(other,(sometimes(fighting( with%each%other.%Presumably,%they’re% hunting'in'a'dense'wood'and'can’t'see' very%well.%Silenus%hangs%back%and% watches.)

SATYR&1 Hey!%What’s%your%problem?

SATYR&4 Why$are$you$shouting$at$me?$Hey$who’s$that$up$there?$AH$HA!$You’re$mine!$He’s$ here$we$have$him!$Oh$you?$Get$out$of$here, 56

SATYR&3 Who’s&that&up&there?&What&is&that&horrible&and&wrinkly&monster?

SATYR&2 I’m$fairly$sure$this$is$the$right$way.$But,$what$is$that$thing?...$Is$it$drunk?

SATYR&1 Has$anyone$caught$him$yet?

SATYR&4 No,$but$here’s$a$fresh$track!$Come$over$here!

SATYR&3 Hey,%there’s%a%cow%here!%Oh%actually3

SATYR&2 What%good%are%any%of%you?

SATYR&4 He’s%a%gifted%runner.

SATYR&1& I"am"a"gifted"runner!

SATYR&3 And$there$he$goes,$chasing$as$usual.

SATYR&4 Maybe&he&found&them!&Chase&them&brother!&Chase&them!&

SATYR&2 Ah!$He’s$getting$away$you$fools!$Chase$him!

SATYR&3 Pretty&soon,&when&we&go&away&we’ll&be&restored&to&freedom!

SATYR&2 But$don’t$wander$off$in$the$meantime!$Keep$at$it!$Go$on$we’re$close!

SATYR&4 Go#on!#We’ll#cover#the#flank,#there’ll#be#no#escape!

(They&all&re*converge&on&the&same&spot& where%they%began,%not%far%from%Silenus.% Just%then,%then%the%strange%noise%occurs% again.&Silenus&is&frightened) 57

SATYR&3 Father'why'are'you'so'silent'now?'

SATYR&2 Did$we$not$speak$the$truth?$

SATYR&4 Can$you$hear$that,$or$are$you$going$deaf?

SILENUS Oh,$there!$That$noise!$It’s$nothing.

CHORUS What%is%it?

(A#pause.)

SILENUS I’m$leaving!

SATYR&2 You$can’t!

SATYR&1 Please&stay!

SILENUS No#I’m#afraid#it#is#impossible.#But#please#you#all#go#yourselves#as#you#will#and#go#get# the$riches,$the$cattle$and$the$gold.$But$do$hurry$for$I’m$sure$lord$Apollo$will$not$wait$ for$much$longer.$

(Silenus)exits)

SATYR&3 What%do%we%now,%keep%looking?

SATYR&4 But$there’s$no$way$to$follow$the$tracks$anymore!

SATYR&2 Maybe&we&should&give&up&too 58

SATYR&1 We#cannot#give#up#and#sneak#off#when#clearly#we’re#on#the#right#track!#We#must# continue(on(so(that(we(can(find(who/

(Hermes’(singing(heard.)

SATYR&3 What’s'that?

SATYR&1 Oh!$Where’s$that$beautiful$singing$coming$from?

SATYR&2 Over%there!%In%that%cave!

SATYR&4 Who’s&in&there?&Could&it&be&the&thief?

SATYR&1 Come%out%and%have%a%word%with%us!

SATYR&3 We#don’t#bite!#Maybe#if#you#came#out#and#saw#we#mean#you#know#harm#you#would# feel$comfortable$enough$to$have$a$word$with$us.$

SATYR&2 I’d$count$myself$lucky$to$have$so$many$fine$satyrs$such$as$ourselves$in$my$home!

(No$answer$from$within.$)

SATYR&1 Well$pleasantries$don’t$seem$to$be$working,$but$let’s$try$something$else.

SATYR&3 I"know!"Let’s"stomp"and"scream"and"make"so"much"noise,"that"the"very"ground"will" shake&

SATYR&2 Yeah!&So&much&noise&that&anyone&could&hear&it&even&if&they&were&a&deaf&old&man!

(The%satyrs%begin%to%make%loud%and% annoying'noise'util'Cyllene'appears'from' within&the&cave.&They&are&amazed&and& aroused(by(her(beauty(but(are(quickly( cowed&by&her&shouting.&) 59

CYLLENE You$wild$beasts!$Why$do$you$disturb$the$grassy$little$wooded$hillside,$the$home$of$ peaceful(wildlife,(with(this(incessant(shouting?(What(are(you(doing?!(Why(this( change'in'how'you'would'please'your'master?'Before'you'were'just'always'drunk' on#wine#and#wearing#fawn,skins#and#balancing#thrysuses!on!your!hands.!You’d!cry! and$yell$all$the$same$but$then$it$was$in$the$company$of$your$favorite$family$of$ nymphs'and'your'god'and'his'followers.'Now,'this'is'most'different'and'I'do'not' understand!*What*are*these*turns*of*madness*that*whirl*you*about?*I’m*speechless!* I"do"believe"I"heard"the"commandments"of"a"hunter"with"his"dogs"as"they" approached)the)lair)of)some)prey,)perhaps)a)badger,)but)then,)the)dogs)began) speaking)together)about)a)theft?)I)thought,)how)is)it)that)these)hounds)have)the) voice&of&a&man,&and&then&again&they&spoke&of&theft?&But&then&they&sounded&confused& and$like$they$were$going$to$abandon$their$hunt$and$I$thought$there$was$finally$going$ to#be#peace#once#more#in#the#neighborhood#and#then#I#heard#these#same#dogs#start# up#again#louder#than#ever!#These#dogs#who#I#would#otherwise#have#left#alone#then# had$the$gall$to$accuse$me$of$being$a$thief!$On$hearing$such$wild$and$unfounded$ accusations)I)finally)came)out)to)see)you)sorry)satyrs!)I)can)only)believe)that)your) are$all$sick$in$the$head$to$accuse$me$of$such.$How$is$it$that$you$would$not$count$me,$ a"mere"nymph"of"the"mountain"river,"innocent?"Shame"on"you"all!

SATYR&1 Oh#most#beautiful#and#decorated#nymph,#please#forgive#and#us#and#do#not#be#angry# with%us!%

SATYR&3 We#do#not#come#to#quarrel#with#you#nor#to#bring#an#unfriendly#message.#

SATYR&2 Forgive(our(reckless(tongues(and(hooves(for(the(noise(they(made!

(Cyllene'starts'towards'them'angrily'as'if' to#hit#them)

SATYR&4 No#no!#Don’t#hit#us!#Let#us#explain!#

SATYR&1 We#were#following#the#tracks#of#Apollo’s#stolen#cattle5

SATYR&4 Which%led%us%to%this%very%place2

SATYR&3 And$then$we$heard$a$voice$from$outside$and$just$wanted$to$know$if$that$lovely$ singer'had'possibly'seen'a'thief! 60

CYLLENE Now$this$is$a$much$more$pleasant$tone$than$that$you$had$before.$And$you$will$find$ more%on%your%hunt%if%you%avoid%getting%into%feats%of%strength%with%a%nymph.%For%to% me,$there$is$little$to$be$frightened$of$with$you$satyrs$if$this$(looks$the$aroused$satyrs$ up#and#down)#is#everything#there#is#to#see.#

SATYR&2 Lady%Cyllene,%queen%of%this%mountain,%we%shall%tell%you%why%we%have%come%here8

SATYR&1 But$first$can$you$tell$us$what$voice$made$those$sounds$from$earlier?$

CYLLENE I"can,"but"first,"you"must"understand,"that"if"you"reveal"to"anyone"what"I"tell"you," there%will%be%a%horrible%punishment%prepared%for%each%of%you%below.%This%matter%is% kept%secret%even%from%seats%of%the%gods,%so%that%no%news%of%it%will%reach%Hera.%Zeus% came%secretly%to%the%home%of%Atlas’%daughter%Maia,%who%he%holds%dear.%There,%in% secret&from&his&goddess&wife,&he&fathered&a&son.&I’m&nursing&him&in&this&cave,&for&his& mother'is'weak'from'sickness.'I'provide'his'food,'drink,'bedding,'clothes,'cradle9 care,&every&day,&night&and&day.&He&grows&an&improbable&amount&each&day,&to&the& point&where&I&am&much&amazed&and&feared.&He&has¬&yet&even&reached&his&sixth& day$of$life$and$he$is$already$the$size$of$an$adolescent$boy,$with$no$signs$of$slowing$ down.&That&is&what&is&inside&this&cave,&Hermes&is&his&name,&it&was&given&to&him&by&his& father.(That(sound(you(heard(earlier(was(not(made(by(a(voice,(but(by(a(device( hidden&inside&that&the&infant&fashioned&in&one&day.&He&devised&from&an&dead&animal,& such%a%strange%little%box%that%can%be%made%full%of%loud%sounds%that%come%from% nowhere,(and(the(boy(is(already(an(expert(with(it(after(only(one(day.(It(is(this( invention'of'his'that'produces'that'strange'voice'that'you'heard.'Now'come,'do'not' be#so#doubtful!#When#a#smiling#goddess#speaks#to#you,#you#can#believe#them.#

SATYR&3 And$you$expect$us$to$believe$that$something$dead$can$make$a$sound$like$what$we$ heard?

CYLLENE Indeed,&believe&it!&In&death&the&creature&has&obtained&the&voice&it&lacked&in&life.&

SATYR&3 What%did%this%creature%look%like?%Was%it%long?%Short?%Rounded?

CYLLENE Short&and&pot+shaped,&with&a&shriveled&and&spotted&hide.&

SATYR&1 Is#it#like#a#cat?#No!#Like#a#panther? 61

CYLLENE No,$very$different$from$both.$It$is$round$and$has$short$legs.$

SATYR&4 So#maybe#more#like#a#weasel,#or#a#crab?

CYLLENE Not$like$those$either!$Try$again!

SATYR&2 Then%it%must%have%been%like%the%giant%horned%beetle?

CYLLENE Now$you’re$closer$to$what$the$creature$truly$looks$like.

SATYR&1 Tell$us$then,$what$part$makes$the$noise,$the$inside$or$the$outside?

CYLLENE The$shell,$like$oysters.$

(They’re(still(stumped.()

SATYR&2 Can’t&you&just&tell&us?

SATYR&3 Are$there$any$more$clues$you$can$give$us?

CYLLENE Well,%no,%the%boy%calls%the%animal%a%tortoise%and%the%devise%that%makes%the%sound,%a% lyre.&

SATYR&3 But$how$does$he$carry$it?$Does$he$keep$it$in$a$basket?

CYLLENE No,$but$keeps$it$with$him$in$his$possession$at$all$times,$either$in$his$hands$or$in$a$bag$ fashioned*from*cattle*skin.

SATYR&2 Cattle&skin!,

SATYR&4 But$that$means!, 62

SATYR&1 He#must#be!*

(They&satyrs&share&a&look&of& understanding.,The,bag,is,made,of, CATTLE&skin.)

SATYR&2 Shhhhh!$I$know!$But,$tell$us$lady$nymph,$how$can$this$boy$create$sound$from$a$dead$ animal&that&was&quiet&during&its&life?

CYLLENE The$child$pierced$firmly$fixed$pegs$made$of$some$material$besides$wood$through$the$ device.'Then'he'added'seven'strings'sewn'from'the'innards'of'a'sheep'and'fixed' them%to%the%device%so%they%can%be%manipulated%by%the%pegs%and%a%series%of%knots.% Playing(this(device(is(his(only(consolation(when(he(becomes(upset.(He(loves(playing( it#and#singing#a#melody#while#he#does#it,#for#the#lyre’s#shifting#tone#and#harmonies# transport(him.(This(is(how(the(boy(created(a(voice(from(a(dead(creature.(

CHORUS A"fine"voice"that"accompanies"the"plucking"of"a"lyre"spreads"over"this"place,"while"a" brilliant(bloom(across(the(land.(But(as(for(this(business(which(we’ve(been(slowly( journeying*towards,*know*that*whatever*god*devised*these*sounds,*he*must*also*be* the$thief,$madam,$we$know$this$for$certain!$Please$do$not$be$angry$with$us$for$saying$ so,$and$do$not$take$it$badly.

CYLLENE You’re'all'deluded,'and'what'theft'are'you'blaming'him'for?

SATYR&2 We#don’t#mean#to#cause#any#distress,#my#lady

CYLLENE You$would$name$the$child$of$Zeus$a$thief?

SATYR&1 We#must#bring#the#child#to#Apollo,#theft#and#all,#my#lady

CYLLENE You$dare$lie$to$me?$There$would$be$proof$if$you$were$speaking$the$truth.

SATYR&4 No!$I$swear$we$speak$the$truth!

SATYR&3 We#have#absolute#proof#that#this#child#stole#the#holy#cows#belonging#to#lord#Apollo! 63

SATYR&2 Knowing'that'Lord'Apollo’s'cattle'are'the'most'divine'in'the'world,'the'child'knew' they%would%make%the%best%leather%in%the%world!

SATYR&4 So,$he$used$one$of$their$hides$to$fashion$this$bag$that$he$carries$his$lyre$in!

SATYR&1 Cutting'the'skin'from'none'other'than'the'same'cattle'we'now'seek!

SATYR&3 And$if$we’re$wrong$and$the$child$didn’t$steal$the$cattle,$then$where$did$he$obtain$the$ skin?

CYLLENE At#first#I#did#not#understand#but#now#I#do,#you#all#mock#me#for#my#stupidity#for# nothing'but'your'own'fun.'Be'at'ease'from'now'on,'as'far'as'I’m'concerned,'you'can' laugh&at&me&and&mock&me&if&it&brings&delight&to&your&heart.&But,&do¬&dare&to& slander(he(that(is(the(son(of(Zeus(himself.(You’re(making(childish(remarks(about(this( child.'Surely,'he'did'not'inherit'thievery'from'his'father’s'side,'nor'does'thieving' prevail(among(his(mother’s(family.(If(there(is(a(thief,(look(for(him(amongst(the(poor,( but$think$about$the$house$this$boy$descends$from!$Think$about$who$his$family$is,$ and$attach$the$crime$to$whomever$is$really$responsible$but$it$is$not$right$to$attach$it$ to#him!#You#are#all#ever#childish,#but#now#that#you’re#young#men#you’re#running# rampant'like'a'goat'with'a'yellow'beard.'And'stop'stretching'out'your'bald'heads'in' pleasure(

(Here%the%satyrs%are%presumably% massaging'their'phalluses)

!"it!is!not!proper!to!yell!stupid!and!ridiculous!things!and!then!suffer!for!them!later!at! the$hands$of$the$gods,$as$much$as$I’d$love$to$laugh$at$that.$

CHORUS Twist&your&speech&into&whatever&form&you&like,&invent&whatever&polished&speech& you$will,$you’ll$not$persuade$us$that$the$maker$of$this$thing$with$made$dried$calf$ skins%used%any%sort%of%cow%other%than%those%of%Apollo.%We’ll%not%budge%from%this% road!&There&can&be&no&other&possible&explanation!

CYLLENE This%child%could%not%possibly%be%a%thief

SATYR&1 Lady%stop%this%madness!%If%he%steals%then%he%is%a%thief 64

CYLLENE Madness?(You(utter(scoundrels!(How(cold(this(child(so(quickly(become(a(cattle(thief( when%he’s%never%even%seen%a%cow%or%a%piece%of%rope?!

(This&stumps&them&for&a&minute)

SATYR&2 Because'the'children'of'Zeus'are'born'with'great'knowledge'and'skill!'

SATYR&1 So#the#boy#could#easily#become#a#thief#quickly!

CYLLENE I"tell"you"this"child"is"no"thief!"He’s"innocent"of"this"villainy,"do"not"insult"him!

SATYR&3 Well$we$can’t$very$well$compliment$someone$known$to$be$of$evil$repute

SATYR&4 We#can#only#speak#ill#of#him#since#what#we#know#is#true

CYLLENE Be#silent#miserable#satyrs!

SATYR&2 My#lady#we#won’t#until#we#have#Lord#Apollo’s#cattle!

CYLLENE If#the#child#has#stolen#them#as#you#seem#to#think,#where#are#they?#

(Satyr'3'steps'in'cow'dung)

SATYR&3 Well,%judging%by%this%dung,%I’d%say%most%of%them%are%right%nearby%with%the9

CYLLENE And$who$are$they$with?$Why$do$you$speak$to$me$of$dung?

SATYR&3 Why$don’t$you$ask$that$thief$of$a$boy$shut$up$inside$why$I$speak$of$dung!

CYLLENE I"said"to"stop"insulting"the"son"of"Zeus!

CHORUS We’d%stop%if%someone%just%brought%out%the%cattle! 65

CYLLENE On#and#on#you#go#about#these#cows!#You’re#suffocating#me!

SATYR&4 Just%bring%them%out%and%we’ll%leave%you%be!

CYLLENE I"will"not!"And"although"I’ve"asked"you"most"kindly"you"still"insist"on"carrying"on"this" nonsense!&I&have¬hing&more&to&say&to&you&rude&and&disorderly&satyrs!&Try&your& luck%elsewhere%with%this%search,%the%cattle%are%not%here!

(Cyllene'goes'back'into'the'cave'and'shuts' the$door)

SATYR&1 The$nymph$is$certain$that$he$isn’t$responsible

SATYR&2 But$we$know$for$fact$that$he$is!

SATYR&4 What%should%we%do%then?

SATYR&1 We#could#force#our#way#in!

SATYR&3 Force&our&way&into&a&god’s&cave?

SATYR&4 That%could%be%dangerous!

SATYR&2 But$think$of$the$reward$if$we$find$the$cattle!$

CHORUS Gold!&Freedom!

SATYR&1 Then%we%have%to%force%our%way%in1

SATYR&3 But$suppose$we$do,$and$the$nymph$is$waiting$there$to$ambush$us5

SATYR&4 Or#worse,#the#god#child! 66

SATYR&2 It#could#lead#to#punishment#or#even#maybe#death!

SATYR&1 But$remember$the$reward$that$awaits$us!$

CHORUS Gold!&Freedom!

SATYR&1 So#we#have#to#find#our#way#inside!

SATYR&2 Come%on%then%now!%Let’s%force%our%way%into%the%interior%and%find%the%cattle%and%our% thief!

CHORUS Hurrah!'Hurrah!

(The%satyrs%all%try%to%open%the%door,%but% fail.)

SATYR&4 It’s%closed%up%tight,%as%if%some%great%monster%were%using%all%his%strength%to%seal%it.

SATYR&3 Oh#great#Dionysus,#Oh#great#Pan,#are#there#any#friendly#gods#who#could#open#up#this# cave%for%some%needy%satyrs?%We%would%be%forever%grateful!

SATYR&1 Perhaps(the(Lord(Apollo?

SATYR&2 Ay!$Let$us$tell$him$of$our$discovery,$he$can$certainly$gain$entry$and$then$reward$us$ when%he%sees%that%we%speak%the%truth!

CHORUS Oh#great#Lord#Apollo!#Phoebus#Apollo!#Loxias!Apollo!!We!have!discovered!the! location(of(your(missing(cattle(and(the(thief(who(stole(them!(Come(to(us(now(in(our( hour%of%need%and%you%shall%have%them%back%speedily!%

(Apollo&enters&followed&by&Silenus) 67

APOLLO Satyrs!(Why(do(you(summon(me(to(this(place?!(If(you(seek(to(gain(your(rewards(of( gold%and%freedom,%you%must%first%see%that%my%precious%and%sacred%cattle%are%returned% to#me#unharmed!#I#see#neither#my#missing#property#nor#the#thief#responsible#for#this# crime.'What'means'you'by'this'satyrs?

SILENUS What%is%the%meaning%of%this%foolishness?%Do%you%seek%to%anger%our%most%generous% benefactor?+Why+did+you+summon+the+god+if+you+had+not+first+secured+the+cattle?

SATYR&3 Father'allow'us'to'explain!

SATYR&4 Lord%Apollo,%we%tracked%the%satyrs%through%the%woods%following%some%most%strange% prints'until'we'arrived'in'the'area'around'this'cave2

SATYR&1 !Then,!we!heard!a!most!strange!and!terrifying!noise

SATYR&2 Indeed!&A&noise&so&terrifying&that&it&caused&our&dear&father&to&tuck&his&tail&and&run& from%the%mountain!

SATYR&3 Then%we%perchance%heard%the%singing%of%a%beautiful%voice%from%inside%this%same% cave!

SATYR&4 And$when$we$demanded$that$the$singer$come$out$and$speak$to$us,$a$nymph$called$ Cyllene&emerged.&

SATYR&1 She$then$proceeded$to$very$sternly$reprimand$us$for$disturbing$her$as$she$was$busy$ caring'for'a'newborn'child'of'Zeus3

SATYR&2 Who$had$recently$invented$an$instrument$called$the$lyre$despite$being$born$not$ even$one$week$ago*

SATYR&3 From%a%tortoise%shell%and%sheep%guts!%

SATYR&4 And$he$keeps$it$all$in$a$leather$bag$fashioned$from$cow$leather! 68

SATYR&1 So#we#concluded#that#he#had#to#have#fashioned#it#from#the#leather#of#one#of#your#fine# cows

SATYR&2 But$when$we$suggested$as$much$the$nymph$became$quite$angry$with$us5

SATYR&3 And$insulted$that$we$would$even$suspect$a$child$of$Zeus

SATYR&4 But$we$know$they’re$here$since$just$a$few$moments$ago$he$stepped$in$fresh$cow$ dung!

SATYR&1 And$then$when$we$accused$the$child$again$she$barricaded$herself$inside$with$the$ child&and&the&cattle+

SATYR&2 And$now$refuses$to$open$up$to$us.

SATYR&3 Further'proof'of'the'child’s'guilt2

SATYR&4 So#we#decided#to#try#and#pry#open#the#door

SATYR&1 At#great#risk#of#personal#harm

SATYR&2 But$try$as$we$might$the$doors$will$not$budge4

SATYR&3 And$so$Lord$Apollo$that$is$why$we$called$you$here4

SATYR&4 So#that#you#might#open#these#doors#that#we#simply#can’t#and#behold#for#yourself#the# thief&and&your&beloved&cattle

SILENUS Lord%Apollo%pay%no%attention%to%my%sons,%they%are%clearly%not%in%their%right%minds!% Speaking)of)nymphs)and)child3thieves)and)tortoise)instruments3

CHORUS Father!(We(speak(the(truth!( 69

APOLLO We#can#have#the#truth#of#this#easily#enough.#Hear#my#words#nymph,#and#hear#my# words&brother,&fellow&son&of&Zeus!&I&am&the&mighty&Phoebus&Apollo,&son&of&Zeus&and& Leto,&he&who&shoots&from&afar,&and&I&have&power&that&few&enough,&mortal&or& immortal(have(ever(witnessed.(If(the(thief(who(stole(my(precious(cattle(is(in(that( cave%and%can%hear%these%words,%I%command%him%to%come%forth%and%face%judgement.%If% you$have$not$stolen$the$cattle$then$you$have$nothing$to$fear$from$me,$but$lie$to$me,$ or#continue#hiding,#and#I#will#not#hesitate#to#cast#you#down#into#the#very#depths#of# Tartarus'for'your'crimes.'

(After'a'few'moments,'Hermes'emerges' from%the%cave%with%a%blanket%and%begins% to#address#Apollo)

HERMES Lord%Apollo,%I%have%heard%your%powerful%speech%and%come%out%now%to%greet%you%as%a% brother.(But(know,(he(who(shoots(from(afar,(that(I(have(neither(seen,(nor(heard,(nor( even$know$what$a$cow$is,$so$I$could$not$very$well$know$where$your$cattle$are$or$ how$you$might$go$about$locating$them.$As$you$can$readily$see,$I$am$but$a$mere$ infant,'born'not'even'seven'days'ago.'Cows'and'their'whereabouts'are'hardly'my' concern.'Sleep'is'my'concern,'as'is'my'blanket'here.'How'could'I,'a'mere'babe'steal' cattle?'I'have'not'the'strength'nor'the'knowledge,'such'a'feat'would'be'impossible.

APOLLO So#you#deny#any#and#all#involvement#with#the#theft#of#my#cattle?#These#satyrs#claim# otherwise

SATYR&1& He#lies!

SATYR&2 We#traced#the#hoof#prints#to#this#very#cave!#You#can#see#them#for#yourself!#

HERMES You$are$mistaken$my$dear$satyr$friends,$for$as$I$told$the$far$shooter,$I$do$not$even$ know%what%a%cow%or%its%hoof%prints%would%even%look%like!%And%even%if%these%were%the% prints'of'cattle,'surely'we'can'agree'that'these'prints'are'most'irregular'and'unlike' how$the$Lord$Apollo’s$cattle$would$walk.$

APOLLO My#cattle#surely#do#not#walk#in#the#manner#that#these#prints#exhibit.#Explain# yourselves)satyrs!)To)lie)to)a)god)is)a)most)egregious)sin,)and)you)shall)come)to) regret%it!

SATYR&1 But$the$dung! 70

SATYR&3 Yes,%how%did%cow%dung%come%to%be%up%on%this%wooded%mountain%unless%they%were% brought(up(here?

HERMES How$indeed?$But$if$these$are$not$the$tracks$of$Apollo’s$cattle$as$we$have$established,$ then%perhaps%one%of%you%tracked%it%up%here%in%between%your%hooves%or%otherwise% carried'it'to'frame'an'innocent'party'and'receive'your'reward'dishonestly

SILENUS Lord%Apollo,%I%apologize%for%my%sons%and%their%insolence,%I%do%not%know%where%they% acquired)these)wild)and)whirling)accusations.)It)did)not)descend)from)their)father’s) blood.&They&should&never&have&presumed&to&insult&a&child&of&Zeus&and&your&most& holy%infant%brother

SATYR&4 We#would#never,

SATYR&2 Lord%Apollo%we%swear%this%child%is%guilty,%he5

APOLLO Then%where%is%the%evidence%of%my%most%prized%cattle?%I%see%none,%but%the%case%against% yourselves)is)improving)by)the)second!

SATYR&3 But$the$bag!$He$has$fashioned$a$bag$from$the$skin$of$a$cow

SATYR&4 True!&The&nymph,&his&nurse,&said&as&much&herself!

APOLLO What%say%you%to%this%child?

HERMES I"say"once"again"that"I"deny"these"charges"heartily"and"with"all"of"my"being!"I"am"a" mere$babe,$I$know$nothing$of$leather$and$bags$and$cattle.$

SILENUS Stop%insulting%the%child%you%fools!%You’ve%already%caused%enough%damage%here%you% will$only$bring$more$ruin$and$pain$upon$our$house3

SATYR&1 Go#inside#for#yourself#father#and#see!# 71

SATYR&2 The$child$is$deceiving$you$all!

HERMES None%shall%enter%my%cave!%We%have%done%nothing%to%deserve%this%invasion!

APOLLO Child,'though'I'do'believe'your'innocence'we'cannot'readily'accept'it'for'fact'until' we#have#inspected#inside#this#cave,#the#satyrs#could#perchance#be#telling#the#truth.#

HERMES Brother'I'tell'you'none'may'enter!

APOLLO Why$do$you$bar$us$from$the$cave$if$there$is$nothing$inside$to$prove$your$guilt?

(During(this(debate,(Silenus,(who(had( come%to%doubt%Hermes’%tale,%slips%inside% the$cave)

HERMES Lord%Apollo%on%principle!%An%innocent%child%such%as%I%should%not%have%to%prove% myself'to'greedy'lecherous'drunks'like'this'horde'of'satyrs.'

SATYR&3 Surely'the'child'is'hiding'his'guilt'behind'his'youth!

SATYR&4 Though&he&be&but&a&babe,&he&is&already&the&size&of&young&man&and&can&speak&in&full& sentences,'why'could'he'not'steal'cattle'as'well?

(Silenus)reappears)with)the)leather)bag) containing(the(lyre.()

SILENUS Lord%Apollo,%my%dear%children%spoke%the%truth,%just%as%they%always%do!%Inside%and% down%a%chamber%I%found%a%nymph%who%chastised%me%most%eloquently%and%loudly,%but% in#a#different#chamber#I#glimpsed#some#several#dozen#cattle#of#such#quality#that#I#can# only%assume%they%were%raised%by%a%god%himself.%And%if%you%require%any%more%proof% here$is$the$bag$with$the$strange$tortoise$sound$box$of$which$they$spoke!

APOLLO What%say%you%to%this%child?%And%here%I%had%thought%to%presume%you%innocent,%you% tricky'rogue!' 72

HERMES I"say"what"I"have"always"said!"If"those"creatures"in"the"cave"are"called"cows,"this"is" the$first$I$have$heard$of$such$a$name.$If$they$be$your$cattle$this$is$also$news$to$me,$as$ I’ve%never%seen%any%other%cattle%to%compare%them%against,%so%I%could%never%have% known%how%extraordinary%they%were.%

(Apollo&laughs&)

APOLLO You$have$a$gifted$tongue$child,$I$have$no$doubt$that$you$could$easily$negotiate$the$ friendliest*of*terms*from*the*most*hostile*of*parties*but*I*will*not*be*deceived.* Whether&you&will&admit&to&your&mistake&or¬,&our&father&Zeus&is&witnessing&this& folly,&as&are&the&rest&of&our&divine&family&from&Olympus.&Come&brother,&admit&your& guilt&and&we&may&yet&depart&from&this&mountain&as&friends,&as&our&father&would& command'us'were'he'here.'If'we'cannot'we'will'have'to'travel'there'for'mediation,' together,(where(you(will(face(his(judgement.(

(Hermes'remains'silent.'Apollo'examines' the$bag$Silenus$is$holding$with$the$lyre$ inside)

APOLLO Brother,(how(is(it(you(were(able(to(skin(the(two(cows(required(to(fashion(this(case?( Such%a%task%requires%a%strength%that%should%be%far%beyond%a%thing%of%your%age.%It%is%a% scary&thought&indeed&to&know&that&you&will&only&grow&stronger

(Hermes'takes'the'bag'from'Apollo'and' brings'out'the'lyre'and'readies'himself'to' play)

HERMES Lord%Apollo,%Lord%Silenus,%and%my%dear%satyr%friends,%would%you%care%to%hear%a%song,% played'from'this'new'lyre?'Perhaps'a'song'about'the'majesty'and'might'of'the'gods' such%as%yourself?

(Hermes'begins'to'play'the'lyre'very' skillfully.)He)captivates)his)audience)and) the$satyrs$dance$to$the$music)

SILENUS Well$played$my$young$lord!$You$are$most$skilled$for$one$who$is$only$one$week$old,$ playing(an(instrument(invented(two(days(ago!

CHORUS Bravo!'Hurrah!'Well'done!'Play'another! 73

HERMES Honored'friends'and'guests,'I'would'gladly'play'another'but'I'believe'our'lord' Apollo%desires%to%travel%to%Olympus%to%settle%our%matter%of%dispute.%

APOLLO Brother,(though(you(are(a(knavish(trickster(and(a(guilty(liar,(I(must(admit(that(I(have( never%heard%music%so%beautiful%and%played%on%an%instrument%of%your%own%invention% as#well!#Your#music#is#indeed#worth#the#price#of#50#cows#by#itself!#How#did#you#come# by#this#skill?#It#does#not#matter,#I#will#make#you#a#chief#amongst#men#and#a#most# worthy'god'if'you'continue'to'share'your'gifts'with'us.'

HERMES Most%noble%and%divine%Apollo!%I%would%never%seek%to%deny%you%access%to%my%gift,%as%it% was$made$to$be$shared$with$the$world.$As$a$sign$of$the$good$faith$and$friendship$ between&us,&I&will&even&give&the&lyre&to&you,&so&that&you&make&music&even&more& beautiful)than)I)ever)could)have.)And,)although)I)don’t)know)how)your)cattle)came)to) be#in#that#cave,#it#joys#me#that#we#were#able#to#make#peace#over#the#infinite#joy#and# mirth&created&by&music.&

(Hermes'gives'Apollo'the'lyre)

APOLLO Brother'you'are'most'kind!'With'this'gift'all'else'is'forgiven,'I'will'make'most' excellent'use'of'this'most'magical'instrument.'

(Apollo&skillfully&plays&a&few¬es&and& begins'to'sing'but'then'breaks'off) Though&you&must&swear&on&the&River&Styx&you&young&rascal&to&never&steal&back&this& lyre,&because&I&have&no&doubt&now&that&you&could&easily&do&so&if&the&impulse&struck& you

HERMES I"swear"I"will"never"try"to"steal"back"the"lyre"lord"Apollo,"I"swear"it"upon"the"River" Styx!

APOLLO Then%we%shall%put%all%of%this%matter%behind%us%and%return%to%Olympus%as%friends%and% brothers

HERMES I"look"forward"to"it"fellow"son"of"Zeus

(They&begin&to&move&towards&exiting)

SILENUS Wait!&You&have&forgotten&something! 74

CHORUS Yes,%us!%Our%gold!%Our%freedom!

APOLLO Ah#yes,#I#must#not#forget#the#satyrs,#without#whom#my#cattle#would#still#be#lost#and#I# would&have&never&learned&of&the&existence&of&the&glorious&lyre.&Satyrs,&go&and&tell& your%respective%masters,%be%they%Pan%or%Dionysus%or%any%other%immortal%being,%that% upon%the%command%of%Apollo,%he%who%shoots%from%afar,%that%you%shall%be%free%from% this%point%forward,%and%that%all%property%given%unto%you%from%here%until%the%day%that% you$die$is$yours$to$keep.$Gold,$and$plenty$of$it,$shall$be$delivered$to$you$after$I$finish$ returning(my(cattle(to(their(proper(pasture.(

SILENUS But$Phoebus$Apollo,$what$of$me?$Where$is$my$reward?

APOLLO According)to)their)tale,)of)which)nearly)all)proved)to)be)true,)you)tucked)your)tail) and$ran$from$the$music$of$the$lyre.$Do$you$then$deserve$a$share$of$the$reward?

SILENUS But$of$course!$While$I$may$have$been$absent$from$a$portion$of$the$hunt,$where$do$ you$think$my$sons$learned$their$excellent$tracking$skills,$and$where$did$they$obtain$ their&bravery&and&perseverance?&Why&it&could&only&be&from&their&father!

APOLLO I"think"the"whole"lot"of"you"are"nothing"more"than"drunken"cowards,"but"still,"my" cattle&are&mine&once&more&and&I&am&one&treasure&richer&as&a&result,&you&may&go&free& too#Silenus,#though#I#will#be#taking#back#my#scepter,#your#quest#is#over#and#you#no# longer'need'the'authority'of'Apollo.

SILENUS But$Lo'

APOLLO And$you$shall$still$receive$your$gold$as$well

SILENUS Heartily)I)thank)you)Lord)Apollo,)and)you)as)well,)Lord)Hermes

HERMES Brother,(the(satyrs(are(a(strange(race(indeed 75

APOLLO Indeed%they%are,%but%they%are%also%resourceful%and%cunning%in%their%own%charming% way,%although%surely%not%the%most%reliable%of%servants

(Apollo&and&Hermes&exit)

CHORUS Oh#happy#day!#Our#freedom!#Our#freedom!#No#more#will#we#cook#nor#clean#nor# deliver'message'nor'pour'wine!'We'will'spend'the'rest'of'our'days'drinking'our'own' wine,&in&the&company&of&young&Maenads,&counting&our&gold&forevermore!&All&because& one$god$decided$to$seal$from$another,$what$a$strange$family$indeed! ! 76!

APPENDIX(B:(FULL(ACCOUNT(OF(FIELD(WORK(IN(ATHENS(

I!arrived!in!Athens!at!around!8:30!pm!on!Thursday,!August!3rd!to!find!the!sun! just!finishing!setting!behind!the!hills!that!surround!Athens!on!three!sides,!a!fact!I! noticed!during!the!descent!my!flight’s!descent!a!few!minutes!earlier.!After! navigating!the!city’s!metro!system!from!the!airport!to!Thissio!Station,!I!stepped!out! to!meet!my!Airbnb!host,!a!man!named!Giannis!who!spoke!enough!English!to! effectively!communicate!with!me.!I!was!surprised!to!learn!how!many!modern!

Athenians!spoke!English.!Giannis!informed!me!that!many!Greeks!leaned!multiple! languages,!and!that!he!could!communicate!in!three!other!languages!passably!in! addition!to!his!native!Greek.!As!we!began!to!walk!away!from!Thissio!Station,!Giannis! started!to!tell!me!how!fortunate!I!was!that!his!house!was!located!so!centrally,!and! that!it!would!save!me!a!good!deal!of!time!and!money!not!having!to!use!the!Metro.!As! he!was!saying!this,!we!rounded!a!corner!and!I!got!a!clear!view!of!the!Acropolis,! which!the!city!lights!up!at!night.!Even!2,400!years!later,!the!ancient!citadel!is!an! imposing!structure.!In!an!ancient!city!without!taller!residential!buildings!scattered! throughout,!the!enormous!temple!on!the!protruding!hill!would!be!visible!for!miles! around!in!any!direction.!Even!without!the!lights,!on!a!clear!night!such!as!the!one!I! arrived!on!it!would!be!difficult!to!miss.!From,!there!we!made!our!way!to!his!home,!a! short!10!minute!walk!away!from!the!station!where!I!retired!for!the!evening,! exhausted!from!a!full!day!of!travel.!!

I!awoke!the!next!morning,!Friday!August!4th,!excited!to!explore!the!ancient! sites!and!begin!my!research.!My!plan!was!to!explore!the!Agora!and!tour!the!museum! on!its!grounds!before!traveling!to!the!Theatre!of!Dionysus,!and!then!climbing!up!to! ! 77! the!Acropolis!to!view!the!Parthenon!and!see!the!city!from!that!height.!Upon!leaving!

Gianni’s!house,!I!was!struck!by!the!intense!heat!as!I!left!my!airQconditioned!room,! with!the!temperature!already!nearly!100!degrees!Fahrenheit!before!10:00!AM.!It! was!this!hot!nearly!every!day!I!stayed!in!Athens.!After!walking!approximately!half!a! mile!and!purchasing!my!entry!ticket,!I!entered!into!the!ancient!Greek!Agora,!which! would!have!been!the!center!of!commerce!and!administration!during!the!Athenian!

Golden!Age.!Here,!vendors!bought!and!sold!goods!from!all!over!the!world!while! nearby!chosen!officials!debated!city!policies!and!judges!upheld!the!law.!In!the!

Agora’s!museum,!I!learned!that!large!boundary!stones!placed!throughout!the! ancient!city!separated!the!public!spaces!from!the!private.!Many!of!the!city’s!laws! were!practiced!differently!depending!upon!whether!an!individual!was!in!a!public!or! private!place.!I!also!learned!that!the!museum!was!actually!a!Stoa!(a!type!of!public! covered!space)!restored!by!the!American!School!of!Classical!Studies!with!money! from!the!Rockefeller!family.!This!museum!contained!dozens!of!artifacts!from!not! only!the!Golden!Age!of!Athens!but!also!from!several!hundred!years!before!and!after,! including!theatre!masks,!clay!vases,!and!figurines.!!

After!the!Agora,!with!a!good!deal!of!excitement!I!proceeded!to!the!Theatre!of!

Dionysus.!Upon!arrival!I!was!immediately!impressed!by!the!size!of!the!theatre.!

Although!a!good!portion!of!it!remains!unexcavated,!the!theatre!could!clearly!seat! thousands!of!citizens.!From!walking!around!the!ancient!city!and!marking!where!the! ancient!walls!supposedly!were,!I!got!the!impression!that!2,500!years!ago!Athens! was!not!nearly!as!massive!as!it!was!today.!Thus,!the!theatre!could!clearly! accommodate!a!sizable!portion!of!the!city’s!population!at!the!time.!The!City!Dionysia! ! 78! then!was!likely!a!citywide!event!where!nearly!everyone!in!town!of!any!status! attended.!Performances!of!drama!by!Sophocles!and!his!fellow!playwrights!would! then!function!as!popular!culture!in!the!same!way!that!blockbuster!movies!do!today! in!modern!society.!Additionally,!although!I!had!read!and!seen!models!of!the!semiQ circular!playing!space,!it!was!another!thing!to!see!it!myself.!I!was!curious!how!much! of!the!action!was!played!to!the!sides,!or!if!the!action!was!primarily!focused!straight! outward.!I!also!noticed!that!most!of!the!seats!were!more!or!less!identical,!except!for! near!the!very!bottom!where!there!were!several!seats!with!high!backs,!where!I!later! learned!the!judges!and!city!leaders!sat.!!

From!the!theatre,!I!then!hiked!up!the!hill!that!the!theatre!was!carved!into!to! the!Acropolis.!From!viewing!the!Parthenon!and!the!numerous!other!temples!on!top! of!the!hill!I!received!the!impression!that!the!ancient!Greeks!took!their!religion!very! seriously,!as!the!city’s!most!defensible!location!contained!a!dozen!or!so!temples! instead!of!any!sort!of!walled!castle!or!keep.!This!may!have!been!due!to!their!lack!of!a! proper!monarch!but!I!believe!it!also!showed!the!place!that!the!Gods!occupied!in! their!minds,!chief!among!them!Athena,!the!patron!god!of!their!city.!Thousands!of! years!ago!the!giant!statue!of!Athena!was!the!crown!jewel!of!the!Parthenon,!the! enormous!structure!visible!throughout!the!city.!

From!the!Acropolis!peak!I!also!noticed!how!Athens!was!perfectly!located!to! be!a!defensible!but!still!economically!advantageous!position.!As!I!noted!earlier,!the! city!is!surrounded!on!three!sides!by!hills,!which!border!on!the!range!of!what!could! be!considered!small!mountains.!Their!remaining!side!is!exposed!to!water!in!the! form!of!a!bay,!which!is!beneficial!for!both!defense!and!trade.!Should!an!enemy!army! ! 79! manage!to!make!it!over!the!mountains,!the!citizens!of!the!city!could!then!retreat!up! the!plateauQlike!hill!in!the!city!center,!where!enemies!would!have!to!once!again! climb!a!hill!to!assail!their!enemies.!After!enjoying!the!view!for!a!while!I!began!my! descent!and!short!walk!home!where!I!retired!for!the!evening.!!

I!awoke!early!the!next!morning!in!order!to!give!myself!time!for!the!longer! walk!into!downtown!Athens!where!I!boarded!a!bus!(along!with!about!20!others)! bound!for!the!Peloponnese,!Greece’s!large!peninsula!in!the!southwest!part!of!the! country.!During!this!daylong!trip,!I!would!see!the!Corinth!Canal,!Mycenae,!and!

Epidaurus,!accompanied!by!a!certified!EnglishQspeaking!tour!guide.!On!our!way!out! of!the!city,!our!guide!provided!information!about!both!new!and!old!Athens.!We!rode! for!around!an!hour!and!half!until!reaching!the!Corinth!Canal!where!we!were!given!a!

20Qminute!break!to!photograph!the!canal!and!use!the!bathroom.!The!canal!was!an! impressive!feat!of!engineering!to!be!sure,!but!it!was!constructed!in!the!19th!century! and!consequently!could!offer!little!insight!into!Ancient!Greek!life.!!

From!there,!our!bus!departed!for!Mycenae,!which!our!guide!informed!me! was!the!dominant!Greek!cityQstate!for!several!hundred!years,!predominantly!from!

1600Q1300!BCE.!According!to!her,!Athens!eventually!rose!up!to!fill!the!power! vacuum!created!by!Mycenae’s!collapse.!Mycenae!was!also!the!seat!of!power!for!the! tragic!hero!King!Agamemnon;!the!fabled!Trojan!War!hero!survived!the!War!only!to! be!murdered!by!his!wife,!Clytemnestra,!shortly!after!returning.!At!Mycenae,!I!was! surprised!to!learn!that!Agamemnon!might!have!been!a!real!king!who!actually! existed!and!really!ruled!the!cityQstate.!I!had!previously!assumed!he!was!not!a!true! historical!character.!During!the!late!19th!century,!a!German!archeologist!named! ! 80!

Heinrich!Schliemann!began!the!project!to!excavate!Mycenae,!and!during!his!work! unearthed!a!finely!wrought!golden!death!mask,!that!he!concluded!could!only!be!that! of!the!legendary!King!Agamemnon.!More!recent!scholarship!dates!the!mask!to! before!the!Trojan!War!supposedly!occurred!but!the!mask!clearly!did!belong!to!a!

Mycenaen!King!of!great!importance!due!to!its!craftsmanship!relative!to!the!other! masks!found!in!similar!tombs.!Some!later!archeologists!believe!they!found!

Agamemnon’s!burial!place!in!a!nearby!vaulted!tomb,!due!to!its!being!significantly! larger!than!all!the!other!vaulted!tombs!in!the!area.!While!there!is!no!conclusive! evidence!as!to!where!he!was!buried!(if!he!was!even!real),!I!was!struck!by!how! difficult!this!ancient!classical!research!was!for!the!archeologists!involved.!In!most! instances,!it!seems!they!can!only!ever!hypothesize!as!to!the!nature!of!the!artifacts! and!locations!that!they!work!on.!!

I!was!also!surprised!to!learn!that!Agamemnon,!if!he!was!a!real!king,!likely! lived!some!600Q800!years!before!Aeschylus!wrote!his!City!Dionysia!winning!Orestia! trilogy.!To!a!Golden!Age!Athenian,!this!was!ancient!history,!further!removed!from! them!than!Shakespearean!drama!is!from!the!present!day.!Previously,!I!hadn’t! considered!this!sizable!amount!of!years!between!the!playwrights!and!some!of!their! source!material.!I!realized!that!as!I!continued!to!conduct!research!that!it!would!be! important!to!keep!an!accurate!timeline!in!mind,!and!not!simply!think!of!all!ancient! history!as!happening!more!or!less!at!the!same!time.!!

After!leaving!Mycenae!and!stopping!for!a!brief!lunch,!our!tour!begin!the! hourQlong!ride!to!Epidaurus,!the!site!of!perhaps!the!most!excellently!preserved! example!of!a!Classical!Greek!theatre!in!existence.!On!the!journey!there,!our!guide! ! 81! informed!us!how!during!the!height!of!Athenian!drama,!and!afterwards,!Epidaurus! was!a!center!for!healing!dedicated!to!the!Asclepius,!god!of!medicine.!She!also!told!us! that!hospitals!such!as!the!one!at!Epidaurus!were!often!located!outside!of!larger! cities!so!that!the!sick!had!a!quiet!place!to!recuperate,!free!from!the!stress!of!their! home!life!as!well!as!any!threat!of!attack.!Additionally,!we!learned!how!healing! centers!(including!the!one!we!were!visiting)!usually!also!contained!a!running!track! and!a!theatre.!The!purpose!of!this!was!to!provide!the!sick!with!a!means!of!healing! both!their!body!at!the!track,!and!their!mind!at!the!theatre.!Thus,!a!patient!could! make!a!full!recovery!and!return!to!their!lives!wholly!restored.!!

The!theatre!of!Epidaurus!itself!is!a!grand!sight!to!behold.!It!is!carved!into!the! west!side!of!Cynortion!Mountain!and!rises!upward!for!55!massive!rows.!According! to!our!guide,!the!theatre!could!seat!around!14,000!viewers.!She!also!informed!us! how!acoustically!perfect!the!theatre!was!by!demonstrating!how!a!piece!of!paper! being!crumbled!up!in!the!center!of!the!orchestra!could!be!heard!from!every!position! throughout!the!seating!area.!Despite!these!superb!acoustics,!due!to!the!sheer!size!of! the!theatre!I!could!see!how!someone!in!the!upper!rows!might!struggle!to!catch!the! subtleties!I!associate!with!Western!Theatre!today.!Thus,!it!seems!perfectly!logical! that!the!actors!would!wear!exaggerated!masks!and!that!much!of!the!comedy!would! be!physically!obvious,!hence!the!large!phalluses!worn!by!the!satyrs!in!satyr!plays.!

After!this!full!of!day!of!sightseeing!through!the!Peloponnese,!we!got!back!on!the!bus! to!begin!the!return!to!downtown!Athens,!and!from!there!I!walked!home,!thoroughly! exhausted.!! ! 82!

On!the!next!day,!Sunday!August!6th,!I!decided!to!visit!the!Acropolis!museum,! which!houses!thousands!of!artifacts!pertinent!to!Golden!Age!Athens.!From!my!selfQ guided!tour,!my!main!takeaway!was!how!important!the!gods!were!to!the!Athenians! at!this!time.!The!Acropolis!essentially!held!almost!exclusively!various!religious! temples!to!deities,!with!other!temples!also!being!located!around!the!side!of!the!hill! and!in!other!locations!throughout!the!ancient!city.!Although!they!worshipped!their! patron!goddess!Athena!and!Zeus!above!all!others,!Poseidon!Hephaestus,!Nike,!

Dionysus,!Asclepius,!and!Artemis!each!had!temples!either!on!the!Acropolis!or!in!the! immediate!vicinity.!!

The!irony!of!satyr!plays!is!that!that!they!oftentimes!mocked!or!adapted!the! stories!associated!with!these!allQpowerful!deities.!But,!far!from!this!being!a! sacrilegious!practice,!Athenians!incorporated!it!into!one!of!their!most!important! religious!festivals.!As!a!result,!I!hypothesize!that!Ancient!Athens!could!not!have!had! the!same!stigmas!about!making!light!of!religious!characters!and!situations!as! present!day!society!does.!Although!they!still!very!much!believed!these!stories!to!be! real,!adapting!the!stories!(even!for!comedic!purposes)!was!actually!something!to!be! celebrated,!and!not!condemned.!!

This!museum!also!taught!me!a!great!deal!about!how!Athens!came!to!be!the! dominant!cityQstate!that!it!was!in!the!5th!century!BCE,!particularly,!its!role!in!leading! the!fight!against!the!invading!Persians!in!the!GrecoQPersian!Wars.!During!these! wars,!much!of!Athens!was!destroyed!by!invading!forces,!but!after!eventually!leading! the!allied!Greek!forces!to!victory,!Athens!rebuilt!itself!into!a!regionally!dominant! force,!a!center!of!not!only!military!prowess,!!but!also!extensive!trade!and!the!arts!as! ! 83! well.!During!this!time,!Athenians!came!to!enjoy!a!degree!of!luxury!and!their!culture! flourished!as!a!result.!Consequently,!during!this!time!the!Athenians!became!great! proponents!of!the!arts!(such!as!theatre),!but!also!science!and!technology!as!well.!

Unfortunately!for!them,!their!regional!dominance!irked!many!of!their!previously! allied!neighbors,!who!eventually!broke!off!and!formed!their!own!rival!alliance!of! cityQstates!with!Sparta!at!its!head.!This!led!to!the!Peloponnesian!War,!during!which!

Sparta!and!its!allies!proved!victorious,!and!Athens,!though!still!a!place!of!great! learning!and!culture,!never!returned!to!being!a!true!military!power!in!Europe.!!

On!the!morning!of!Monday!August!7th,!I!chose!to!visit!the!Keramikos!and!its! accompanying!museum.!Keramikos!was!the!cemetery!of!the!ancient!city,!located!just! along!its!ancient!wall.!While!there,!I!viewed!hundreds!of!expertly!carved!ancient! burial!monuments,!their!size!and!longevity!led!me!to!believe!that!these!were!the! graves!of!mostly!wealthy!individuals,!a!hypothesis!I!later!verified!at!the!small! museum!on!the!grounds.!Curiously,!I!saw!some!of!the!deceased!had!satyrs!engraved! on!their!monuments,!but!I!was!unable!to!discover!why!an!individual!might!have!this! on!their!burial!monument!at!the!museum.!Most!of!the!markers!had!images!of!the! deceased!individual!practicing!whatever!their!craft!was!during!their!life!so!a! religious!image!such!as!a!satyr!was!atypical.!!

Unable!to!solve!this!mystery,!I!proceeded!to!a!nearby!café!to!eat!lunch!before! moving!on!to!National!Museum!of!Archeology.!This!museum!was!perhaps!my! favorite!of!all!the!numerous!museums!I!had!the!good!fortune!to!visit!during!my!time! in!Greece,!due!to!its!vast!collection!of!sculptures!and!vases!depicting!a!wide!variety! of!aspects!of!Ancient!Athenian!life,!including!both!tragedy!and!satyr!plays.!I!began! ! 84! by!touring!the!sculpture!wing!of!the!museum,!where!I!was!fortunate!enough!to!see! several!famous!sculptures!from!the!Classical!era!that!one!often!encounters!in! textbooks!and!encyclopedias.!From!observing!the!sculptures!I!made!several! observations!relevant!to!my!research.!The!first!of!these!was!that!Athenian!sculptors! regularly!drew!inspiration!from!Dionysus!and!his!frequent!companion!Pan!(a!halfQ goat!nature!god).!Numerous!surviving!sculptures!showed!Dionysus!with!an! intoxicated!Hercacles,!which!led!me!to!believe!this!must!have!been!a!popular!story! for!the!Athenians!of!the!time.!!

While!some!of!the!sculptures!of!Dionysus!did!depict!him!being!accompanied! by!satyrs,!they!were!still!few!and!far!between.!However,!the!pottery!wing!of!the! museum!contained!a!plethora!of!satyr!imagery,!and!I!took!hundreds!of!photographs,! documenting!nearly!all!of!the!instances!of!them!that!I!saw.!I!even!found!a!few!pieces! specifically!depicting!the!performance!of!satyr!plays,!an!invaluable!pictorial! depiction!of!the!2,500QyearQold!art!form!I’m!researching.!Among!the!red!and!black!

Attic!pottery!style,!I!found!dozens!of!pots!and!cups!with!images!of!not!just!satyrs,! but!also!Dionysus,!Maenads,!Pan,!and!Silenus.!One!piece!in!particular!stood!out!to! me!as!intriguing!for!my!research,!a!column!krater!redQfigure!Attic!vase!from! approximately!430!BCE.!On!one!side!of!this!vase,!the!artist!had!painted!an!image!of! the!Titan!Prometheus!with!a!trio!of!satyrs.!In!the!traditional!telling!Prometheus’! myth,!he!secretly!defies!the!gods!by!giving!mankind!fire!and!is!punished!by!Zeus,! being!forced!to!have!an!eagle!eat!out!his!liver!every!day!for!eternity.!However,!both!

Euripedes!and!Aeschylus!wrote!satyr!plays!that!inserted!them!into!the!story,!where! they!interacted!with!Prometheus.!! ! 85!

The!satyrs’!presence!in!artwork!depicting!a!myth!they!would!not!ordinarily! appear!in!identified!the!piece!as!depicting!not!the!myth!itself,!but!rather!the!staging! of!a!satyr!play.!This!revelation!made!me!wonder!if!I!could!possibly!find!any!other! pieces!such!as!this!one,!with!a!specific!hope!of!finding!satyrs!inserted!into!the!story! of!Hermes!birth!and!the!theft!of!Apollo’s!cattle.!Unfortunately,!I!did!not!find!any! more!such!instances!of!these!misplaced!satyrs!in!any!of!the!rest!of!the!pottery! housed!at!the!museum.!However,!I!knew!this!was!a!strand!I!would!want!to!pull!at! further!after!getting!back!onto!campus!in!the!fall.!Overall,!as!I!left!the!National!

Museum!of!Archeology,!I!was!much!more!aware!of!the!degree!to!which!our!modern! understanding!of!Ancient!Greek!life!is!rooted!in!imagery,!such!as!those!depicted!on! seemingly!normal!objects!like!vases!and!cups!as!well!as!large!statues!and!burial! monuments.!!

On!the!morning!of!August!8th,!I!visited!some!Roman!era!sites!such!as!the!

Roman!Agora!and!Hadrian’s!Library.!That!evening,!I!climbed!Pnyx!hill!to!watch!the! sunset!from!one!of!the!highest!points!in!the!city.!Coincidentally,!Pnyx!was!also!the! site!where!in!the!early!days!of!the!democracy,!the!Athenian!citizen!men!would!come! to!have!debates!and!votes.!According!to!informational!plaques!I!read!there,!in! theory,!anyone!could!speak!at!these!massive!assemblies.!However,!very!few!usually! actually!spoke,!since!poor!ideas!were!punishable!under!the!law!if!they!were!enacted! and!later!backfired.!The!north!side!of!hill!formed!a!natural!sort!of!amphitheater!that! could!seat!many!thousands!of!people,!all!of!whom!could!easily!see!the!same!spot!on! the!hill,!the!spot!from!which!speakers!would!address!the!gathered!citizens.!I!also! learned!that!these!meetings!were!later!moved!to!the!Theater!of!Dionysus,!which! ! 86! makes!logical!sense!as!it!could!accommodate!even!more!people,!and!probably!do!so! more!comfortably.!I!had!a!pleasant!time!watching!the!sunset!from!this!height,!in!the! same!manner!that!I!imagine!a!bored!citizen!might!during!the!proceedings!of! governmental!debate.!!

On!my!second!to!last!day!in!Athens!I!visited!two!more!museums,!the!first!of! which!was!the!Cycladic!Art!Museum,!a!privately!owned!collection!displaying! artwork!and!other!items!of!cultural!significance!from!throughout!Greece’s!ancient! history.!This!museum,!although!smaller!than!many!others!I!had!visited!thus!far,!was! full!of!artifacts!and!contained!a!wealth!of!contextual!information,!including! information!specific!to!the!ancient!Greek’s!theatrical!tradition.!For!example,!the! museum!had!an!informative!sign!about!the!importance!of!symbolism!in!theatre.!For! the!ancient!art!patrons!and!theatregoers,!there!was!no!one!face!that!was!Dionysus’! or!Apollo’s!or!Silenus’.!These!characters!were!not!identifiable!by!the!faces!artists! painted!or!the!masks!that!the!actors!wore,!but!rather!could!be!identified!through!the! symbols!they!were!depicted!with.!For!Dionysus!this!was!leopardQprint!clothing!and! grapes,!for!Apollo!the!bow!and!arrow!and!the!lyre.!It!was!the!individual’s!costumes! and!props!that!made!them!who!they!were,!not!any!sort!of!facial!recognition.!The! museum!also!contained!an!interesting!display!detailing!the!extensive!amount!of! resources!needed!to!sustain!a!dominant!regional!power,!and!how!these!resources! were!also!necessary!for!the!development!of!art!and!theatre.!!

In!the!afternoon,!I!visited!the!Benkai!Museum,!a!privately!owned!collection! with!cultural!artifacts!collected!from!the!entirety!of!Greece’s!history.!The!Benkai! contained!several!interesting!artifacts!related!to!my!research;!however,!they!were! ! 87! mostly!quite!similar!to!other!such!artifacts!from!the!time!period!that!I!had!already! encountered!throughout!the!week.!That!is!not!to!say!that!they!were!unimpressive,! but!more!so!that!I!had!become!somewhat!desensitized!to!how!impressive!it!was!to! see!2,500QyearQold!sculptures!and!statuettes.!However,!from!visiting!the!Benkai!I! did!learn!a!large!amount!about!Greece’s!cultural!history!from!the!Byzantine!period! onward,!a!subject!I!had!hardly!explored!despite!spending!a!full!week!in!the!nation’s! capitol.!!

For!my!final!full!day!in!Athens,!I!awoke!early!and!proceeded!to!the!ruins!of! the!temple!of!Zeus!to!begin!my!Mythological!Tour!of!Athens!that!I!had!booked!a!few! days!earlier.!The!tour!would!mostly!involve!visiting!sites!and!places!I!had!already! been!to!throughout!the!week,!but!I!wanted!to!tour!the!sites!with!an!expert!on!a!tour! specifically!tailored!to!those!interested!in!how!the!ancient!Athenians!themselves! incorporated!their!religion!into!these!places.!From!this!tour,!I!learned!several!myths! crucial!to!the!history!of!Athens!and!also!a!great!deal!about!the!architecture!of! dozens!of!buildings!and!structures!throughout!the!ancient!city.!For!example,!one! such!myth!impacting!several!buildings!atop!the!Acropolis!is!the!myth!regarding!the! competition!to!be!the!patron!god!of!Athens!between!Poseidon!and!Athena.!

According!to!the!myth,!in!order!to!prove!their!worth!to!the!citizens!they!competed! to!provide!the!best!and!most!impressive!gift.!Poseidon!created!a!saltwater!spring! while!Athena!created!the!olive!tree.!The!citizens!chose!Athena!and!her!gift!and!thus! the!city!was!named!Athens!and!olives!became!one!of!the!most!crucial!crops!and! exports!for!the!city.!In!order!to!appease!Poseidon’s!wrath!after!his!defeat,!the! ! 88! citizens!built!a!large!temple!to!him!on!top!of!the!Acropolis,!though!not!nearly!as! large!as!the!Parthenon,!which!was!dedicated!to!the!worship!of!Athena.!!

From!this!myth!we!can!gain!several!key!insights!into!the!beliefs!of!the!ancient!

Athenians.!First,!the!Athenians!viewed!themselves!as!important!enough!as!to!be! competed!for!by!two!of!the!most!powerful!gods.!For!them,!they!were!so!worthy!of! impressing!that!in!order!to!win!Athena!had!to!create!the!olive!tree,!an!invaluable! source!of!life!for!the!Greeks.!!

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