sign in sign up
<<
Home , 223 BC, 343 BC, Ajitanatha, Annapoorneshwari Temple, Aranatha, Ashvamedha

and Culture Booster 2018

Indus Valley Civilization Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

Harappa Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in , which spread across a  Seals out of stones vast area of land in present day and  Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period of mature Mohenjodaro Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus  Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man Valley Civilization had existed even before with Beard, , Assembly hall BC.2700.  Term means ” Mount of the dead”  On the bank of river Indus  Believed to have been destructed by flood or Features of Indus Valley Civilization invasion (Destruction was not gradual). Chanhudaro  BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years.

 On the valleys of river Indus.  Bank of Indus River. – discovered by Gopal  Also known as Harappan Civilization. Majumdar and Mackey (1931)  Beginning of city life.  Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and  Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Jhukar Culture Sahni (1921) – Montgomori district, ,  Only cite without citadel. Pakistan. Kalibangan  Mohenjo-Daro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.  At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar,  City was divided into Citadel (west) and Lower discovered by A.Ghosh (1953) Town(east).  Fire Altars  Bones of camel  Red pottery painted with designs in black.  Evidence of furrows  Stone weights, seals, special beads,  Horse remains ( even though Indus valley tools, long stone blades etc. people didn’t use horses).  Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.  Known as third capital of Indus .  Artificially produced – Faience. Lothal  Specialists for handicrafts.  At near Bhogava river, discovered by  Import of raw materials. S.R. Rao (1957)  Plough was used.  Fire Altars  Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but  Beside the tributary of Sabarmati during the later stages ‘H symmetry culture’  Store house evolved where bodies were buried in painted  Dockyard and earliest port burial urns.  double burial  Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not  husk used.  House had front entrance (exception). Ropar

 Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)

Pscnotes.com Page 1

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Dog buried with humans.  Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society  Textiles – Spinning and weaving Banawali  3 types – burial, cremation and post  cremation were there, though burial was  On banks of lost river Saraswathi common.   Barley Cultivation. Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the Dholavira city culture.

 Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi. Artifacts for Posterity  Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra The most numerous of the surviving artifacts are a (1990) series of steatite (soapstone) seals, of which the  3 parts + large open area for ceremonies best known are those of the Humped Brahmani  Large letters of the Harappan script (sign Bull and . Apart from this, there are boards). some carved figurines - the bronze Dancing Girl and the of a priest and a male torso, again in steatite. of Indus Valley People Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization  Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)  Mother goddess Though there are various theories, the exact  Nature/ Animal worship reason is still unknown. As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India, a  Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire weaker monsoon might have been the cause of  Amulets decline of Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental  Idol worship was practiced ( not a feature of changes, coupled with loss of power of rulers ) (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain  Did not construct temples. the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory).  Similarity to Hindu religious practices. There might be resource shortage to sustain the ( in its present form originated later) population, and then people moved towards . Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins  No system. Schug states that inter-personal violence,

infectious diseases and climate change had played Indus Valley Society and Culture a major role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization.  Systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).  Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan  Equal status to men and women

Pscnotes.com Page 2

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The  The Aryans were the first people in India to earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic know the use of iron and brought horses people who appeared in the subcontinent in about along with them. 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as Dasa or Dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work Divodasa, who belonged to the clan. of religious nature, yet it gives a vivid picture of Possibly the Dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is original inhabitants of the country, and an best understood from the social life, political chief who overpowered them was called organisation, economic life and religious beliefs. Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the The Kula or family was the basic unit of Rig-Vedic Dasas, but strongly hostile to the Dasyus. The term society. The Kula was headed by a Kulapa, who Dasyuhatya, slaughter of the Dasyus, is repeatedly was usually the eldest member. Society was mentioned in the Rig Veda. essentially patriarchal and birth of son was desired repeatedly. Status of women was equal to men in Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, the early Rig-Vedic society. Both polygamy and Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, , polyandry were in vogue. Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal The Evolution of System conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.' Social strata used to exist in the Harappan civilization also. Similarly, there was a threefold division of society {priests, rulers and producers} in the Iranian society also. However, what Important points to remember: happened in Indian sub-continent was unique and extraordinary. In the evolution of Kingship in the  The group of Indo-Europeans who moved later Vedic era, the priests () and rulers to Persia and India are known to Aryans (Khsatriyas) consolidated their respective position  The Aryans are the original inhabitants of in the society. The producers split into two groups. . The free peasants and traders formed the group  They arrived in India around 1500 BC, while the slaves, laborers, artisans though there is an ongoing debate. degraded to fourth group . This was based  The region where the Aryans settled in on occupation initially but later got rigid on the India was called Sapta Sindhu (also basis of birth. Despite of a small population, the referred to as the Brahmavarta) people got compartmentalized into these four  The Aryans established themselves in India groups as per Varnashrama . by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus Marriage and women  The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early (1500 Despite of the patriarchal character of the family, BC to 1000 BC) the position of women was much better in the Rig  The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains Vedic period than in later times. They could attend in the later Vedic Period and this region assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC husbands. Five women have been mentioned as to 600 BC) composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the

Pscnotes.com Page 3

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 age of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the sport and source of entertainment. race home of their parents. Some unmarried woman was a symbolic source of political authority of the like Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin own. There are also evidences of widow caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig- remarriage in the Rig-Veda. Veda.

Education House holding

In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was The Griha prescribes a code of conduct, given orally. Art of writing does not seem to have which gives a fairly good idea of the manners and developed yet. In the well-known Gayatri etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) there is a prayer to Savitri for the stimulation of was welcomed at all times and special guests, like the intellect. There were women teachers. Many the , the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were of them possessed the highest spiritual given special treatment. Respect for the elders . and Gargi were gifted self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all kinds scholars. Rishis who composed hymns founded and faithfulness were some of the . their own schools separately to teach their pupils Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of and every person among the vis was entitled to the feet and hands every now and then, and learn Vedic . In the later-Vedic phase, with purifying the atmosphere with Vedic mantras the development of Varnashrama, education were a part of ritual when ritualism acquired began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). special significance in the later-Vedic age. It Since Upanayan was confined to three upper became one of the many sources of the Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education. development of hierarchy and the supremacy for Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When the . teacher was satisfied with the student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of Eating Habits convocation) was delivered. The main cereal produced by the early Rig-Vedic people was Yava or barley. (Godhuma) appears in later Vedic texts only. Yava was also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. ilk, products and cattle meat belonged to their food Institution of habits. Alcoholic / Non-alcoholic drinks were Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening known and common. and Sura are two social ties a new relationship was established popular liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer or between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible wine. that animals were herded in common and such a Dress code place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the character of an exogamous institution. Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called and the lower Amusements and entertainments one was known as . The dress for the male Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well and the female did not differ much. known. Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Health and hygiene Vana to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. Few claim that Dhrupad of Indian Everyone aspired for and everyone was blessed to classical music originated in Vedic Era. Dancing live for a hundred years. Epilepsy was common was common. The chariot race was a favourite and it affected the children as well. Superstitions

Pscnotes.com Page 4

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 and magical charms were employed to cure the Religion diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the Ashvins, who are the great healers There were no places of worship like temples. of diseases and experts in the surgical art. They There are no indications in the Rig-Veda of any were divine physicians who restored eyesight and “temples reared by mortal hands” and cured the blind, sick and maimed. consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every , every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Soma juice and prayed to Rig Vedic Economy the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. They crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse sickness, and for victory over the black aborigines. and even human ), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. Natural phenomena were conceived as the wild animals. Cattle was synonymous with wealth expression of some spiritual different appearances and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle of various gods. was so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, The History of Licchavis Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. The Lichchhavis (also Lichchavi, Licchavi) were an Duhitri was the term used for daughter because important member of the Vajjian confederacy. The she used to milk the cow. One of the four early Indian traditions describe the Lichchhavis as categories of gods was known as Gojata, i.e. . Scholars reject the theory of foreign cowborn. When the Vedic people encountered origin of the Lichchhavis on the strength of these buffalo, they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow- traditions. But they were degraded to the status of haired. The cattle obtained in raids were divided fallen Kshatriyas due to their championship of among the families. Cattle formed an important non-Brahmanical creeds like and item of donation and it may also have formed a . part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or Vis members. The cattle in general and cow Rise of the Licchavi Power in particular was the main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period. The economy was In the 6th century B.C. the Licchavi power was based upon agriculture. The people were well firmly established. Though the Lichchhavis acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing belonged to the confederacy, they had and various agro seasons. The people were autonomous status. Their capital was Vaisali. pastoral, Cow was revered but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but Originally, they seem to have an independent NOT in measurements of lands. status. The Buddhist records preserve the names of important Licchavi leaders among whom the Crafts and Metallurgy name of Chetaka deserves special mention. Chetaka’s sister Trisala was the mother of All kinds of crafts were practiced. There were , the preacher of Jainism. Chetaka’s potters, Chariot makers, carpenters, and weaver daughter Chellana was married to king Bimbisara and leather workers. The metal work was of . The Lichchhavis thus appear to be known as follows: Copper was known as “Ayas” highly connected. Gold was known as Hiranya Iron was also known as was known as or Ayas.

Pscnotes.com Page 5

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Magadha-Licchavi Struggle-fall of the of Videha. He was also the President of the whole Licchavis Republic. This Republic was the union of eighteen political units, nine of which belonged to The Licchavis turned to be great rivals of the Licchavis and the remaining nine to Magadhan . In the reign of Bimbisara of the Mallas. Magadha, they invaded the Magadhan kingdom. In the reign of Ajatasatru, a protracted war began The Kings of each unit comprising the Vajji between Magadha and the Lichchhavis. The latter Republic were called Gananayakas. The council of were united with the in a confederacy. In the the Gananayakas was called Gana Sabha or struggle that followed the Lichchhavis and the Republican Council. It made the constitution and Vajjis were destroyed. the laws. The individual units were governed in accordance with the constitution of the Gana or The causes of the Magadha-Lichchavi war were the Union. The Vajji Republic was rich and well many. Ajatasatru wanted to take revenge on the developed in the fields of Politics, Economics, Lichchhavis, as their chief Chetaka had refused to Society and Religion. The monarchists were highly extradite Ajatasatru’s step brothers. They had jealous of this powerful Republic. They were bent escaped to Vaisali (Licchavi capital) with the royal upon destroying it. But they were helpless in the elephant and family jewels and were granted face of the powerful Vajjian army. political asylum. The real cause of the Magadha- Licchavi war was the aggressive of Videha with its capital at Vaisali was the biggest Magadha against the neighboring republic. The unit. Vaisali was divided into three zones. The first war continued for sixteen years. The Lichchhavis zone consisted of seven thousand residential built a mighty alliance with the Vajjis and the houses with golden domes. The middle of the other thirty six Ganarajas and also with the town consisted of fourteen thousand houses with kingdom of Kasi- against Magadha. But the silver domes. The third zone consisted of twenty- ministers of Ajatasatru sowed seeds of discord one thousand houses with copper domes. among the members of the anti-Magadhan confederacy and destroyed their unity. Ultimately These zones were inhabited by the high, middle the Vajjian confederacy was destroyed by and lower classes respectively. Vaisali was not Ajatasatru. The Vajji territory was annexed to only the capital of the Licchavis, it was the capital Magadha. of the entire Vajji Republic. It was enclosed within four city walls, each at a distance of two miles from the others. It had several ramparts and The Licchavi’s republican constitution entrance-gates. The Republic was a confederation of six clans viz. the Ugras, the , There were two Systems of government in the the Rajanyas, ihe Iksvakus (the Licchavis), Eastern region. The states of , Magadha, the Jnatasand the Kauravas. etc. were . Those of Kasf, Kaulala, Videha etc. on the other band were republics. Two of these republics were quite well known, the Republics of the Vajjis or Licchavis and that of the Mallas. Republics were later developments of monarchies and the precursors In the sixth country B.C. was divided of democracies. The Licchavis founded their into sixteen kingdoms out of which , Vatsa, Republic with a view to consolidating their Kosala and Magadha rose into prominence by political power. The credit for its foundation goes aggrandizing upon other weaker states.These four to Cetaka, who was a wise and valorous king states involved themselves in internecine quarrel

Pscnotes.com Page 6

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 in which Magadha emerged as the most powerful embassy and letter from Pukkusati, the ruler of state and acquired mastery in the political domain Gandhar with which Pradyota had fought of India. unsuccessfully. Magadha’s most formidable enemy was Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti Magadha under Bimbisara: who fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the two Magadha rose into prominence under the rule of thought it wise to become friends. He also sent his Bimbisara who belonged to the . physician Jivak to when Pradyota was Most probably he overthrew the Brihadrathas attacked by jaundice. from Magadha and assumed the title “Srinika” after his accession. He ruled Magadha from 544 Consolidation of his Empire by a Good B.C. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was the Administrative System: establishment of Magadhan empire. He followed By introducing a highly efficient system of fourfold policy in order to fulfill his programme of administration, Bimbisara consolidated his imperial expansion. conquests. His administration was found to have been really well-organised and efficient. The high Policy of Matrimonial Alliance: officers were divided into three classes, viz. By adopting the policy of matrimonial alliance, executive, military and judicial. The ‘Sabarthakas’ Bimbisara tried to augment his power. He married were responsible for the of general Kosaladevi, daughter of king Mahakosala of administration. Kosala, received the Kasi village as dowry, which yielded revenue of 1, 00,000. “Mahavamsa” “Senanayaka Mahamatras” were in charge of mentions his marriage with Chellana the daughter military affairs. “Vyavaharika Mahamatra’s” were of Chetak, the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali. in charge of judicial-administration. Provincial administration was also well-organised. The head He then married Vasavi, a princess of Videha in of provincial administration was “Uparaja”. The the northward. He also got the hand of Khema, villages enjoyed rural autonomy. “Gramika” was the daughter of king of Modra in Central Punjab. the head of the village administration. The penal The establishment of matrimonial relations with laws were severe. Bimbisara also developed the these states added glory to the Magadhna empire means of communication by constructing good and it also paved the way for the expansion of roads. He is said to have established a new capital Magadhan empire and westward. at Rajagriha situated on the outskirts of the old capital Girivraja. Policy of Conquest: The next policy of Bimbisara for the expansion of He made Magadha a paramount power in the Magadhan empire was the policy of conquest. sixth century B.C. It is said that his kingdom had Bimbisara led a campaign against the kingdom of consisted of 80,000 villages. He was also a devotee Anga and defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga of Buddha. He donated a garden named along with its capital city Champa, was annexed to “Belubana” to the Buddhist . According to the Magadhan empire. the Buddhist chronicle Bimbisara ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru who had killed him and seized the throne for himself. Friendly Relation with distant Neighbours: As a farsighted diplomat, Bimbisara had followed Ajatasatru the policy of friendship towards the distant The reign of Ajatasatru witnessed the high neighbours to win their co-operation for the safety watermark of Bimbisara dynasty. From the very and security of his empire. He received an beginning Ajatasatru pursued the policy of

Pscnotes.com Page 7

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 expansion and conquest. He began a prolonged In this war he used some new weapons and war with Prasenjit of Kosala who had revoked the devices like “mahasilakantaka” and gift of the Kasi village made to Bimbisara. The war “rathamushala” to overpower the enemy. continued for some time with varying success to Ultimately Lichchhavi was annexed to the both sides till Prasenjit ended it by giving his Magadhan territory. daughter, Vajira Kumari in marriage to Ajatasatru and leaving him in possession of Kasi. Ajatasatru faced danger from Avanti while he was engaged in war with Lichchhavis. King Chanda The next achievement of Ajatasatru was the Pradyota of Avanti became jealous of his power conquest of Lichchavis of Vaisali. Chetak, chief of and threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet Lichchavis had formed a strong confederacy this danger Ajatasatru started of comprising 36 republics in order to fight Magadha. Rajgiri. But the invasion did not materialize in his According to sources, before his death, life time. Bimbisara gave his elephant “Seyanaga” “Sechanaka” and two large bejewelled necklaces, The successors of Ajatasatru: one each to his sons Halla and Vehalla who were Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin who born of their Lichahhavi mother, Chellana. ruled for sixteen years. The Buddhist texts describe him as a parricide where as the jaina Chetak had given them political assylum. After his literature mentions him as a devoted son to his accession, Ajatasatru requested chetak to father. Udayin built the city of at the surrender them. But Chetak refused to extradite fort of Patalagrama which commanded the Chetaka’s step brothers. So the conflict between strategically and commercial highway of eastern Ajatasatru and Lichchhavis became inevitable. India. During his rule Avanti became jealous of the ascendancy of Magadha and a contest between According to Buddhist text Ajatasatru had entered the two started for mastery of Northern India. into an agreement with Lichchhavis to divide among them the gems extracted from a mine at However, Udayin was not destined to live to see the foot of the hill near the river . But the the ultimate victory of Magadha against Avanti. Lichchhavis deprived Ajatasatru of his share. But According to the jaina texts he constructed a Dr. H.C. Raychoudhury points out that the most in Pataliputra. He also observed fasts on potent cause of war was the common movement the eighth and fourteenth as per the jaina among the republican states against the rising tradition. It is said that Udayin have been imperialism of Magadha. murdered by assassin engaged by Palaka, the king of Avanti. According to Ceylonese chronicle Ajatasatru made elaborate war preparations Udayin was succeeded by three kings namely against the Lichchhavis. As a base for operation he , Manda and Nagadasaka. constructed a fort at Patalagrama on the confluence of and the Son which eventually The Ceylonese chronicle describes that all the developed into the famous capital of Pataliputra. three kings were parasite. The people resented Ajatasatru also tried to create a division among their rule and revolted against the last king members of Lichchhavi confederacy. He employed Nagadasaka and raised an amatya Sisunaga on the his minister Vassakara who successfully sowed the throne of Magadha. With this restoration the rule seeds of dissension among the members of Vajjian of Haryanka dynasty came to end and the rule of confederacy and broke their solidarity. Sisunaga dynasty came into .

Thereafter Ajatasatru invaded their territory and it Sisunaga served as the viceroy of Kasi before he took him full sixteen years to destroy Lichchhavis. ascended the throne of Magadha. He established

Pscnotes.com Page 8

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 his capital at Girivaraja. His greatest achievement According to the Buddhist writers, the region from was the conquest and annexation of Avanti. This which the Mauryas came was full of peacocks brought to an end the hundred year’s rivalry (Mayura in and Mora in ), and hence between Magadha and Avanti. Probably he had they came to be known as the Moriyas (Pali form annexed Vatsa and Kosala Kingdoms to Magadha. of Mauryas). It is obvious from this that the Towards the later part of his regain he temporarily Buddhists were trying to elevate the social shifted his capital to Vaisali. position of Asoka and his predecessors.

Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Jain tradition given in ’s Kakavarna. The reign of Kalasoka is important for Parisisthaparvan relates Chandragupta as the son two events, viz., the transfer of Magadha capital of a daughter of the chief of a village of peacock- from Girivaraja to Pataliputra and holding of the tamers (Mayura-Poshaka). The use of the term second Buddhist Congress at Vaisali. Very ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kula-hina’ in the Mudrarakshasa of unfortunately, he lost his life in a palace Vishakadatta for Chandragupta probably means revolution, which brought the Nandas upon the that Chandragupta was a mere upstart of an throne of Magadha. The usurper was probably unknown family. , the founder of Nanda dynasty and he also killed the ten sons of Kalasoka who The Greek classical writers, such as Justin, ruled jointly. Thus the Sisunaga dynasty was describes as a man of followed by the new dynasty of the Nandas. humble origin, but does not mention his exact caste. The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150 A.D.) mentions the Vaisya Pusyagupta as the provincial of the Maurya king Chandragupta. There is a reference to Foundation of the Mauryan Empire: Pusyagupta being the brother-in-law of The foundation of the in 321 B.C. Chandragupta which implies that the Mauryas by Chandragupta Maurya was a unique in may have been of Vaisya origin. history. In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas were Particularly in view of the fact that it was found of comparatively humble origin belonging to the shortly after ’s victorious campaigns in Moriya tribe and were certainly of a low caste. North-West India during 327 B.C. – 325 B.C.

There is no unanimity with regard to the ancestry Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 B.C.): of the Mauryas. The describe them as Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the Nanda Sudras and uprighteous probably due to the fact throne in 321 B.C. after dethroning the last Nanda that the Mauryas were mostly patrons of ruler (Dhanananda) at the age of 25. He was the heterodox sects. protege of the Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, who was his guide and The Buddhist works (e.g. Mahavamsa and mentor both in acquiring the throne and in Mahavamshatika) have attempted to link the keeping it. Mauryan dynasty with the tribe of the Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In the Divyavadana, The acquisition of Magadha was the first step in Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is described establishing the new dynasty. Once the Ganges as Murdabhishikta or annointed valley was under his control, Chandragupta moved Kshatriya. to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum

Pscnotes.com Page 9

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 created by Alexander’s departure. The areas of the date and authorship, its importance lies in the fact North-West fell to him rapidly. that it gives a clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryan Moving back to he occupied the period. region north of the . But 305 B.C. saw him back in the north-west involved in a The similarities between the administrative terms campaign against Seleucus Nikator (Alexander’s used in the and in the Asokan edicts general who gained control of most Asiatic certainly suggests that the Mauryan rulers were provinces of the Macedonian empire) which acquainted with this work.As such his Chandragupta finally won in 303 B.C. Both signed Arthashastra provides useful and reliable a treaty and entered into a marriage alliance. information regarding the social and political conditions as well as the Mauryan administration. Who married whose daughter is not clearly known? But it seems that Chandragupta made a 1. King: gift of 500 elephants to the Greek general and ob- Kautilya suggests that the king should be an tained the territory across the Indus viz., the autocrat and he should concentrate all powers Satrapies of Paropanisadai (), Aria (Herat), into his own hands. He should enjoy unrestricted Arachoisa (Kandahar), and (Baluchistan). authority over his realm. But at the same time, he Seleucus’s ambassador, Megasthenes, lived for should give honour to the Brahmanas and seek many years at the Maurya court at Pataliputra and advice from his ministers. Thus the king though travelled extensively in the country. autocrat, should exercise his authority wisely.

According to Jaina sources (Parisistaparvan), He should be cultured and wise. He should also be Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end well-read so as to understand all the details of his of his life and stepped down from the throne in administration. He says that the chief cause of his favour of his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by fall is that the king is inclined towards evil. He lists , a Jaina saint, and several other six evils that led to a king’s decline. They are he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola haughtiness, lust, anger, greed, vanity and of near , where he deliberately starved pleasures. Kautilya says that the king should live in himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion comfort but he should not indulge in pleasures. (). 2. Ideals of Kingship: Kautilya and Arthashastra: The major ideal of kingship according to Kautilya is Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta that his own well-being lies in the well-being of his Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan Empire people of only the happy subjects ensure the with his help. Arthashastra was written by him. It happiness of their sovereign. He also says that the is the most important source for writing the king should be ‘Chakravarti’ or the conqueror of history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 different realms and should win glory by adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or conquering other lands. subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably He should protect his people from external dan- translated by him. gers and ensure internal peace. Kautilya maintained that the soldiers should be imbued with the spirit of a ‘holy war’ before they march to the battlefield. According to him, all is fair in a war It is a treatise on statecraft and public waged in the interest of the country. administration. Despite the controversy over its

Pscnotes.com Page 10

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

3. About the Ministers: 7. Shipping: Kautilya maintains that the king should appoint Another significant information that we gather ministers. King without ministers is like a one- from Kautilya is about shipping under the wheeled chariot. According to Kautilya, king’s Mauryas. Each port was supervised by an officer ministers should be wise and intelligent. But the who kept vigil on ships and ferries. Tolls were king should not become a puppet in their hands. levied on traders, passengesand fishermen. Almost all ships and boats were owned by the He should discard their improper advise. The kings. ministers should work together as; a team. They should hold meetings in privacy. He says that the 8. Economic Condition: king who cannot keep his secrets cannot last long. Kautilya says that poverty is a major cause of rebellions. Hence there should be no shortage of 4. Provincial Administration: food and money to buy it, as it creates discontent Kautilya tells us that the kingdom was divided into and destroys the king. Kautilya therefore advises several provinces governed by the members of the the king to take steps to improve the economic royal family. There were some smaller provinces condition of his people. Kautilya says that the chief as and Kambhoj etc. administered by source of income was the land revenue in villages other officers called ‘Rashtriyas’. The provinces while the tax on the sale of goods was the chief were divided into districts which were again sub- source in the cities. divided into villages. The chief administrator of the district was called the ‘SthaniK while the village Bindusara (297-272 B.C.): headman was called the ‘Gopa’. In 297 B.C., Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks as 5. Civic Administration: Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata, the The administration of big cities as well as the destroyer of foes). Bindusara campaigned in the capital city of Pataliputra was carried on very Deccan, extending Mauryan control in the efficiently. Pataliputra was divided into four peninsula as far south as Mysore. sectors. The officer incharge of each sector was called the ‘Sthanik. He was assisted by junior He is said to have conquered the land between officers called the ‘Gopas’ who looked after the the two seas’, presumably the Arabian Sea and the welfare of 10 to 40 families. The whole city was in Bay of Bengal. (modern Orissa) on the the charge of another officer called the ‘Nagrika’. eastern coast, however, remained hostile and was There was a system of regular census. conquered in the succeeding reign by Bindusara’s son . 6. Spy Organisation: Kautilya says that the king should maintain a In foreign affairs, Bindusara maintained the network of spies who should keep him well friendly relations with the Hellenic west informed about the minute details and established by his father. He is said to have had happenings in the country, the provinces, the contacts with Antiochus I Soter, king of Syria, son districts and the towns. The spies should keep of Seleucus Nikator whose ambassador, watch on other officials. There should be spies to Deimachos was said to have been at his court. ensure peace in the land. According to Kautilya, women spies are more efficient than men, so they A man of wide tastes and interests, he requested should, in particular, be recruited as spies. Above Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried all the kings should send his agents in figs and a ; the last being not meant for neighbouring countries to gather information of export, however, could not be sent. Pliny political significance. mentions that Philadelpus of sent

Pscnotes.com Page 11

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Dionysius as his ambassador to India. The ity in the texts either regarding the nature of the Ashokavadana informs us that a revolt took place struggle or the number of his brothers. in during the reign of Bindusara, when the citizens objected to the oppression of the higher In one place the Mahavamsa states that Asoka officials. Bindusara sent Asoka to put an end to the killed his elder brother to become king whereas revolt, which he did successfully. elsewhere in the same work and also in the Dipavamsa he is said to have killed ninety-nine Ashoka (268-232 B.C.): brothers. The Mahavamsa states that although he Bindusara’s death in 272 B.C. led to a struggle for put ninety-nine brothers to death, Asoka spared succession among his sons. It lasted for four years the life of the youngest of these, Tissa who was and in 268 B.C. Ashoka emerged successful. later made vice-regent (He retired to a life of According to Asokavadana, Subhadrangi was the religious devotion having come under the mother of Ashoka and it describes her as the influence of the preacher Mahadhammarakkhita daughter of a of Champa. and then known by the name of Ekaviharika). It seems that though there was a struggle, a lot of The Divyavadana version largely agrees with that descriptions of it are plain exaggerations. of the Ashokavadana. She is called Janapadakalyani, or in other version of the same After ascending the throne, Ashoka according to source Subhadrangi. In the Ceylonese source, Taranatha spent several years in pleasurable Vamsatthapakasini the Queen mother is called pursuits and was consequently called Kamasoka. Dharma. This was followed by a period of extreme wicked- ness, which earned him the name of Candasoka. According to legend, Ashoka as a young prince was Finally his conversion to Buddhism and his subse- given charge of the Viceroyship of Ujjain. Buddhist quent piety led him to be called Dhammasoka. texts inform us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara and Ashoka was sent The most important event of Ashoka’s reign seems to quell it. This he did without antagonising the to have been his conversion to Buddhism after his local populace. Corroboration for this may be victorious war with Kalinga in 260 B.C. Kaling con- sought in an Aramaic inscription from Taxila which trolled the routes to South India both by land and refers to Priyadarshi the viceroyor governor. sea, and it was therefore necessary that it should become a part of the Mauryan Empire. During his Viceroyalty of Ujjain he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Vidisa, referred to The 13th Major Rock Edict vividly describes the as or Vidisamahadevi or Sakyani. Ashoka’s horrors and miseries of this war and the deep two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and remorse it caused to Ashoka. In the words of the Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki is Mauryan emperor, ‘A hundered and fifty thousand mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a people were deported, a hundred thousand were pillar at , in which her religious and killed and many times that number charitable donations are referred to. She is perished…………. It has been stated in the past that described as the mother of Prince Tivara, the only he was dramatically converted to Buddhism son of Asoka to be mentioned by the name in the immediately after the battle, with its attendant inscription. horrors.

As regards Ashoka’s accession to the throne there But this was not so, and as one of his inscriptions, is a general agreement in the sources that Ashoka viz., Edict, states it was only after a period was not the crown prince but succeeded after of more than two years that he became an ardent killing his brothers. There is, however, no unanim-

Pscnotes.com Page 12

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 supporter of Buddhism under the influence of a Magadha was the home province of the Mauryas Buddhist , Upagupta. and the city of Pataliputra its capital. Other cities mentioned in the inscriptions include Ujjain, He also states his acceptance of the Buddhist Taxila, Tosali near Bhubaneshwar, Kausambi and creed, the faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma (the Suvarnagiri in . teachings of the Buddha), and the Samgha. Written specifically for the local Buddhist clergy, According to tradition, Kashmir was included in he also refers to himself as the ‘king of Magadha’, the Ashokan Empire and that Ashoka built the city a title which he uses only on this occasion. of Srinagar. Khotan in Central Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan sway. The Buddhist church was reorganised during his reign with the meeting of Third Buddhist council at The Mauryans had close connections with the Pataliputra in 250 B.C. under the chairmanship of areas of modern since the foothills were a Mogalliputta Tissa but the emperor himself does part of the empire. One of Ashokan’s daughter is not refer to it in his inscriptions. said to have married a nobleman from the mountains of Nepal. This stresses the point that Asoka was careful to make a distinction between his personal support In the east, Mauryan influence extended as far as for Buddhism and his duty as emperor to remain the Ganga delta. Tamralipti or modern Tamluk was unattached and unbiased in favour of any religion. an important port on the Bengal coast from where The Third Buddhist Council is significant because it the ships sailed for Burma, Sri as well as for was the final attempt of the more sectarian South India. Another major port on the west coast Buddhists, the Theravada School, to exclude both was Broach at the mouth of the Narmada. dissidents and innovators from the Buddhist Order. Kandahar formed the western-most extension of the Mauryan Empire and Ashokan inscriptions Furthermore, it was at this Council that it was mention the , and the decided to send missionaries to various parts of as his borderers. Through the north-west the the sub-continent and to make Buddhism an Mauryas maintained close contacts with their actively proselytizing religion. neighbours, the and the Greek kingdoms. Ashoka mentions various of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with whom he exchanged Mauryan relations with were very close missions, diplomatic and otherwise in his 13th and Asoka sent his son Mahindra and daughter Major Rock Edict. These have been identified as Sanghamitra to preach Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Antiochus II Theos of Syria, (Amtiyoga)the Asokan inscriptions in the south mention several grandson of Seleucus Nikator; Ptolemy III people with whom he was on friendly terms – the Philadelphus of Egypt (Tulamaya); Antigonus Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras Gonatus of Macedonia (Antekina); Magas of (Major Rock Edict II.) Cyrene (Maka) and Alexander of Epirus (Alikyashudala). Disintegration of the Empire: Towards the end of his reign Asoka’s grip over the Communications with the outside world were by imperial organisation became weak. The Maurya now well developed. Asokan inscriptions corrobo- Empire began to decline with the death of Asoka rated by archaeological data are a reliable guide to in 232 B.C., soon after it broke up. The evidence the extent of the Mauryan Empire. for the later Mauryas is very meagre.

Pscnotes.com Page 13

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Puranas, besides Buddhist and Jaina in the astronomical work, the Gargi , as a literature, do provide us with some information on wicked quarrelsome king. the later Mauryas, but there is no agreement among them. Even among the Puranas, there is a The successors of Salisuka, according to the lot of variance between one Puranas and another. Puranas, were Devavarman, Satamdhanus and The one statement on which all the Puranas are in finally Brihadratha. The last prince was agreement is that the dynasty lasted 137 years. overthrown by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra, who laid the foundations of a new Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the dynasty called Sunga dynasty. empire into western and eastern halves. The western part including the north-western Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas: province, and Kashmir was governed by The Magadhan Empire, which had been reared by Kunala (one of the sons of Ashoka) and then for a successive wars culminating in the conquest of while by Samprati (according to Jaina tradition he Kalinga, began to disintegrate after the death of was a grandson of Ashoka and a patron of Ashoka in 232 B.C. The reason given by historians Jainism). for such, rapid declines are as conflicting as they are confusing. It was later threatened from the north-west by the Bactrian Greeks, to whom it was practically lost by Some of the very obvious and other controversial 180 B.C. From the south, the threat was posed by causes for the decline of the Mauryan Empire are the Andhrasorthe Satavahanas who later came to discussed below: power in the Deccan. 1. One of the more obvious reasons for the decline was the succession of weak kings after Ashoka. The eastern part of the Maurya Empire, with its capital at Pataliputra, came to be ruled by 2. A further and immediate cause was the Dasaratha (probably one of the grandsons of partition of the empire into two, the eastern part Ashoka). Dasaratha apart from being mentioned in under Dasaratha and the western part under the Purana is also known to us from the Kunala. Had the partition not taken place, the caves in the Nagarjuni Hills, which he dedicated to Greek invasions of the north-west could have the Ajivikas. been held back for a while, giving the Mauryas a chance to re-establish some degree of their According to the Puranas, Dasaratha reigned for previous power. The partition of the empire eight years. This would suggest that he died disrupted the various services as well. without an heir old enough to come to the throne. The same sources speak of Kunala ruling for eight 3. Scholars have suggested that the pro-Buddhist years. policies of Ashoka and the pro-Jaina policies of his successors alienated the and resulted in He must have died at about the same time as the revolt of Pushyamitra, the founder of the Dasaratha; so that Sampriti now ruling in the west Shunga dynasty. H.C. Raychaudhuri maintains that may have successfully regained the throne at Asoka’s pacifist policies were responsible for Pataliputra, thus uniting the empire again. undermining the strength of the empire.

This event occurred in 223 B.C. However, the The second argument blames Ashoka’s emphasis empire had probably already begun to on nonviolence for weakening the empire and its disintegrate. Jaina sources mention that Samprati military strength. Haraprasad Sastri holds the view ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. After Dasaratha that the decline of the Mauryan Empire was the and Samprati came Salisuka, a prince mentioned result of the Brahmanical revolt on account of ban

Pscnotes.com Page 14

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 on animal sacrifices and undermining the prestige grow and expand so that the administrative of the Brahmanas. Both these arguments are apparatus of the state could be maintained. rather simplistic. Unfortunately the Mauryas made no attempt to Pushyamitra’s usurpation of the throne cannot be expand the revenue potential or to restructure seen as a revolt because by that time and reorganise the resources. This inherent the administration had become so ineffective that weakness of the Mauryan economy when coupled officials were willing to accept any viable with other factors led to the collapse of the alternative. Mauryan Empire.

The second proposition does not take into account 7. The spread of material culture of the Gangetic the nature of the policy of non-violence. There is basin to the outlying areas led to the formation of nothing in the Ashokan inscriptions to suggest new kingdoms. demobilization of the army. Similarly capital punishment continued. The emphasis was on the reduction of species, and numbers of animals killed for food. There is nothing to suggest that the The Kushanas: Short introduction killing of animals stopped completely. In the early 2nd century BC, a tribe on the Central Asian frontier of China called Hsiung-nu defeated 4. Another reason put forward by some historians a neighboring one known as Yueh-chih. After more such as D.D. is that there was consid- conflict, the survivors of the Yueh-chih were erable pressure on the Mauryan economy under dislocated west, passing down the Ili river valley the later rulers leading to heavy taxation. and along the southern shore of lake Issyk Kul. This movement also pushed tribes (and This opinion is again one-sided and is not others) ahead of them. Sometime between 145 corroborated by archaeological data. Excavations and 125 BC, these nomad invaders burst into at sites like Hastinapura and Sisupalgarh have and Parthia. A generation later, they were shown improvement in the material culture. pressing into the Kabul valley and onto the Punjab plain. At around the beginning of the Christian era, 5. The organization of administration, and the one of the five Yueh-chih chiefs, K'iu-tsiu-k'io, conception of the state or the nation, were of attacked and defeated the others, leaving his clan great significance in the causes of the decline of in control; the Kuei-shang (Kushans). the Mauryas. The Mauryan administration was of an extremely centralized character which (30-80 AD) established the necessitated a king of considerable personal Kushan dynasty in 78 AD by taking advantage of ability. disunion in existing dynasty of Pahalava (Parthian) and Scytho-Parthians, and gradually wrested In such a situation the weakening of the central control of southern prosperous region, which is control automatically to a weakening of the the northwest part of ancient India, traditionally administration. With the death of Ashoka and the known as Gandhara (now Pakistan). It was his uneven quality of his successors, there was a grandson who made Kushan a weakening at the centre, particularly after the paramount power of northern India. His reign saw division of the empire. emergence of when he conquored north- (modern Punjab). Soon he 6. The Mauryan state derived its revenues from came under influence of Hinduism (most likley taxing a variety of resources which would have to embraced it for good) and took opportunity to

Pscnotes.com Page 15

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 proclaim himself Mahishwara, another name for By fourth century AD this dynasty went into total Lord , on his coins (Shiva is a prominent obscurity with advent of mighty Gupta emperors. Hindu god). Kushan kings introduced gold and copper coins, a large number of them have survived till today. It was the Kushan emperor, : Vima Kadaphises who introduced the first gold coins of india. Kushan empire covered north west His Date: of India (includes Pakistan and modern Afganistan) and northern India. Ample evidences of trade with There is a sharp controversy about Kanishka’s China, cental Asia, Egypt and are available date centering round two points: which made their economy very strong and (1) Whether the Kanishka group preceded or kingdom wealthy and prosperous. succeeded the Kadphises group, and Vima's able son Kanishka (100 - 126 AD) followed (2) Whether Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. or and took control of this dynasty in 100 AD. later or earlier. Kanishka is the legendary ruler of ancient India and according to most historians the greatest ruler (1) Cunningham was the first writer to sponsor the of Kushan dynasty. He and his descendents called theory that Kanishka’s era started from 58 B.C. themselves `Devputra' which means son of god, which came to be known afterwards as Vikrama who ruled Aryavarta, the India. He established an Samvat: Cunningham, however, gave up this era, commonly known as era, starts from 78 theory later on, but Fleet and after him Kennedy AD. is still in use in India. Kanishka's held this view with all earnestness. As a corollary empire consisted Bactria (modern Afghanistan), of the above contention it follows that Kanishka part of central Asia (Tajikistan), north-western group of kings preceded Kadphises group of kings. India (modern Pakistan) and Northern India till Pataliputra or Patana. Kushan empire. But on a careful analysis of the archaeological and numismatic evidences scholars have come to the succeeded Kanishka I. He was founder of conclusion that there can be no doubt that the a city Hushka in Kashmir named after him Kanishka group of kings did not precede but (described by Kalhan in Rajatarangini). Kushana followed the Kadphises group of kings. empire was at its zenith during Kanishka's and Huvishka's reign. After Huvishka's reign, In support of this view scholars point out if the I took control of this dynasty which by then had series of coins issued successively by alien rulers of lost control over regions beyond Bactria or India upto Vasudeva-I, are carefully studied it perhaps the Bactria itself. The Kushan dynasty had be evident that the coins of the Kadphises kings been totally assimilated in Indian culture. were issued immediately after those of the was the last great king of the dynasty and the Parthians. when Kushana empire was at it's height of Again, the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka, splendor and prosperity. although differ in some details, they seem to be Kushan empire had started its decline soon after largely prototypes of Wima Kadiphises. Vasudeva's death. Vasudeva was followed by his It must also be noted that the practice of issuing son Kanishka II who lost all the territories west of bilingual and by scriptural coins introduced by the river Indus to Sassanians. Vasudeva II, Vashishka, Indo-Greek kings was continued throughout the and Shaka are the kings who followed after the Saka-Pahlava period upto the time of Kadphises. Kanisha II. After Vashishka the Kushan empire had The continuity of the practice without break till completly disintegrated into few small kingdoms. the time of Wima Kadphises was broken only at

Pscnotes.com Page 16

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 the time of Kanishka who gave up the practice of Marshall, Sten Konow and others who are of the issuing bilingual coins. opinion that Kanishka ruled in the first quarter of the second century A.D. is- directly against the The legend of his coins was Greek but most of evidence of Junagarh inscription of Rudradamana. them were not, however, in Greek. Hurishka and Dr. Raichaudhuri draws our attention to the fact Vasudeva followed the practice of Kanishka. Thus that it is clearly mentioned in the Junagarh we find that while there was a continuity in the inscription that Rudradamana held sway over the method of the striking coins followed upto Wima lower Sindhu region in the first half of the second Kadphises from the line of the Indo-Greeks a century A.D. different method was followed and continued by Kanishka and his successors. These two different The South (Sui-Bihar) inscription of Kanishka sequences when compared leave no doubt that mentions lower Sindhu area as within the the Kushana group followed Kadphises group of dominions of Kanishka. Obviously, both kings. Rudradamana and Kanishka were not rulers over the same region simultaneously. This proves the Turning to the second point, we find that scholars untenability of the view that Kanishka ruled in the like Sir John Marshall, Sten Konow, Vincent Smith, second century A.D. There is also no evidence to Van Wijk and some other scholars are of the show that there was the inauguration of any era in opinion that Kanishka began his rule in the first the second century A.D. quarter of the second century A.D., sometime between 125 to 128 A.D. which lasted for about a Dr. Majumdar’s contention that Kanishka was the quarter of a century. founder of Traikutaka-Kalachuri-Chedi era of 248- 249 A.D. is absolutely untenable in view of the But Ferguson had held long before that Kanishka Chinese evidence that An-Shi-Kao who lived during started his first regional year in 78 A.D. and the second century A.D. translated a work inaugurated an era from that date which came to Margabhumi-sutra written by Sangharaksha, be known as the Saka era (Sakabda) which is still chaplain of Kanishka. This precludes placing current in different parts of India. Ferguson’s view Kanishka in the third century A.D. as Dr. R. C. has been supported by scholars like Oldenberg, Majumdar has done. Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar’s view Thomas, Rapson, R. D. Banerjee, Dr. Raichaudhuri that Kanishka ascended the throne in 278 A.D. is and others. One of the latest scholars to support untenable on the same grounds. the view that Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. which was also the beginning of an era is Van Thus most of the scholars are of the view that Lohuizen-de Leeuw. Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. which was also the year from which the Saka era is counted. It has been argued against the above view held by most of the scholars, that if we agree that It has been contended by some scholars that if the Kadphises-I reigned about 50 A.D. and Kanishka era was founded by Kanishka why should it have about 78 A.D. then we are left with only 28 years been named Saka era and not Kushana era, after roughly for the two reigns of Kadphises-I and all the Kushanas were not Sakas. But it may be Kadphises-II which is a very short span for two pointed out that the close association of the Yue- reigns. But when we remember that Kadphises chi people of which the Kushanas were a branch, died at the age of eighty, his son Kadphises-II must with the Saka-Pahlava made them a composite have ascended the throne at pretty old age. This people with a composite culture in which the makes accession of Kanishka in 78 AD. quite contributions of the Sakas was quite large. tenable. Further, the Kushanas were not Greeks but some of Kanishka’s coins bore Greek legend on them. It

Pscnotes.com Page 17

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 is therefore no conclusive argument to say that acts of piety and built monasteries, and since the era was called Saka era Kanishka could similar other structures. not be its founder. Likewise the contention that the Saka era was not followed in northern India According to tradition Kanishka penetrated into although Kanishka was a ruler of the north is the interior of India and attacked Pataliputra, the untenable. capital of Magadha. It is said that he carried away Asvaghosh, a Buddhist tradition, after the capture Facts are, however, otherwise. This era was of Pataliputra and Buddhist Philosopher abandoned temporarily during the Gupta rule Asvaghosa fell into the hands of Kanishka who when it was confined to the south where its use took the saga with him. Asvaghosa was indeed one was spread by the Jainas. But with the end of the of the luminaries that graced the court of Gupta rule the Saka era came back into use and Kanishka. We may, therefore, conclude that at Continues to be used even today in different parts least a part of Magadha including Pataliputra was of India. conquered by Kanishka.

Thus after an analysis of evidences, literary, Kanishka seems to have waged war against the numismatic as well as epigraphic, the balance of western of Ujjaini. Numismatic evidence arguments remains in favour of placing the proves the inclusion of in his empire. Kanishka group of kings after the Kadphises group Sylvan Levi, D. C. Sircar and Rapson suggest that of kings and fixing 78 A.D. as the starting point of the western who ruled over Kanishka’s rule, and also the beginning of the era Kathiawar, Malwa and Sourashtra had been a known as Saka era or Sakavda. vassal of Kanishka. Some scholars hold that it was Chastana who was defeated by Kanishka and was His Conquests: Extent of His Empire: compelled to hand over a part of Malwa to him.

Kanishka was alone among the Kushana kings who According to Dr. Smith, Kanishka also waged war has left a name cherished by tradition and famous against the Parthians. Kanishka also conquered in India as well beyond her limits. Kashgarh, Khotan and Yarkhand. He is credited At the time of accession to the throne Kanishka’s with defeating the Chinese and thereby avenging empire comprised Afghanistan, large part of the defeat of his predecessor Kadphises II at the Sindhu, portions of Parthia and the Punjab. He hands of the Chinese general Pan-chao and com- appears to have not forgotten to avenge the pelled the Chinese to surrender hostages to him. defeat of his predecessor Kadphises at the hands From the Chinese source as also from Buddhist of the Chinese general Pan-chao. He also played traditions we come to know Kanishka conquered the part of a conqueror in the early years of his Kajangal in the Rajmahal hills in Bengal, some reign. Dr. Smith credits him with the conquest and parts of Malda, Murshidabad, Bogra, Midnapur, annexation of the Kashmir Valley. He certainly etc. But in absence of any other evidences to showed, remarks Smith, a marked preference for support the indirect evidence furnished by the find that delightful country. spots of the coins of Kanishka it is difficult to come Here he erected numerous monuments and to any definite conclusion with regard to the founded a town, which although now reduced to a inclusion of Bengal in Kanishka’s empire. petty village, still bears his honoured name. We Kanishka’s empire comprised vast tacts of land have, however, no details about the war with the extending from Afghanistan, and Khotan, king of Kashmir. Rajatarangini refers to three kings Yarkhand, Kashgarh, etc. in Central Asia to Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka who are described as Benares, and perhaps to parts of Bengal. His decendants of Turuksha ruler and were given to empire included Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh,

Pscnotes.com Page 18

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Pataliputra, . Inclusion of Kashmir is also with Rome and influx of gold from China and borne out by both the Chinese and Buddhist Rome in particular. The prosperity of the empire evidences. The western Satrapies seem to have attested by the fine gold coins struck by Kadphises been under his suzerainty. I appears to have increased under Kanishka. The unmistakable influence of Rome on the Indian According to Hiuen TSang Kanishka Raja of coinage of the time could be noticed. Gandhara in old days having subdued all the neighbouring provinces and brought into obe- From the Periplus we know that gold and silver dience the people of distant countries, governed specie constituted one of the imports of Barygaza, by his army a wide territory even to the east of the i.e., Borach, a port on the eastern sea board of Tsung-ling mountains. All this proves that India. Swell has also mentioned to huge hoard of Kanishka’s sway extended beyond the borders of Roman coins of the first five Roman emperors India. discovered in the . The very name dinara of gold coins seems to have close The Buddhist tradition and Kanishka’s own affinity with the Roman denarius and drama for inscriptions are ample testimony to the vast silver coins has been adopted from the Greek expanse of his dominions within India. Selection of drachma. Purushapura, i.e. Peshawar, proves that Kanishka’s imperial possessions spread far towards the west Kanishka assumed epithet like Shaonaus Shoo, as and north. found on his coins, was an adaptation of the Parthian title Basileos Basileon. From Shaonaus Shoo the letter Shaahan Sha was derived.

Administration: Religion:

Kanishka was a mighty conqueror, but no less was As it is customary for the Buddhist writers to his ability as an administrator and he was even depict a person wicked before conversion and mightier in peaceful pursuits and in his turned into saint after conversion to Buddhism. solicitousness of the welfare of the people. For an Kanishka has been described by them to be devoid effective and efficient rule of the empire he of the sense of right or wrong before his resorted to the system of Satrapies and appointed conversion. This view of the Buddhist writers has Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshatrapa not been accepted by most of the scholars who Vanaspara in the eastern part of the empire. think that it is an attempt on the part of the The northern part was ruled by General Lala as Buddhist writers to glorify Buddhism. Mahakshatrapa with Vaspasi and Laika as Before conversion to Buddhism Kanishka was a Kshatrapas. The seat of the Central Government believer in many gods, Persian, Greek, Hindu, etc. was at Purushpura or Peshawar. This practice of This is proved by the figures imprinted on his rule through Great Satraps and Satraps was the coins. The exact date of conversion of Kanishka is, continuation of the system followed by the Sakas however, not known. The conversion is supposed and the . to have taken place after some years he had been We find a conscious emulation of the methods of on the throne. It is supposed that after his Asoka by the Kushana king Kanishka. He pursued association with the Buddhist philosopher and the policy of propagating Buddhism both within Saint Asvaghosha, he must have come under his India and outside India. It was in connection with influence. his missionary activities that he established close Asvaghosha must have won the heart of Kanishka relationship, religious cultural and commercial, so completely that the latter gave up his allegiance not only with China, Tibet and Central Asia but

Pscnotes.com Page 19

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 to his previous gods and got converted to Mahavibhasha which is the greatest work on Bud- Buddhism. Here is a second instance of a great dhist Philosophy. conqueror and emperor being converted to Buddhism and taken to the policy of peace and This voluminous work is considered to be the brotherliness in place of the policy of military encyclopaedia of Buddhism. The decisions of the conquests. Council were inscribed in copper plates and deposited in a built for the purpose, packed Kanishka was a close copy of Asoka. What is in stone chests. Vasumitra acted as the President specially noteworthy about Kanishka is that he and Asvaghosha as the Vice-President of the was the only foreigner who became a convert to Council. an Indian religion and turned into zealous missionary. In his missionary activities we find him to an emulator of Asoka whose footsteps he tried Buddhist Council: to follow closely. The period of Kanishka saw the transformation of We renovated the old monasteries which were in the Hinayana form of Buddhism into a state of disrepair and built many a new one. He form. In the Hinayana form the worship of Buddha endowed the monasteries with liberal money was only by relics like footprint of Buddha, an grants for the maintenance of the monks who empty seat of Buddha, that is, some sort of symbol dwelt in them. Kanishka caused the construction used to be placed in front of the worshipper. of a number of in the memory of Sakyamuni. There used to be no figure or image of Buddha to worship. This needed great concentration of mind He also sent missionaries for the propagation of on the part of the worshipper and the method was Buddhism to China, Tibet, Japan and Central Asia. very subtle and could be followed by persons of The sculptors, painters, as well as the architects of great self-control, and of deepest religious bent of his time also became active propagandists of mind. This method of proceeding along the Path of Buddhism. The celebrated Chaitya it Peshawar Buddhist religion was called Hina-Yana, i.e., lesser constructed under his orders excited the wonder vehicle, i.e., subtle mode of transport in the path and appreciation of travellers down to a late of religion. period and famous sculptures therein included a life-size of himself. But during Kanishka’s time worship of the image of Buddha came into use. It became easy to During his time there arose disputes about concentrate by keeping as visible representation Buddhism, among 18 schools of Buddhism of Buddha in form. This was a greater and easier prevalent at that time, as we know from the method hence called Mahayana Buddhism. In the Tibetan historian Taranath. It became necessary to Hinayana form of worship emphasis was laid on restore the disputes and to that end Kanishka good action but in Mahayana system worship of convoked the Fourth Buddhist Council to which Buddha and Bodhisattvas was emphasised. The was attended by 500 monks. use of Pali as the language of the Buddhist There is a controversy with regard to the venue of religious books was now replaced by Sanskrit. the Council. According to some it was held at Art and Learning: Kundavana in Kashmir but others hold that it met at Jullundur in the Punjab. In the Council the Kanishka’s patronage of art and learning marked entire Buddhist literature was thoroughly the beginning of a cultural renaissance which was examined and commentaries on the three Pitakas to reach its peak and flower under the Guptas A were prepared, which were compiled in large volume of Sanskrit literary works both

Pscnotes.com Page 20

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 religious and secular, was produced during the find of Kanishka’s headless statue is an example of period. Asvaghosha, the greatest Buddha the massive sculptural art of the time. Philosopher, saint and literary figure of the time adorned the court of Kanishka. Estimate of Kanishka:

He was a versatile genius whose contributions to Kanishka happens to be one of the few kings in the cultural life of the time centred round poetry, history who came in as a conqueror and won an philosophy, drama, music. Buddhacharit and empire but was conquered by the religion, Sutralankar are his two most famous works. language and culture of the country of his Buddhacharit on the life of in conquest. He was an intrepid warrior, a mighty Sanskrit verse has been regarded as a Buddhist conqueror but what was more he was equally epic. Another great Buddhist writer of fame who great as an administrator. If he was great in war adorned the court of Kanishka was Nagarjuna. He and administration he was greater still in the arts was the greatest exponent of Mahayana of peace. Buddhism. He was a great patron of art and literature. He Charaka, the celebrated master of the science of built a vast empire which extended from Central medicine, was the court physician of Kanishka. Asia to Mathura, Benares and probably to parts of Mathara, a politician of great acumen, was a Bengal but he gave it an administration which minister of Kanishka. Besides these worthies, the brought peace and prosperity to the country and Greek engineer Agesilaus and many others played the people, which conduced to pursuit of religion, a leading part in the religious, literary, scientific, art, architecture and literature. Before his philosophical and artistic activities of the reign. It conversion to Buddhism he was eclectic in his is of great interest to know that Nagarjuna in his religious and was a polytheist. celebrated work Madhyamikasutra expounded the After a Buddhist he became an ardent theory of relativity in its preliminary form. missionary of the Mahayanism. He rendered a Another celebrity that adorned the court of great service to Buddhism by convening the Kanishka was Vasumitra who presided over the Fourth Buddhist Council which resolved the Fourth Buddhist Council held during the reign of disputes that arose among the Buddhists about Kanishka. Buddhist religion. He was a great patron of Buddhism as his predecessor of the Maurya Kanishka was also a great builder and a patron of Dynasty Asoka. Like Asoka he sent missions for art and architecture. The works of architecture, art propagation of Buddhism in China, Japan, Tibet, of sculpture of his time are found in Mathura, Central Asia, etc. Peshawar, Taxila and Amaravati. The Sirsukh city in Taxila with its hall, buildings and monasteries He patronized the Buddhist philosophers like was built by him. Statues, sculptures, monasteries Asvaghosha, Basumitra, Nagarjuna, Political added to the beauty of the city. scientist like Mathara, medical scientist like Charaka, and engineer like Greek Agesilaus. The Gatidhara School of art was the product of Graeco-Roman-Buddhist school of art and He was a great patron of art and architecture. The sculpture. Totally indigenous art also flourished city of Purushapura, his capital, Taxila, Mathura during his reign at Amaravati. The ornamental were beautified by monasteries, stupas, etc. The sculpture depicted in the Amaravati medallion tall Chaitya at his capital with its sculpture forced bear testimony to the excellence of purely Indian the admiration of visitors even after long time. style uninfluenced by any foreign art. At Mathura The beneficence of his rule was seem in the prosperity of the people resulting from the influx

Pscnotes.com Page 21

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 of huge quantity of gold by way of trade with the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman foreign countries like China, Rome, etc. Empire.

Kanishka has been likened to Asoka as a The images of Buddha pertaining to the Gandhara conqueror, preacher. But although he was school centres of which were Gandhara, Jalalabad, definitely a lesser personality than Great Asoka, he Hadda and Baniyan in Afghanistan, Peshawar and was the nearest emulator of Asoka in his spirit of Swat Valley, were more animated and toleration of other , patronage of anatomically perfect than those found in other Buddhism, and missionary zeal. He, however, was parts of India. While the former are more not an apostle of non-violence as Asoka had been beautiful physically and accurate in anatomical yet he had initiated a cultural renaissance which details as such more realistic, the and reached its zenith under the Guptas. sculpture which produced the images of Buddha were more idealistic giving a spiritual and sublime Kanishka’s reign constituted a brilliant epoch in expression to the images. the history of ancient India and the darkness that descended on the Indian History after the fall of The technique of the Gandhara School of art of the Mauryas was lifted during his reign. Kanishka the Kushana period spread through China to the rightly deserves a place among the best rulers of Far East and influenced the art of China and Japan. the ancient . The Gandhara art, according to V. A. Smith, was based on the cosmopolitan art of the Asia Minor Art, Sculpture and Architecture in Kushana and the . Empire There were also purely Indian schools of art in The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable India during the period of the Kushanas. There development in art, sculpture and architecture. were the schools of art at Amaravati, Jagayyapeta The Gandhara School of Art and Sculpture marked and Nagarjunikonda. In the Amaravati human a happy blending of the Graceo-Romano-Buddhist figures are characterised by slim, blithe features style and techniques. The distinguishing features and have been represented in most difficult poses of the Gandhara Sculpture owed their origin to and curves. The technique of art reached a high Greek and Roman styles yet the art essentially was standard of development. Plants and flowers, Indian in spirit. The Gandhara artists had the hand particularly lotuses, have been represented in the of a Greek but the heart of an India. most perfect, lifelike manner.

The most remarkable contribution of the Two Chaityas and a Stupa discovered at Gandhara School of art is to be seen in the Nagarjunikonda are the relics of the indigenous evolution of the image of Buddha, perhaps in school of art and show a high standard of imitation of the Greek God Apollo. Images of development. The limestone panel of figures Buddha and Bodhisatva illustrating the past and depicting the nativity of Buddha is an excellent present lives of Buddha were executed in black piece of sculpture of the Kushana period which stone. The figures show an excellent idea of was entirely indigenous. human anatomy that swayed the artists. Architecture of the Kushana period was not so These works of art offer a striking contrast to remarkable as the sculpture of the period. There similar art that we witness elsewhere in India. The were beautiful temples, monasteries, Stupas smooth round features of the idealised human which indicate considerable development during figures, draped in transparent and semi- the period although the technique of architecture transparent cloth closely fitting to the body and did not attain the standard of excellence of revealing its outline were due to the influence of sculpture. The famous tower of Kanishka at

Pscnotes.com Page 22

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Purushapura (Peshawar) was one of the wonders were indigenous schools of art at Ainaravati, of the world. Much of the architectural specimens Nagarjunkonda, etc. where there was no influence of the period perished with time. of Gandhara School of art. The influence of the Gandhara art failed to penetrate into the interior Caves hewn in solid rock with pillars and of India and had no influence on the later sculptures, hundreds of which have been found in development of the Indian, art. But the Gandhara different parts of the Kushana Empire show a School of art achieved a grand success in. great improvement upon the technique of becoming the parent of the Buddhist art of excavation that was in use during the time of Eastern and Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, China, Asoka. A Chaitya with rows of columns on two Korea and Japan. sides was a fine work of art of sculpture and architecture. The Chaitya at Karle is an excellent Literature: illustration. The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable Fa-hien who visited India during the rule of development of literature and Sanskrit language. Chandragupta II {5th century) was struck with Under the patronage enjoyed by the scholars and wonder to find a large number of Stupas, dagobas Buddhist philosophers of the time a massive (small stupa), Chaityas and images of Buddha development in secular and religious literature carved out of stone during the Kushana period. took place. A large number of standard works in Sanskrit language were written during the period. There has been a sharp of opinion about the celebrity, and the extent of influence of Asvaghosha’s Buddhacharita, Saudarananda the Gandhara art upon the Indian art during the Kavya, Vajrasuchi, Sariputta Prakarana, reign of the Kushanas. Modern scholars think that Vasumitra’s Mahabibhasa—regarded as the Bud- the Gandhara School of sculpture has attained a dhist encyclopaedia, Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika- celebrity perhaps beyond its merits. Sutra in which the theory of relativity was propounded, Charaka’s work on medicine, etc. According to some European scholars, the contributed to the fund of human knowledge. Gandhara School of art was the only school in Under the Kushanas the royal court became a seat Ancient India which can claim a place in the of luminaries mentioned above as also of the domain of art. There are others who are of the Political Scientist Mathara, Greek engineer opinion that the source of subsequent Agesilaus, etc. development of Indian art as well as of the Far East was the Gandhara School of art which The stretched across northern, developed as a result of a happy blending of the central and parts of southern India between c. 320 Graco-Romano-Buddhist art. and 550 CE. The period is noted for its But despite the foreign influence upon the school achievements in the arts, architecture, of Gandhara art, scholars like Havell, Will Durant, sciences, religion, and philosophy. R. C. Majumdar and others are of the opinion that (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the influence, Hellenistic and Roman, upon the the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as Indian art which was the Gandhara School of art the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked was technical but spirit and the subject matter of the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the the art was purely Indian. provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more R. D. Banerjee’s view that the Gandhara art importantly, it began a period of overall prosperity influenced the Indian art for nearly five centuries and growth that continued for the next two and to follow is untenable on the ground that there half centuries which came to be known as a

Pscnotes.com Page 23

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

“Golden Age” in India’s history. But the seed of (circa 335 – 375 CE), Chandragupta the empire was sown at least two generations I’s son who ascended the throne next, was a earlier than this when Srigupta, then only a military genius and he continued the growth of regional monarch, set off the glory days of this the kingdom. After conquering the remainder of mighty dynasty in circa 240 CE. North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion of it to his empire GUPTA PERIOD – EARLY DAYS TO THE ZENITH by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during his time the Gupta Not much is known about the early days of this Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and writings the mouth of Krishna and Godavari rivers in the of Buddhist monks who frequented this part of the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the world are the most trustworthy sources of Brahmaputra River in the east. information we have about those days. The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Samudragupta was very attentive Hiuen Tsang (, 602 – 664 CE) and Yijing (I to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this care to follow Kautilya’s (350 – 275 respect. The Gupta Empire during the rule of BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and Srigupta (circa 240 – 280 CE) comprised political treatise that has clear instructions about only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who donated large sums of money for various preceded him, Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, philanthropic purposes, including the promotion close to modern day . Srigupta was of education. Besides being a courageous king and succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha able administrator, he was a poet and musician. (circa 280 – 319 CE). The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, CHANDRAGUPTA I probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the eloquent about his humane benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta qualities. Samudragupta also believed in I, son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his promoting goodwill among various religious strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi communities. He gave, for example, Meghavarna, Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the king of Ceylon, permission and support for the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent to construction of a monastery in Bodh Gaya. his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used CHANDRAGUPTA II to meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads A short struggle for power appears to have ensued ruling over various parts of India could not counter after the reign of Samudragupta. His eldest son the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and Ramagupta became the next Gupta king. This was had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that noted by 7th century CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta in his biographical work, Harshacharita. What Empire already extended to Allahabad. followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet and playwright Visakh Dutta’s drama DeviChandra SAMUDRAGUPTA Guptam. As the story goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian king, besides the kingdom itself, was interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was also a

Pscnotes.com Page 24

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 renowned scholar. To maintain peace Ramagupta a city of flowers. People could move around freely. gave up Dhruvadevi to his opponent. It is then Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, Ramagupta’s younger brother Chandragupta II incidents of theft and burglary were rare. with a few of his close aides went to meet the enemy in disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and The following also speaks volumes about the assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi prudence of the Gupta kings. Samudragupta publicly condemned her husband for his acquired a far greater part of southern India than behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was killed by he cared to incorporate into his empire. Chandragupta II who also married Dhruvadevi Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the sometime later. kingdom to the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them. He reckoned Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 – that the great distance between that part of the 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader and country and his capital Pataliputra would hinder skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of the process of good governance. Saurashtra, he further expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS pursuits earned him the title of . To rule the vast empire more efficiently, People led a simple life. Commodities were Chandragupta II founded his second capital in affordable and all round prosperity ensured that Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. their requirements were met easily. They The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic consequently became busy hubs of maritime beverages. Gold and silver coins were issued in trade. He was a great patron of art and culture great numbers which is a general indicative of the too. Some of the greatest scholars of the day health of the economy. Trade and commerce including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his flourished both within the country and outside. court. Numerous charitable institutions, , cotton, spices, medicine, priceless gemstones, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up sea. Highly evolved steelcraft led everyone to a by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its belief that Indian iron was not subject to pinnacle during this time and unprecedented corrosion. The 7 m (23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub progress marked all areas of life. complex, , built around 402 CE, is a testimony to this fact. Trade relations with Middle East POLITICS & ADMINISTRATION improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Africa, silk and some medicinal plants from China and the Far Great tact and foresight were shown in the East were high on the list of imports. Food, grain, governance of the vast empire. The efficiency of spices, salt, gems and gold bullion were primary their martial system was well known. The large commodities of inland trade. kingdom was divided into smaller pradesha (provinces) and administrative RELIGION heads were appointed to take care of them. The kings maintained discipline and transparency in Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild, empire lie in maintaining a cordial relationship capital punishment was unheard of and judicial between the various communities. They were torture was not practised. Fa Hien called devout Vaishnava ( who worship the the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as Supreme Creator as ) themselves, yet that picturesque with the latter being described as did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of . Buddhist

Pscnotes.com Page 25

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 monasteries received liberal donations. Yijing institutions were set up and the existing ones observed how the Gupta kings erected inns and received continuous support. rest houses for Buddhist monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent site of education and ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE cultural exchange prospered under their patronage. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, What philosopher and historian Ananda Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several Jain Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of India establishments existed across the empire and Jain & Ceylone, about the art of the region must be councils were a regular occurrence. remembered here,

LITERATURE, SCIENCES & EDUCATION The Hindus do not regard the religious, aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as necessarily Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua conflicting, and in all their finest work, whether franca and managed to scale even greater heights musical, literary, or plastic, these points of view, than before. Poet and playwright created nowadays so sharply distinguished, are such epics inseparably united. as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Rag huvansha and Kumarsambhaba. Harishena, a The finest examples of painting, sculpture and renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, composed Allahabad Prasasti, Sudraka Ellora, , Mathura, Anuradhapura and wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta Sigiriya. The basic tenets of Shilpa created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed penned . Vararuchi, Baudhayana, everywhere including in town planning. Stone Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron Sanskrit and linguistics, philosophy pillar of is twice the size of Delhi’s Iron Pillar), and science. intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and lac- contributed to the fields of astronomy and work, brocades and embroidered textile also astrology. Genius mathematician and astronomer thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance and seven Aryabhata wrote Siddhanta which covered types of musical instruments including veena (an several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and Indian musical stringed instrument), flute . Shanku devoted himself to creating and mridangam (drum) were a rather than texts about . Dhanvantri’s discoveries exception. These were regularly performed in helped the Indian medicinal system temples as a token of devotion. In classic Indian of become more refined and efficient. style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to Doctors were skilled in surgical practices and meditate on the imagery within and capture its inoculation against contagious diseases was essence in their creations. performed. Even today, Dhanvantri’s birth As Purana suggests, “O thou Lord of all gods, anniversary is celebrated on Dhanteras, two days teach me in dreams how to carry out all the work I before . This intellectual surge was not have in my mind.” confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to learn the nuances of DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several educational After the demise of his father Chandragupta II, (circa 415 – 455 CE) ruled over the vast empire with skill and ability. He was able to

Pscnotes.com Page 26

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 maintain peace and even fend off strong country and rule from the Himalayas in the north challenges from a tribe known as Pushyamitra. He to Deccan in south, from the mountains of was helped by his able son (455 – Kandhar in the west to Assam in the east, yet very 467 CE) who was the last of the sovereign rulers of few have been able to subdue history according to the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in their will. Harshavardhana was one such ruler. His preventing the invasion of empire may not be as large as the great the Huns (). Skandagupta was a great Mauryan's, yet he deserves special mention. After scholar and wise ruler. For the well being of the the fall of great Gupta Empire in the middle of the denizens he carried out several construction works 6th century CE, under whom India saw its own including the rebuilding of a dam on Sudarshan golden age, it was Harshavardhana who unified Lake, Gujarat. But these were the last of the glory most of northern India and ruled for four decades days of the empire. from his capital Kannauj.

After Skandagupta’s death the dynasty became RISE TO POWER & MILITARY CAMPAIGNS embroiled with domestic conflicts. The rulers The Vardhana dynasty was started by lacked the capabilities of the earlier emperors to Prabhakarana Vardhana who ruled the kingdom of rule over such a large kingdom. This resulted in a Thaneshwar, modern-day Haryana. decline in law and order. They were continuously Prabhakarana’s queen Yasovati gave birth to two plagued by the attacks of the Huns and other sons and Harshawardhana and a foreign powers. This put a dent in the economic daughter named Rajyashri who was later married well-being of the empire. On top of this, the kings to king Grahvarmana of Kanyakubja, modern-day remained more occupied with self-indulgence Kannauj. This was a period of tension as India had than in preparing to meet with the challenges of to frequently deal with the invasion of the Huns of their enemies. The inept ministers and Central Asia. Once, emperor Skandagupta of administrative heads also followed suit. Notably, the Gupta Empire laid a crushing defeat on these after the defeat and capture of Mihirakula, one of barbaric tribes, yet these constant fights were so the most important Hephthalite emperors of the costly that they weakened the empire to the core, time, Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the and this eventually led to the downfall of the advice of his ministers. The Huns came back to Gupta Empire. As the western frontiers of India haunt the empire later and finally drew the and areas adjoining the Indus river were under the curtains on this illustrious empire in circa 550. The occupation of Huns, skirmishes between Huns and following lines of King Thaneshwar were regular. While and his Sudraka’s Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) aptly brother were busy dealing with the Huns in the sum up the rise and fall in the fortune of the west, king Prabhakarana died in Thaneshwar. He Gupta Dynasty. was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.

AFTER HIS BROTHER’S DEATH, AT THE AGE OF 16, Emperor Harshavardhana, better known HARSHAVARDHANA BECAME THE UNDISPUTED as Harsha, lived from 590 to 647 CE and was the RULER OF THANESHWAR AND DECLARED WAR ON third ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great SASAKA TO AVENGE HIS BROTHER AND empire in ancient India before the Islamic EMBARKED UPON A CAMPAIGN OF DIGVIJAY, I.E. Invasion. He ruled from 606 CE to 647 CE. After TO CONQUER THE WORLD. Harshavardhana’s death, however, the Vardhana dynasty came to an end and its empire dissolved. Meanwhile, in the east far greater events were happening which altered the course of history. India, the land beyond the Indus river, has seen Sasaka, king of Gauda, modern-day Bengal, many rulers who dreamt of conquering the vast marched and killed king Grahvarmana, Rajyashri’s

Pscnotes.com Page 27

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 husband, and then kidnapped her. The kidnapping Harsha entered a peace treaty with the Chalukya of his sister forced the elder Vardhana brother to king, which established Narmada river as the march east and confront Sasaka. Sasaka then southern boundary of his empire and after that he invited Rajyavardhana for a meeting and never advanced south again. Yet, this did not halt treacherously killed him. After his brother’s death, his conquest of the north. He took the title at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the of sakal uttara patha natha (lord of northern undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar and India). Hieun Tsang tells us that: declared war on Sasaka to avenge his brother and embarked upon a campaign of Digvijay, i.e. He waged incessant warfare, until in six years he to conquer the world (which in this context means had fought thr five Indians(referring to five largest conquering whole India). Yet, his foremost enemy kingdoms). Then, having enlarges his territory, he was now Sasaka who had to face an angry increased his army, bringing the elephant corps brother’s wrath. Harsha issued a proclamation to upto 60,000 and the cavalry upto 100,000, and all kings known to either declare allegiance to him reigned in peace for thirty years without raising a or face him on the battlefield. As Sasaka’s enemies weapon (Majumdar, 252). responded to Harsha’s call, he marched on to Yet many historians believe his claim may be Kannuaj. exaggerated. Still, this gives a glimpse of his Although there is no evidence, a story in military prowess. Harshacharitra claims that Rajyashri, when The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive released from prison, took refuge in the forest of types of territories: areas directly under Harsha's Vindhyas. Hearing this, Harsha hurriedly went into rule such as Central Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, the forest to save her and found her just when she Kalinga, , and the states and kingdoms was about to commit suicide by throwing herself which had become feudatories under him in a fire. Rescuing his sister, he rejoined his army including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, at the bank of Ganges. After this, Harsha easily (modern-day Assam). Thus, many conquered Kannauj as Sasaka went back to historians do not find the title justified as he was Bengal, and thus began a long enmity. It was only never able to bring the entire north under a single after Sasaka’s death that Harsha was able to command. Yet, this does not mean his power was control entire eastern India including Magadha, not felt beyond the limits of his direct rule. His Bengal and Kalinga. writ ran across entire north India. Under his Harsha’s Digvijay, or the conquest of the world command, King of Jalandhar escorted the Chinese had now begun. After Kannauj, he turned his traveller Hiuen Tsang to the frontiers of India. attention towards Gujarat. He defeated the local Another time, king of Kashmir had to submit a Valabhi kingdom and expanded his empire. Yet, tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha. The Chinese this rapid expansion led to tensions between him source suggests that the King of Kamarupa could and the Chalukya king Pulakesin II. It was now that not dare to detain a Chinese pilgrim in his capital the most powerful kingdoms of northern and against the wishes of Harsha. southern India came face-to-face on the ART & EDUCATION battlefield on the banks of river Narmada. In the end, the southerners under the able leadership of Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He Pulakesin II prevailed leaving the ambitious himself was an author and wrote northern ruler, Harsha, defeated. They say Harsha three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, lost his cheer when he saw his elephants dying in Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his revenue went for the battle. patronizing scholars. Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University

Pscnotes.com Page 28

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 which was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign. He clothing were distributed in charity. Every five described how the regularly laid-out towers, years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the forests of pavilions, temples seemed to "soar ancient city of Allahabad. Here, he held the above the mists in the sky" so that from their cells ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for the monks "might witness the birth of the winds three months. During this, most of the wealth and clouds". accumulated in the last five years was exhausted. The pilgrim states: Once, he even gave his clothes and jewellery and begged his sister for an ordinary garment to wear. An azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; DEATH & LEGACY the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of offer the inhabitants their dense and protective feudalism in India. Land was granted in villages, shade (Grousset,158,159). which made the local landlords powerful. This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to In its heyday, Nalanda had around 10,000 students local feuds. Harsha had to be in constant and 2,000 teachers. The admission process was movement to keep things in order. very strict. Records say there was a rigorous oral examination conducted by gatekeepers, and many Harsha died in 647 AD, and the empire with used to be rejected. The curriculum him. The death of Harshavardhana is not well included , Buddhism, philosophy, , documented. It is said that he was married to urban planning, medicine, law, astronomy, etc. Durgavati and had two sons named Vagyavardhana and Kalyanvardhana. The story SOCIETY & RELIGION goes that they were killed by a minister in his court, even before the death of Harsha himself. Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They Therefore, Harsha died without any heir. As a were divided into four or varna: Brahmana, result, , one of the chief ministers took up Vaishya,Kshariya and Shudra, which among them the thrones. Later in 648 CE, Arjuna was captured had their own subcastes. The untouchables, who and held prisoner in an attack by the Tibetians. came at the lowest in the hierarchy, led a miserable life. The status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times. Satipratha (widow immolation) was The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, common, and widow remarriage was not allowed who was first feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. in higher castes. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini () Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the beginning there. but later became a Mahayana Buddhist. Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths. With a view to succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya helped his popularize and propagate the doctrines of overlord the Pallava king against the Mahayana Buddhism, Harsha arranged at Kannauj Pandyas but soon defeated him and annexed the a great assembly which was presided over by whole of the Pallava kingdom. Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang took a lot of By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had manuscripts to China and translated more than defeated the Pallavas completely and weakened 600 of them from Sanskrit. Another great the Pandyas capturing the Tamil country ceremony was held for 75 days at Prayag (Tondamandala) and including it under their (Allahabad). The images of Buddha, Sun and Siva domination He then became a sovereign ruler. The were worshiped, and gifts of valuable articles and

Pscnotes.com Page 29

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II gave his daughter in also encouraged Sri Mara marriage to Aditya. Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist at Negapatam. He erected many Shiva temples. He was This vihara was called ‘Chudamani Vihara’ after succeeded in 907 A.D. by , the first the father of Sri Mara. Rajaraja was succeeded by important ruler of the Cholas. Parantaka I was an his son Rajendra I in 1014 A.D. He ruled jointly ambitious ruler and engaged himself in wars of with his father for a few years. He also followed a conquest from the beginning of his reign. He policy of conquest and annexation adopted by his conquered from the Pandya ruler father and further raised the power and prestige Rajasimha II. He assumed the title of of the Cholas. He followed the expansionist policy Maduraikonda (captor of Madurai). and made extensive conquests in Ceylon.

He, however, lost to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna The Pandya and Kerala country after being III at the battle of Tokkolam in 949 A. D. The conquered was constituted as a viceroyalty under Cholas had to cede Tondamandalam to the the Chola king with the title of Chola-Pandya. adversary. At that point of time the Chola kingdom Madurai was its headquarters. Proceeding through almost ceased to exist. It was a serious setback to Kalinga, Rajendra I attacked Bengal and defeated the rising Chola power. The revival of Chola power the Pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D. But he began from the accession of Parantaka II who annexed no territory in north India. recovered Tondamandalam to reestablish dominance of the dynasty. To commemorate the occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (the Chola The climax in Chola power was achieved under the conqueror of Ganga). He built the new capital near successor of Parantaka II, Arumolivarman, who the mouth of the Kaveri and called it crowned himself as Rajaraja I in 985 A D the next Gangaikondacholapuram (the city of the Chola thirty years of his rule formed the formative conqueror of the Ganga). periodof Chola imperialism. With his naval forces, he invaded Malaya The Chola kingdom grew under him into an Peninsula and Empire that extended over extensive and well-knit empire, efficiently Sumatra, and the neighbouring islands and organized and administered and possessing a controlled the overseas trade route to China. He powerful standing army and navy. Rajaraja began sent two diplomatic missions to China for political his conquests by attacking the confederation as well as commercial purposes. between the rulers of the Pandya and Kerala kingdoms and of Ceylon. Polonnaruva became the Rajendra was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja I in capital of Chola province in North Ceylon after the 1044 A.D. He was also an able ruler. He put down defeat of Mahinda V, the Ceylonese king. the hostile forces in Ceylon and suppressed the rebellious Pandyas and subjugated their territory. He also annexed the Maldives. Elsewhere, several He celebrated his victory by performing parts of modern Mysore were conquered and Virabhisheka (coronation of the victor) at Kalyani annexed which intensified their rivalry with the after sacking Kalyani and assumed the title of Chalukyas. Rajaraja built the magnificent Shiva Vijayarajendra. He lost his life in the battle with temple of Brihadeshwara or Rajaraja temple at the Chalukyan king Someswara I at Koppam. His Thanjavur which was completed in 1010. It is brother Rajendra II succeeded him. He continued considered a remarkable piece of architecture in his struggle against Someswara. South Indian style. He defeated Someswara in the battle of Kudal Sangamam. Next came Virarajendra I, he too

Pscnotes.com Page 30

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 defeated the Chalukyas and erected a pillar of Even if the Cholas, had not built anything else, just victory on the banks of Tungabhadra. Virarajendra the Brihadeeswara Temple would have been died in 1070 A.D. He was succeeded by Kulottunga enough. I mean just consider the facts, built fully I (1070-1122 A.D.) the great-grandson of Rajaraja of granite, finished within 5 years, that was quite I. He was the son of Rajendra Narendra of fast for that period. And then you have the vimana and Chola princess Ammangadevi (daughter of that towers to around 216 ft, and this is just awe Rajendra Chola I). Thus united the inspiring, on top of the tower, you have a kalasam, two kingdoms of the of Vengi made out of a single block of stone, that weighs and the Cholas of Thanjavur. around 20 tonnes, and was lifted to the top using an inclined plane that covered 6.44 km from the The most important reforms carried out by him in ground to the top. The Cholas built big, their the internal administration was the re- surveyal of structures were meant to tower, to inspire awe, to land for taxation and revenue purposes. He was take away the breath. It was not just the grand also titled Sungam tavirtta (he who abolished buildings, it was also the sculpture and art that tolls). The Chola authority in Ceylon was adorned them, which was equally breath taking. overthrown by Vijayababu, the monarch of Ceylon during Kulottunga’s reign. He sent a large embassy The other magnificient structures built by the of 72 merchants to China and also maintained Cholas, were the temple at cordial relations with Sri Vijaya. Gangaikondacholapuram, which is next only to the Brihadeesvara temple at Tanjore, in size, grandeur He defeated the rulers of the Pandya kingdom and and architectural excellence. that of Kerala. Thfe Chola Empire continued for more than a century after him. Weak rulers And also the Airavateswara temple at Darasuram, succeeded him. The Cholas and the later dedicated to Lord Shiva, and so called, because it Chalukyas clashed for the overlordship of Vengi, is believed that the Shiva Linga here was the Tungabhadra and the Ganga country. worshipped by 's elephant Airavat.

The Chola Empire continued in a flourishing The Chola period also witnessed a glorious phase condition during the twelfth century but declined in bronze casting, and making of idols. The bronze by the end of the thirteenth century. The Pandyan idols of the Chola period, were more expressive in king Sundara rendered the final blow by seizing nature, and devoid of too many intricate Kanchi in 1297 A.D. The place of the Cholas was ornaments or designs. The bronze idol of , taken over by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas. This the dancing form of Shiva, represents the artistic marked the end of the Chola power. excellence during that era.

Architecture and Art Administration: One of the largest in Indian history, that stretched till South East Asia, the Cholas used their It was not just the fact that they built magnificent immense wealth, in building magnificent temples temples or made exquisite idols, the Cholas also and structures. It would be an understatement to came up with an excellent system of governance call the architecture of the Chola period as grand, and administration. While it was a monarchy, like it was more like grandiose and towering. The most other kingdoms of that era, there was a sheer size of their temples, the towering vimanas, serious attempt to decentralize, and provide self the sculpted walls, just every aspect of their government right at the local level. The empire monuments displayed grandeur. And of course was divided into provinces called Mandalams, nothing to beat the Brihadeswara Temple at and each of those Mandalams, further into Thanjavur, that is a benchmark by itself in Kottams, which again had districts, called Nadus, architectural excellence. that had Tehsils usually a group of villages. While

Pscnotes.com Page 31

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the the Sri Vijaya kingdom under Sailendra, now in main capitals, there also existed regional capitals , by Raja Raja Chola's successor Rajendra at Kanchi and Madurai, where courts were Chola. Having possesion of the East and West occasionally held. coasts of India, the Cholas had a thriving international trade with the in China, Their major achievement though was the local self the Srivijaya empire in Malayan archipelago and government during their times, where villages had the Abbasid in Baghdad. The Cholas also their own self governance. Depending on the area combated sea piracy succesfully in the Malayan they covered, villages again could be Nadu, archipelago, and had a close trade with the Song Kottram or Kurram, and a number of Kurrams dynasty in China, that led to advances in ship made up a Valanadu. The village units had the building. power to administer at the local level, and for most crimes, fines were imposed, which went While the King was the supreme commander of to the state treasury. Death penalty was given the Navy, it had a highly organized structure, that only for crimes that amounted to treason. was divided into Ganams a Fleet squadron, usually commanded by a Ganapathy. And there was a Economy hierarchical ranking structure, below the King, that Chola period had a robust and thriving economy, consisted of Jalathipathi(Admiral), Nayagan( Fleet that was built on 3 tiers. At the local level, it was Commander), Ganathipathy(rear admiral), agricultural settlements, that formed the Mandalathipathy(vice admiral) and Kalapathy( the foundation, on top of this you had the Nagarams ship captain). You also had separate departments or the commercial towns, that primarily acted as for customs excise(Thirvai), inspection and audits( centers of distribution for items produced Aaivu) and an intelligence corps( Ootru). The externally and by local artisans for international Cholas also had their own coast guard equivalent trade. The top most layer was made of in Karaipiravu. And this would be one of their "samayams" or merchant guilds, who organized finest achievements, building a world class naval and looked after the thriving international structure. maritime trade. With agriculture being the occupation of a large number of people, land Literature revenue was a major source of income to the Often called as the Golden Age of Tamil culture, it treasury. The Cholas also built a large number of was one of the greatest literary eras in history tanks, wells, and a large number of channels to equivalent to the Elizabethean reign in England or distribute water. They had also built stone the Guptas in Northern India. Nambi Andar masonry dams over the Kaveri, and there was a collected the various works on Saivism and thriving internal trade going on too. arranged them into eleven books called , and another great work of literature Naval and Maritime Trade. was the adaptation of the into Tamil by The Chola period would be noted for it's emphasis Kamban, called as the Ramavatharam. The period on maritime trade and conquest, they excelled in also saw excellent works on Tamil grammar like ship building. While they had a strong internal Yapperungalam by Jain ascetic and Virasoliyam maritime system, the Imperial Chola Navy came that attempts to find a balance between Tamil and into during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I, Sanskrit grammar by Buddhamitra. who strengthened it. Raja Raja Chola's use of the Navy to subdue the Sinhalese king Mahinda, would be one of the greatest naval victories ever. Another major achievement was the conquest of

Pscnotes.com Page 32

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Civilization and Culture of the Pallavas . It is consistent with the Tamil tradition and Tamil ego against the Northern Ramayana by The Pallava rule formed a golden epoch in the . The Buddhist literary work cultural . The period under "Manimekhala" and the Jaina poetical work the Pallavas was marked by considerable literary "Shibaga sindamani" etc. also flourished during activities and cultural revival. The Pallavas warmly the period. patronized Sanskrit language and most of the literary records of the time were composed in that The devotional songs composed by Vaishnava language. Due to the cultural renaissance and a Alavaras and the Saiva Nayanaras also shared a great revival of the Sanskrit language a galaxy of significant position in the cultural renaissance of scholars flourished during the Pallava era, which the Pallava period. Appar, Sambandhar, accentuated the literary and cultural development Manikkabsagar, Sundar were some of the in Southern India. Tradition referred that devotional poets who composed Tamil Simhavishnu, the Pallava king invited the great or hymns. Siva was the object of worship poet Bharvi to adorn his court. Dandin, the master and love. Since the Pallava kings were great of Sanskrit prose probably lived in the court of musicians themselves they were the great patrons Narasimhavarmana II. Under the royal patronage, of music. Several celebrated musical treatise were Kanchi became the seat of Sanskrit language and also composed under their patronage. During the literature. The core of learning and education, time painting also received a great patronage from Kanchi became the point of attraction for the the Pallava kings. Specimen of the Pallava painting literary scholars. Dinanaga, Kalidasa, Bharvi, has been found in the Pudukottai State. Varahamihir etc were the distinguished person with enormous talent in the Pallava country. Not Civilization of the Pallava period was greatly only the Sanskrit literature, the Tamil literature influenced by the religious reform movement that also received a huge impetus during the Pallava swept over India during the eighth century. The period. "Maatavailasa Prahasana", written by wave of the reform movement was originated in Mahendravarmana became very popular. The the Pallava kingdom first. The Pallavas completed famous Tamil classic "Tamil Kural was composed the Aryanisation of Southern India. The Jains who during the period under the royal patronage. had entered south India earlier had set up Madurai became a great center of the Tamil educational centers at Madurai and Kanchi. They literature and culture. The Tamil grammar also made a massive use of Sanskrit, Prakrit and "Talakappiam" and Tamil versical compilation Tamil as the medium of their preaching. But in the "Ettalogai" etc were composed during the period. competition with the growing popularity of the These were of immense literary importance. Brahmanical Hinduism, Jainism lost its prominence in the long run. From the 6th century AD, due to the Sanskrit revival, long poetical composition replaced the Mahendravarmana lost interest in Jainism and earlier style of the short poetry. Poetry was became a staunch follower and patron of Saivism. written according to the taste of the sophisticated Consequently Jainism began to fade out and and aristocratic people of the society. The continued in diminishing glory in centers like "Silappadigaram" is one of such work suited to the Pudukottai and in the hilly and forest regions. taste of the sophisticated, educated people of the Pallava era. One of the most important literary Buddhism, which had earlier penetrated in the works of the time was "Ramayanam" by Kaban. south, fought against invading Brahmanism in the This is known as the Tamil form and version of monasteries and public debates. The Buddhist Ramayana, where the character of was scholars debated finer points of theology with painted with all the noble virtues in comparison to

Pscnotes.com Page 33

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Brahmanical scholars and mostly lost the ground.

The civilization of the Pallava period was marked Rajrishitulya kul by the tremendous ascendancy of the Hinduism, Rajrishitulya kul dynasty ruled over the south which has been branded by the modern historians Kaushal. They ruled from 5th to 6th century AD. as the victory of the northern Aryanism. It is said From the bronze inscription it is known that they that the influx of the mlechcha Sakas, Huns and followed Gupt samvata. This shows that accepted the Kushanas in Northern India had polluted the the supremacy of the Gupta Dynasty. significance of the Vedic rites and religion. In order to protect the purity of Vedic religion many There are six known rulers of the Rajrishikulya Brahmins migrated to Southern India and Dynasty. They are all follows: preached the Vedic Religion. Henceforth the civilization of Deccan or southern India was mostly 1. Sur influenced by the Brahmanical Hinduism. Pallavas 2. Dayit I became the patrons of the orthodox Vedic 3. Vibhishan preachers. The performance of the horse sacrifices 4. Buimsen I by the Pallava rulers testified the ascendancy of 5. Dayitverman II the Vedic civilization. The success of Hinduism was 6. Bhimesen II mostly caused by the royal patronage to this religion. Sanskrit was the vehicle of the Nal Dynasty Brahmanical thought. Hence both the Brahmanical religion and Sanskrit literature made a great Nal Dyansty ruled over the south Kaushal in the progress during the Pallava period. Several centers present day Bastar area. They ruled from 5th to for the Brahmanical study sprang up. These study 12th century. From the Rajim Inscription it is centers were closely connected with the temple known that was the founder of Nal Dyansty. premises and were known as Ghetikas. The study of the Brahmanical scriptures and literatures was Nal dynasty ruler Bhavdat verman and Skanda the order of the day. The Pallava kings in order to vermin has made Pushkari the capital city. promote the Brahmanical civilization made land Vilas Tung was the ruler of Nal Dynasty, he made grants or agraharas to the maintenance of the the Rajiv Lochan temple. educational institutions. In the 8th century AD, another significant Hindu institution called Nals were the contemporary of Vakatakas and or monasteries were in vogue. They were a Bastar was the centre of their power. Nal lost their combination of temple, rest houses, educational power after defeating from Somvanshis. centers, debating and discoursing centers and the feeding Houses. The university of Kanchi became the spearhead of Aryan-Brahmanical influences of Sharabpuriya Dynasty the South. Kanchi was regarded as one of the sacred cities of the Hindus. The Pallava king It was established in 6th century. Sharabh, the though mainly were the worshippers of Vishnu father of Narendra has established this dynasty. and Siva, they were tolerant towards other religious creeds. Although the religions like Sharbhpur was the capital of this dynasty, which is Buddhism and Jainism lost its former significance near to Sirpur(Raipur district). There are two during the Pallava era, yet the civilization of the bronze inscription in Pipardula(Sanrangarh) and Pallava period was marked by the multiethnicity second Kurud(Raipur). These two inscription promoted by the Pallava kings. writes about Narendra’s kindness and his donation to poor. There is another ruler from this dynasty,

Pscnotes.com Page 34

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Prashanna, who started gold coins and established The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Prashanapur near the banks of river Nidila. Shivgupta, Mahashivgupta, Bhimrath II, Sharbhpur, Shripur and Prashanpaur are written in Dharmaratha, Nahutha, Yayati and Chandihar. bronze inscription. Sudevraj established Shripur. In Kalchuris continuously attacked on their kingdom. 6th century Sharabpuriya dynasty came to known This has shaken their kingdom. as Amaryakul dynasty. Armed rebellion in against the British in Karnataka

Pandu Dynasty

The first ruler of this dynasty was Udayan. Other rulers are Indrabal, Ishandev, Rankemedi and Bhavdev.

Tivardev made Pandu dynasty a strong kingdom. He was the follower of . He adopted Kosalapati title after winning over Kaushal, Utkal and some other Mandals.

Mahanabhdev was the son of Tivardev. He started calling himself as somvanshis. In various inscription it could easily be seen. They patronized all the religions including Buddhists. Many scripture and are found recently found in recent historical search. Four Bronze inscription of Ballarjuna have been found from bardula, Lodhia, Mallar and Bonda.

Somvanshi

Somvanshi ruled in south Kaushal from 9th to 11th century.

They considered themselves as the rulers of Kaushal, Utkal and Kalinga. They have adopted Trikalingadhipati title as well.

In their coin image of Rajlakskmi could be seen easily.

Pscnotes.com Page 35

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The micro-stories from different parts of Karnataka during the early decades of 19th century give us an indication of the wide-spread nature of anti-colonial struggles in different parts of India. Clearly they had spread among commoners and gentry and a national anti- colonial consciousness had seeped down to the remotest village.

After the defeat and Tipu’s death in the battle field in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799), Karnataka was literally torn asunder between the British presidencies of Bombay and Madras; Nizam of and Marathas. A small dependency was created under the tutelage of Wodeyars as the , which increased the land

Pscnotes.com Page 36

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 revenue and the burden on peasantry in an Venkatadri Nayak (1803) arbitrary manner to satisfy British demands. This led to uprisings in kingdom of Mysore as well as areas of Karnataka which had now been brought Aigur (Ballam) Venkatadri Nayak was another under, Nizam, and British rule. A few of leader who started his revolt when the British them are briefly described below: were tied down by Dhondiya Wagh. His father Krishnappa Nayak, was made the ruler of Aigur by . But Krishnappa betrayed him and joined the Marathas in 1792 and helped the British. After Dhondiya Wagh (1800): the war he was scared of Tipu and ran away to Kodagu (Coorg). However Tipu did not punish him One of the first to revolt against the new but instead reinstated him. On Tipu’s defeat in arrangement was Dhondiya Wagh. He was born in 1799, Krishnappa’s son Venkatadri Nayak became the ruler of Aigur. He was ambitious and started Chennagiri near Mysore. He joined Hyder Ali’s cavalry in 1780. Later he developed differences expanding his territory. Venkatadri Nayak with Tipu, who incarcerated him. Hence British captured Subrahmanya , a crucial pass in the soldiers found Dhondiya in Srirangapattana’s Sahyadris with access to . He attacked prison when they ransacked the city after the the British troops at Arakere and also defeated a 2500 strong army sent by Wodeyar of Mysore. death of Tipu. Dhondiya was released, who however immediately vanished and tried to gather Venkatadri Nayak came to be known as the Bull the demobilised Tipu’s soldiers. Very soon he built Raja and Ballam Raja. Wellesley took his revolt up a significant armed force with a cavalry etc. He very seriously and made an elaborate plan to kept moving from territory to territory and capture him by getting troops from Mangalore as capturing small towns and forts that had been well as Bombay, Bidnur and Sondha. The British taken over by Marathas, British and the Nizam. tried to organise all the Patels of surrounding villages against him and also terrorised the Tipu’s son Fateh Hyder supported him and Tipu’s population by executing many of his sympathisers. former soldiers were the core of his forces which at one point grew to over 70,000 with a 30,000 strong cavalry. The British troops were led by Col, Stevenson, Col Wellesly, Col Tolin, Col Mclean, Col Veerappa (1819): Darlymple. The heroic campaign lasted from June

1799 to September 1800. In the end Dhondiya was As mentioned earlier Karnataka was torn asunder cornered by British, Maratha and Nizam’s troops between Nizam, Marathas and the British after and fell for a bullet in the battle at Konegal. Tipu’s defeat. The North eastern parts were taken British historians have painted him as "rogue over by Nizam, who put unbearable burden on the bandit”, whereas Dhondiya himself had the title of peasantry. The Nizam was totally under British “lord of both the worlds” among his people. control with the signed in Edward Clive a British officer later admired his 1800. Even though Veerappa’s rebellion was organising ability and said “what started as an confined to a small area around Koppal, it anarchic revolt became a major international represented a popular peasant revolt and inspired war”. Nationalist historians have described him as, many more in the region. “a person with great determination and a magnetic personality”.

Pscnotes.com Page 37

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Deshmukhs of (1820) British were able to intercept her on her way and capture her. She was imprisoned in Bailhongal prison. After incarceration of four years After Tipu’s defeat the remnants of the old Chennamma died in prison on February 3, 1829. Bahmani Kingdom of Bidar too were incorporated The countryside was full of rebellion for into Nizam’s rule and burdened with heavy over five years. The leader of this rebellion was taxation. As a result revolts started appearing in Rani Chennamma’s ardent admirer Rayanna of 1820 in Udgir. Using Suliyal as their base the local Sangolli. Deshmukhs led by Shivalingayya, Tirumal Rao and Meghsham led this revolt. Hence this revolt is known as the revolt of Deshmukhs. The Nizam relied on British help to suppress the Deshmukhs. Sangolli Rayanna (1829) Lt. Gen. Sutherland was assigned for the same and he defeated them in a campaign lasting two Rayanna was born in a shepherd family in Sangolli, months and imprisoned them. a village in Belgavi district. The family had a fighting tradition and was loyal to the Desais of Kittur. Rayanna fought with the Kittur army in Sindagi Revolt (1824) 1824 and was captured by the British after the defeat of Rani. However soon he was released as a part of British pacification program. His family The popular revolt against the British spread to members had generous tax free lands given as too and in Sindagi, 40 km from Bijapur the Inam by the Desais, for their earlier bravery and local people led by Chidambar Dikshit, his son loyalty. However the Company Sarkar now Diwakar Dikshit and Diwakar’s comrades increased the taxes and eventually confiscated his Shettyappa, Raoji and Rastiya declared lands. sovereignty of people of Sindagi. Rayanna’s revolt inspired other loyalists of Kittur the British were able to capture the leaders and too to rise up time and again. Gurusiddappa, imprison them. The revolt was confined to a Taluk, Shankaranna, Gajapati, Savai Shetti, Kotagi, Shaikh but showed advanced consciousness. Suleiman, Bheemanna, Kaddigudda Balanna, Waddar Yellannaetcled several uprisings against the British in support of Kittur for almost a Rani Chennamma and the Kittur Revolt (1824) decade. The rebels executed the traitors who had betrayed Rayanna and rose up time and gain demonstrating their love and pride for the Rani Rani Chennamma of Kittur is a veritable icon in Chennamma of Kittur. Karnataka and was perhaps one of the first women leaders who fought against . To this day she inspires people. She was born in the Desai family of Kakati, a small village in the Nagar Peasant Revolt (1830-31) wealthy kingdom of Kittur, which stood around 5 km north of Belgavi in Karnataka. Nagar comprised of the taluks of Sagar, Nagar, Kittur was a principality (samsthana) covering Kowlidurga, Koppa, Lakwally, Sorab, Shikarpur, large parts of Dharwad and Belgavi districts and Shivamogga, Honnaly, Harihar, Chennagiri, was paying tributes to Marathas after the fall of , Kadur, and Chickamagalur. Besides, there Tipu. However after the fall of Marathas in 1818, were 5277 villages, 1277 hamlets. Its population Kittur came under British rule. was 459,842. The dynasty ruled this region

Pscnotes.com Page 38

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 and gained respect and prestige through an independent distinguished rule from the There were widespread uprisings against heavy Vijaynagar times to late 18th century when they taxation in the coastal regions of Karnataka. These were taken over by Hyder Ali and Tipu. The region regions had first protested the taxes earlier in had a fighting tradition. When the Wodeyars and 1809-1810. The later agitations learnt from this Diwan Poornaiah were installed in Mysore by East and were consequently more India Company after Tipu’s defeat, the region audacious. came under heavy taxation. In fact nearly 60% of the Kingdom’s revenues were coming from this The documents of Company have called region alone. After suffering from the duo’s these revolts as Koota revolts. Kootaswere general arbitrariness for three decades, 1800-1830, the assemblies of people of a village or town, where region was ripe for rebellion against the Wodeyars they asserted their sovereignty, and hence a form and their protectors—the “Company Sarkar”. of direct democracy.

The administration was entirely corrupt and filled The signs of the peasant unrest could be seen in with nepotism and casteism. The local Nayak’s and the closing months of 1830, when the ryots gave Patels and ryots were fed up of this state of affairs general petitions complaining of their losses. But and the heavy tax burden. This situation was they developed and came to the fore in the utilised by Boodi Basavappa, who assumed beginning months of 1831. The ryots of Kasargod, leadership of the uprising and declared himself the Kumbla, Mogral, Manjeshwar, Bungra new ruler. He declared sovereignty and pardoned Manjeshawar and Talapady sent general arzees the heavy taxes and peasant debt to Sahukars (petitions) and complaints of their losses to (money lenders). Dickinson the Collector of South Kanara. The result was one of the largest peasant revolts The peasant rebellion that surfaced in the month in . of November 1830 continued up to the end of As the Wodeyar’s Government was corrupt, no March 1831. It was after Cameron’s promise control was exercised over the district officers. (March 1831) to the riots that their petitions Naturally the people were enraged by the unjust would be considered and remissions would be and arbitrary acts of those officers. There was no made after an examination of their losses to process in the country which required public redress their hardships that they dispersed and servants to hear the complaints of the ryots. This stopped organising the Kootas. Thus by April 1831 was the fertile ground for the insurrection in 1830. the rumblings of Koota rebellions died down.

The rebellion was spontaneous and did not have a Backward Class movement visionary leadership but it however demonstrated Some of the most important backward class the widespread anger among different sections of movement in India are as follows: Kannadigas against the British rule and as well as their puppets like the Wodeyars and Poornaiah.  Shodhak Samaj The Company however used the occasion to  Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam further strip any element of autonomy from the Movement Wodeyars and Governor General William  Justice Party Bentinck, appointed commissioners to administer  The Self-respect Movement. the region. Satya Shodhak Samaj

In Western India, Jyotirao Govindrao Phule Coastal Uprisings (1830-31) struggled for the upliftment of lower castes

Pscnotes.com Page 39

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 through his Satya Shodhak Samaj. Belonging to the In reaction to the incipient nationalist movement, Mali caste, which supplies flowers to the ’s represented by the nineteenth century Hindu family, he had suffered humiliation, which made revivalism, which led to improving the position of him to turn against caste inequalities. He strongly the Brahmin caste, the non- Brahmins of Madras criticized the Brahmanical domination in the name Presidency sought to ally with the colonial regime, of religion. He was also critic of Indian National hoping that foreign rule would protect their Congress for neglecting the weaker sections. position and somewhat neutralize power differences within the population. Mindful of the The aim of his organization was to achieve social importance of literacy as the base of the justice for weaker sections of the society. He Brahmins’ virtual monopoly of government offices, opened a number of schools, orphanages for the the non-Brahmin elite sought to advance their children and women belonging to all castes. He communities through education. was elected as a member of the Poona Municipal committee in 1876. His writ•ings include Dharma Dr T.M. Nair, P. Thyagaraja Chetty, and C.N. Tritiya Ratna, Ishara, Life of , etc. Mudaliar came together and founded the Justice Party in 1916. It was resolved to form an In 1888, he was honored with the title of association of non-Brahman Hindus under the Mahatma. Soon Dr B.R. Ambedkar took up the name of South Indian Peoples’ Association. Chetty mantle of fighting for the cause of depressed asked all non-Brahmins to unite and draw the castes in the twentieth century as part of Indian attention of the government to the grievances National Movement. His efforts culminated in the voiced in the Manifesto. form of enactment of the reservation system for socially underprivileged sections in the He said, “Let all non-Brahmins do everything . needful to ensure a continued educational, social, political, and economic development as broad and Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam enduring basic; and, then, their future as British Movement: The non-Brahmin movement found subjects will be brighter and more prosperous reflection in Kerala under the leadership of Shri than it is today.” who belonged to the backward Ezhava caste. He established the SNDP Yogam With the proclamation of the non-Brahmin with its branches outside the Kerala State also. He Manifesto, it was argued that an association for launched a two-point program for the upliftment the political advancement of the non-Brahmin of the Ezhavas to root out-the practice of community should also be formed to function untouchability. alongside the South Indian Peoples’ Association. In August 1917, the South Indian Liberal Federation As a second step Narayana Guru built a number of came into existence. temples, which were declared open to all castes. He also simplified rituals regarding marriage, It was announced that the Justice Party’s objective religious worship, and funerals. Narayana Guru was justice for all Dravidians through the achieved a notable success in transforming the establishment of a separate state under the untouchable groups into a backward class. He watchful guidance of the British rule. His , criticized Gandhi for his faith in Chaturvarna, how•ever, was influenced by the immediate which he considered the parent of the caste practicalities of securing required reforms for the system and untouchability. He gave a new slogan betterment of the non-Brahmin community. “one religion, one caste and one God for mankind”. The Self-respect Movement

Justice Party

Pscnotes.com Page 40

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Self-respect Movement was founded by Miller Committee Report Ramaswamy Naicker in 1925. It was designed to improve the living conditions of the Dravidian This Committee was appointed on 23rd August people, to expose the Brahmin tyranny, and the 1918 by the then of of deceptive methods by which they controlled all Mysore which is now called as Karanataka. The spheres of Hindu life. Maharaja believed in mass representation of non- Brahmins in the service ofthe state. Surprisingly He organized the “ Conference” for Dewan Sir M.Vishvesvaraiah who was himself an the advocacy of a separate and independent enlightened person advocating meritocracy, “Dravida Nation”. The demand was reiterated the opposed the view of the Maharaja. Finally the following year in response to the Maharaja appointed this committee under the Resolution passed by the Muslim League chairmanship of Sir Leslie Miller, the then 'Chief demanding the cre•ation of Pakistan. Judge of the Chief Court of Mysore' to recommend/advise the necessary steps to be Naicker supported the creation of Pakistan and taken for the adequate representation of deprived tried to enlist the support of the Muslim League communities in the public service. for the creation of the “Dravida Nation”. The basic presup•position of the movement toward a The committee maintained that again under the separate nation was that the Dravidian non- present system of Government, the officers ofthe Brahmin peoples were of different racial stock and Government in the higher grades of service have culture from that of the Aryan Brahman. necessarily much influenced in framing the policy of administration and the efficiency of services In 1944, Naicker founded the Dravida Kazagham viewed as machines for securing the even and and asked the members to wear black shirts uniform progress of the state is likely to be whenever possible to symbolize the present day increased by the presence in their ranks of officers downtrodden condition of the Dravidians. The of different communities. organization of the party was to be based upon units in each village, taluq and district. The committee's view with reference to field level jobs in the government service is - "It is these The main objective of the Dravida Kazagham was officers who come most frequently in contact, in proclaimed to be the achievement of a sovereign, their official capacity, with all classes of the state independent Dravidian Republic federal in nature and, from the point of view of general with four units representing the linguistic division, administration, it seems desirable that in these each division having residuary power and the grades a full representation of all important autonomy in the matter of internal administration. communities should be found".

It would be an egalitarian society to which the Chalukyas depressed and downtrodden could pledge allegiance. Naicker called upon the people to The was an Indian royal dynasty renounce all the titles conferred upon them by the that ruled large parts of southern and central India British. This increased the Dravida Kazagham’s between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During popularity among the masses. this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known The principal objective of Naicker was to remove as the " Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi all “superstitious beliefs” based on religions. No (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th member was allowed to wear any religious marks century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert on the forehead. He called upon the non-Brahmin their independence at the decline of the Kadamba community to boycott Brahmins at ceremonies. kingdom of and rapidly rose to

Pscnotes.com Page 41

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After Chalukyas of kalyani the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the over 200 years of dormancy when much of the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being debated. One theory, based on contemporary revived by their descendants, the Western literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, ) until the end of the 12th century. suggests that the Western Chalukya kings The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important belonged to the same family line as the illustrious milestone in the history of South India and a Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century while golden age in the . The other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence political atmosphere in South India shifted from indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the smaller kingdoms to large empires with the Early Chalukyas. ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern Chalukyas of vengi India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri Chalukyas of Vengi Main article: Eastern Chalukyas and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas corresponding to the coastal districts of modern trade and commerce and the development of new Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of style of architecture called "Chalukyan the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his architecture". literature, which had brother Kubja as Viceroy in 621. enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Kannada stock. After the death of Pulakeshin II, Western Chalukyas in the Jain and the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of independent kingdom and included the region under the patronage of the between and . Eastern Chalukyas. Architecture during chalukyas Chalukayas of badami The Badami Chalukya era was an important period In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta in the development of South Indian architecture. dynasty and their immediate successors in The kings of this dynasty were called Umapati northern India, major changes began to happen in Varlabdh and built many temples for the Hindu the area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and god Shiva. Their style of architecture is called Tamilaham. The age of small kingdoms had given "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida way to large empires in this region. The Chalukya architecture". Nearly a hundred monuments built dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543. by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in in the Malaprabha river basin in modern , Karnataka) under his control and district of northern Karnataka. The building made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his material they used was a reddish-golden descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Sandstone found locally. These cave temples are Badami". They ruled over an empire that basically excavations, cut out of the living rock comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most sites they occupy. They were not build as their of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan. structural counterparts were, rather created by a

Pscnotes.com Page 42

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 special technique known as "subtraction" and are the hall. Other dravida style temples from this basically sculptural. Though they ruled a vast period are the Naganatha Temple at ; the empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple most of their temple building activity in a and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and relatively small area within the Chalukyan the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya heartland – , Badami, and Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state. at Badami. Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Their temple building activity can be categorised Badami, with a structure related to the Early into three phases. The early phase began in the Chalukya style is the unusual Temple at last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in Sanduru which dates to the late 7th century. It is many cave temples, prominent among which are medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has a three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one nagara (north Indian) style vimana (tower) and Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is dravida (south Indian) style parts, has no mantapa incomplete), followed by four developed cave (hall) and consists of an antarala (vestibule) temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava crowned with a barrel vaulted tower (sukhanasi). temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE). These cave The "staggered" base plan of the temple became temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a popular much later, in the 11th century. plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah, a The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the columned hall (mantapa) and a cella (shrine, cut 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage deep into rock) which contains the of Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of worship. In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large group of temples at Badami are also from this well sculpted images of , period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in Mahishasuramardhini, , , southern dravida style and four in the northern Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) nagara style. Well known among these are the and Nataraja (dancing Shiva). Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha (where some seventy structures exist and has temple (680) and Temple (740) are been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style. architecture"[109]) and Badami. Though the exact Inscriptional evidence suggests that the dating of these temples has been debated, there is Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were consensus that the beginnings of these commissioned by the two queens of King constructions are from c. 600.These are the Lad Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more Pallavas of . Some well known names accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda. the Meguti (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) period in the development of Deccan architecture. and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya Their architecture served as a conceptual link design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian 8th century and the styles.); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new popularised in the 13th century.The centre of their inclusion, a vestibule, connecting the sanctum to cultural and temple-building activity lay in the

Pscnotes.com Page 43

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was encompassing the present-day ; it anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold included areas of present-day and Gadag that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic districts. Here, large medieval workshops built prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian numerous monuments.These monuments, concept of the Messiah differs significantly from regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, the contemporary Jewish concept. The core defined the Karnata dravida tradition. Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christian doctrine and theology sinful humans can be reconciled to God and Christian doctrine thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible and sacred Death and resurrection tradition on which Christianity is based. Because Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be of these irreconcilable differences in theology and the cornerstone of their faith and the most a lack of consensus on the core tenets of important event in history. Among Christian Christianity, Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are often deny that members of certain other two core events on which much of Christian branches are Christians. doctrine and theology is based. According to the Creeds New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb and rose Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of from the dead three days later. religious beliefs are known as creeds . They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded Salvation during the Christological controversies of the 4th like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as purity and eternal life. For Paul, the necessary definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are with some or all of the substance of the creeds. "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham The Baptists have been non-creedal "in that they and "heirs according to the promise". The God have not sought to establish binding authoritative who raised Jesus from the dead would also give confessions of faith on one another." Its main new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile points include: Christians, who had become with Israel the  Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the "children of God" and were therefore no longer Son of God, and the Holy Spirit "in the flesh.  The death, descent into hell, resurrection Trinity and ascension of Christ  The holiness of the Church and the Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God communion of saints. comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing  Christ's second coming, the Day of persons; the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Judgement and salvation of the faithful. Christ) and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, Jesus although there is no single term in use in Scripture The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in to denote the unified Godhead. In the words of Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of

Pscnotes.com Page 44

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God Baptism and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God. Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Theology of Christianity Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on Sacraments whether the act has any spiritual significance. In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which from the Latin word sacramentum, which was affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a used to translate the Greek word for mystery. person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Views concerning both which rites are Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a external public declaration of the inward change sacrament, vary among Christian denominations which has taken place in the person, but not as and traditions. spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the Liturgical calendar act. These methods are: by immersion; if immersion is total, by submersion; by affusion Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians and (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling). Those traditional Protestant communities frame worship who hold the first view may also adhere to the around the liturgical year. The liturgical cycle tradition of infant baptism; the Orthodox divides the year into a series of seasons, each with Churches all practice infant baptism and always their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, baptize by total immersion repeated three times which can be signified by different ways of in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy decorating churches, colours of paraments and Spirit. The Catholic Church also practices infant vestments for clergy, scriptural readings, themes baptism, usually by affusion, and utilizing the for preaching and even different traditions and Trinitarian formula. practices often observed personally or in the home. Prayer

Symbols Jesus' teaching on prayer in the Sermon on the Mount displays a distinct lack of interest in the Christianity has not generally practiced aniconism, external aspects of prayer. A concern with the or the avoidance or prohibition of types of images, techniques of prayer is condemned as 'pagan', and even if the early Jewish Christians sects, as well as instead a simple trust in God's fatherly goodness is some modern denominations, preferred to some encouraged. Elsewhere in the New Testament this extent not to use figures in their symbols, by same freedom of access to God is also invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry. emphasized. This confident position should be The cross, which is today one of the most widely understood in light of Christian belief in the recognized symbols in the world, was used as a unique relationship between the believer and Christian symbol from the earliest times. Christ through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace The Commissioners Rule (1831-1881) repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.

Pscnotes.com Page 45

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Revenue collection was entrusted to an official called Shirastedar. Mark Cubbon used the native language in the administrative sphere.

Following the annexation of Mysore to English East India Company the British began to administer the state of Mysore from 1831-1881 by Mark Cubbon constructed roads to the length of creating a new office called the office of more than 1,600 miles. The capital city commissioners. Initially the office had two was linked with important places. Telegraphic commissioners-colonels Briggs as the senior wires were strung. The first railway line was laid in commissioner and Lushington as the junior Karnataka which linked Bangalore with Jolarpet commissioner. In 1833 Morrison became the sole (1859). He also encouraged the starting of English commissioner. The two most important medium schools. Mark Cubbon collected revenue commissioners are Sir Mark Cubbon and Bowring. efficiently. In 1834-35 the revenue collection was 68 Lakhs and led to 84 lakhs. In 1854-55 he also settled Rs.80 lakhs which was unpaid tributes to Sir Mark Cubbon (1834-1861) the British and the yearly tribute was also regularly paid. Thus Mark Cubbon developed Mysore by leaps and bounds. During his tenure as a commissioner he laid the first step for Sir Mark Cubbon began his career in the English developing Mysore into a Modern state. An East India Company. In 1834 he was appointed as efficient administrator he was known for his the commissioner of Mysore as he was known for honesty and hard work. When he retired from his honesty and integrity. As the commissioner of office he had saved a large amount of Rs.40 lakhs. Mysore Mark Cubbon worked for its development. The government of Karnataka has honored Mark Cubbon by naming a park after him in Bangalore

namely the Cubbon Park. The first work of Mark Cubbon is that he shifted the capital from Mysore to Bangalore. The state of Mysore under him comprised of four Louis Bentham Bowring (1861-1870) administrative divisions Patana Ashtagrama, Chitra Durga, Nagar and Bangalore. Each of these divisions was headed by a European super intendent Mark Cubbon shifted the secretariat to Bowring Succeeded Mark Cubbon. Tippu’s palace in Bangalore. The secretariat Bowring is the other commissioner of Mysore who comprised of a departments like Revenue, occupies the pride of place along with Sri Mark Military, agriculture, post and soon. The judicial Cubbon. Bowring divided the state of Mysore into administration was recognized. A hierarchy of 3 administrative regions namely Patana courts was established. Munsiff court at the local Ashtagrama, Durga and Nagar. These level, above which were superintending courts regions comprised of 108 Taluks each of which and the Huzur adalat, the commissioner’s court functioned under a Deputy Commissioner. The was the highest court. There was a judicial commissioner’s were in charge of the three main commissioner who assisted Mark Cubbon the divisions and Bowring became the chief comprised of 120 Taluks called Amils commissioner. The department of land survey and each of which functioned under an official called settlement was established. The registration act of Amildar. Below the Amils were groups of villages 1864 required all property transactions to be called Hoblis which functioned under a Hoblidar. registered. The department came to be

Pscnotes.com Page 46

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 established on the lives of the Madras police. New natural phenomena or when he found designations like inspector General of police and complex ad conflicting phenomena in life and Deputy Inspector of police were created. Bowring was filled with discontentment at the existing established the central educational which order of things, it was the beginning of set up schools in English and vernacular philosophy. language’s. Accordingly the Bangalore high school and the central college were established in The Vedas Bangalore. The high court building constructed  The origin of may be during his days became the secretariat. The easily traced in the Vedas. The Vedas are Bangalore museum was constructed by him. the earliest available records of Indian Famine conditions in Bangalore made him literature. construct the miller tank. Hospitals were also  The are the foundation of constructed. The lady Curzon Bowring hospital Indian philosophy, which teach spiritual reminds one of the services rendered by Bowring. and .  The systems of Indian philosophy are systematic speculations on the nature of Bowring was succeeded by Sir Richard Meade, the Realty in harmony with the teachings Saunders and Gordon who occupied office from of Upanishads, which contain various 1870-1881. They are the last Commissioners of aspects of the . They aim at the Mysore. knowledge of the with a view to transforming and spiritualizing human life.  Philosophical knowledge does not aim at Comparative Study of Indian and Western merely satisfying our theoretical and Philosophy speculative interest, but also at realizing the highest truth in life  Philosophy is the root of all knowledge. It is considered as mother of all sciences. Dars’ana or vision of truth Philosophy has interpreted man and his  Indian philosophy is intensely spiritual and various activities in a comprehensive manner. emphasizes the need of practical It helps to coordinate the various activities of realization of truth. As philosophy aims at the individuals and the society. knowledge of truth, it is termed in Indian  It helps us to understand the significance of all literature, ‘the vision of truth’ (dars’ana). human experience.  The word ‘dars’ana’ means ‘vision’ and also  “It explores the basic source and aims of life. It the ‘instrument of vision’. It stands for the asks and tries to answer the deepest questions direct, immediate and intuitive vision of to life. It clarifies life and the basic values of Reality, the actual perception of Truth , life. This clarity is very essential because it and also includes the means which to provides us with the wisdom to face the this realization. challenges of life.  ‘See the Self’ is the keynote of all schools  Wisdom is the supreme instrument in the of Indian Philosophy. And this is the reason hands of man in the struggle for his successful why most of the schools of Indian existence. Philosophy are intimately associated with A GENERAL OUTLINE OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY religious sects.

 In the early phases of human life on this planet The schools of Indian philosophy when man was struck with wonder or the

Pscnotes.com Page 47

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The following are the major philosophical schools  Those who hold that or systems (dars’anas). perception is the only source of knowledge are forced to deny 1. The system of Aksapada Gautama the , soul, 2. The Vaise esika system of Maharshi rebirth, hell and heaven. 3. The system of muni  This view is called - 4. The system of Ptanjali Sense experience is the only 5. The Mimamsa system of source of knowledge. 6. The system of Vyas holds this view. 7. TheBauddha system of Guatama Buddha B. : 8. The Jaina system of Mahavira  Those who hold that we are 9. The Carvaka system of Carvaka entitled to believe in what is not Classfication of the Indian Philosophical Schools: directly perceived but which can be inferred from what is Orthodox and Heterodox perceived.  This view is called  The schools or systems of Indian Rationalism.eg., from the philosophy are divided into two broad perception of smoke we are classes, namely, orthodox (astika, Vedic) entitled to infere the existence and heterodox (nastika, Non-Vedic). of fire though we do not see  To the first group belong the six chief fire, on the ground that philosophical systems (popularly known as wherever there is smoke there sad-darsana), namely, Mimamsa, Vedanta, is fire. Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika.  The Nyaya-, The  These are regarded as orthodox (astika), Samkhya-yoga andBuddhism not because they believe in God, but are rationalist schools because they accept the authority of the  They accept perception and Vedas. as the valid  The Mimamsa and the Sankhya do not and regard inference as primary believe in God as the creator of the world, and sense perception as yet they are called orthodox (astika), subordinate because they believe in the C. Authoritarianism authoritativeness of the Vedas.  Perception and Inference based  Under the other class of Heterodox upon perception may be systems, the chief three are the schools of adequate to give us knowledge the Materialists like the Carvakas, the about the empirical world , but Bauddhas and the Jains. They are called what about transcendent heterodox because they do not believe in like souls, God, past the authority of the Vedas. birth, hell and heaven.  Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianism These objects are not knowable by these two pramanas. But The nine major systems of Indian Philosophy may they can be known through be classified on the basis of sources of knowledge supra-sensuous experience to ie. into three major groups- the mystics, prophets, saints, Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianisn. sees directly and to us through scriptures which are the records A. Empiricism:

Pscnotes.com Page 48

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

of such experience or h. The means to liberation: The different revelations This is called systems of Indian philosophy lay down the Authoritarianism. means to the attaintment of liberation.  Of course, they accept other i. Pramanas: Indian philosophy is not dogmatic pramanas also. The remaining and uncritical. Every system of philosophy is three schools of purva based on epistemology or theory of Mimamsa, Vedanta and Jainism knowledge. belong to this category. A GENERAL IDEA OF The Common Ideas in the System of Indian Philosophy  Wonder is said to be the origin of philosophy. In the early human life on this planet, when a. The Reality of the world: All schools of Indian man was struck with wonder at the recognize the reality of the world. phenomena or when he found complex and Even the of Samkara regards conflicting phenomena in life and was filled the world as a mere appearance from the with discontentment at the existing order of standpoint of the absolute. But it recognizes things, it was the beginning of philosophy. the empirical reality of the world-appearance.  While the philosophy of Vedas began in b. The reality of the self: The reality of the wonder, the philosophy of Gautam Buddha permanent self is generally admitted. Among began in discontentment with the miserable the heterodox schools the Carvaka and world. Buddhist deny the reality of the permanent  In the West, the early beginning of philosophy self. was in wonder, while the modern Western c. The law of Karma : All schools of Indian philosophy had its origin in doubt. philosophy except the Carvaka believe in the  These are some of the many problems taken at law of Karma. As we sow, so we reap. There is random, which we find agitating the human no escape from the consequences of actions . mind in every land, from the very dawn of Their fruits must be reaped in this life or in civilization. future life  Western philosophy has removed more or less d. Transmigration: The idea of transmigration is true to the etymological meaning of common to all systems of Indian philosophy ‘philosophy’ in being essentially an intellectual except the Carvaka school. quest for truth e. Initial Pessimism and Ultimate Optimism: Indian philosophy is branded as pessimistic. The Development of Western Philosophy: Life is full of sufferings. But all kinds of  In the history of Western philosophy we find can be destroyed in the state of liberation. So, that as human knowledge about each of the Indian philosophy is characterised by initial different problems mentioned above began to pessimism and ultimate optimism. grow, it became impossible for the same man f. Bondage: Another common view held by all to study everything about every problem. Indian thinkers except Carvaka school, is that  Division of labour or specialization became ignorance of reality is the cause of our necessary and a group of man devoted bondage and sufferings, and liberation from themselves to a particular problem or a few these cannot be achieved without knowledge connected problems. There came into of reality. existence in this way the different special g. Liberation: The idea of liberation is common to sciences. all the systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school.

Pscnotes.com Page 49

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Geology largely determined by our attitude to and similar sciences took up each a part or philosophy. aspect of the world of nature.  Those who look upon philosophy as a universal  Physiology, Anatomy and the other medical science may think that a method of philosophy sciences devoted themselves to the different like a method of science is empirical. problems of the human body. Psychology  Others looking upon philosophy as an began to study the problems of the human intellectual pursuit may treat a method of mind. reason as the method of philosophy.  The detailed study of many of particular problems with which philosophical speculation The different methods of philosophy are as originally started became thus the subject follows: matter of the special sciences. Dogmatism  Philosophy then began to depend on the reports of the investigation made by the  This method of thinking consists in different sciences, tried to understand their assuming certain “fundamental principles meanings and implications critically , and as self-evident and axiomatic, without utilized these results for understanding the explanation or proof, and deducing general nature of the universe- man, nature conclusions from these unproved and God. premises”.  It also carries on its investigations without Divisions of Western Philosophy a previous criticism of uses. In other words  Historians of philosophy have divided Western without criticizing the quality of knowledge Philosophy according to their convenience. We and without determining how we know shall divide the Western Philosophy into things, it at once hastens to interpret the Greek, Medieval, Modern, PostKantian, objects of the world. Metaphysicians and the 20th Century  Hence in this method of thinking the mind philosophy. is too busy with its objects to attend to itself. I. Greek Philosophy:  Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz may be mentioned as belonging to this line of It covers a period between 600-400 A.D. This thinking. period has three sections. Empiricism A. Section I. Pre-Socratic Philosophy B. Section II. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.  According to Empiricism, all knowledge , C. Section III. Greco-Roman Philosophy whether scientific or philosophical, is I. 400-1500 A.D entirely built up of sensations and II. (Bacon to Kant) Post- materials derived from sensations. Kantian Philosophy.  It holds that the mind of every man at the III. 20th Century Philosophy time of birth is like a blank sheet of white paper (a tabula ) on which the Methods of Philosophy impressions coming from the outside are  A method for any science is a necessity. imprinted in the form of experience. Method in philosophy is a systematic and  Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume,Mill and Bain consistent way of attaining philosophical may be mentioned as the advocates of this knowledge. What our method is going to be school of thought.

Pscnotes.com Page 50

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Scepticism  It is a method which consist in showing that sensations and feelings can only give  It results from carrying empiricism to its the materials of knowledge and that such most extreme and consistent form. materials do not constitute knowledge  Because, if we once admit that we can unless they are interpreted by reason. have no genuine knowledge beyond what  Hence, according to this method of can be compounded out of the materials of thinking, knowledge is a product, not of sensations and feelings, it follows that we experience alone, but of reason cannot have not only any understanding interpreting experience. realities outside of and apart from our own  Thus, this form of thinking gives a sensations and feelings, but also any prominent place to reason, and a certain knowledge that such things exist as subordinate one to sensations and feelings all. in the structure of knowledge.  Hence, our idea of substances, mind,  The Criticism of Kant, then, is a form of matter and God cannot be known for Rationalism. Likewise some of the certain to correspond to realities, existing dogmatic systems may be regarded as independently of our ideas. forms of Rationalism.  Not only can we know nothing about the real nature of such meta-physical or Dialectical Method transcendental realities, but also we cannot even know for certain that they  According to Hegel, the proper method for have any existence. philosophy is . This is a natural  Hume, Mill, Bain, and Spencer are the method of philosophical thinking. advocates of this doctrine.  It is a commonplace experience that when  In its extreme form, skepticism denies the we think over a problem we arrive at of all knowledge. certain positive facts. This is thesis.  Now, after some time we come to know Criticism some facts which are contradictory to the thesis; this is antithesis.  Criticism is the method which bases all  Thesis and antithesis cannot live together philosophical speculation upon a critical for long hence they are synthesized into a inquiry into the nature, origin and limits of synthesis. This synthesis arrived through knowledge. antithesis is more comprehensive than the  According to this doctrine, the true original thesis. philosophical method must be critical.  Thus, knowledge grows in a dialectical  Before we enter into philosophy, we must process through thesis, anti-thesis and hold a thorough inquiry into the synthesis. antecedent conditions of knowledge and the precise filed and range of its Modern Methods operations.  By thus ascertaining the scope of  The Pragmatists adopt the pragmatic knowledge, criticism helps us in method. The New Realists adopt the determining the range of philosophical method of intellectual analysis. investigations. Kant is a great advocate of  Bergson adopts the method of intuition in critical method. regard to life, and of intellect in regard to matter. Rationalism

Pscnotes.com Page 51

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 The Logical Positivists adopt the method of enterprise of the wise. It may even be linguistic analysis and empirical above the stage where stories and verification. mythologies are believed to answer our  The naturalists adopt the naturalistic curiosities. But even the questions ofthe methods of observation and experiment. wisest in the west have not addressed the Croce and Gentile adopt the historical problem of human existence so method consistently and so exhaustively, as the Indian have done. Comparative study of Indian and western  Even when it is pointed out that Indian philosophy philosophers are interested in the To characterize Indian philosophy as wholly knowledge of one’s own self and of the spiritualistic is as much wrong as to characterize external world pragmatically unlike the Western philosophy as wholly materialistic. Nor Western philosophers who are interested can we say Western philosophy is wholly scientific, in knowledge only academically (and not rational and ethical, while Indian philosophy is also pragmatically), the meaning of wholly apologetic based on faith and mysticism. knowledge in these two contexts is vastly Such characterization is wrong because in both different. It is true that the content of traditions we find realism and idealism, monism, knowledge as conceived by the Indian dualism and pluralism, and philosophers and that of knowledge as . In both systems there are schools, conceived by Western philosophers are which emphasize logic or . In such a situation different. For example, it is maintained what we can at best say is that Western that the Western philosophers are philosophy or Indian philosophy generally exhibits interested in knowledge of external things. such and such tendencies. The external things may mean external world as, for example, in the case of Following are the points of differences between Thales, 'Anaximanader, Anaximenes, Indian and western philosophy: Empedocles, Democritus, and other cosmological philosophers, or it may  One of the most important points of denote the nature, scope and limits, and difference between Indian philosophy and criteria of knowledge; or it may mean the Western philosophy concerns the origin scientist’s or philosopher’s or religious and purpose of I ' i; philosophical enquiry. man’s language about the world, God, If we read the histories of Indian soul, etc. in the analysis of which the philosophy and of Western philosophy, it linguistic philosophers are interested. In becomes clear that the latter is purely short, the Western philosophers are academic or theoretical, while the former extrovertive in their passion for is predominantly practical. While Western knowledge. In direct contrast to this, philosophy begins with curiosity about and Indian philosophers can be safely wonder at the external world, Indian described as introvertive. Because they are philosophy, as already noted in the pre-eminently interested in the knowledge previous Chapter (‘Introduction’), takes its of the self. They are also interested in the birth in the awareness of perennial matters in which Western philosophers are suffering associated with human existence. interested, but these matters take back No doubt the wonder or curiosity, which is seat in Indian philosophy. generally believed to give rise to Western  Any serious and effective attempt at a philosophy, may not be childish but distinction between Indian Philosophy and mature, but it is always an intellectual

Pscnotes.com Page 52

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Western philosophy must first of all take objections are (i) that the existence and into consideration the very meaning of the nature of ultimate reality is a scientific, not word “Philosophy”. A casual perusal of the a philosophic, question and (ii) that histories of western and Indian philosophy whether there is an ultimate reality is itself reveals that people of different ages and of if at all a philosophic question. different races and different cultures have Epicureans, Stoics, Sceptics, agreed that expected philosophy to function in many the main aim of philosophy is to achieve different ways. Let us first begin our peace of mind and so, Cicero (a Roman) inquiry into the western meaning of the defined philosophy as “art oflife”. Even if term. Though the English word Nyaya philosopher is considered as doing “Philosophy” is derived from the Greek no more than dealing with logical fallacies, root “Philosophia”(= “love of wisdom”), it his task should be regarded as advice to has never retained its original meaning, for avoid fallacies either in daily life or in different reasons; (1) because, wisdom discussions. (‘sophia’) could be not only knowledge of Not only the Indian philosophers, but also reality which a philosopher was expected the other early Greek philosophers used to possess, but also intelligence, which a the word ‘Philosophy’ to refer to wise carpenter, a wise merchant, a wise cosmology and politics, but also to ethics artisan possessed. But Pythagoras, who and . Aristotle meant by describes himself as a philosopher, philosophy not only logic, metaphysics and distinguished “sophia sought by the ethics, but also anatomy and politics. philosopher (knowledge based on Aquinas who moved in the footprints of contemplation) from the practical Aristotle, his master, Bacon, Hobbes and shrewdness of a businessman and the Descartes - all defined philosophy in trained skill ofthe athlete. encyclopaedic terms, as did Leibniz and The modem western conception of Wolff. To be sure, they did distinguish philosophy as characterized by critical between ‘moral’ philosophy, ‘natural’ discussion owes its origin to Plato and his philosophy, ‘civil’ or characterization automatically denied his and ‘first’ philosophy or metaphysics. But predecessors’ conception that philosophy in general they used “philosophy” as often is (unexamined) wisdom. However, Plato to refer to what we now call “science” as also held that philosophy is direct to refer to what we now call ‘philosophy’.” knowledge of “true Reality”, by which he 19 With the advent of logical , meant intelligible world as distinguished contemporary and from the ever-changing sensible world. philosophy has undergone Direct knowledge, according to him, ought tremendous transformation. For the to be true unlike opinions and beliefs. logical.positivists the task of philosophy lies Similarly, ‘true Reality’ in his opinion was in determining the truthvalue of not that of philosophers at all, for they proposition, especially by the standard of never knew what should be the ideal of what they called “meaningfulness”, which human life. Since a philosopher knows true itself depends on empirical verification. ideals, he also knows how to live. They did not propose any new theory of Contemporary philosophers question the reality, nor did they reject any: they simply Platonic conception and the modem and brushed aside all metaphysical, ethical and general opinion, that philosophy is aesthetic issues on the ground that they knowledge of ultimate reality. Their were meaningless. The contemporary

Pscnotes.com Page 53

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

analytic philosophers are interested in marvelous. It is a major sacred pilgrimage site for analysing our concepts and language from Jains worldwide and is Mount Abu’s most popular logical point of view rather than proposing attraction.Built by Vastupal Tejpal between the new philosophical theories. The 11th and 13th centuries AD. existentialists who condemn all their predecessors for their negligence of man These temples are famous as an individual and subject emphasise worldwide for their superb marble carvings. The human existence as the central issue complex contains five Jain temples which are ofphilosophy. known worldwide for their superb marble The Indian counterpart of “Philosophy” is carvings.Each temple is named after the small “darSana” or “mata”. The word ‘darsana’ village in which it is located. means ‘look’ or ‘vision’ - vision of reality. 1. – Thus in “Sad - darsana” the word darsana Dedicated to the 23rd Jain means six views (ofreality) -the six being , Parshva. This temple was built Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva by Mandlik and his family in 1458-59.The MImamsa and Uttara MImamsa (Vedanta). outer walls of the sanctum comprise Although darsana was earlier restricted to beautiful sculptures in gray sandstone, Hindu darsana, i.e. philosophical schools depicting Dikpals, double set of based on the Vedas, later it seems to cover Vidhyadevis – one of standing figures and non-Vedie philosophical schools, namely, the other of sitting ones, a set of all 24 Carvaka, Jainism and Buddhism also. In this , Shalabhanjikas and other case darsana or view does not denote decorative sculptures especially females empirical perception, such as perception of comparable to the ones in and colour, smell, taste, etc. for these are not . realities, but intellectual perception of 2. Vimal Vasahi – what underlies the smell, taste, etc. This Dedicated to the 1st Jain means the conception of reality could be Tirthankara, Adinath. This temple was built theistic or atheistic, spiritual or in 1031 AD by Vimal , the chief materialistic and therefore these could be minister of Bhimdev I, the Chalukya King of methods of arriving at darsana ofreality. Gujarat. This Dilwara temple is dedicated Mata, means opinion. So Bauddhamata or to the first Jain Tirthankara, Adinath. It is Bauddha darsana means Buddhist the oldest and most famous temple in the philosophy. Dilwara temple complex. Carved entirely out of white marble.Each and every inch of the temple’s interiors are adorned with intricate marble carvings. Makaras guard the entrance, and below them are conches. :- The cusped arches and ornate capitals are The exquisitely carved marble beautifully designed and superbly made. temples of Dilwara in Mount Abu are the finest Immediately outside the entrance to the examples of Jain temples in India. The hallmark of temple is a small portico known as the these temples is the crisp translucent shell like Hastishala (elephant hall), built by treatment of marble, which surpasses anything Prithvipal in 1147-1159 which contains a seen elsewhere. The ornamental detail Spread figure of the patron, Vimal Shah, on over the minutely carved decoration of ceilings, horseback. The riders on the 10 beautifully doorways, pillars, panels and niches is simple

Pscnotes.com Page 54

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

carved elephants that surround him were seems to exceed the others in beauty and removed during Alauddin Khilji’s reign. grace. The Gudh mandap or sanctum Dilwara belonged to Saivite features a black marble idol of the 22nd Hindus who were unwilling to part with it Jain Tirthankar . The Kirthi until Vimal Shah could prove that it had is a big black stone pillar that once belonged to a Jain community. The stands on the left side of this Dilwara main temple is set within a rectangular temple. The pillar was constructed by court lined with small shrines and a double Maharana Kumbha of . colonnade, an early example of the Jain architectural style in Western India.The 4. Pithalhar – exquisite lotus ceiling carved from a single Dedicated to the 1st Jain block of marble rises in 11 concentric Tirthankar, . This temple was built circles, carved with elaborately repeated in the late 13th century by Shah, figures. On the pillars are carved female the Mewari ’s chief figurines playing musical instruments and minister. The Shrine consists of a superimposed across the lower rings are Garbhagriha (grand hall), Gudh mandap 16 brackets carved in the form of the (sanctum) and Navchowki (main hall). A goddesses of knowledge, each one holding massive metal statue of Adinath, cast in her own symbol which is believed to be a five metals, – gold, silver, copper, braas memorial of victorious Brahma Kumaris and zinc – is installed in the temple. The follower from the last . main metal used in this statue is pital 3. Luna Vasahi – (brass), hence the name ‘Pittalhar’. Dedicated to the 22nd Jain According to the inscription on it, the old Tirthankara, Neminatha. This temple was mutilated idol was replaced and installed in built in 1230 AD by two wealthy brothers, 1468-69 AD and weighs 108 maunds (4.3 Vastupal and Tejapal, ministers of tonnes). Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of 5. Mahavir Swami – Gujarat.Dedicated to the 22nd Tirthankara, Dedicated to the last Jain Neminatha, this temple was built in Tirthankara, Mahavira. This small structure memory of their late brother Luna.The constructed in 1582.There are pictures on decorative carving and jali work within this the upper walls of the porch painted in temple are so fine that the marble looks 1764 by the artists of Sirohi. almost transparent in some places. The small domes in front of the shrine Vimal Vasahi and containing the bejewelled Neminatha Luna Vasahi temples are the most famous figure, the exquisitely carved lotus on the among the five Jain Dilwara temples. This sabha mandapa ceiling and the sculptures ancient temple attracts tourists as well, on the colonnades are especially with its magnetic lure. Dilwara Temples noteworthy. Arranged in a circular band truly present a sight to behold and to are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting praise the artistic beauty of their posture and just below this band are 360 magnificent structure. small figures of Jain monks in another Distinction between Indus Civilization and Vedic circular band.The Navchowki or main hall Civilization features some of the most magnificent and delicate marble stone cutting work of the  These two civilizations have not only played a temple. Each of the nine ceilings here major role in the development of ancient

Pscnotes.com Page 55

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

India, but have also left a lineage that still huge debate on the origin of Aryans. continues to shape our present Indian culture. Various scholars have postulated theories which are either supported or debated. Differences based on Following Major Headings  North Pole: Bal Gangadhar Tilak PERIODICTY BASED DIFFERNENCES: proposed that the Aryans came from North Pole. However there is no Indus Valley Civilization: concrete evidence for this theory.  Asia: Scholars like  Till 20th century, historians thought that suggested Middle Asia could be the the Vedic society was the earliest place of Aryans, whereas Rhodes civilization of India. However study done thought it should be Bactria and by 2 archaeologists - Dayaram Sahani and Edward Meyer postulated the Raakhaldas Banerjee proved that Mohenjo- plateau of Pamir (). Daro and Harappa, though 1400 kms apart,  Europe: Penka and Hirt thought were a part of one civilization older than Germany as the base of Aryans. Vedic.  South Russia: Based on  Since the region spanned India across the archaeological, historical and coastal western belt and along the Indus linguistic study, Meyer, Peek and River, the civilization was called Indus Gordon Childes postulated that South Civilization. Indus civilization was at its Russia should be the home of Aryans. peak around 2500 B.C.E. Archaeological excavations in Russia unearthed horse skeletons, potteries, Vedic Civilization: earthen wares which were strikingly  After the decline of Indus Civilization, a similar to Aryans. new civilization grew which was dominated by the Aryans and came to be known as URBAN DEVLOPMENT BASED DIFFERNENCES: the Vedic Civilization. The period extended Indus Valley Civilization: from 1500 B.C.E to 500 B.C.E  The cities of Indus civilization were well REGIONAL SPREAD BASED DIFFERNENCES:: planned and built with baked bricks of Indus Valley Civilization: equal sizes. The streets were at right angle to each other with an elaborate drainage  The Indus civilization was spread across the system. Indus valley (river Sindhu).  There were public buildings, vast granaries  It spread in the North from Harappa in and the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro. Punjab province (Pakistan) to Bhogtrar in  Production of several metals like copper, South Gujarat (1400 kms). In the east, bronze, lead and tin was carried out. The there was Alamgir (Meerut) and to its West discovery of kilns proves that bricks were was Sutkagen Dor in Baluchistan, next to extensively used for domestic and public Iran (1600 kms). buildings.  Thus, the Indus valley spread across 12.15 lac sq.km. Vedic Civilization:  It was mainly the rural civilization, Vedic Civilization centered round the village  The Vedic period marked the entry of Aryans on Indian soil. There has been a SOCIETY BASED DIFFERNENCES:

Pscnotes.com Page 56

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Indus Valley Civilization: race, music, dance were the favorite pastime.  The social life of Indus Civilization was that  In the Vedic civilization, metals like gold, of a happy, satisfied society. silver, copper, tin, glass were in use. Iron  The society by large was “female utensils and equipments were also made dominated” and family was a central force. during this period.  Though the society was divided into 4 groups as per the occupation, it does not OCCUPATION BASED DIFFERNENCES: prove that there could be any discrimination since the housing structure Indus Valley Civilization: proves that irrespective of the occupation,  The main occupation of Indus Civilization people lived in each others vicinity. was agriculture. Wheat, jowar, sesame  The people of Indus Civilization were seed, bajra were grown. Animal farming vegetarian as well as non-vegetarian. Diet was also carried out. They also grew cotton usually consisted of wheat, jowar, rice, and wore clothes. sesame seed, dal, vegetables, milk and  There were sites where ornaments and fruits. Meat of sheep, goat, pig, hen, duck jewelry were made. as well as fish was consumed.  Trade was also another occupation and  Excavations reveal that women of Indus each merchant family had their own seal. valley liked to wear ornaments made of Trading was usually done with neighboring gold, precious stones, silver and copper. regions of India, Persian Gulf and Iran. Men kept long hair, sported moustache and beard whereas women tied their hair Vedic Civilization: in a bun. They also wore bangles made of glass and metal ware.  The Vedic period people were rural oriented and had agriculture as main Vedic Civilization: occupation. They ploughed sowed and reaped various crops like wheat, jowar,  Compared to the Indus civilization, the rice, moong dal, udad, sesame. They also early Vedic period civilization was “male reared animals like cows, bulls, horses, dominated”. Though the women were goats, donkeys, sheep, pigs and dogs. known as “better half’, they were not  It is during this period that ‘elephant’ was allowed in politics and did not get share in first domesticated. family property.  The caste system of 4 varnas became ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE BASED prominent to such an extent that even the DIFFERNENCES:: burial grounds were segregated.  The Brahmins and Kshatriyas fought for Indus Valley Civilization: superior position, Vaishas did business and  Indus Civilization had mastered the art of paid taxes whereas were using metals, mud, wood, glass for making considered to be slaves of all the 3 varnas. ornaments, architecture and various forms.  The people of Vedic civilization also  They made terracotta vessels with followed vegetarian as well as non- decorative colors and design. They made vegetarian diet. Milk and milk products toys, household utensils, agriculture were an important part of diet along with equipments and ornamental things. vegetables and meat. People drank “som  The people of Indus Civilization were good ras” and played dice. Horse race, chariot sculptors carving wood and stone in the

Pscnotes.com Page 57

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

form of “relief architecture”, statues and various sites which prove that she was articles. Statues of various birds and worshipped in nearly every home. animals were also found along with men,  Many seal depicting rhinoceros, bull, women and “mother goddess”. leopard, elephant, ox were found  The script still remains undecipherable. suggesting that the Indus valley people revered them. Vedic Civilization: Vedic Civilization:  In the Vedic civilization, metals like gold, copper, silver, tin were used to prepare  The religious dogmas increased during the various artifacts. Vedic period and old gods (multiple ‘nature  This period contributed to the Vedic gods’ like wind, water, fire, etc.) were literature namely (Samved, replaced with new formed gods. , Yajurved, Atharvaved, Rigved), Brahmanas, Vishnu & Shiva became the new Aranyaks and Upanishads gods.  It was during this period that ‘animal RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY BASED DIFFERNENCES: sacrifice’ became rampant. Some large Indus Valley Civilization: scale yagnas like Rajsuyagna, Vajpeya and Ashwamedh were performed.  The Indus Civilization people worshipped  The belief in soul, magic, increased gods and goddesses. The figures found in and people succumbed to blind faith. The excavation reveal some rituals and only difference was that the Vedic gods ceremonies. were immortal whereas the human beings  Various terracotta statues of “Mother were not. Goddess” have been discovered from Major differences in Both Civilization

The key differences between Harappa and Vedic Civilization are enumerated as follows:

 The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.  Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia.  The Harappan civilization was urban in nature; Vedic culture was rural and pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.  In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially postoral and later became based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.  The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later- Vedic people.  Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.  The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have been unearthed from surkotada.

Pscnotes.com Page 58

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, and spears) were primitive in nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged science of war.  Aryans worshiped , Indra, aditi and a large number of other which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, mother goddess, animals, snake and nature. The fire- altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan.  The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced cremation.  Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).  The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion; Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome.  The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink.  Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments  Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-, Indus script still remains undeciphered.  It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.

Pscnotes.com Page 59

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Effects of Aasana and Pranayama on health

Improves your flexibility

Improved flexibility is one of the first and most obvious benefits of yoga. During your first class, you probably won't be able to touch your toes, never mind do a backbend. But if you stick with it, you'll notice a gradual loosening, and eventually, seemingly impossible poses will become possible. You'll also probably notice that aches and pains start to disappear. That's no coincidence. Tight hips can strain the knee joint due to improper alignment of the thigh and shinbones. Tight hamstrings can lead to a flattening of the lumbar spine, which can cause back pain. And inflexibility in muscles and connective tissue, such as fascia and ligaments, can cause poor posture.

Builds muscle strength disability by "squeezing and soaking" areas of cartilage that normally aren't used. Joint cartilage Strong muscles do more than look good. They also is like a sponge; it receives fresh nutrients only protect us from conditions like arthritis and back when its fluid is squeezed out and a new supply pain, and help prevent falls in elderly people. And can be soaked up. Without proper sustenance, when you build strength through yoga, you neglected areas of cartilage can eventually wear balance it with flexibility. If you just went to the out, exposing the underlying bone like worn-out gym and lifted weights, you might build strength brake pads. at the expense of flexibility. Drains lymphs and boosts immunity Prevents cartilage and joint breakdown When you contract and stretch muscles, move Each time you practice yoga, you take your joints organs around, and come in and out of yoga through their full range of motion. This can help postures, you increase the drainage of lymph (a prevent degenerative arthritis or mitigate viscous fluid rich in immune cells). This helps the

Pscnotes.com Page 60

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 lymphatic system fight infection, destroy their hands by 15 degrees Fahrenheit. If they can cancerous cells, and dispose of the toxic waste use yoga to do that, perhaps you could learn to products of cellular functioning. improve blood flow to your pelvis if you're trying to get pregnant or induce relaxation when you're Regulates adrenal glands having trouble falling asleep.

Yoga lowers cortisol levels. If that doesn't sound like much, consider this. Normally, the adrenal glands secrete cortisol in response to an acute Peace of mind crisis, which temporarily boosts immune function. If your cortisol levels stay high even after the Yoga quells the fluctuations of the mind, according crisis, they can compromise the immune system. to 'sYoga Sutra. In other words, it slows Temporary boosts of cortisol help with long-term down the mental loops of frustration, regret, memory, but chronically high levels undermine anger, fear, and desire that can cause stress. And memory and may lead to permanent changes in since stress is implicated in so many health the brain. Additionally, excessive cortisol has been problems—from migraines and insomnia to lupus, linked with major depression, osteoporosis (it MS, eczema, high blood pressure, and heart extracts calcium and other minerals from bones attacks—if you learn to quiet your mind, you'll be and interferes with the laying down of new bone), likely to live longer and healthier. high blood pressure, and insulin resistance. In rats, Hypertension high cortisol levels lead to what researchers call "food-seeking behavior" (the kind that drives you It is well known that many antihypertensive to eat when you're upset, angry, or stressed). The agents have been associated with numerous body takes those extra calories and distributes undesirable side effects. In addition to medication, them as fat in the abdomen, contributing to moderately intense aerobic exercise is well known weight gain and the risk of diabetes and heart to lower blood pressure. Interestingly, it has been attack. very convincingly demonstrated in a randomized controlled study that even a short period of Helps focus regular yogic practice at 1 h/day is as effective as An important component of yoga is focusing on medical therapy in controlling blood pressure in the present. Studies have found that regular yoga hypertensive subjects. Yoga, together with practice improves coordination, reaction time, relaxation, biofeedback, transcendental memory, and even IQ scores. People who practice , and psychotherapy, has been found to Transcendental Meditation demonstrate the have a convincing antihypertensive effect. The ability to solve problems and acquire and recall mechanism of yoga-induced blood pressure information better—probably because they're less reduction may be attributed to its beneficial distracted by their thoughts, which can play over effects on the autonomic neurological function . and over like an endless tape loop. Impaired baroreflex sensitivity has been increasingly postulated to be one of the major Maintains nervous system causative factors of essential hypertension. The practice of yogic postures has been shown to Some advanced can control their bodies in restore baroreflex sensitivity. Yogic that extraordinary ways, many of which are mediated are equivalent to head-up or head-down tilt were by the nervous system. Scientists have monitored discovered to be particularly beneficial in this yogis who could induce unusual heart rhythms, regard. Tests proved a progressive attenuation of generate specific brain-wave patterns, and, using sympatho-adrenal and renin-angiotensin activity a meditation technique, raise the temperature of with yogic practice. Yogic practice, through the

Pscnotes.com Page 61

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 restoration of baroreceptor sensitivity, caused a Fascism is an effective political ideology whose significant reduction in the blood pressure of central theme is the notion of an organically patients who participated in yoga exercise.Yoga combined national community, exemplified in a has proven efficacy in managing secondary cardiac belief in 'strength through unity'. The individual, in complications due to chronic hypertension. Left a factual sense, is nothing; individual identity must ventricular hypertrophy secondary to chronic be completely absorbed into the community or hypertension is a harbinger of many chronic social group. To simply elaborate, Fascism is an cardiac complications, such as myocardial authoritarian Nationalist political ideology that ischemia, congestive cardiac failure, and promotes nation above the individual, and that impairment of diastolic function. Cardiovascular stands for a centralized autocratic government response to head-down-body-up postural exercise controlled by a dictatorial leader, severe economic (Sarvangasana) has been shown to be particularly and social regulation, and powerful suppression of beneficial in preventing and treating hypertension- opposition. It often claims to be concerned with associated left ventricular hypertrophy and concepts of cultural decline or decadence, and diastolic dysfunction. In one study, the practice of seeks to achieve a national rebirth by subduing sarvangasana for 2 weeks caused resting heart the interests of the individual, and instead rate and left ventricular end diastolic volume to promoting cults of unity, energy and transparency. reduce significantly. In addition, there was mild regression of left ventricular mass as recorded in In historical terms, fascism can be defined as a echocardiography. movement and a regime. Emilio Gentile – who, with Zeev Sternhell and George Mosse,2 is the most insightful historian of fascism – presents fascism as a modern revolutionary phenomenon Serum lipid profile and body weight that was nationalist and revolutionary, anti-liberal Obesity and increased body weight are strong risk and anti-Marxist. Gentile also presents fascism as factors for ischemic heart disease and being typically organized in a militaristic party that hypertension. Yoga has been found to be had a totalitarian conception of state politics, an particularly helpful in the management of obesity. activist and antitheoretical ideology as well as a A randomized controlled study revealed that focus on virility and anti-hedonistic mythical practicing yoga for a year helped significant foundations. improvements in the ideal body weight and body Fascism is a highly nationalist, militaristic, density. The regular practice of yoga has shown to totalitarian political ideology in which one person improve the serum lipid profile in the patients has absolute power. World War I was the major with known ischemic heart disease as well as in event that procreated fascism. The war was the healthy subjects. The mechanism of the beneficial first major war fought between industrialized effect of yoga in the management of nations, which were armed with technology such hyperlipidemia and obesity cannot be explained as machine guns and chemical weapons. The by simple excess caloric expenditure since the result was complete destruction. Millions of practice of asanas does not bring about increased, people died, entire countries malformed, and rapid large muscle activity and energy generation. those who survived were often deeply However, the efficacy of yoga in the management disillusioned. For many people, the war presented of hyperlipidemia and obesity is of significance. that contemporary ideas had failed and that a new way was required. The majority of European fascist states developed from the amalgamation of Fascist Ideology and its global implications and as a consequence to a multitude of significant events, including a troubled society with

Pscnotes.com Page 62

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 destabilised governments, the detrimental effect liberal democracy, which have an inverse view of caused by the impact of World War and, by some, this relationship). Fascism is principally the disappointment caused by signing the Treaty remembered for its oppressive treatment of of Versailles. Fascism was the movement and citizens, infringements on personal freedoms and political response which offered European people cruel crushing of opposition. It usually requires the ability to reconstruct their nation and escape unusual of personality around a single central the existing dilemma. Fascism emerged in in figure, hero worship, and a strong emphasis on a the 1920s. Italy had battled on the winning side of particularly militaristic view of national security. World War I, but it had agonised greatly. Many Italians were annoyed and disappointed that the The theory of fascism makes society to be ordered country gained very little for the price it paid. in a corporatist fashion, favouring collective Some war veterans felt alienated from society: bargaining for all groups in society, such as They had grown accustomed to the fears of war, workers, farmers, employers, clergymen, etc., in and now normal life seemed unreal and practice, this transformed to the fascist states incomprehensible. Some of these war veterans simply favouring and strengthening the largest began to rally together, trying to re-create the and most sympathetic businesses, exercising companionship of the war. Their meetings led to heavy state control on them in return. In contrast the increase of fascism. In its original form, to communism, these businesses will remain fascism was neither racist nor anti-Semitic. formally under private ownership, with their Undeniably, some early Italian fascists were profits going to the owners rather than the state. Jewish. Although Italy was the origin of fascism, it The French Revolution and its political inheritance expanded to other countries. In the mid to late had profound influence upon the expansion of twentieth century, the Spanish government under fascism. Fascists interpreted the French General Francisco Franco was fascist, as were the Revolution as a largely negative event that Argentinean government under Juan Peron and resulted in the entrenchment of liberal ideas such some of the governments in Eastern Europe as liberal democracy, anticlericalism, and before World War II. The Japanese government rationalism. Challengers to the French Revolution before and during World War II also shared some initially were conservatives and reactionaries, but fascist thoughts. the Revolution was also later disparaged by The fascist model is that of the 'new man', a hero, Marxists and racist nationalists who opposed its inspired by duty, honour and self-sacrifice, universalist principles. prepared to devote his life to the magnificence of Fascism emphasizes: his nation or race, and to give unquestioning obedience to a top leader. In many respects, o Action: Human beings find meaning and fascism establishes a revolt against the ideas and purpose by acting, not by reasoning or values that dominated Western political thought thinking. from the French Revolution onwards in the words of the Italian Fascist slogan: '1789 is Dead'. Values o Community spirit: People need to be part such as rationalism, progress, freedom and of a community. is dangerous equality were upturned in the name of struggle, because it turns people away from their leadership, power, heroism and war. In this community. respect, fascism has an 'anti-character'. o Nationalism: The community that matters Fascist ideology based on national unity behind a the most is the nation. People should work single revered ruler and for the idea that citizens together to promote the glory and power must serve the state (as opposed to most forms of of the nation.

Pscnotes.com Page 63

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

o Militarism: The nation must have a strong, Types of Fascism: There are several kind of powerful military. The nation displays its fascism. Italian Fascism: It is the dictatorial power by expanding its territory. political movement which administrated Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the headship of o The future: Fascists love the speed and Benito Mussolini (1883 - 1945). It is the power of technology. They look original model which motivated other Fascist optimistically to the future. ideologies, and is generally denoted as o One party: The nation must be unified and Fascism. It grew out of Mussolini's desire to re- speak with one voice. Therefore, only one affirm Italian national identity and pride after political party is allowed, and that party several centuries of disagreement leading up rules with absolute power. to the amalgamation of 1870.

o Violence: The government rules its people Nazism refers to the philosophy and practices through violence or the threat of violence. of the German Nazi Party (or National Socialist German Workers' Party) under the headship of Fascism usually involves in the following Adolf Hitler (1889 - 1945) between 1933 and elements: 1945. It was a powerfully nationalist, totalitarian, racist, anti-Semitic and anti- o Nationalism (based on the cultural, racial Communist movement, which grew up in the and/or religious attributes of a region). repercussion of German humiliation after World War I, which was partly blamed on o Totalitarianism (state regulation of nearly every aspect of public and private sectors). Germany's Jews. Hitler published his political beliefs in "Mein Kampf" in 1925 and, o Statism (state intervention in personal, stimulated by the Italian Fascism of Mussolini, social or economic matters). assumed dictatorial powers as Chancellor in 1933. o Patriotism (positive and supportive attitudes to a "fatherland"). Another category of fascism is clerical Fascism. It is an ideology that combines the political and o Autocracy (political power in the hands of a economic principles of Fascism with theology single self-appointed ruler). or religious tradition. The term initially arose in the 1920s referring to Catholic support for the o Militarism (maintaining of a strong military Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, but has capability and being prepared to use it since been applied to various regimes and aggressively to defend or promote national movements, particularly in Europe and South interests). America. o Corporatism (encouragement of unelected Neo-Fascism is any post-World War II creed bodies which exert control over the social that includes noteworthy elements of Fascism, and economic life of their respective or that expresses specific admiration for areas). Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism, again o Populism (direct appeals to the masses, particularly in Europe and South America. usually by a charismatic leader).

o Collectivism (stress on human Foreign travelers interdependence rather than on the importance of separate individuals).

Pscnotes.com Page 64

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

India has always been the dream destination for Al Beruni from Persia (1000-1025) people who want to explore one of the earliest civilizations in the world. Since time immemorial, Al Beruni was an Islamic scholar who was India has received a number of keen travelers who "commissioned" by Mahmud of Ghazni to write came here and fell in love with its traditions and his monumental commentary on Indian colors. philosophy and culture Kitab fi tahqiq ma li'l-hind. In the words of the historians today, "His Hiuen Tsang from China (629-645) observations on Indian conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms, religion ... are probably One of the earliest and the most celebrated the most incisive made by any visitor to India." travelers to India, Hiuen Tsang came from China to Born in Uzbekistan, this traveler remained in India India in search of Buddhist belief and practice. He for thirteen long years to understand its culture has been described as the "prince of pilgrims” and and literature. his accounts carry a lot of information on the political, social and religious set up of India. Hiuen Ibn Battuta from Morocco (1333) Tsang visited Kashmir, Punjab and proceeded to Kapilavastu, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinagara. Its unbelievable that a person could have traveled He studied in the University of Nalanda and so much in times where no travelling travelled through the Deccan, Orissa and Bengal. paraphernalia was available. Meet Ibn Battuta Since he stayed in India for 14 long years, his who had a passion for travel unparalleled in accounts reflect what ancient India must have history, inimitable by any individual. It is hard to been once. believe that Ibn Battuta journeyed more than 75,000 miles (121,000 km), a figure unsurpassed Megasthenes by any individual explorer until the coming of the Steam Age some 450 years later. He was the only Megasthenes was a famous Foreign Envoy and medieval traveller who is known to have visited ambassador of Seleucus Nikator of Syria . He the lands of every Muslim ruler of his time. His visited the Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrokottos) journeys include trips to North Africa, West Africa, court. He wrote the great book Indica which Southern Europe and Eastern Europe in the West, explains the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. He Middle East, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast explained Social and administrative status at the Asia and China in the East, a distance surpassing time of Mauryas. Megasthenes was the first threefold his near-contemporary Marco Polo. foreign envoy who visited India. Marco Polo Fa-Hien Marco Polo from Italy (b.1254-d.1324) Marco Fa-Hien is a Foreign Envoy who visited India at the Polo, the Venetian traveler, is perhaps the most time of Chandragupta II, known as Vikramaditya. celebrated traveler even till today. He is said to He was a Chinese pilgrim. Fa-Hien was the first have visited South India twice, in 1288 and 1292, Chinese pilgrim to visit India. Fa-Hien came to where he saw a tomb of St. Thomas "at a certain India to collect Buddhist texts and relics. Fa-Hien little town” which he does not name. Many visited Lumbini, the Buddha’s birth place. He historians accept these dates and visits without compiled his in a travelogue “Record question, and identify the little town that he of Buddhistic Kingdoms”. speaks of with Mylapore.

Abdul Razzak from Persia (1442-1445)

One of the earliest mention of Vijaynagar empire in India comes through Abdul Razzak, the Persian

Pscnotes.com Page 65

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 traveler who visited it around 1440. His accounts Gram Swaraj of the marketplace, its architecture and grandeur have left a lot of corpus of history for  Gram swaraj, or village self-rule, was a pivotal later historians to work on. Abdul Razzak was the concept in Gandhi’s thinking. It was the ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid Dynasty. centerpiece of his vision of economic development in India. Gandhiji’s Gram Swaraj Nicolo Conti from Italy (1420-1421) was not the reconstruction of the old village but the formation of fresh independent units Nicolo De Conti' (fl. 1419-1444) was a Venetian of villages having self-sufficient economy. explorer and writer who visited the west coast of  Self-sufficiency in basic needs was one of the India to Ely, and struck inland to Vijayanagar, the fundamental conditions of Gandhian village capital of the principal Hindu state of the Deccan. reconstruction. Food, clothing and other basic Of this city Conti gives an elaborate description necessities should be produced at the village and one of the most interesting portions of his itself, which would lead to full employment of narrative. From Vijayanagar and the Tungabudhra almost each able-bodied person and would he travelled to Maliapur near Madras, present day prevent the rural-urban migration in search of . employment and better opportunities. Afanasy Nikitin from Russia (1469-1472)  Gandhi really wanted ‘Swaraj’ of self rule by the people of India who represent the rural Nikitin, the Russian merchant, spent more than mass. He observed “India’s soul lives in the two years in India traveling to different cities, village.” He wanted that power structure getting acquainted with local residents and should be begin from the below. Gandhi carefully describing everything he saw. The notes wanted true democracy to function in India. of the merchant were compiled in the form of a  He observed.” True democracy cannot be so-called "Journey," that is more like a traveler’s worked by twenty men sitting at the centre. It log. This work accurately described the nature and has to be worked from below by the people of political organization of India as well as its every village.” traditions, lifestyle and customs.  He dreamt of village republics in term of Panchayat in the free India. Domingo Paes from Portugal (1520-1522)  Gandhi said, “Panchayat Raj represents true democracy realized. We would regard the After the conquest of in 1510 and its rise as humblest and the lowest Indian as being capital of the Portuguese Estado da India, several equally the ruler of India with the tallest in Portuguese travellers and traders visited the land.” and wrote detailed reports about the  Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat Raj, a glory of Bisnaga or Vijayanagara. Most valuable decentralized form of government where each are that of Domingos Paes written in c. 1520-22. The report of Paes, who visited Vijayanagara village is responsible for its own affairs, as the during Krishnadeva's reign, is based primarily on foundation of India’s political system. He term careful observation as he describes in detail the of such a vision was Gram Swaraj.  so-called feudal nayankara system of Gandhi wanted political power to be Vijayanagara's military organisation and the distributed among the villages of India. Gandhi annual royal Durga festival. preferred the term ‘Swaraj’ to describe what he called true democracy.  His democracy based upon freedom. Individual freedom in Gandhi’s view could be maintained Gram Swaraj, Satyagraha and Bhoodana only in autonomous, self-reliant communities

Pscnotes.com Page 66

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

that offer opportunities to the people for heart-whether in the opponent or the public - fullest participation then it's easy to make sense of them.  One rule was that only specific, unjust laws Satyagraha were to be broken. Civil disobedience didn't  Gandhi called his overall method of non- mean flouting all law. violent action Satyagraha. This translates  In fact, Gandhi said that only people with a roughly as "Truth-force." A fuller rendering, high regard for the law were qualified for civil though, would be "the force that is generated disobedience. Only action by such people through adherence to Truth." could convey the depth of their concern and  Nowadays, it's usually called non-violence. But win respect. No one thinks much of it when for Gandhi, non-violence was the word for a the law is broken by those who care nothing different, broader concept-namely, "a way of for it anyway. life based on love and ." In  Other rules: Gandhi ruled out direct coercion, Gandhi's terminology, Satyagraha-Truth-force- such as trying to physically block someone. was an outgrowth of nonviolence. Hostile language was banned. Destroying  It may also help to keep in mind that the terms property was forbidden. Not even secrecy was Satyagraha and nonviolent action, though allowed. often used one for the other, don't actually  All these were ruled out because any of them refer to the exact same thing. Satyagraha is would undercut the empathy and trust Gandhi really one special form of nonviolent action- was trying to build, and would hinder that Gandhi's own version of it. Much of what's "change of heart." called non-violent action wouldn't qualify as “Non-co-operation” Satyagraha. But we'll come back to that later.  Gandhi practiced two types of Satyagraha in  The second form of mass Satyagraha was non- his mass campaigns. co-operation.  This is just what it sounds like. Non-co- Civil disobedience operation meant refusing to co-operate with  The first was civil disobedience, which entailed the opponent, refusing to submit to the breaking a law and courting arrest. When we injustice being fought. It took such forms as today hear this term, our minds tend to stress strikes, economic boycotts, and tax refusals. the "disobedience" part of it. But for Gandhi,  Of course, non-co-operation and civil "civil" was just as important. He used "civil" disobedience overlapped. Non-co-operation here not just in its meaning of "relating to too was to be carried out in a "civil" manner. citizenship and government" but also in its Here too, Gandhi's followers had to cheerfully meaning of "civilized" or "polite." And that's face beating, imprisonment, confiscation of exactly what Gandhi strove for. their property-and it was hoped that this  But the basic principle was the same: Gandhi's willing suffering would cause a "change of most decisive influence on his opponents was heart." more indirect than direct.  But non-co-operation also had a dynamic of its  Gandhi set out a number of rules for the own, a dynamic that didn't at all depend on practice of civil disobedience. These rules converting the opponent or even molding often baffle his critics, and often even his public opinion. It was a dynamic based not on admirers set them aside as nonessential. But appeals but on the power of the people once you understand that civil disobedience, themselves. for Gandhi, was aimed at working a change of  Gandhi saw that the power of any depends entirely on people being willing to

Pscnotes.com Page 67

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

obey. The tyrant may get people to obey by were afraid of the police as well as the threatening to throw them in prison, or by Communists & that the village was torn along holding guns to their heads. But the power still class-lines. resides in the obedience, not in the prison or  On April 18th 1951, the historic day of the very the guns. genesis of the Bhoodan movement, Vinoba  Gandhi said, "I believe that no government entered district, the centre of can exist for a single moment without the co- Communist activity. The organizers had operation of the people, willing or forced, and arranged Vinoba’s stay at Pochampalli, a large if people suddenly withdraw their co- village with about 700 families, of whom two- operation in every detail, the government will thirds were landless. Pochampalli gave Vinoba come to a standstill." a warm welcome. Vinoba went to visit the  That was Gandhi's concept of power-the one Harijan (the Untouchables) colony. By early he's accused of not having. It's a hard one to afternoon villagers began to gather around grasp, for those used to seeing power in the Vinoba at Vinoba’s cottage. The Harijans asked barrel of a gun. Their filters do not pass it. And for eighty acres of land, forty wet, forty dry for so they call Gandhi idealistic, impractical. forty families that would be enough. Then Vinoba asked,”If it is not possible to get land Bhoodana from the government, is there not something  The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated villagers themselves could do?” inspired by Vinoba brought Vinoba to the  This movement later on developed into a international scene. village gift or Gramdan movement. This  In 1951, the Third Annual Sarvodaya movement was a part of a comprehensive Conference was held at Shivarampali, a village movement for the establishment of a a few miles south of the city of Hyderabad in Sarvodaya Society (The Rise of All socio- South India. economic-political order), both in India &  Vinoba was persuaded to leave his community outside India. center () at Pavnar, near Nagpur &  The movement passed through several stages attend the meetings. Vinoba decided to walk in regard to both momentum & allied three hundred miles to Hyderabad. programmes. In October 1951, Vinoba was led  had been the scene of violent to demand fifty million acres of land for the communist rebellion which was still landless from the whole of India by 1957. Thus smouldering in April 1951. For Vinoba the a personal initiative assumed the form of a future of India was essentially a contest mass movement, reminding the people of between the fundamental creeds of Gandhi & Gandhi’s mass movements. This was indeed a Marx. In coming to Hyderabad, Vinoba & other very remarkable achievement for a Gandhians were confronting a challenge & constructive work movement. The enthusiasm testing their faith in non-violence. for the movement lasted till 1957 & thereafter  On April 11th 1951, the final day of it began to wane. conference, Vinoba announced that on his Gramdan movement walk home to Pavanar he & a few companions would tour the Communist infested areas of  Meanwhile the Bhoodan Movement had been Telangana to spread the message of Peace i.e. transformed from a land-gift movement to a Non-violence. Once in Telangana, Vinoba village-gift or Gramdan movement, in which quickly showed his sensitivity to the new the whole or a major part of a village land was situation. On April 17th, at his second stop, to be donated by not less than 75% of the Vinoba learned at first hand that village people villagers who were required to relinquish their

Pscnotes.com Page 68

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

right of owner-ship over their lands in favour Groups in Christianity: The roman Catholic of the entire village, with power to equitably church, The eastern arthodox church, and redistribute the total land among village’s protestants churches families with a proviso for revision after some intervals. The Programme of individual land- Roman catholic church gifts was still there, but henceforth became a The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman neglected activity. Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church,  But there was another aspect as well & it with more than 1.29 billion members worldwide. related to allied programmes unfolded from As one of the oldest religious institutions in the time to time. Those progammes were world, it has played a prominent role in the history Sampattidan (Wealth-gift), Shramdan and development of Western civilisation. Headed (Labour-gift), Jeevandan (Life-long by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the commitment to the movement by co- church's doctrines are summarised in the Nicene workers), Shanti-Sena (Peace-army), Creed. Its central administration, the Holy See, is Sadhandan (gift of implements for in the Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, Italy. agricultural operations). The Catholic Church teaches that it is the One,  As regards attitudinal transformation, the Holy, Catholic and Apostolic church founded by propagation of ideas combined with the above Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, that its material achievements, could not but affects bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles, and the mind of the thinking people. that the Pope is the successor to Saint Peter to  The movement directly influenced the life- whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It style of the co-workers, especially the life-long maintains that it practices the original Christian co-workers & through them many workers & faith, reserving infallibility, passed down by sacred associates or fellow-seekers. tradition.The Latin Church and Eastern Catholic  By adopting Gandhi’s ideas to the solution of Churches, as well as institutes such as mendicant the basic economic problem of land collection orders and enclosed monastic orders, reflect a & equitable redistribution among the landless, variety of theological and spiritual emphases in the Movement kept Gandhi’s ideas of the Church. socioeconomic reconstruction alive at a period when the tendency of the educated elite was Of its seven sacraments the Eucharist is the to overlook, if not to reject Gandhi’s ideas as principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. irrelevant. The church teaches that through consecration by a  The Movement kindled interest in the priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the individuals to study Gandhi’s ideas & to assess body and blood of Christ. Virgin Mary is venerated their relevance. in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and  To conclude taking an overall view it cannot be Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and gainsaid that the Bhoodan-Gramdan devotions. Its teaching includes sanctification Movement, despite all its real & apparent through faith and evangelisation of the Gospel and limitations, it would ever be deemed as a Catholic social teaching, which emphasises glorious attempt for a peaceful & non-violent support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted solution of the basic land problem of Indian through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. society & through it for a non-violent The Catholic Church is the largest non-government reconstruction of the Sarvodaya socio- provider of education and health care in the economic-politico order of universal relevance world. & significance. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, culture, science, and art. The Catholic

Pscnotes.com Page 69

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Church shared communion with the Eastern synaxis. The church teaches that through Orthodox Church until the East–West Schism in consecration invoked by a priest the sacrificial 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the bread and wine become the body and blood of Pope, as well as with the Oriental Orthodox Christ. Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern churches prior to the Chalcedonian schism in 451 Orthodox Church as Mother of God, honoured in over differences in Christology. Catholics live all devotions. Eastern Orthodoxy developed in the over the world through missions, diaspora, and Greek-speaking Eastern part of the Roman Empire, conversions. Since the 20th century the majority continuing later in the . During reside in the southern hemisphere due to the first centuries AD, most major intellectual, secularisation of Europe, and increased cultural, and social developments in the Great persecution in the Middle East. From the late Christian Church took place within the sphere of 20th century, the Catholic Church has been influence of the Byzantine commonwealth, where criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal the Greek language was widely spoken and used to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse for theological writings. In reference to this legacy, cases. it was sometimes called "Greek Orthodox", though this was never in official use and gradually The eastern Orthodox church abandoned by the non–Greek-speaking Eastern The Eastern Orthodox Church, also known as the Orthodoxy from the 10th century A.D. The Orthodox Church, or officially as the Eastern contemporary Eastern Orthodox Church shared Orthodox Catholic Church, is the second-largest communion with the contemporary Roman Christian Church, with over 250 million members. Catholic Church until the East–West Schism in AD As one of the oldest religious institutions in the 1054, triggered by disputes over doctrine, world, it has played a prominent role in the history especially the authority of the Pope. Prior to the and culture of Eastern Europe, and the Near East, Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, also Oriental including Slav and Greek peoples. A communion of Orthodox churches shared in this communion, autocephalous churches, each typically governed separating primarily over differences in by Holy Synods, its bishops are equal by of Christology. ordination, with doctrines summarised in the The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in Nicene Creed. Although Patriarch Bartholomew I Russia, eastern Europe, , and the Caucasus, of Constantinople is considered the most with smaller communities in the former Byzantine prominent, it lacks central governance analogous regions of the eastern Mediterranean, Africa, and to the Papacy in the Roman Catholic Church. The to a descreasing degree also in the Middle East Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the due to persecution. There are also many in other One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic church parts of the world, formed through diaspora, established by Jesus Christ in his Great conversions, and missionary activity. Commission, and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles. It maintains that it Protestants churches practices the original Christian faith, passed down by sacred tradition. Of its several patriarchates Protestantism is the second largest form of four reminiscent the pentarchy, while its Christianity with collectively more than 900 million autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect adherents worldwide or nearly 40 percent of all or variety of hierarchical organisation. Christians. It originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered Of its innumerable sacred mysteries, it recognises to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. Ever seven "major sacraments" of which the Eucharist since, Protestants reject the Roman Catholic is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments, but

Pscnotes.com Page 70

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 disagree among themselves regarding the real a worldwide scope and distribution of presence of Christ in the Eucharist. They membership, while others are confined to a single emphasize the priesthood of all believers, country. justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by good works, and the highest authority of the A majority of Protestants are members of a Bible alone (rather than with sacred tradition) in handful of Protestant denominational families: faith and morals (sola scriptura). The "Five solae" Adventists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed, summarize basic theological differences in Lutherans, Methodists, and Pentecostals. opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, Protestantism is popularly considered to have independent and other churches are on the rise, begun in Germany in 1517 when Martin Luther and constitute a significant part of Protestant published his Ninety-five Theses as a reaction Christianity. Proponents of the branch theory against abuses in the sale of indulgences by the consider Protestantism one of the three major Roman Catholic Church, which purported to offer divisions of Christendom, together with the remission of sin to their purchasers. However, the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both term derives from the letter of protestation from Eastern and Oriental). German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict Facts related to of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of  The line of Nagabhata ruled first Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were at Ujjain and later at Kannauj during the earlier breaks and attempts to reform of the 8th to 11th centuries. Roman Catholic Church — notably by Peter Waldo,  John Wycliffe, and Jan Hus — only Luther In the complicated and badly documented succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting, modern wars of the early 9th century—involving movement. In the 16th century, Lutheranism Pratiharas, Rastrakutas, and Palas— spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Nagabhata II played an important part. Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and About 816 he invaded the Indo-Gangetic Iceland.Reformed (or Calvinist) denominations Plain and captured Kannauj from the local spread in Germany,Hungary, the Netherlands, king Chakrayudha, who had the protection Scotland, Switzerland and France by reformers of the Pala ruler Dharmapala. such as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John  With the power of the Rastrakutas Knox. The political separation of the Church of weakened, Nagabhata II became the most England from the pope under King Henry VIII powerful ruler of northern India and sparked Anglicanism in England and Wales into established his new capital at Kannauj. this broad Reformation movement.  After the death of Mahendrapala, the succession is obscure. The power of the Protestants developed their own culture, with Pratiharas was apparently weakened by major contributions in education, the humanities dynastic strife. It was further diminished and sciences, the political and social order, the as a result of a great raid from the Deccan, economy and the arts, and many other fields. led by the Rastrakuta king Indra III, who Protestantism is diverse, being more divided about 916 sacked Kannauj. theologically and ecclesiastically than either the  Their last important king, Rajyapala, was Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox driven from Kannauj by Maḥmūd of Church, or Oriental Orthodoxy. Without structural Ghazna in 1018 and was later killed by the unity or central human authority, Protestants forces of the Chandela king Vidyadhara. spearheaded the concept of an invisible church For about a generation longer a small rather than a body of clergy or focused on Pratihara principality apparently survived institutional figures. Some denominations do have in the area of Allahabad.

Pscnotes.com Page 71

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja and took away the political benefit of the defeat of Pala king.

Sources of Gurjara Pratiharas’ History  Dharmapala took advantage of the defeat  Historians believe that after the Gupta of Vatsaraja and installed his own period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India nominee Chakrayudba on the throne of from the central Asian region and settled Kanauj. in . Gradually, they gained political importance.  Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II (A.D.815) made an alliance with Andhra, Vidharbha,  The bardic tradition of Rajasthan claims and Kalinga. He made extensive that the Gurjara Pratiharas, Chalukyas, preparation to fight against his rivals. Parmaras, and Chahmanas were born out of a done at Mount Abu. Therefore,  Nagabhatta II first defeated Chakrayudha these four dynasties are also known and captured Kanauj. Then he defeated as agnikulas (fire-clans). Dharmapala and fought with Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta king.  The four dynasties of were created for the protection of the country from  Nagabhatta also defeated Vega external aggressions. who was the son of the governor of Sind under the Caliph-l Mamun.  The literary meaning of Pratihara is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed that their ancestor  Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by his son served as a door keeper to his Ramabhadra. brother Rama. Therefore, they were called as Pratihara.  Ramabhadra was succeeded by his son -I about A.D. 836.  The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from Gurjara.  Bhoja-I restored the falling prosperities and reputation of his dynasty. Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas   The Gwalior inscription mentioned the A golden opportunity to the king Bhoja-I early history of the family. The inscription was provided by the death of Devapala of was founded by King Bhoja in the Bengal and Rashtrakuta's invasion of 7th century. He was the most famous king Bengal thereafter. of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty.  The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II was  Nagabhatta-I was the real founder of the involved in the struggle with the Eastern fame of family. He defeated the Muslim Chalukyas. forces from the Arabs.  Bhoja-I defeated Krishna-II and captured  During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja followed the region of Malwa and Gujarat. an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated  After victory over two great rivals, Bhoja-I Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal. founded his sovereignty over the Punjab, Avadh, and other territories of north India and consolidated his empire.

Pscnotes.com Page 72

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Bhoja-I was a devotee of Vishnu, and  Krishna-III was other Rashtrakuta ruler adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has invaded north India in about A.D. 963. He been inscribed in some of his coins. He is defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to also known by other names as 'Mihir', decline of Pratihara Empire. 'Prabhasa,' etc.  The Pratiharas were patrons of learning  Bhoja-I was succeeded by his son and literature. Mahendrapala-I about A.D. 885.  Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived at the  Mahendrapala-I also extended the court of Mahendrapala-I. boundaries of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara Empire stretched almost  The Pratihara kings were followers of from the Himalayas in the north to the Hinduism. Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west.  They build with many fine buildings and temples at Kanauj.  Mahendrapala-I was also known as 'Mahendrayudha',  The epigraphic records show that the and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He was a liberal building of temples and the educational patron of learned men. institutions attached with them, formed community projects, in which the entire  Rajashehara was learned man of his court. village community participated. He had written Karpuramanjari, Bala- Ramayana, Bala Bharata, Kavyamimansa,  Many Indian scholars went to the court of Bhuvana , and Haravilasa. the Caliph at Baghdad along with embassies. However, the names of the  The Pratiharas dynasty dominated north Indian kings are not known who sent India for over two hundred years from the these embassies. 8th century to the 10th century A.D.  This interaction between India and Arab  Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in led to the spread of Indian culture, A.D. 915-916. literature, and science, especially mathematics, algebra, and medicine to  Al-Masudi mentioned about the great the Arab world from where these were powers and prestige of the Pratihara further transmitted to Europe. rulers and the vastness of their empire.  Although the Pratiharas were well known  Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-Juzr for their aggression to the Arab rulers of (Gurjara) had 1,800,000 villages, the cities . and rural areas were about 2,000 km in length and 2,000 km in breadth.  Despite all this, the movement of scholars and trade between India and west Asia  The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II again remained uninterrupted. attacked Kanauj between A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and completely destroyed it. This weakened the Pratihara Empire. Hindu Dharma: General characteristics and some common beliefs – Purusharthas– rituals and

Pscnotes.com Page 73

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

ethics – festivals and sacred days – pilgrimage  It does not perish at the time of death. The and fairs. process of birth and rebirth goes on until is attained.  Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the  This cycle of transmigration is also known as world. It is a religion followed by several racial samsara, which is the arena where the cycle of and ethnic groups. birth and rebirth operates.  The Hindu sacred texts deal with the ethical  One’s birth and rebirth in a particular state of behaviour of an individual of a family and of existence is believed by the Hindus to be society in general. dependent on the quality of one’s deeds  They also discuss and prescribe rules of (karma). administration, politics, statesmanship, legal  For a Hindu, the issue of liberation is of principles and statecraft. paramount significance.  Hinduism, the world's oldest religion, has no beginning--it precedes recorded history. It has Karma and Samsara no human founder. It is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience  The concepts of dharma, , and the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle moksha are related to tenets of karma and of consciousness where man and God are one. samsara.  Hinduism has four main denominations--  Karma is a word used for all activity or work. Saivism, , and Smartism Samsara is the term used for the arena where the cycle of birth and rebirth continues to Concepts of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha operate until one attains liberation.  This is also called the theory of reincarnation  A life of righteousness for a Hindu is possible or punarjanma. through the fourfold scheme of practical  Actions are divided into good or bad on the endeavour. It comprises the concepts of basis of their intrinsic worth. dharma, artha, kama and moksha  Good deeds bring fame, merit and are the path 1. Dharma is honest and upright conduct or to heaven. Bad deeds bring notoriety and lead righteous action. to punishment and life in hell. 2. Artha means a righteous and honest  It is recognised that an individual’s overall pursuit of economic activities. position in a future life depends on the way he 3. Kama is the fulfillment of one’s normal or she lives the present one. This belief, which desires. gave a positive or negative value to certain 4. Moksha is liberation, that is absorption of actions, developed into a general theory of the self into eternal bliss. actions and is called the karma theory.  Related to these four concepts are the  The concept of karma is fully developed and concepts of karma and samsara. Depending woven into the belief in re-birth, which in turn upon one’s deeds (karma) one is able to reach is related to the belief concerning heaven, hell, the stage of moksha or liberation. and moksha.  The stage of moksha or liberation is a term for  An individual’s fate after death is determined describing the end of the cycle of birth and by the sum total of grades and attributes of his rebirth. or her actions or deeds (karma) during his or  The cycle of birth and rebirth is known as her life. Better birth and status is obtained if samsara. The Hindus believe that each human there is a surplus of many good deeds in a being has a soul and that this soul is immortal. person’s life.  Otherwise one’s status falls in the next life. Another related belief-is that the world moves

Pscnotes.com Page 74

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

in a cyclical process (birth and death follow 5. Reincarnation and Liberation one another).  By following one’s karma prescribed within the Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving fourfold scheme of dharma, artha, kama, through many births until all have been moksha an individual strives to get out of this resolved, and moksha--spiritual knowledge and otherwise infinite cyclical process of birth and liberation from the cycle of rebirth--is attained. death. Depending on one’s previous and Not a single soul will be eternally deprived of this present karma, one prospers or suffers in this destiny. world. 6. Temples and the Inner Worlds  Later after death he either gains heaven or is punished with life in hell. Hindus believe that divine beings exist in unseen  Thus a human being after death may become a worlds and that temple worship, rituals, denizen or inhabitant of heaven or hell, may sacraments as well as personal devotionals create be reborn as an animal, or even be reborn as a a communion with these devas and Gods. tree. All this depends on one’s karma. An individual usually wanders through many 7. Yoga Guided by a Satguru births till he or she finds final release or Hindus believe that a spiritually awakened master, moksha. or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent 9 Basic Hindu Beliefs Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry and 1. Reverence for Our Revealed Scriptures meditation.

Hindus believe in the of the Vedas, the 8. Compassion and Noninjury world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved hymns are God's word and the bedrock of and revered, and therefore practice , Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion which has "noninjury." neither beginning nor end. 9. Genuine Respect for Other Faiths

2. All-Pervasive Divinity Hindus believe that no particular religion teaches Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme the only way to salvation above all others, but that Being who is both immanent and transcendent, all genuine religious paths are facets of God's Pure both Creator and Unmanifest Reality. Love and Light, deserving tolerance and understanding 3. Three Worlds and Cycles of Creation The Four Stages of Life Hindus believe there are three worlds of existence--physical, astral and causal--and that the The Life of a Hindu is considered to be divisible universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, into four stages, namely preservation and dissolution. 1. Brahmacharya ashram 4. The Laws of Karma and Dharma 2. ashram 3. ashram Hindus believe in karma--the law of cause and 4. Sanyasa ashram effect by which each individual creates his own  It is the dharma of a Hindu to pass through destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds--and in these stages in one’s life. The male members dharma, righteous living. of Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna pass

Pscnotes.com Page 75

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

through four different ashram (stages) in their endeavour that is important and not the age at life. which this begins.  Thus Hinduism permits young unmarried sanyasi, as well as those who never go beyond grihasthashrama.  Thus there is nothing compulsory about living Brahmacharya Ashram life in the varnashram scheme. It is, however, highly recommended.  The first ashram is called brahmacharya  At present most Hindus do not systematically ashram (the educational stage) from which the go through the varnashrama. They do, fourth varna, viz., Sudra and women of the however, accept these stages to be the ideal first three varna are barred ways in which a Hindu should spend his life. Brahmacharyashram ends (after studentship)  Like the four varna, the four stages of life are at marriage. Celibacy is prescribed till models. In real life, we find that occupations marriage. associated with each varna are not followed Grihasthashram precisely in accordance with what is written in the sacred texts.  The second stage of life is called the  Today a Brahman may be employed in a shoe grihasthashram. company, selling shoes to all the customers  During this a man rears a family, earns a living irrespective of their varna or caste. and performs his daily personal and social  The Hindus are divided into castes or jati which duties. are hereditary groups.

Vanaprastha ashram FESTIVALS AND PILGRIMAGES

 Following this a man gradually enters the third  Festivals, pilgrimages and other ceremonial stage of life called the vanaprashthashram. occasions are usually linked with religion. During this stage the householder relinquishes  As such they show how both personal identity his duties in the household, and devotes his of the individuals as well as collective identity time to religious pursuits. His links with his of the groups are highlighted by the patterns family are weakened. During this ashram a of interaction during these events. Festivals man retires into the forest with or without his manifest the social cohesion and solidarity of wife leaving behind the householder’s cares the community. and duties. Festivals Sanyasa ashram  Most of the Hindu festivals are linked to the  The final phase of a Hindu’s life begins with arrival of particular seasons. For example, the the stage known as the sanyasashram. In this festival of Diwali marks the arrival of winter stage one attempts to totally withdraw oneself season while that of signifies the from the world and its cares by going to the beginning of summer season. Some festivals forest and spending the rest of life in pursuit of are associated with eclipses and movements of moksha. the heavenly bodies such as the moon and  The four stages of a Hindu’s life just described other planets. are together called the varnashrama system.  Many festivals are held in the honour of the There is an ideal scheme, which correlates the deities like Krishna, Siva, Durga, and vamashrama phases to ages at which a Rama, e.g., Dussehra, Durgapuja, particular ashram begins. However, it is the Janmashtami, etc.

Pscnotes.com Page 76

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Local festivals have their roots in the ecology  Each fair is both a religious and a secular of the region, celebrating myths associated occasion and people participate in both with with plants like coconuts, tulsi (basil), the equal enthusiasm. sacred tree, or with animals, like elephants, snakes and monkeys. Pilgrimage  There are regional festivals connected with the  Not very different from a fair is a pilgrimage. agricultural cycle such as the occasion of first  The cultural unity of the Hindus is expressed in ploughing, sowing or harvest. Among the the institution of pilgrimage. artisans, carpenter, blacksmith and brass-  When a pilgrim goes to the southern pilgrim workers, people worship the deity called centre at Rameshwaram, he or she also aspires Vishwakarma. to reach the northern end of the country, at  We shall not go into the ritualistic aspect of . these festivals. The emphasis here is on the  Most pilgrims also aspire to go to in the role these festivals play in social life of the east and to Dwarikanath in the west. people. During festivals, people in a locality get  In these places of pilgrimage, there is often a together and their participation in a common fair being held during the periods pilgrims activity enhances their feeling of belonging to arrive in large numbers. a community.  Generally, people go to these places in large  These occasions also provide the chance to groups. Such groups are mostly formed on the people for buying and selling special basis of kin relationships. commodities. By preparing special food and  They may also include neighbours, friends and wearing special clothes, people bring about business partners. the feelings of freshness and change in their  Different sects of Hinduism have acquired day-to-day life. pilgrim centres around the whole country over  This regenerates them for carrying the routine time. activities. Recurrence of festivals and  Besides the four centres in the four directions, associated rituals strengthens their faith in the the Sakta sect has more than fifty centres of stability and integrity of their social order. pilgrimage.  Festivals like Holi, Diwali and Dussehra are  There are seven places of pilgrimage, celebrated on a scale, which includes dedicated to the Sun god, Surya. One of them participation of Hindus as well as non-Hindus. is in , in West Pakistan.  They provide occasions for a meeting across  Despite linguistic, racial, and cultural religions. Associated with festivals are fairs, differences, most Hindus undertake long and which are held at prescribed times on a holy arduous journeys to the many varied pilgrim spot. Sometimes, fairs assume independent places. This adds an important dimension to significance and attract the participation of their social life. cross-section of society. Some famous fairs such as the fair of Sonepur or draw Hindu sects: Hinduism as a federation of various people from all over the country. sects – Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta  In these fairs, craftsmen bring their special artware, artists come to present their shows,  Hinduism is a complex religion. It is an agricultural surplus is brought for selling, brisk artificial collection of several traditions trading is carried on in cattle, horses, that originated in India in the last few elephants. millenniums.  Since, the Muslim and British rulers and scholars alike were ignorant of the native traditions, they grouped everything under

Pscnotes.com Page 77

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

the generic name Hinduism to contrast C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in them with their own beliefs and practices. New York City in 1966.  Thus the name, Hinduism, came to say. But  In Vaishnavism Lord Vishnu is considered a close examination of Hinduism reveals as the supreme being. that it has many sects and teacher  The cause, sustainer and destroyer of all traditions, with large following, which can worlds. Vishnu is considered both in the be treated as religions themselves. form and as the formless infinite one.  Academics categorize contemporary Vaishnava sect is the largest among hindu Hinduism into four major denominations: sects Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism. Sub-sects in Vaishnava tradition  The denominations differ primarily in the 1. Lakshmi god worshipped as the Supreme One and 2. in the traditions that accompany worship 3. of that god. 4. Kumara sampradaya  Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the Shaivism supreme; Shaktas worship (power) personified through a female divinity or  Shaivism reveres the god Shiva as the Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartas Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva believe in the essential oneness of five is All and in all, the creator, preserver, (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata, as Tamil destroyer, revealer and concealer of all Hindus add Skanda) deities as that is. personifications of the Supreme.  Devotees of Shiva wear Sacred ash as a sectarian mark on their foreheads and Vaishnavism other parts of their bodies with reverence.  The Sanskrit words bhasma and can  It is focused on worshiping of Vishnu. both be translated as “sacred ash”. Vaishnavites lead a way of life promoting  Shaivism has a vast literature that includes differentiated , which gives texts representing multiple philosophical importance to Lord Vishnu and His ten schools, including non-dualist (abheda), incarnations. dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism  Its beliefs and practices, especially the (bhedābheda) perspectives. concepts of and , are  Shaiva tradition is probably the oldest based largely on the Upanishads, and among Hindu sects. In Shaiva sect Lord associated with the Vedas and Puranic Shiva is the main deity, he is considered as texts such as the , and the the form of the supreme being. Padma, Vishnu and Puranas.  Ishwara which is another name for Shiva is  Awareness, recognition, and growth of the used in the ancient scriptures to mean the belief have significantly increased outside absolute god. of India in recent years.  The sub-sects within the Shaiva tradition  The Gaudiya Vaishnava branch of the worship different forms of Shiva and tradition has significantly increased the attribute different qualities to Shiva. awareness of Vaishnavism internationally, since the mid-1900s, largely through the Sub-sects in Shaiva tradition activities and geographical expansion of the movement founded by A. 1. Pashupata Shaivism

Pscnotes.com Page 78

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

2.  It is most essential for Smarta Brahmins to 3. specialize in the Karma Kanda of the Vedas 4. Siddhanta and associated rituals diligently, and to 5. Lingayata teach the subsequent generations. 6. Popular religion Shaktism  A vast majority of Hindus do not belong to  Shaktism focuses focuses worship upon any sect. Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother –  They worship numerous gods and as the absolute, ultimate Godhead. goddesses and make them offerings.  Shaktism regards Devī as the Supreme  They may have personal gods of their Brahman itself, with all other forms of choice, but worship other deities also with divinity, female or male, considered being equal fervor, and celebrate all important merely her diverse manifestations. festivals.  In the details of its philosophy and  Other important cults of Hinduism are the practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. cult, whose principal deity is  However, Shaktas focus most or all and Cult which is centered worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine around the worship of Surya, the sun god. aspect of the Supreme Divine.  Each of the sect has a history of two or  Shaktism is practiced throughout the three thousand years and vast body of and beyond, in literature in the form of Puranas, numerous forms, both Tantric and non- and Upanishads supporting their beliefs Tantric; however, its two largest and most and practices. visible schools are the Srikula (lit., family of  Within each of the sects there are several Sri), strongest in South India, and the teacher traditions and schools of Kalikula (family of ), which prevails in philosophy, which can be divided northern and eastern India principally into three categories: Advaita, Dvaita and Vishistadvaita. Smartism  Followers of Advaita believe that duality is  Smartism is a liberal or nonsectarian a delusion and God alone is true and real. denomination of the Vedic Hindu religion There is no second. which accepts all the major  Dvaita schools that God and His as forms of the one Brahman. creation are distinct and different in every  The term Smarta refers to adherents who aspect. On liberation souls continue to follow the Vedas and . Only a exist as independent entities. section of south Indian brahmins call  Vishistadvaita, holds the middle ground. themselves Smartas now. They believe that God and souls are almost  Smartas are followers and propagators of identical and there is no duality between or religious texts derived from Vedic them except notionally. scriptures.  The sects and subsets of Hinduism enjoy  Smarta religion was practiced by people wider following than some world religions who believed in the authority of the Vedas with a history that is equally ancient and as well as the basic premise of puranas. eventful.  As a consequence usually only a brahmin Philosophical Sects preferred to use this term to refer to his family tradition. Theistic sects

Pscnotes.com Page 79

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

1. Samkhya: A logic oriented tradition where Tantrik panth - Practice of is advocated enquiry into consciousness and mind are of for one's development on the path of self importance realization 2. Yoga: Unification with the consciousness is achieved through Meditation, New Hindu movements contemplation and other body mind Some of these new Hindu movements were/ are controlling practices intended for social reforms, some of these 3. Nyaya: In this tradition primary importance movements are aimed at uniting the sects through is given to Logical thinking common spiritual concepts. 4. Vaisheshika: Vaisheshika is based on understanding the nature of objects, i.e all 1. objects can be further divided into atoms 2. Brahmo Samaj 5. Mimāṃsā: Enquiry into the nature of 3. Dharma 4. Mission 6. Vedanta: Knowledge is given primary 5. importance 6. Siradi SaiBaba 7. Shyama charan mission Atheistic Sects 8. Chinmaya Mission

1. Cārvāka FOUR FACTS OF HINDUISM 2. Jainism: Practice of Non-violence along with other practices is considered the way KARMA to liberation 3. Buddhism: enquiring into the nature of  God’s cosmic law of karma governs all our suffering and the way out of suffering form experiences through cause and effect. the basic principles of Buddhism Through karma, our thoughts, emotions and deeds—whether good, bad or mixed— Other sects return to us.  Karma is not fate. We have . Shrautism -word Shrauti comes from Shruti,  No God or external force is controlling our Shrauti means the tradition of Shrutis. Shrauti life. By applying the wisdom of the sages to tradition gives higher importance to practices the experiences encountered in life, we from the earlier portion of Vedas. resolve our karma rather than create new Saurism -In Saurism, Surya (sun god) is karma. worshipped as the form of supreme being. This  To be responsible for our karma is sect comes from the vedic traditions strength. To blame others is weakness.  Therefore, remember God’s great law of Ganapatism -The supreme being is worshipped karma and act wisely. Life is the classroom. through the form of Lord Ganesha. Karma is the teacher. God GaneSa is the Lord of karma panthi -Teachings of Guru Kabir form the basic structure of Kabir Panthi, It has wide variety REINCARNATION of Practices and wide variety of followers.  Reincarnation is the natural cycle of birth, Aghor panth -It is a branch of Shaivism, an usual death and re birth. We are not the body in adherent of this sect is a wandering monk whose which we live, but the immortal soul which main purpose in life is to attain god through inhabits one body after another on the simple living Earth during its evolutionary journey.

Pscnotes.com Page 80

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Like the caterpillar’s transformation into a  Hindu dharma is embodied in the ten butterfly, physical death is a most natural (restraints) and ten transition for the soul, never to be feared. (observances). We are now the sum total of all our past  The yamas are noninjury, truthfulness, lives. nonstealing, sexual purity, patience,  The actions and re actions we set in mo steadfastness, compassion, tion in our last life form the tendencies in straightforwardness and moderate the next. appetite.  Reincarnation ceases when all karmas have  The niyamas are purity, remorse, been resolved, dharma has been well contentment, giving, faith, worship, performed and God fully realized. This is scriptural study, cognition, vows, recitation known as mok sha, or liberation from and austerity. rebirth  Noninjury, ahisâ, is the cardinal virtue, the mahâvrata. THE ONE, ALL-PERVASIVE SUPREME BEING NINE BELIEFS OF HINDUISM  God is a one Being, yet we un derstand Him in three perfections. Parasiva, Ab sol  Our beliefs determine our thoughts and ute Reality, timeless, formless, spaceless, is attitudes about life, which in turn direct His unmanifest first perfection. our actions.  His second perfection, Pure Consciousness,  By our actions, we create our destiny. is all-pervasive, infinite, and is found in Beliefs about sacred matters—God, soul every action and particle of His creation. and cosmos—are essential to one’s His third perfection, Primal Soul, approach to life. Paramesvara, is our personal Lord and  Hindus believe many diverse things, but Ruler of all three worlds. there are a few bedrock concepts on which  Pûjâ, bhajana, prayer and meditation are most Hindus concur. The following nine all worshipful means of communion with beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a God and the Gods, who are real beings simple summary of Hindu spirituality. dwelling in the inner worlds.  They can and want to help us in every and Patriotism aspect of our life. Hindutva  The Gods have established many temples to allow us to communicate with them.  Literally 'Hindutva' means a way of life or a state of mind that is based on the cultural and DHARMA spiritual ethos based on the spiritual systems  Dharma is God’s di vine law prevailing on that evolved from India. every level of existence, from the  Hindutva is a philosophy like Communism or sustaining cosmic order to religious and . The difference is that, whereas moral laws which bind us in harmony with communism and socialism are materialistic that order. It is piety and ethical practice, intended to secure economic duty and obligation. welfare of individuals, Hindutva is a spiritual  Dharma is to the individual what its normal plus economic philosophy founded and development is to a seed—the orderly developed from ancient times in India for fulfillment of an inherent nature and securing all round happiness of all individuals destiny. irrespective of social levels of individuals.

Pscnotes.com Page 81

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 The focus in this philosophy be it the ruler or philosophy, a way of life. Mysticism spread in the ruled is on the performance of duty and the world from Hindutva with civilization conformity to a code of conduct. dating back to Aryan era.  The word 'Hindutva' is not found in traditional  Hindutva is nothing but the theory and lexicon. It was used for the first time by the practice of national and international politics national leader, V.D.Savarkar in 1923. Since as defined by Sanatana Dharma, known also as then, the term has been used in different Hinduism. It is not a creed like Christianity or shades of meaning and placed at the service of , but a code of conduct and a value a range of socio-political interventionist system that has spiritual freedom at its core. practices. Any pathway or spiritual vision that accepts  'Hindutva' or the state of being Hindu, the the spiritual freedom of others may be inhabitants of Sindhu Pradesh, is in many ways considered a part of Sanatana Dharma. As Sri not very far from the English term 'Hinduism' Arabindo described it, ''Sanatana Dharma is i.e. the way of life of the Hindus or the also the basis of Indian nationalism. inhabitants of the Greater India without the  “The basis of Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma is disparity of caste and creed. the quest for cosmic truth, just as the quest for  A Hindu Rashtra does not mean a theocratic physical truth is the domain of science. state. A way of life, national tradition, concept Hindutva is not necessarily limited to India or of materialism, Sanatana Dharma, no. scope to those who consider themselves to be for untouchabihty, secularism, patriotism are orthodox Hindus, although it reflects the main some of the fimdamental features associated fraditions of the land and the power of its with the philosophy of Hindutva. inner soul or guiding spirit, Bharat Mata  It denotes the Indian culture and Indianhood. (Mother India). There are a plenty of historical records to illustrate and demonstrate how Hindustan has, Patriotism down the ages, been to mean India. For  Patriotism is one of a large class of words that example, Sir Syed Ahmed, the founder of the are linked to the virtues of membership. To Aligarh Muslim University, as calling himself a participate in relations of, for example, Hindu. It is not uncommon for a Muslim in friendship, community, nationhood, many a Muslim country to call an Indian citizenship, or marriage implies normative Muslim a Hindu because he belongs to conventions. Hindustan. Poet Iqbal's words, 'Hindu hain  In other words, there are value expectations ham watan hai Hindustan hamara' and built into such membership. One important Mahatma Gandhi's prayer, 'Ishwar Allah tere dimension of any membership relation is an nam sab ko Sanmati de Bhagwan' are more expectation of loyalty. Fidelity or loyalty to a meaningful to convey the message of nation, community, friend, citizenship, Hindutva. marriage, or state is thus implied in the actual  Hindutva is not a religion as it does not convey practice. the sense of 'Hindu Dharma'. It is a state of  To participate openly and self-consciously, being Hindu and a way of life as concluded and therefore, in any of these membership accepted in the verdict of the Supreme Court, practices involves adherence to loyalty-based the apex seat of judiciary in India. virtue. In this context, the term patriotism  According to Dev Pandhi a noted journalist, usually denotes a specific loyalty virtue, "Hindutva, a word synonymous with psyche consequent upon membership of a country or of people in India with offshoots enveloping state. However, the term loyalty alone does the globe, is in the right perspective - a

Pscnotes.com Page 82

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

not quite cover the range of values associated been written as well in the blood of patriots. with patriotic membership. Rana Pratap, , Chhatrapati Shivaji,  Patriotism also signifies a sense of personal Surya Sen, Rani Lakshmi Bai, Netaji, Jatin Das identification with, and concern for, the well- — are all great patriots to remember. Their being or welfare of that country or state. patriotism is different from false patriotism, Further, it entails a readiness to make which is a danger to a nation and civilization as sacrifices for its defense or welfare. a whole  It provides (for some) the ground for all moral  A true patriot other countries as his own action—in the sense that , in itself, is and wants to live in peace with them. He does seen to be, quite literally, premised on not think his country to be the best in the patriotic membership. Patriotism also world. indicates a special affection, feeling, or  Patriots are selfless people who care for the emotive response. This emotive response is welfare of their fellow beings. They also fight commonly designated as a "love of country." against social evils. They strive for eradication of social evils and work hard to uplift the Patriotism in India society.  Patriotism is the great and selfless passion of  A thought is a reflection of the mental picture. love for one’s country. To an Indian patriot his Mahatma Gandhi infused the patriotic feeling mother and motherland are superior even to among the Indians, as a result of which, we heaven. An Indian Patriot is ever ready to lay gained freedom from British rule. Even today, down his life in the service of his country, there is a need for patriotic thought among India. Indian. There is no place of narrowness in the  Patriotism is not mere passive love for the mind of a true patriot. He thinks himself as a country. A true patriot, who loves India, is an citizen of the world as a whole. active worker. He works at heart and soul for the progress of his India and countrymen. He takes action for maintaining the sovereignty Shri Ahichchhatra Tirth and glory of his motherland.  Patriotism inspires a patriot to rise in revolt Geographic location: It is near the Ramnagar and fight for the freedom of his country. In a village of district Bareilly. Various Jain idols and free country like India, there are occasions inscriptions found during the land excavations tell when one has to sacrifice one’s personal us about the historical importance of this pleasures and even life for one’s country. place.This place is known for ages for the event  A patriot always fights against the internal and that took place while BhagwanParshwanatha external enemies of his country. The black attained ‘KevalGyan’ here through deep marketers, profiteers, criminals and anti- ‘Tapashcharan’.In the ancient Parshvanath socials are all internal enemies of India. A true Temple, there are 5 Vedis dedicated toTikhal Baba Indian patriot tries to free his country from all (black idol of Lord Parshvanath with engraved these enemies. He also must try to make his footprints), Lord Parshvanath and Lord India free from poverty, ignorance and Chandraprabhu (white statues of Lord Mahavir), superstition. Lord Mahaveer, Lord Parshvanath (white Idol in  Many patriots fought against the British rule to khandagasan posture) and a statue of Lord secure freedom for India. They never hesitated Sheetalnath. to sacrifice their comfort, happiness and life for the cause of their motherland. Some of the most glorious chapters of Indian history have Shri Tirth

Pscnotes.com Page 83

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Ayodhya is a famous tirthkshetra in Eastern Uttar nearly 60 centimeters in height and black – Pradesh. It is located on Delhi-Luknow- colored. This marvelous idol of Bhagawan Mughalsarai rail route. It is about 6 kilometers Vimlanath is in the Padmasana Posture (a away from Faizabad and 139 kilometers away Digambar temple) and the other one in from Lucknow. There are very ancient temples Swetambar temple the idol is 45 centimeters in belonging to different society and culture. For height having white color of Bhagawan Vimalnath Jains the importance of this place is due to that in the Padmasana posture. It is believed that BhagwanAdinathji adopted diksa at this place. , the daughter of Drupad, the king of After diksa, many times he came wandering here Paanchaal, was born in . The sacrificial alter and his samavasranas were set here. This holy (Yagyakund) from which Draupadi is believed to land is the birthplace of Bhahubali, Brahmi, have been born from the fire of knowledge, is Sundari, King Dashrath, situated in Kampil till date. AcharyaPadaliptasurisvarji, King Harishchandra, ShriRamchandra, Achalbhrata, and the ninth Two famous pilgrimage centers of Jains religion Gandhara of Mahavir Swami and others. i.e., the Shwetambar Jain temple, dedicated to the 13th Teerthankar of the Jains & Digambar Jains There are four temples, two Svetambar’s and two temple are also situated in Kampil. Apart from Digambar’s temples. During 1965 an idol of these, there are many old temples, which prove Bhagawan Rishabhdev 885 centimeters or 31 feet the historical & religious importance of Kampil. high in posture in RaiganjDigambar The idols of this place belong to the Gupta Age. temple a really speculator was installed (Figure 2). There are Tonks of Bhagwananantnath Swami Bhagwan Abhinandan , Bhagwansheetalnath, Jain Shrines of Kakandi Bhagwan Ajitnath and Bhagwan Adinath at Ayodhya. During a digging project undertaken The village is called Kuhukan (Kakandi) where this twenty-five years age, broken idols of Jains were temple is situated.Jain’s 9th Tirthankar Lord found and it is considered that these pertain to Pushpdantji was born here and had his Kalynaka’s the Maurya period. of chayan, births, diksa here. He took his Diksha in Pushpak-van, meditated for 4 years and went on a fast. Ultimately he attained the true light of Shri Kampilaji Tirth knowledge, 'The Kewal Gyan. The nearby villages Kukubh and Kakandi stand in ruins today, with The tirthkampilaji (kampilapur) village is situated several mounds in the vicinity. The local people 10 kilometers away from the nearest railway call them 'Dedara' which represent the Jain station kyamganj. This comes under the district Devalaya. The place commands obeisance because Farrukabad of Uttar Pradesh.There are literary four Kalyanaks of Bhagwan Suvidhinath, the references in Jain scriptures of temples, which 9thTirthankar of the set of 24 for the present cycle existed even before 6th century B.C. in Mathura, of time occurred here. A grey colored Kampila and other places. Temple making appears Manastambh has also been found in the forest is to have its start from North India. Kampil, a small known as Kukubh Van and it is 24 ft. high. King village that has been erased from the memory of Samudragupta had this Manastambh erected in the mankind, is actually a very important place the year 460 A.D.The present name of this place is from historical and mythological point of view. Khukkhundu. Two famous pilgrimage centers of Jains religion i.e. the Shwetambar Jains temple, dedicated to the 13th Teerthankar of the Jains & Digambar Jain Jain Shrines of Kaushambi temple are also situated in Kampil. The idol is

Pscnotes.com Page 84

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

This shrine is located on the northern bank of the the kukchhi (ovary) of Laxmimati. She gave birth to River some 60 kilometers away from a son on Poush Krishna 11 in Anuradhanakshatra. Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. Ancient Jain scriptures As she desired moon () during her reveal that there had been 16 Mahajanpadas in pregnancy, the newborn child was named As the 6th century B.C. Vats Desh was one such Chandraprabh. He was married in his younger Mahajanpada whose capital was Kaushambi. With days and after ruling many years he decided to the end of the legendary Kingdom, take deeksha. Prabhu took Deeksha after which is believed to have been flooded and performing Varshidaan with eleven thousand kings destroyed by the river Ganges, the Chandravanshi on Poush Krishna Teras in Anuradhanakshatra at kings made Kaushambi their capital, 22 of their Sahasamra Van. He came to same place after descendants are said to have ruled from here. The roaming for three years and started meditation town, however, got its due importance with the under a Punnag tree. It was here that Prabhu presence of the 6th Tirthankar Padmaprabhu, who attained Kevalgyan on Falgun Krishna Saptami in was born here. His Kalynaka’s of chayan, births, Anuradhanakshatra. The Indra along with many diksa and 'The Kewal Gyan' took place here. There other dev has organisedsamavasaran on this is beautiful temple dedicated to Lord Bhagwan occasion. Many Sashtras & TeerthMalas describe Padmaprabhuji. Apart from above many ancient this teerth. idols were found during excavation, which prove the historical and religious importance of this place. Shri Ratnapuri

It is located on the Ayodhya- Lucknow national Shri Chandrapuri Teerth highway, to the west of Ayodhya near village Ronahi. Ratnapuri is the birthplace of Lord This holy place is on the bank of the river Ganga Dharamnath and the site of his sacred grove. near the Chandravati village. The nearest railway Bhagwan Dharamnath had a Kalyanakas Chyavan, Kadipur is at a distance of 5 kilometers and Janam, Tap (Penance) and Gayan (Knowledge) is at a distance of 23 kilometers. This is here as such it is called a KalyanakKshetra. There is the birthplace of Bhagwan Chandraprabhu the only one small temple in a village Rohini where the 8thTirthankar. At this holy place, four kalyanak, idol of Tirthankara Dharamnath of about 25 Chyavan, Janam, Deeksha and Kevalgyan, took Centimeters, a very antique one is placed. There place. Both Shwetambar and Digambar temples are Shwetambar and Digambar temples. The are situated at the bank of holy river Ganga. They footprints of Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath, blue are adjusent to each other and managed by single colored in Shwetambar temples. The white trust. Shri Chandraprabh Bhagwan, Swetvarn idol colored idol (90 centimeters) of Bhagwan Shri in padmasan mudra about 45 centimeters in Dharmanath in padmasanastha in Digambar Jain height is placed in each temple. The pilgrim’s get templeis the main attraction of this place. enlighten in prayer to Bhagawan, and experience spiritual peace here.

History of this tirth starts from the period of Varanasi (Kashi Banaras) 8thTeerthankar Shri Chandraprabh Bhagwan. According to the Jain traditions, Kashi has the Once upon a time, King Mahasen was the ruler of honor of being the birth place of four Tirthankars this place. On a lucky day his wife Queen namely, Bhagwan Suparshavathji, Chandraprabhji, Laxmimati has seen a miraculous nightmare giving Shreansnathji and Parshvanathji. Where indications of birth of Teerthankar. Right on that Parshavnathji and Suparshavnathji were born in moment, the soul (jeev) of Padmanabh entered in

Pscnotes.com Page 85

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Varansai, Bhagwan Chandraprabhji was born in only at a difference of 15 kilometers. This is an Chandrapur about 15 km away from Varanasi. ancient place widely known for 4 kalyanak of Shri Shree Shreansnathji was born in Singhpur village Shreyansnath Bhagwan 11th Tirthankar. A huge which is presently known as Sarnath. ashtakod stoop (octagonal pillar) of 103 feet height is still present showing its historical establishment. It is considered to be 2200 years Bhadaini Jain Pilgrimage old. The artistic work on it is unmatched. At present one Shwetambar Jain temple, a Digambar The birthplace of the 7thTirthankar Sri Jain temple, one pillar exists there. The White Suparshavnathji was in 'Bhandani' Muhallah', colored idols of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in situated near the banks of the river Ganga. The Padmasanastha 30 centimeters in height, place is about 1.5 km. Away from Bhelupura and (Shwetambar) and the other one Blue coloured known s the Jainghat'. This place is believed to be idol 75 cms of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in very sacred not only because it was Lord Sri Padmasanastha, (Digambar) are placed in the Suparshvanath's birth place, but he had his temples. Somenath Bodh temple also exists here. Kalyanakas Chyavan, Janam, Tap (Penance) and Gayan (Knowledge) here at present, there is a white coloured 68 cm high idol placed here and Shauripur Tirth worshipped by the shwetambars. On the other hand, a black idol of 46 cm. height is placed here The Shauripur village is on the bank of the Yamuna and is worshiped by the believers of Digambar River near to railway station in Fort. It is 2 sect. kilometers from Bateshwar, another Jain Tirth. It can also be reached from Ferozabad via Shikohabad. This temple of Shri Neminath Bhelupura Bhagwan is located at Shauripur village on the bank of river Yamuna, about 75 kilometers from This place is also located near the Varanasi. This is Agara and 25 kilometers from Shikohabad on the the birthplace of 23rdTirthankar, Lord Sri Northern railway. Shri Neminath was born at this Parshavnath. This place has a white stature of 60 place. Since this is the land of Chyavan and birth centimeter height, which is worshipped by the Kalyanakas of Bhagawan Neminath, the twenty- believers of Svetambara sect, and a black idol with second of the 24 of the present the a height of 75 centimeters is worshipped by the group, this is known as a holy Kshetra. Moreover, believers of sect.These temples are this was the lane of attainment of omniscience definitely worth seeing. This place is believed to and of many saints. This was also the be one of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for birthplace of the donor. In addition to Old the Jain devotees. There are number of other Jain DigambarMandir, The Baruamatt and 5 Tonks temples belonging to both sects of Jains. known as panchmathi are very impressive and mentionable. Idols of Bhagawan Neminathinpadmasana posture are placed in these temples. Singhpuri Teerth

Digambar temple is at a distance of 7 kilometers from Varanasi Chhavani station situated at Jain Siddha Kshetra of Mathura Sarnath crossing. The shwetambar temple is at a distance of 8 kilometers from the station situated Sri Jambu Swami was born in Champa and was the in Hiravanpur Village nearby Chandravatiteerth is son of a rich man, Seth Rishabhdutt. Even though

Pscnotes.com Page 86

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 he was married at the age of 16, he was initiated the Ganga, which washed away the city, and the by Lord Mahavir's disciple Sudhama Swami and transfer of the capital of Kaushambi left in lived as a Brahmachari for the rest of his life. After complete obscurity but it was rehabilitated twice 20 years of hard penance he attained the light of within the next few centuries though it never true knowledge and was enlightened at Chaurasi. achieved its former glory. Hastinapur is considered He is the last Kewal Gyani of the Jains. A temple to be the most ancient capital city of India. Though has been built here in his memory and dedicated it has been the venue of all the politics related to to this holiness. This place is better known as the mahabharat but it has a history that dates Chawrasi. The present Main temple has back to the times of Bhagawan Adinatha. It is said Tirthankar Ajitnath as main deity with charan of that after relinquishing his throne Bhagawan adorning the main vedi. After Adinatha entered the life of an ascetic at this Jambuswami his charan were obtained and later place. The conception, birth, ordaining and on temple was built and they were placed by enlightenment of Lords Shantinath, Kunthunath Mathura samaj. The mulnayak and Arahnath had also occurred at this very place. Ajitnathbhagwanpratima is really impressive and Hastinapur is said to be the birthplace of the very beautiful made of white stone. It was Tirthankaras Shantinath, Kunthunath and discovered from Gwalior during some excavation ; their footprints can be seen on a small work of land. There are 9 more vedis in main hill nearby. Right now there are huge temples of temple of , Neminath, Mahavirbhagwan. both the Shwetambar and the Digambar sects. Two special vedis are made here of standing karyotsargs statues of Pratham (first) Kevali swami and Antim (last) KevaliJambu Jamboodweep swami facing each other adding glory and dignity to temple. With the completion of the Jambu-dweep shrine in 1985, Hastinapur has become a favorite center for studying Jaina cosmology and cosmography, Hastinapur 'Jamboodweep' is a special feature of Hastinapur pilgrimage. It has come up with the inspiration According to Jain tradition, Hastinapur was one of and keen interest of ascetic Jnanmatiji. the earliest Indian cities like Ayodhya and Kashi Apart from Jamboodweep' there are lotus temple, and came into existence during the time of meditation temple and Indradhawaj temples. All Rishabhadeva also known as Bhagawan Adinatha these new temples are worth seeing. (the first tirthankara) whose grandson, Somaprabha, was the first ruler of the place. It is also said to be the birthplace of three Jain Rishabhanchal Tirth tirthankars, , Kunthnnath and Arahanatha. The Buddhists say that this city was This new Jain Pilgrimage centre has been recently the capital of Kururattam. The Mahabharata also established at a village Morta, which is 8 km. away gives the early history of the place, the founder of from Ghaziabad and 25 km. from Delhi on the which is generally believed to be King Hastin, fifth Meerut road. President of India laid down the in descent from Bharta. It was the capital of the foundation stone of this teerth on 20th October Kauravas and . It is said to have extended 1991. The main temple carries the idol of Bhagwan as far as Barnawa in the west and Puth in the Shri Rishabh Dev, which is 4.5 feet tall in white south. At the time of the Mahabharata War it was marble, in Padamasan posture. Rishbhanchal is a in the heyday of its prosperity which, however, grand and big temple, having 52-kalash and 81 began to decline thereafter. The severe floods in feet high artistic shikhar and popular as a center of

Pscnotes.com Page 87

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 meditation, yoga, worship and human welfare. It machine methods of production. Prior to the is a unique religious place. It is established under discovery of the system power also machines were the able guidance of Great Sadhivi Pujjya Bal in use, but the progress was rather slow due to Bramcharini Maa Shri Kaushalji and is indicative of lack of good motive power. These machines were peace and prosperity for this area. Primary worked on water or wind-power medical services, moral education, yoga and meditation training, library and boarding and Iron and Steel: The introduction of steam-driven lodging facilities are all available here. machinery also made it desirable that the wood machinery should be replaced by machinery made of some durable material, and thus usage of iron was a natural development. But as iron was not available in sufficient quantity an effort was made INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE to increase its production through the use of OF CAPITALISM cocking process. In 1829 Nelson invented a hot blast which made the use of raw coal, instead of coke, possible for the manufacture of iron. This invention greatly helped the growth of iron The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatly industry of Clyde. increased output of machine-made goods that began in England during the 18th century. Before Development of Coal Industry: The increasing use the Industrial Revolution, people wove textiles by of steam power and iron and steel necessitated hand. Beginning in the middle 1700s, machines did the development of coal industry. In fact the coal this and other jobs as well. The Industrial and the iron are the two foundations of the Revolution started in England and soon spread to modern industrial society and a country lacking in Continental Europe and North America. It brought either stands at a disadvantage. economic changes which took place in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries and Changes in Means of Communication: Between completely transformed the European society. The 1800 and 1820 about 200 miles of rail lines were Industrial Revolution brought about two main in operation in Britain. They were mainly used to changes, viz. it replaced the domestic system by carry raw material. Efforts were also made to factory system and small scale production by mass bring improvements in road and inland production. waterways. As a result of all these changes Britain came to have thousand of good roads which The Scientific & Technological Innovations, which greatly reduced the transportation cost. made the Revolution Possible Textile Industry: By 1800, several major Industrial revolution led to the rise of industrial inventions had modernized the cotton industry. In capitalism and finance capitalism. Before the the process one invention led to another. industrial revolution goods were produced at home with the help of simple and cheap tools Improvements in Engineering Techniques: The which did not need much capital. But with the mechanical engineers particularly played an installation of big machines huge funds were important role in the improvement of machinery needed and a class of capitalist made its as well as its efficient use. They made use of iron appearance. and steel in place of wood to create complex machinery. Steam Power: The invention of the use of steam was one of the most revolutionary discoveries which greatly facilitated the adoption of the IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Pscnotes.com Page 88

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Industrial revolution led to the rise of industrial territory to their empire that one historian has capitalism and finance capitalism. Before the described it as "the greatest land grab movement industrial revolution goods were produced at in the history of the world." It is well known that home with the help of simple and cheap tools colonialism produced adverse effects on the local which did not need much capital. But with the people and resulted in their uthless exploitation. installation of big machines huge funds were However, it cannot be denied that it also paved needed and a class of capitalist made its the way for the industrialization of these appearance. However, with the passage of time territories because the European colonizers set up the industrial operations grew still more complex certain industries in these areas. and enormous funds were needed which could not be provided by the capitalists from their Industrial Revolution and Capitalism individual resources. Therefore, they began to Industrialization led to the decline of feudalism in look towards investment bankers for these funds. Europe. A new system of society called Capitalism This ushered in era of Finance Capital. Though the arose in its place. It was an economic system in industrial revolution was majorly an economic which the means of production and distribution phenomenon, it greatly affected the social and were privately owned and operated for profit. This political life of the countries it was prevalent in. system gave rise to two new social classes one was Social Impacts: In the special sphere also the that of the factory owners who owned the industrial revolution produced far-reaching factories and employed and paid wages to factory consequences. In the first place, the growth of workers. They also controlled the sale of goods factory system resulted in the growth of new and their main aim was to make maximum profits. cities. Workers shifted to places near the factories They controlled the sale of goods and their main where they were employed. This resulted in the aim was to make maximum profits. They growth of a number of new cities like Leeds, controlled the 'capital' or the money and, hence, Manchester, Burmingham and Sheffield in Britain, were called capitalists. They were a prosperous which soon became the centres of industry, trade group of people and led luxurious lives. The other and commerce. Secondly, the rise of cities was class comprised of workers who worked in accompanied by the growth of slums. Before the factories. They lived in great hardship and were advent of industrial revolution, the industry was exploited by the factory owners. Imperialism is the scattered throughout the country. Artisans policy of extending political and economic control generally worked in their cottages or shops and over a weak country by a powerful one. The were not entirely dependent on trade for their phenomena gained strength in the nineteenth livelihood. They often combined manufacturing century AD, largely due to the Industrial and agriculture. Revolution. A market for manufactured goods and sources for obtaining cheap raw materials for Political Impact: In the political sphere also the producing more goods were desperately needed. industrial revolution had manifold impact. In the Areas to invest surplus capital were also required. first place it led to colonization of Asia and Africa. This led the European nations to acquire colonies Great Britain and other industrial countries of in the politically and militarily weak countries of Europe began to look for new colonies which Asia and Africa. These countries could easily be could supply them the necessary raw materials for conquered by the powerful Europeans. They feeding their industries and also serve as ready provided a good opportunity for the investment of market for their finished industrial products. surplus capital. Besides, Asia and Africa were well Therefore, the industrial countries carved out provided with natural resources and had a huge extensive colonial empires in the nineteenth potential to absorb finished goods. century. In fact these countries added so much

Pscnotes.com Page 89

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Industrial Revolution was a mixed blessing. It 5. It led to wars of imperialism and had both advantages and disadvantages. colonization.

Advantages:

1. Centre of economic life shifted Islam: Principles and Practices- God, Confession from the villages to cities and towns of faith, five pillers of islam where the factories were situated. 2. Urban (cities) and rural (villages) Principles life became dependant upon one Concept of God another. Isolated life of self- sufficient villages came to an end. Islam is often seen as having the simplest 3. Men became free to develop their doctrines of the major religions. Its most capabilities in areas other than fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, farming. called tawḥīd . God is described in chapter 112 of 4. It brought countries and people the as: "Say, He is God, the One and Only; together. There was an God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor international awareness among is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him". people because developments in repudiate and idolatry, called one country influenced the others. Shirk, and reject the Christian doctrine of the 5. The aristocracy and nobility with Trinity and divinity of Jesus. In Islam, God is their feudal ideas were replaced by beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not the newly rich middle class expected to visualize God. God is described and capitalists (bourgeoisie) who also referred to by certain names or attributes, the became politically powerful. most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The 6. Better transport, communications Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The and mechanized goods made life Merciful”. comfortable for man. Angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Disadvantages. Islam. The Arabic word for angel means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew 1. Cities became crowded, smoky, (malʾákh) and Greek (angelos). According to the with problems of slums, housing, Quran, angels do not possess free will, and sanitation, accidents and therefore worship and obey God in total epidemics. obedience. Angels' duties include communicating 2. Women and child labour was badly revelations from God, glorifying God, recording exploited. every person's actions, and taking a person's soul 3. Workers suffered from long at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels working hours, low wages, and are made of light. unemployment, unsafe conditions of work, with no rights to vote Revelations strike or form trade unions. 4. Society, became divided into rich The Islamic holy books are the records which most and poor, the 'Haves' and the Muslims believe were dictated by God to various 'Have- Nots'. prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah)

Pscnotes.com Page 90

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted— such as charity, prayer and compassion towards either in interpretation, in text, or both. The animals, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Quran (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and blessings, with Qurʼanic references describing its literal word of God and is widely regarded as the features and the physical pleasures to come. finest literary work in the Arabic language. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Prophets and sunnah Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn .

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the Practices: Five pillers of islam peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some There are five basic religious acts in Islam, are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' (arkan Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers al-Islam): preached the message of Islam—submission to Testimony the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, Islam is often seen as having the simplest including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, doctrines of the major religions. Its most among others. fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawḥīd . God is described in chapter 112 of Resurrection and judgment the Quran as: "Say, He is God, the One and Only; Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al- God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor Qiyāmah is also crucial for Muslims. They believe is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him" . the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but Muslims repudiate polytheism and idolatry, called unknown to man. The trials and tribulations Shirk, and reject the Christian doctrine of the preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described Trinity and divinity of Jesus. In Islam, God is in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not commentaries of scholars. The Quran emphasizes expected to visualize God. God is described and bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic referred to by certain names or attributes, the Arabian understanding of death. most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all Merciful". mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Prayer Jahannam (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah Ritual prayers are called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt . Salat is describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as weight of good will see it and whoever does an a personal communication with him that atom's weight of evil will see it ." The Qurʼan lists expresses gratitude and worship. Performing several sins that can condemn a person to hell, prayers five times a day is compulsory but such as disbelief in God , and dishonesty; however, flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins circumstances. The prayers are recited in the of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, Arabic language, and consist of verses from the

Pscnotes.com Page 91

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Quran. The prayers are done with the chest in The most sacred place in Islam is the Ka'ba in direction of the kaaba though in the early days of Makkah, Saudi Arabia. The Ka'ba is a mosque (built Islam, they were done in direction of Jerusalem. by Abraham according to Muslim tradition) built The act of supplicating is referred to as dua. around a black stone. The Prophet designated Makkah as the holy city of Islam and Charity the direction (qibla) in which all Muslims should "Zakāt" is giving a fixed portion of accumulated offer their prayers. The Ka'ba is believed to be wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor the first place that was created on earth and the or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; place at which heavenly bliss and power touches also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, the earth directly. Makkah is located in the Hijaz for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the region of western Saudi Arabia. (stranded) traveller. It is considered a religious Madina obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their Muhammad moved his ministry to Madina soon wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". after his revelations began in 610 CE. The principle revelations were conveyed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. These visions continued Fasting with him until his death in madina in 632 A.D. . By that time Islam had swept aside all other religions Fasting from food and drink, among other things, on the Arabian peninsular. In the 100 years after must be performed from dawn to dusk during the the prophet's death the Arabs ruled a vast empire month of Ramadan. The fast is to encourage a stretching from Spain to India and north into feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims Russia. Madina became the centre for the should express their gratitude for and dependence expanding empire. As the adopted capital and city on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the where Allah's word spread through Muhammad needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups Madina is second only to Makkah as a pilgrimage for whom it would constitute an undue burden. city. Muhammad is buried in Madina's mosque of For others, flexibility is allowed depending on the prophet. circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Jerusalem

Pilgrimage Jerusalam is considered the third Holiest City in Islam. Allah himself blessed the city in the Qur'an The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj , and appointed her as the first qibla of Islam, has to be performed during the Islamic month of meaning that it was Jerusalem, and not Mecca, Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able- that served as the spiritual as well as geographical bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the focus for Muslims' prayers during the early years pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her of Islam. It is reported that the Prophet lifetime. Muhammad said, "There are only three mosques to which you should embark on a journey: the sacred mosque (Mecca, Saudi Arabia), this mosque Islam: Sacred places, the family system, Sharia, of mine (Madinah, Saudi Arabia), and the mosque Sunni and Shia of Al-Aqsa (Jerusalem). The family system in Islam Sacred places

Makkah

Pscnotes.com Page 92

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The family, which is the basic unit of civilization, is who follow or maintain the sunnah of now disintegrating. Islam’s family system brings Muhammad. In many countries, overwhelming the rights of the husband, wife, children, and majorities of Muslims are Sunnis, so that they relatives into a fine equilibrium. It nourishes simply refer to themselves as "Muslims" and do unselfish behavior, generosity, and love in the not use the Sunni label. The Sunnis believe that framework of a well-organized family system. The Muhammad did not specifically appoint a peace and security offered by a stable family unit successor to lead the Muslim ummah (community) is greatly valued, and it is seen as essential for the before his death, and after an initial period of spiritual growth of its members. A harmonious confusion, a group of his most prominent social order is created by the existence of companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, extended families and by treasuring children. Muhammad's close friend and a father-in-law, as the first caliph of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the Sharia first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Sharia is an Islamic religious law that governs not Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al- only religious rituals, but aspects of day-to-day life Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided in Islam. Sharia, literally translated, means "the Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of way." caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining a majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, because of the divisions started by the Umayyads sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical and others. After the fall of the in reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). 1923, there has never been another caliph as Different legal schools—of which the most widely recognized in the Muslim world. prominent are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and Jafari—developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination of process known as ijtihad. Traditional jurisprudence Islam, comprising 10–13% of the total Muslim distinguishes two principal branches of law, population in the world. Shia Muslims, though a ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), minority in the Muslim world, constitute the which together comprise a wide range of topics. majority of the populations in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories: and Azerbaijan as well as a plurality in Kuwait, mandatory, recommended, neutral, abhorred, and Yemen and . In addition to believing in prohibited. Thus, some areas of sharia overlap the authority of the Qur'an and teachings of with the Western notion of law while others Muhammad, Shia believe that Muhammad's correspond more broadly to living life in family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the "People of the House"), accordance with God’s will. including his descendants known as Imams, have Sects : Sunni vs Shia special spiritual and political authority over the community and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the Islam and are known as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h first three Rashidun caliphs. or simply as Ahl as-Sunnah. The word Sunni comes from the word sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Therefore, "Sunni" refers to those Jainism

Pscnotes.com Page 93

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Originated in India thousands of years ago and is life. He is widely accredited with establishing the thought to have heavily influenced the two other present ‘Jain’ belief system. Mahavira passed main belief systems of the region at that time: away in 527 BCE at the age of 72 years leaving Hinduism and Buddhism. The religion centres on behind 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns. the progress of one’s soul towards a divine consciousness through self-reformation, wisdom The 24 Tirthankaras in order are: and self-control and pacifism towards all living Rushabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath, Abhinandan creatures. There are two main sects of Jains today; Swami, Sumatinath, Padmaprabhu, the Digambara and the Svetambara. There are Suparshvanath, Chandraprabhu, , thought to be 10 million Jains worldwide, the Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, Swami, majority of them in India and amongst Indian Vimalnath, Anantnath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, expatriate communities in North America, Asia Kunthananth, Aranath, Mallinath, and East Africa. Swami, Nami Nath, Neminath, Parshavnath and Origins Mahavira.

Jainism grew in India many thousands of years As mentioned earlier, through various interactions ago. As with Hinduism, some Jains believe that the in India, Jainism had an influence on Hinduism and origins are millions of years ago, although Buddhism, and they share concepts such as the obviously it is impossible to verify the exact seeking of freedom from worldly life and origins. The more realistic assessment is that the reincarnation of the soul. Some scholars suggest religion dates back to the second or third that Hinduism adopted vegetarianism through millennium BCE, and there are archaeological strong Jain influence across India. remnants found among the Indus Valley civilisations (sites such as Harappa and Mohenjo- Daro in modern Pakistan) from around 1500 BCE Sacred Texts that appear to mention Jain Tirthankaras. Jains believe that the knowledge of the true path Jains believe that there had been 24 great (dharma) reaches a zenith and then wanes several teachers known as ‘Tirthan-karas’ (‘those who times through the cycle of history, and each time have discovered and then shown the way to the knowledge is revived through eternal salvation’) who taught people how to live a Tirthankara just as other monotheistic faiths in harmony with the universe and ultimately to believe that prophets were sent by a Creator to achieve spiritual liberation through their own revive faith. example. The first of these Tirthankaras was Rushabha. The 23rd was Parsva who lived from Mahavira is believed to have recorded his 872-772 BCE according to some sources. teachings in a series of texts known as the Agamas, although the Jain texts are the major The last of these teachers born in northern India in source of controversy between the sects. 599 BCE was Virdhamana, the son of King The Digambara sect believes that following a vast . At the age of 30, he went into famine in 350 BCE when many monks died, the seclusion as an ascetic and following twelve years original texts were also lost, whereas of intense prayer and contemplation, claimed to the Svetambara sect (whilst acknowledging that reach enlightenment. It was at that point that he the texts were lost) believes that the was given the title Mahavira (great hero). He majority of the texts survived in the form that we spent the rest of his life teaching others how to have today. fulfil the purpose of their existence and to achieve complete liberation from the shackles of modern

Pscnotes.com Page 94

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The most often cited book of the Jains is is undertaken purely through their own efforts to the (Book of Reality) thought to achieve . date from the second millennium BCE, but only recorded in written form in the 5th century CE by Moreover, the philosophy is that every soul is the Umasvati, and it is at that point that Jainism architect of its own destiny. As a result of these splintered into the two main sects. beliefs, Jains also believe in an infinite Universe that was never created and will never end, but goes through major cycles.

Beliefs The ultimate goal of self-reformation and the application of the Jain triple gems is to break free The Jains have 5 great vows by which they try to from the cycle of birth and death. In Jainism, a live their lives: soul that frees itself (moksha) from Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living beings the samsara cycle of life and death is (human, animal or plant life) including a spectrum called siddha (liberated soul) whereas those souls of harm from insult and injury to death; which are still attached to the wordly life are called samsarin (mundane souls). A liberated soul Not getting too attached (Aparigraha) to material experiences boundless knowledge, power, possessions, people or places; perception and happiness.

Not telling lies (Satya); As a result of these beliefs, they are vegetarians and aim to live in a manner which minimises the Not stealing (Asteya) or taking things that are not use of natural resources so as to limit the impact willingly handed over; upon other life forms. Rigid followers will allow head lice to survive on their head and not shave Sexual restraint () practised as their head or take any medicine. Even bacteria is celibacy by monks and nuns, and monogamy by not supposed to be killed. normal society.

They believe that all human, animal and plant life Jains believe in soul reincarnation through phases has a soul and therefore all of these life forms including hell-being, sub-human (animal, plant and must be treated equally and fairly. insects), human and super-human, and that there are an infinite number of souls in the Universe, Jains believe that the purpose of man and that like matter, pre-existed creation. creatures is to realise the soul’s true nature Modern Jains through the triple gems of (1) true perception, (2) true knowledge and (3) true conduct. Modern Jain society has a concept of monks and Unlike many other faiths, the Jains do not believe nuns similar to Buddhism and Christianity, but has in a creator God or in spiritual beings such as no priestly class. Monks and nuns live a celibate and ascetic lifestyle and take on greater vows and angels, but do focus on the concept of responsibilities than normal society. reincarnation through which the soul evolves in life cycles until it reaches enlightenment when the Jains are recognised by their symbol which is the soul is called jina (victorious). Whereas the major . Although this symbol was misused by monotheistic faiths also believe in a spiritual the Nazis of Germany in the last century, the journey, in the case of those faiths (Judaism, original Jain symbol signifies peace and well-being. Christianity and Islam), their followers seek the The Jain Swastika appears in all temples and holy help of the Creator God to achieve spiritual books, and during ceremonies, a swastika is liberation, whereas Jains believe that this journey created using rice.

Pscnotes.com Page 95

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Jains do have some idols, but these represent tirthankaras were born at Ayodhya including souls that have conquered their passions rather , , Abhinandananatha, than deities. Sumatinatha and Anantanatha. The famous naked Jain male torso found at Lohanipur, whether Jains have several days of fasting on which they Mauryan or, more likely Kushana, is generally abstain from all food but can take water. During taken as indicative evidence of some sort of the fast, they focus on worship, contemplation representational cult in early Jainism which and reading scriptures. Although there are specific reached an early height at Mathura, and certainly fast days, Jains also perform voluntary fasts at any inscriptions from the many ayagapatas of the time of the year to cleanse themselves. Mathura region make clear that to the Their festivals include the following: tirthankaras with lay and ascetic involvement was an important dimension to this. Mahavira Jayanti – a celebration of the birth of Mahavira

Paryushana – 8 days of fasting

Divali – a festival of renewal and lights also celebrated by Hindus, but significant for Jains as the day that Mahavira achieved enlightenment

Kartak Purnima – an annual pilgrimage to the key Jain sites in India

Mauna Agyaras – a single day of fasting From Kadambas to Hoysalas: contributions in the field of architecture, sculpture, Kshamavaani – a day to seek from literature and religion. everyone else

Jains are renowned for the value that they place on education, and are recognised in India as the most literate community. Their libraries are well respected and complement the zeal for knowledge The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region to enrich the soul. as an independent state trace back to the fourth-century A.D. with the birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi after the disintegration of Satavahana power in deccan. Jainism in Uttar Pradesh The founder of this ancient great dynasty of Uttar Pradesh, a state in north India has a long Karnataka was Mayurasharman, a Brahmin. The association with Jainism. Today the state is home Kadambas was designated an ancient royal to a number of Jain monuments, such as Jain dynasty of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi. Temples and Jain Tirths. They are the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native language Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara, was of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit as born in Benaras (now Varanasi) in 872 BCE. proven by inscriptions. The most powerful ruler According to Jain tradition, Kashi (now Varanasi) is was Kakusthavarma who had martial the birthplace of three more tithankaras, namely relationship with the families of the Vakatakas Suparshvanatha, and and the Guptas during his time. The great poet Shreyansanatha. According to Jain tradition, five Kalidasa deems to have visited his court.

Pscnotes.com Page 96

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

They also minted gold coins and contributed to also said to be constructed during that period. the architectural heritage of Karnataka. The architectural style of Kadamba is further The Kadamba dynasty ruled Karnataka for more reflected in the group of temples at Kadaroli in than 200 years before Chalukyas overtook their the district. The temple of empire. But some minor branches of the Sankaradeva which presents a square Kadamba dynasty continued to rule Hanagal, Garbhagriha surmounted by a pyramidal Goa and some other regions till 14th century. Vimana, which rises in horizontal stages resembling steps. The Hattikesvara temple at Architecture Halsi shows another stage of the development The contribution of the Kadamba dynasty to the of the Kadamba architectural style. It has architectural heritage of Karnataka certainly perforated screen windows on either side of the deserves recognition. The Kadamba they have doorway. The Pillars in the Kallesvara temple at been regarded as one of the foundations upon Halsi as well as in the Somesvara temple attain which the Karnataka architecture is based. The greater variety and refinement. The Kadambas Kadamba style of architecture has many introduced additional sophistication in the distinguishing characteristics, including a few monuments of Yalavatti, of which a Jaina things in common with the Chalukyan and the temple is most important. Similarly, the myriad Pallava styles. They drew from the architectural facets of their architectural tradition can be tradition of the Satavahanas.The Shikara, seen in the Ramesvara temple and the called Kadamba Shikara, constitutes the most Varanarasimha temple at Halsi. prominent feature of their architecture. Scholars believe that the Kadamba style of The Kadamba Shikara has a pyramid-like shape architecture has a few things in common with and rises in steps with a Stupika or at the Hoysala, Chalukyan and the Pallava styles. the top without any decoration. Later, that style They also drew from the architectural tradition of Shikara had been used in the of the Satavahanas. It has also been believed Doddagaddavalli temple by hoysalas and the that the Kadambas contributed to the Mahakuta temples in Hampi by Chalukyan of foundation of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style Badami. Some of their temples also used of architecture and sculpture. perforated screen windows. The Jaina Basadi at Halsi, which have been built by Mrigesavarma, Religion and Education is the earliest monument of the Kadamba The Kadambas patronized Vedic Hinduism. The period. The structure consists of a Garbhagriha founder, Mayurasharma had been a Brahmin by and an Antarala. The Pranavesvara temple, birth. Later, to indicate their Kshatriya status, which dedicated to hindu god Shiva, at his successors changed their surname presents a certain measure of to Varma . It is believed that some Kadamba refinement. The Pillars of the temple are kings like Krishna Varman performed the horse moderately ornamented with geometrical sacrifice (Ashwamedha). The Talagunda designs and the lintels of the doorways have inscription starts with an invocation of Lord some floral designs. The temple is said to have Shiva while the and Banavasi been rebuilt by Prabhavati, the Queen of inscriptions start with an invocation of Lord Mrigesavarma, and her son, Ravivarma . The Vishnu. They built great temples like the temples of Madhukesvara at Banavasi and the Madhukesvara temple and it was considered Adimadhukesvara at Hale-Banavasi belong to their family deity. Many records like the the early Kadamba period. The Kadambesvara Kudalur, Sirsi speak about grants made by the and Srikantesvara temples in the rulers to scholarly Brahmins as well as to neighbourhood of the Madhukesvara shrine are Buddhist viharas.

Pscnotes.com Page 97

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

They also patronized Jainism and numerous - temples had been built by them in areas The period of western Gangas was marked by around Banavasi, Belgaum, Mangalore and Goa. brisk literary activities in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kings and Queens of the dynasty have been Kannada. Many Kings of this period were appriciated for their support of literature, arts Scholars and writers of great repute. II and liberal grants to temples and educational was the author of Dattaka Sutra, a treatise on institutions. As indicated by his famous quotes erotics. Kavirajamarga of 850 C.E., refers to on Banavasi, the kingdom highly praised in the King of the sixth century as the writings of Adikavi Pampa. Many other Jain earliest known Kannada writer from that saints such as , Kumaradatta, dynasty. He translated Gunadya's Vaddakatha Niravadya Pandita are mentioned in the into Sanskrit. He also wrote a commentary on Kadamba records. Several Jain monasteries had the 15th sarga of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya and been found at Belligami, Kuppalur and other Sabdavatara, a Sanskrit work on grammar. places. Buddhism too was a major religion Sripurusha wrote Gajasastra, a treatise on during the period. In the 7th century, Hieun- elephants. Shivamara II wrote Gajashtaka, a Tsang describes Banavasi as having about 100 Kannada work on elephant management, and Sangharamas wherein lived 10,000 priests of Sethubandha in Prakrit. 's both Mahayana and Hinayana sects. Saivism writing, Chavundaraya seemed to have been popular, and the Purana (or Trishashtilakshana ) of inscriptions refer to the Saiva sects like the 978 C.E., an early existing work in prose style in Goravas, , Pasupatas or . Kannada, contains a summary of the Sanskrit Vaishnavism have also enjoyed considerable writings. Adipurana and Uttarapurana were popularity. In short, the Kadambas ruled over a written a century earlier by and region which presented an interesting mosaic of during the rule of Rashtrakuta religions and religious sects. I. was a contemporary of Chavundaraya. A number of Scholars of great Western Gangas of Talakad- reputation flourished in the Ganga period. The redoubtable Bharavi is believed to have visited The Western Gangas of Talakad were the Court of Durvinita. Pujyapada wrote contemporaries of the Kadambas. Initially, they Sarvathasiddi and Jinendra . Butuga II ruled from Kolar and later moved the capital to patronized Hemasena or Dhananjaya who Talakad. This dynasty is referred to as wrote Raghavpandaviya. His pupil Western Ganga to distinguish them from The Vidhibhasimha was the author of that in later centuries Gadyachintamani and Kshatrachudamani. which ruled over Kalinga (). Their Chavundaraya, the famous Ganga minister, was territory extended over Southern Karnataka, the author of Chavundarayapurana. He is also parts of Andhra Pradesh and . They believed to have patronized Ranna during his laid a strong foundation for the development of early days and also the Kannada grammarian . Gunavarma. Nagavarma wrote Chandombhudhi The Gangas ruled for a very long period and who is said to have been resided at court of were a sovereign power till the advent of the Rakkasaganga. Nagavarma also wrote one of the Chalukyas of Badami. They continued to rule earliest available romance classics in Kannada under the Chalukyas of Badami and the called Karnataka Kadambari in sweet and Rastrakutas of Manykheta till the end of the 1st flowing champu (mixed verse and prose) style. millennium. In short, the Gangas were great patron of

Pscnotes.com Page 98

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 literature and patronised many great authors Chavundaraya basadi built in the tenth or and poets. eleventh century, Chandragupta basadi built in Architecture the sixth century and the monolithic of Western Ganga style of architecture was Gomateshwara represent the most important influenced by architectural features of Pallava monuments at . The famous and Chalukyas of Badami additionally with Hoysala sculptor Dasoja added some features to indigenous Jain features. The Ganga pillars with the Chandragupta basadi in the twelfth century. a conventional lion at the base and a circular The decorative door jambs and perforated shaft of the pillar on its head, square pillars and screen windows depict scenes from the life of the stepped Vimana of the shrine with King Chandragupta Maurya, which he horizontal mouldings had been features created. The Panchakuta basadi ( five towered inherited from the Pallavas. Those features exist temple) at Kambadahalli of 900 with a in structures built by their subordinates, the Brahmadeva pillar provides an excellent Banas and Nolambas. example of Dravidian art. Torana (lintel) with The construction of the monolith of carvings of floral motifs, flying divine Gomateshwara was commissioned by creatures (gandharva) and imaginary monsters Chavundaraya constitutes the climax of the (makara) ridden by Yaksas (attendants of saints) Ganga sculptural contribution in ancient surmount the wall niches while images of Karnataka. Carved from fine-grained white tirthankars themselves occupy the niches. granite, the image stands on a lotus. The 60 feet The Gangas build several Hindu temples with tall statue lacks support up to the thighs. The splendid Dravidian gopuras containing stucco face measuring of the statue is 6.5 feet. With figures from the Hindu pantheon and the monolith size, its curled hair with graceful decorated pierced screen windows faceted in locks, its proportional anatomy, the serene the mantapa (hall) along expression on the face of the image , and the with saptamatrika carvings (seven heavenly combination of its artistry and craftsmanship mothers). Some popular examples include the have been declared the greatest achievement in Kapileswara temple at Manne, Kolaramma sculptural art in medieval Karnataka. It is the temple at Kolar and the Kallesvara temple at largest monolithic statue in the world. The free Aralaguppe. They built many finest temples at standing pillars, Talakad such as the Maralesvara temple, the called Mahasthambha or Bhrahmasthambha, Arakesvara temple and the Patalesvara temple. also considered unique in their architectural Unlike the Jain temples, with floral frieze style, provide examples of the Brahmadeva and decoration common, friezes (slab of stone with Tyaga Brahma pillars. The highest point of the decorative sculptures) illustrating episodes from pillar is the shaft (cylindrical or octagonal) the epics and puranas distinguish Hindu which decorated with creepers and other floral temples.[99] The number of virgal (hero stones) motifs, sits the Brahma and the base of the they have left behind represents another pillar normally has engravings of important Jain unique legacy of the Gangas; memorials personalities and inscriptions. Other important containing sculptural details of war scenes, contributions include the Jain basadis' whose Hindu deities, saptamatrikas and Jain towers have gradually receding stories (talas tirthankars. )ornamented with small models of temples. Those tiny shrines have in them engravings of Religion tirthankars (Jain saints). Semicircular windows The Western Gangas offered full support to all connect the shrines and decorative Kirthimukha the major religions of the time; Jainism and the (demon faces) ornament the top. The Hindu groups of Shaivism, Vedic Brahminism

Pscnotes.com Page 99

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 and Vaishnavism. Researchers have contended Vedic Brahminism was prevalent in the 6th and that some Gangas lords may have been seventh centuries when inscriptions refer to preferential. A few historians trust that the grants made to Srotriya Brahmins. Those Gangas had been vigorous Jains. Inscriptions inscriptions describe the gotra (heredity) negate that by giving references to kalamukhas association to imperial families and their (staunch Shaiva monkish life), pasupatas and adherence of such Vedic ceremonies as lokayatas (supporters of Pasupatha tenet) who asvamedha() and . prospered in Gangavadi, demonstrating that Brahmins and rulers enjoyed a common Shaivism had also been mainstream religion. benefitial relationship; customs performed by Lord Madhava and Harivarman had been given the brahmins offered authenticity to rulers and to dairy animals and brahmins, King Vishnugopa the land grants made by rulers to brahmins honed as a passionate Vaishnava, Madhava III's raised them in the public arena to the level of and Avinita's engravings portray luxurious well off landowners. Vaishnavism kept up a enrichments to Jain requests and temples and position of safety, couple of engravings depict King Durvinita performed Vedic penances awards towards its cause. The western Gangas inciting history specialists to guarantee he had built some Vaishnava temples like the been a Hindu. Narayanaswami temple at , Sattur and Hangala in present day . The Jainism wound up noticeably prominent in the divinity Vishnu has been delineated with four administration in the eighth century when the arms holding a conch (sanka), disk (cakra), mace ruler King Shivamara I developed various Jain (gada) and lotus (padma). basadis. King Butuga II and clergyman Chavundaraya had been staunch Jains and this From the starting point of the eighth century, statement had been proved by the development support to Shaivism expanded in each segment of the Gomateshwara monolith. The monolith of the general public; the the landed elite, had been commissioned by a minister of the landlords, assemblies (samaya), schools of western Gangas, Chavundaraya. Jains venerated learning (aghraharas) and minor ruling families the 24 tirthankars (Jinas) whose pictures had such as the Bana, Nolamba and Chalukya clans. been sanctified in their sanctuaries. They The Shaiva temples contained a Shiva linga believed that the tirthankars had inventive and (phallus) in the sanctum sanctorum alongside ruinous forces, like the convictions of Hindus pictures of the mother goddess, Surya (Sun god) who relegated those forces to the heavenly and Nandi (a bull and chaperon of Shiva) trinity (); Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The regularly revered in a different structure love of the impression of otherworldly pioneers, confronting the sanctum. The linga had been for example, those of Bhadrabahu in man made and now and again had etchings of Shravanabelagola from the tenth century Ganapati (child of Shiva) and Parvati (associate parallels Buddhism. The sanctification of the and spouse of Shiva) on it. Due to the vivacious Gomateshwara stone monument, the statue of endeavors of ministers and ascetics, Shaiva Bahubali, the child of tirthankar Adinatha monastic order flourished in many places, for (similarly as Hindus loved the children of Shiva) example, Nandi Hills, Avani and Hebbata in shows some brahminical influences. The love of present day . subordinate gods, for example, Yaksa and Yaksi, prior considered as unimportant chaperons of The Chalukyas the tirthankars had been seen from the seventh The Chalukyas were powerful force in the century to the twelfth century. Deccan during sixth to eighth century AD. And in the tenth century AD, they re-established

Pscnotes.com Page 100

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 themselves in deccan and ruled till 12 century. The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO The Western Chalukyas ruled from Badami. The World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole later Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani were constitute their greatest buildings. That denotes known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and the the start of Chalukya style of architecture and a Chalukyas of Vengi are referred to the consolidation of South Indian style. Chalukyas of historians as the Eastern Chalukyas. Badami crowned and beautified the city of Pattadakal with grand temples such as Architecture Kadasiddheswara, Jambulingeswara, The time of Chalukyas of Badami line saw Galaganatha, Chandrashekhara, Sangameswara, craftsmanship prosper in South India. It realized Kasivisweswara, Mallikarjuna, Virupaksha and some essential advancements in the domain of Papanatha Temples. culture, especially in the evolution and In Aihole, the Durga temple (6th century), Ladh development of another style of architecture Khan temple, Meguti temple, Hucchimalli and known as Vesara, a mix of the South and the Huccappayya temples (fifth century), Badami North Indian architectural styles. This style is Cave Temples provide examples of early also known as the "Chalukyan style". One of Chalukyan craftmanship. Vikramaditya II the wealthiest customs in Indian architecture commissioned the grand temples at came to fruition in the Deccan during that time, Pattadakal. Here the Virupaksha and called Karnata Dravida style instead of Mallikarjuna , Sangameswara (and a Jain customary Dravida style. The eastern Chalukyas temple) show the Dravidian style while was influenced by that style. The Chalukyas of Jambulinga, Kasivisweswara, and Galaganatha Kalyani refined the Vesara style with a slant demonstrate the Northern nagara style. The towards Dravidian ideas, particularly in the Papanatha temple displays the combination of sculptures. They constructed great monuments the Northern and Southern styles. As indicated in the Tungabhadra - doab. by some features, the style Chalukyas of Badami The art and craftsmanship, that they developed, constitutes a "prayaga" or intersection of formal offer the most persevering heritage of the patterns of architecture, the dravida and Chalukya line. More than 150 monuments nagara. The temples emerged from religious ascribed to the Chalukyas of Badami. These zeal and intensity of the purpose. Aihole has monuments had been built between 450 and been considered as " one of the cradles of 700 A.D. and unearthed in the Malaprabha Indian temple architecture " region of Karnataka. The most important style of the Chalukyas of The Chalukyan monuments are extensively Kalyani are found at Kukkanur. Here, the assembled into two classes: (a) the rock - cut Kalleshvara and Navalinga temples bear halls, and (b) the structural temples. The "resemblances to early Chalukyan style of art unearthed rock-cut halls are found at Badami and craft at Aihole and Pattadkal". The Kalyani and Aihole. There are four such cave temples at style of architecture achieved its development Badami. Of them the soonest and the biggest is and climax in the twelfth century. Kasi cave No. III excavated during the rule of Vishveshvara at , Mallikarjuna at Mangalesa and dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Othe Kuruvatii and Mahadeva at are the finest caves are of littler measurements, and the Cave cases delivered by the later Chalukya No. IV is a Jaina temple. The Badami caves have draftsmen. three normal features, specifically, a pillared verandah, an ordered corridor and a little Religion square cella or Garbhagriha, cut deep into the The Chalukyas were the supporters of Vedic rock. religion: Their family God was Vishnu, their

Pscnotes.com Page 101

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 insignia Varaha; and some of their rulers work in Kannada poetics. The scholarly work accepted the title "Paramabhagavat". However, Karnateshwara Katha, cited later by Jayakirti, the Chalukyas of Badami followed the policy of belonged to the reign of Pulakesi II with the religious toleration. A large number of temples ruler himself as the hero. Other Kannada had been built during this period were devoted authors of that time included to Shiva. Worship of Shakti was common during Syamakundacharya of 650 who composed the time, as were Shaiva factions like Prabhrita, the well known Srivaradhadeva also Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas. Jainsim called Tumubuluracharya of 650 (who excessively got the illustrious support. Ravikirti, composed Chudamani, an commentary on the writer of the Aihole inscription was a Jaina, Tattvartha-mahashastra in 96,000 verses), King and he constructed a Jinalaya at Aihole. Lord Durvinita, and others. Scholars consider the Vinayaditya made a grant to a Jaina cleric who Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II an excellent had a place with Mulasangha and Devagana. work on poetry which was composed by court Buddhism was declining during the period but poet Ravi Kirti in old Kannada script and had not extinct. Hieun-tsang revealed that the Sanskrit languaget. In Sanskrit, a couple of Kingdom had 100 Sangharamas and 10,000 verses of a poetess called Vijayanaka has been bhikkus. Actually, the liberal religious viewpoint preserved. of the Chalukyas of Badami rulers was one of Ranna was the greates poet to compose under the glories of the empire. the Chalukyas of Kalyani. He was patronized by Sathyashraya. Ajitapurana and Literature Sahasabhimavijaya are his well known works. The Chalukyan period epitomizes a noteworthy Chavundaraya II composed Lokopakara. occasion in the historical backdrop of Kannada Chandraraja composed Madanatilaka, a work on and Telugu languages. During the time, erotics Shridharacharya's Jatakatilaka is a work composing epic accounts and poetry in Sanskrit on astrology. Kirtivarma composed Govaidya on was very popular. During the ninth - tenth veterinary science. Durgasimha, a pastor of century, Kannada language had just observed Jayasimha II, composed panchatantra, some of its most noteworthy scholars. The Nayasena's Dharmamritha, Nagavarma's three pearls of Kannada writing, Adikavi Pampa, Kavyavalokana and Brahmashiva's Sri and Ranna belonged to that period. In Samayaparikshe were other renowned works in the eleventh century, the support of the Eastern Kannada. Devara Dasimayya, the Chalukyas, with Nannaya Bhatta as its first Vachanakarabelonged to this period. The writer gave birth to Telugu literature. Chalukya leaders of Kalyani also encouraged Celebrated scholars in Sanskrit from that period Sanskrit literature. Vadiraja composed incorporate Vijnaneshwara who accomplished Yashodharacharitam and Parshvanatha distinction by composing Mitakshara, a book on Charitam. The Kashmiri writer Bilhana . Somesvara III was an extraordinary devinized the name of his patron Vikramaditya scholar and ruler, compiled a book of all arts VI in his famous work Vikramankadeva and sciences called . Charitha. Vijananeshvara became well known by composing Mitakshara, a critique on From the period of Chalukyas of Badami no Smriti. major Kannada work has been recuperated, however many works have been referenced in The Rastrakutas later centuries by many writers. The surviving Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 in tripadi (three The Rastrakuta administration was established line) meter is said to have been the earliest by Dantivarman or Dantidurga II. The Elichpur

Pscnotes.com Page 102

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 faction owed medieval dependability to the period. Several inscriptions mentioned a large Badami Chalukyas. Amid the domain of number of Kannada poets and writers. The first Dantidurga, the family toppled Chalukya great work in Kannada is Kavirajamarga, a Kirtivarman II and manufactured a realm treatise on Kannada poetics. It is attributed to keeping the locale in introduce day the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I Karnataka as their base. This faction was later Nripatunga. Albeit a few scholars argued that it known as the Rastrakutas of Manyakheta. was composed by his court - artist, Sri Vijaya As indicated by an Arabic content, Silsilat al- Ponna, the well known Kannada writer, who Tawarikh (851), the Rastrakutas were viewed as was patronized by Krishna III, and was regarded one of the four primary realms of the world. with the title, Kavichakravarthi. The most This tradition managed over all of Karnataka famous Kannada poett, Pampa who composed and and extensive parts of Andhra Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya, was Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. patronized by Arikesari of Vemulavada (a During their reign art and sculpture flourished. feudatory of the Rashtrakutas). The inscription The world celebrated Kailash Temple at Ellora at Jura, belonged to Krishna III, is viewed as an was constructed by the Rastrakutas. The period epigraphical climax of classical Kannada litrary of the Chalukyas of Badami and Rastrakutas is composition, with beautiful poetic compilation considered as the "Time of Imperial Karnataka". in finest Kanda meter.

Religion Architecture: The Rashtrakuta rulers were the patron of Vedic The contribution of Rashtrakutain field of art religion, and they worshiped Vishnu and Siva. and architecture are reflected in the Jainsim also gained illustrious support of magnificent rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Rashtrakutas. Amoghavarsha I is said to have Elephanta. It is believed that they constructed had his leanings towards Jainsim, and Jinasena 34 rock cut shrines and the Kailasanatha temple was his preceptor. The great Jaina scholar, is considered as the greatest of all of them. It is Gunabhadra, was an instructor of Krishna II. Be conceivable that the supplementary places of that as it may, Buddhism had been on a worship were uncovered at a later date. The decrease. Its only essential centre was Kanheri. temple is a superb accomplishment of Literature: craftmanship, and Vincent Smith lauds it as one The Rashtrakura period was one of energetic of the miracles of the world. and innovative artistic activity, both in Sanskrit The stemple is substantial and and Kannada. Trivikrama, the writer of simple. There are figure models of extraordinary Nalachampu was a great poet of Sanskrit during size, which portray both the Vaishnava and Siva the period. Halayudha, who was patronized by subjects. The alleviation is an Krishna III, composed Kavirahasya and exceptional figure. There are other cave Mritasanjivini. The Rashtrakuta feudatory, temples at Ellora like Ravana - ka - khai, Arikesari of Vemulavada, patronized Rameshvara and Dhumar Lena. Of the Jaina Somadevasuri, who composed Nitikavyamrita. places of worship the extraordinary are the The period witnessed numerous advaita Chota Kailasa, Indra Sabha and scholars lsuch as Padma pada and Visvarupa Sabha. and Jain scholars like , Jinasena, The sculptural craftmanship of Elephanta have Gunabhadra, Pushpadanta, and other been broadly acclaimed. It is claimed that the people who improved artistic custom also. the sculptured reliefs of Nataraja and Sadashiva Kannada language, script and litrary work at Elephanta are better executed than the showed amazing development during the relief at Ellora. There are incredible

Pscnotes.com Page 103

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 structures of and the well known rscholar Hemadri and the great Maheshamurthy at Elephanta. The last is a author on music, Sharngadeva. The leaders of three-colored bust of Siva, which is more than this line were always in battle with the leaders 25 feet high, and is viewed as "one of the finest of the Hoysala line. The tradition at long last structure in all India." tumbled to the sultan of Delhi, Allah-ud-din Khilji and his general Mallikaffar. The Chalukyas of Kalyani:- The Chalukyas of Kalyani came to control after they toppled the The Hoysalas:- Rastrakutas in 973 AD. Their ruler, Someshwara I constructed his capital at Kalyana (show day Hoysala dynasty was a prominent south indian Kaluyana in Bidar area). The Kalyana empire that ruled a large part of modern day Chalukya line is otherwise called the Western Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Chalukya line to separate them from the Tamil Nadu. They ruled from 10th century to 14th Eastern Chalukya administration of Vengi. This century. Historians believed that the Hoysalas line managed over whole Karnataka and were the natives of Malnad region of Karnataka. Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, The founder of the dynasty was King Nripa Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Kama II. They are well known primarily for their During the rule of eastern Chalukyas, literature architectural developments and several prospered in Karnataka. The eastern Chalukyas magnificent temples can be founded across were great patron of art and sculpture. The Karnataka. Mahadeva temple at Itagi is thought to be the finest Chalukyan landmark. Architecture: The Hoysala claim to everlasting status is based Kalachuri :- The rulers of the on the wonderful architectural development, surpassed eastern Chalukyas and ruled for which they undertook in large scale in around 20 years yet couldn't maintain the Karnataka. There are many common features respectability of the realm. This prompted the between the Hoysalas and those of the later realm getting to be plainly feeble lastly it Chalukyas. Both have the carved doorways, separated and was shared by Sevunas in the lathe - turned columns and pierced window – north and Hoysalas in the south. screens. The advancement of the Hoysala style occurred in the old Mysore region to a great Sevuna Dynasty (1198 AD– 1312 AD) :- The extent due to the accessibility of the chloritic Sevuna or Yadavas of Devagiri established schist, a kind of green soapstone, usually found themselves when the Chalukyas of Kalyani's in this zone. It is a nearby - grained stone, power melted away. The Sevunas were simple to work however in the meantime strong previously the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas and can be quarried in genuinely substantial and after that of the Western Chalukyas before sizes. The appropriation of this stone they proclaimed independence. The founder of encouraged the art of decorative cutting for the dynasty was Dridhaprahara. This tradition is which the Hoysala School of architecture is otherwise called Seuna or Yadavas of Devagiri mainly well known. These features can be as they had their capital at Devagiri. They perceived as particular and unique to the controlled over northern Karnataka, parts of Hoysala style. By and large the templey has a Andhra Pradesh and the majority of star – shaped ground plan. Thus Hoysala rulers Maharashtra. introduced an innovative and unique style of The line was devinized in history by the works architecture. The setting up of a Jagati or stage of the praised mathematician Baskarasharya,

Pscnotes.com Page 104

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 in similarity with the star molded ground plan is the devout, others glaring at the insidious, of much architectural significance. however everybody a model of sculptural craftsmanship. Some of the Hoysala temples The stage is significantly more extensive than have the beautiful alluring images of the temple, leaving a level surface all round to Madanikas, also called Salabhanjikas.The serve as Pradakshinapatha, so the worshipper Salabhanjikas typify the physical and mental or admirer can go round the temple wall elements of an adolescent female. sculpture, which constituted a wellspring of Archeological Survey of Mysore unearthed mainstream instruction. Furthermore, the Jagati around ninety Hoysala temples. They can be gave a stature to the temple, as the Hoysala extensively grouped by the number of Vimana temples are by and large not tall. The zig – zag or tower they have – Ekakuta, Dwikuta, character of the wall is another component of Thrikuta, Chatushkuta and Panchakuta. The the Hoysala style. This empowers the figures to Chennakeshava Temple has one Vimana be seen both in daylight and shades. The (Ekakuta), the Hoysaleshwara Temple of Halebid entryway is set apart by an extravagance of has two Vimanas (Dwikuta), the Keshava cutting. This empowers the stone workers Temple of Somanathapur has three towers especially showered their evidently unlimited (Thrikuta), the Lakshmi Temple of aptitude on its execution. The profound and Doddagaddavalli has a four-transcend temples domical roof is by and large embellished with an (Chatushkuta), and the Panchalingeshwara abundance of sensitive carvings and wonderful Temple of Govindanahalli has five Vimanas figures. The Navaranga roof of the (Panchakuta). Nonetheless, the temples of Chennakeshava temple at Belur is recognized as Somanathapur, Belur and Halebid are by and an artful culmination. large recognized as the incredible structures of The pillars are regularly lathe – turned, and they the Hoysala tradition and architecture. The are differently outlined. Some of them are 16, Keshava Temple at Somanathapur is a triple 32, and 64 – pointed. Some of them are bell – shrine or thrikutachala. Attributable to its blend shaped. They can take high clean. The pillerss of of three hallowed places the temple-plan is in the Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebid show the state of a cross, its length being 87 feet and exceptional properties associated with the its width 83 feet, with its sole entrance on the impression of light. The Narasimha Pillar of the east. A bigger and prior earlier example is Belur sanctuary is a wonder of moment carvings outfitted by a group of temples at Belur, of and sculptures. The later Chalukyan style is which the Chennakeshava temple is the centre. feeble in figure sculptures. Be that as it may, The ceiling is the most magnificent work of art; this is a solid purpose of the Hoysala style. The the pillers are unique in their assortments and general treatment of wall surfaces is set apart plans. The Madanika images in the temple are by a substantial number of flat friezes forced greatest. The Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebid upon each other. The lowest band is typically a is maybe the most adorable example of the parade of elephants; the following, of Hoysala architecture. The external walls of the horsemen. At that point, after another band of temples have suited a confounding cluster of winding foliage, and on a level with the eye, is a great figures of uncommon excellence and more extensive frieze delineating a progression elegance. And again, “It is one of the most of Puranic subjects – "a photo exhibition in marvelous exhibitions of craftmanship to be stone executed with stamped emotional impact found even in the patient east”. and abundance of detail" (Percy Brown). Above them assemble divine beings and goddesses of Religion each portrayal and inclination, some blessing

Pscnotes.com Page 105

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The Hoysalas patronized Jainism. The legend prospered during the rule of Narasimha I. The has it that Sudatta Muni a Jaina Teacher blessed later is said to visited to the court of Hoysala the founder of the kingdom, Sala. Vinayaditya after influenced by the clergyman Kereya and Ereyanga were devout Jains; so was Padmarasa. was the poet laureate of the Vishnuvardhana's ruler Santaladevi who was a court of Ballala II and Narasimha II. He acquired supporter of Prabhachanda Siddantadeva. the title of "Kavichakravarti" from Ballala, and The commanders of Vishnuvardhana like stated "Yashodhara Charite" and "Ananthanatha Gangaraja Mariyane, Bharata and Punisa were Purana". , the writer of "Leelavati" all jains. The coming of into thrived during this period. Karnataka initiated a period of ubiquity for Rudra Bhatta wrote "Jagannatha Vijaya"during Srivaishnavism. As per custom, the reign Ballala II. The rule of Vira Someshwara Ramanujacharya, who was mistreated by the saw the generation of two awesome works to Chola King Kulothunga, fled to the Hoysala be specific Sukti - Sudharnava by Mallikarjuna nation, changed over Vishnuvardhana to his and Shabdamanidarpana of Kesiraja. In short, confidence and advanced Srivaishnavism. the Hoysala period was gigantically fruitful in Numerous Vaishnava temples were constructed the generation of scholarly works of at Melkote, Tonnur, Belur, Talkad and extraordinary legitimacy and assortment. Hardanahalli. Actually Vishnuvardhana has been portrayed as the Constantine of Srivaishnavism. Ballala II and Vira Somesvara patronized Shaivism. This period saw the advancement of the Virashaiva cult in KHAJURAHO TEMPLES:- the Kalachuri regions. Religious toleration was never a disparaged guideline in the Hoysala The Khajuraho Temples:- empire. This is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It was accorded this status in 1986. The Literature: temples at Khajuraho, located in the Chhatarpur Education was encouraged in the agraharas, district were built during the Chandela dynasty, which formed into focuses of learning. The which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. resurrection of learning brought to surface a The mediaeval trailer Ibn Battuta noted in 1335, great number of writers whose works are still that there were 85 temples in Khajuraho. of these viewed as masterpiece of Kannada literature. about 25 temples remain as of today in good state The most popular writer at the court of Ballala I of conservation. They belong to two Different was who was known as "Abhinava religious groups Hinduism and Jainism. These Pampa". His two essential works are temples are famous for their erotic sculptures. "Ramachandra Charita Purana", and These temples are fine examples of "Mallinathapurana". Ballala additionally is said the Nagara style of temple architecture. Most of to have patronized the poetess Kanti, however the temples are built in fine grained sandstone scholars are not settled upon her except a few others which are built in granite.The trustworthiness. temples are grouped into three categories Among the great literary figures of the time of depending on their orientation – the Western Vishnuvardhana, mention might be made of Group of Temples, the Eastern Group of Temples Vishnudandadipa, Santa Mahanta and the and the Southern Group of Temples. These redoubtable Rajaditya. Harihara, the author of temples are dedicated to several Hindu Gods and Girija Kalyana and his nephew , the Goddesses along with deities in Jain beliefs. renowned writer of "Harischandra Kavya"

Pscnotes.com Page 106

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Among the temples that are This is one of the best standing till now, 6 are dedicated to Lord Shiva, 8 preserved temples in the complex. It is to Lord Vishnu, 1 each to Lord Ganesha and the dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It is built on a Sun God, while 3 are dedicated to Jain high platform which has sculptures of Tirthankaras. The largest of the temples is the elephants, horses, musician, women Kandariya Mahadeo Temple that is dedicated to and dancers on It. The doorway of the the glory of lord Shiva. It makes Khajuraho one of sanctum has a panel of sculptures of the four holy sites dedicated to the glory of Lord incarnations of Lord Vishnu like load Shiva, the other three being Gaya, Kashi and Varaha, Vanana and Narsimha. Temple .The temples consists of several also consists of images of Goddess repetitive architectural elements that are listed Durga and Lord Ganesha. below – 3. Chausath Temple:- A. Adhishsthana or the Base Platform – This is the oldest temple in generally made of a solid block of granite the Khajuraho temple complex. It is laid out to hold the structure’s weight and made of granite. It is dedicated to also accentuate the temples upward Goddess Kali who is represented in the thrust. form of 64 . The temple is B. Shringa or Central Tower – the whole different in design as it has a temple structure is capped by an elevated quadrangular plan with an open structure that towers directly over the site Courtyard in between and small shrines where the deity is placed inside. on the Periphery. The shrines are tiny C. Urushringa or Secondary Tower –the plain cells, is entered by a small Shringa is often surrounded by smaller doorway and roofed by a curvilinear similarly designed towers around it known Shikhar of an elementary form. Only 35 as Urushringa. These help in emphasizing of these shrines survive as of today. the height of the structure. 4. Chaturbhuj Temple:- These temples where This temple is dedicated archaeologically exploded by the British to Lord Vishnu. This is the only temple Explorer Alexander Cunningham. Some in the temple complex which does not notable temples of Khajuraho are:- have erotic sculptures. The temple is 1. Kendriya Mahadev temple:- called Chaturbhuj because the idol of This Temple dedicated to the presiding deity is Lord Vishnu with who is the largest temple of the four hands. This temple is also known Khajuraho temple complex. It is as Jatakari, called so after the name of attributed to king Ganda. The main the village where it is built. spire of or Shikhar rises 31 metres to 5. Temple:- depict , the Himalayan This temple is dedicated mountain abode of Lord Shiva. The to Lord Surya( sun god). This temple Shikhar is surrounded by 84 miniature enshrines an impressive 5 feet high spires. The Temple contains a marble image of Lord Surya in the standing Shivling in the main sanctum. Beside posture driving a Chariot which is the Main shikhara, there are 84 pulled by seven horses. That temple smallest subsidiary Towers, all replicas also houses a three storied stepped of the main tower. There are almost tank locally known as Chopara. 900 sculptures on the temple platform. The general theme running 2. Lakshmana Temple:- through the sculptural carvings are

Pscnotes.com Page 107

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

examples from the four necessary After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the pursuits of life which are Artha, Kama, Sultanate became even more fragile and instable Dharma and Moksha. About 10% of the due to the numerous revolts and internal total sculptures in Khajuraho depict aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the erotic and explicit imagery which is the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This main attraction for people from all over was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few the world. The Chandela rulers were years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji believed to be followers of tantric under a conspiracy hatched by the latter. practices which involved practicing of various sexual rituals. The sculptures depict men and women, together The Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of referred to as Mithunas, engaged in . The history of Khilji dynasty is various forms of sexual acts according marked by brutal wars and internal conflicts to the descriptions provided in the among the rulers. The next territory that Alauddin Kamasutra. Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 Other sculptures depict A.D, he captured Ranthambhor and murdered the scenes from various stages of human Hamir . Then, he killed Rana Rattan life as well as various day-to-day Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had activities performed by men and captured territories like Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, women. Considering the positioning Dhar and but couldn't capture Bengal. and proportion of erotic sculpture He had conquered almost entire north India by the among others, a natural philosophical year 1311 and established his kingdom conclusion may be drawn. One must go successfully. Read about the main Khilji dynasty through the various worldly pursuits rulers of India. like physical pursuits or Kaam before they can get jaded of them and are ready to join the quest of true knowledge or Gyan. As a powerful symbolism, these erotic sculptures are Jalal ud-din Firuz Khilji placed mostly on the outer walls of the temples which imply that one must The first Indian ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal- leave all erotic thoughts outside before ud-din Firuz Khilji, who ruled from 1290 - 1294. He entering the statuary of God. invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he never really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at Kilokhri, and ruled from there Khalji dynasty : Jalaluddin Khalji, - for around 6 years. During the time Mongols Expansion of Sultanate, Administration, reforms, attacked the country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji put up a Military reforms, Economic Reforms. brave front and smart negotiations made the Mongols depart. They came back however, five years later and attacked once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own nephew when he was KHILJI DYNASITY going to visit him in Kara.

Ala-ud-din Khilji

Pscnotes.com Page 108

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The second ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud- But, Alauddin exceeded his authority and din Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He proceeded towards the Deccan. He plundered ruled in India from 1296-1316. He was the nephew Berar and and captured Ellichpur. He and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler, Jalal-ud-din collected immense booty and returned to Kara. Khilji. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and then After some time, he killed his uncle and became announced himself as the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud- the next Sultan of Delhi. din expanded his territory into the peninsular India within a short span of time. He died on Early Mongol attacks: Ala-ud-din had to face January 1316 due to an acute health condition. Mongol attack from the time he assumed the power of the Sultanate. From the year 1296 A.D. to 1308 A.D. every year Mongals invaded Delhi. Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah The Mongols attacked Delhi repeatedly. The existence of Sultan Shahi became endangered. But The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in Alauddin checked all the attacks with courage and India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He was the determination. At the same time, he made the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes security of the northwest frontier strong and firm. and penalties were abolished. He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He was ultimately murdered by Expansion of the kingdom: From the time of Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in Alauddin Khilji, Muslim imperialism in India began. India. Soon after his establishment on the throne he embarked upon a career of conquests. He carried out these expeditions in Northern India as well as Southern India. His military expedition to North India ranged from 1297 A.D. to 1305 A.D. He invaded South India from 1306 A.D. to 1312 A.D.

The nature and purpose of his invasions to North and South India were different. He conquered the North Indian kingdoms and took them into the Alauddin Khilji – Most Powerful Sultan direct fold of Sultan Shahi rule. But by conquering South Indian kingdoms, he plundered rich wealth.

He also compelled the ruler of conquered Earlier known as Juna Khan Khilji, was one of the kingdoms to pay yearly tax. Alauddin was happy most powerful Sultan of Delhi Sultanates. He with that. belonged to the Khilji Dynasty. He captured the throne in 1296 A.D. He became famous as an Conquests of North India: The Sultan had motive organizer of real purposeful kingdom. of political control as well as economic purpose behind the invasion of Northern India. He first

sent his army to Gujarat. Then his army attacked Early life and accession: Alauddin Khilji was the Ranthambhor and captured it. Rana Hamirdeva nephew of Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji. His uncle was died in the battle. Then Ala-ud-din proceeded very affectionate to him. During the reign of against Mewar (1303 A.D.). After long battle Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji, he was appointed as came under his control. Then he appointed governor of Kara (in Allahabad district). captured Malab, , Jaloree, Chanderi, etc. He was also to lead an expedition into Malwa.

Pscnotes.com Page 109

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Conquests of South India: Before assuming throne 2. He made it compulsory to take Sultan’s Alaundin Khilji once invaded Devagiri. According to permission before establishing relationship the pact the king of Devagiri was to pay money as amongst aristocrats. tax. But he failed to pay. Alauddin attacked 3. He ordered the confiscation of endowments Devagiri again. After that he invaded Kakatiya and free grants of land made by the state. kingdom (1308 A.D.), Hoisal kingdom (1310 A.D.) 4. To help him in administration he appointed and Pandya kingdom (1311 A.D.) of Telengana one few very agile and competent staffs. He after another. He invaded Devagiri for lie third invested powers to collect taxes, maintain time and compelled them to accept his supremacy law and order and to maintain army, to and pay tax regularly. officers known as Iktadar or Makti, in remote areas. The lands thus estimated Extent of his empire: The historic account of wars were known as `Ikta’. and conquests indicates the limits of the 5. To check corruption in the army he Alauddin’s empire. On the north-western side, introduced dag (mark a horse) and chehra both Punjab and Sindh were under his control and (the physical descriptions of army men). the Indus formed the boundary of his vast empire. Most of the regions over Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Malwa, and Rajputana were under his Administrative Policies Of Alauddin Khilji authority. In the south, the state of Narbada were held by tributary vassal chiefs.

1. Supressed rebellions: Alauddin combined The conquests of Alauddin Khilji were very efficiency with sternness. He suppressed successful and he called himself a second rebellions with a strong hand. Alexander.

2. Enacted various Laws: To prevent future Estimate of Alauddin Khilji: Most historians troubles he enacted various laws by which he put praised Alauddin as great ruler and reformer. Still a ban on the consumption of wine, prohibited his work lacked permanence, as it was based on social meetings among the nobility, and even naked force and not on the goodwill of the people. forbade inter-marriage among them without his special permission.

3. Spies: He employed many spies who kept him informed of the doings of his subjects. Administration of Alauddin Khilji

Alauddin took steps to make administration rigid 4. Taxes: Accordingly he burdened his subjects and sound along with conquering of kingdom. He with heavy taxes. Naturally, the wealthier class banned the meddling of Ulemas and other were subjected to more taxes. religious leaders in the administration. He declared that the Sultan’s will is the law. To curb 5. Army: Sultan Alauddin Khilji realized the need the audacious relatives and aristocrats he took of keeping an efficient army. This could only be few very important steps. For example: done at heavy expenses. To reduce heavy military expenditure the Sultan fixed a price of every 1. He banned drinking of alcohol in open in his article and attempted to make goods available in kingdom. cheap rates.

Pscnotes.com Page 110

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

6. Fountain head of administrative system: The imposed price control upon everything. For that Sultan was the fountain head of the administrative he established few markets in and around Delhi, system. The earlier Muslim rulers carried on their as for food grain, clothing, medicine, fruits, sugar administration by the Koranic principles and the etc. Prices of all the items were fixed by the Ulemas or Muslim divines had a large say in the administration. Any businessman, if found taking formulation of policies. However, Alauddin Khilji higher prices or cheating the buyer by giving differed from that of his predecessors in this material in less weight had been dealt with firmly. respect. He did not allow the Ulemas to lay down the principles of administration. As he used to say, “I do not know what is lawful and what is unlawful; whatever I consider to be for the good of my kingdom I do.” These words sum up his attitude towards government and its objects. Reforms in brief

The Economic Reforms of Alauddin Khilji Economic Reforms (1304) Alauddin Khilji introduced many economic reforms during his rule. Alauddin had to maintain a huge o Introduction of Dagh or branding of army. This had become all the more imperative in horses and Chehra view of Mongal raids and internal revolts. He had, o Confiscation of the religious besides, the ambition of conquering the whole of endowments and free grants of India. However, such an army could not be lands permanently maintained without straining the o Creation of new department resources of the State. Hence Alauddin fixed the viz Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to enquire salaries of his huge army at a very low level. into the revenue arears and to Accordingly the Sultan’s main concern was to collect them enable the soldier to live on his pay. o Establishment of separate markets for foodgrains cloth, horses, fruits etc Ala-ud-din’s aim of revenue system was to fund the royal treasury and to save poor villagers from Administrative Reforms Ordinances the hands of middle earners. Probably he was the first king to make survey of land to determine land revenue. Khut, Mukaddam, Chowdhury, etc. were o Reorganised the Spy system made powerless and taxes began to be collected o Prohibition on use of wine in Delhi directly from the subjects. Other than land o Nobles should not intermarry revenue, he introduced tax for cattle grazing, without his permission. taxes for buildings, etc. The rate of revenue was o Confiscated the properties of 50% of the crops produced. Nobles classes.

Market control policy: The most extraordinary Military Reforms economic reform of Alauddin was his market control or price control policy. Alauddin not only o Introduced the first permanent fixed prices, but also ensured their regular supply standing army of India by prohibiting thin hoarding. Starting from o Abolition of Iqtas of royal troppers clothing, food grains to cattle even slaves, he

Pscnotes.com Page 111

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

and the payment of their salaries in Kondavidu by 1360 and the region around crash. Penukonda was annexed. He extended his territory o Regular muster of the army. up to after defeated the Sultanate of Madurai in 1371. He had gained an upper hand over the Bahmanis for control of the Tungabhadra- Krishna doab and also took control of Goa by 1374. He also annexed the kingdom of Orissa (Orya) and Bukka forced the of End of Khilji Rule: Ceylon and Malabar to pay tributes to him. He also moved the capital of the empire to Vijayanagara Within four years of Alauddin’s death, the rule of (now more popularly known as Hampi). the Khiljis came to an end. Ala-ud-din’s younger son Shahabuddin was dethroned by his third son After the death of Bukka, Harihara II ruled from Mubarak Shah, who ruled from 1316 to 1320 A.D. the capital Vijayanagara now more popularly He again was killed by a conspiracy by Nasir-ud-din known as Hampi. His greatest success was the (1320); finally he was dethroned and killed in a capture of Belgaum and Goa in the west from the battle by one Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab. Bahmanis. Harihar II also sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka. After a brief period of confusion, Harihara II succeded by Deva Raya I. Deva Raya I was defeated by the Behmani sultan Firuz Shah and was brought into matrimonial relation with the Bahmanis. But the question of the Krishna- Kingdom of Godavari region led to a renewed conflict between Vijaynagar Vijaynagara, Bahmanis and Orissa. After entered into an alliance with for portioning the The kingdom of Vijaynagar founded by two region between them, Deva Raya I defeated Firuz brothers, Harihar and Bukka, on the south bank of Shah and annexed the entire territory upto the the River Tungabhadra in 1336 AD. According to mouth of the Krishna river. the legends, they had been the feudatories of the Deva Raya II succeeded his father Veera Vijaya Kakatiyas of Warangal. Later they became Bukka Raya after some internal conflicts. Unlike his ministers in the kingdom of Kampili. After the father, Deva Raya II was a productive and destruction of Kampili kingdom by Bin Tuglaq they successful ruler. During his reign, he prevailed over were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Harihar his conquest of Kondavidu in 1432, repulsed the and Bukka forshook their new master and their invasions of Ahmad Shah I of the Bahamanis and new faith and they were readmitted to Hinduism kept hold of the fort in 1436 but lost some by their guru, . They established their areas in the doab in 1443. He defeated the capital at Vijaynagar. After death of Hoysala ruler Gajapati of Orissa three times, restored the Reddi Veera Ballala III, Harihar and Bukka expanded Kingdom of Rajamahendri to its former position, their small kingdom with the distruction of the fought against the Sultan Ala-Ud-Din, and Hoysala kingdom. They belonged to the Sangama continued onwards to Kerala where he defeated dynasty. After Harihar, His brother Bukka, the ruler of Quilon as well as other chieftains. He succeeded to the throne of Vijaynagar in 1356 AD. invaded Lanka and collected rich tributes there. The kingdom prospered and continued to expand The ruler of Calicut and even the kings of Burma as Bukka Raya annexed most of the kingdoms of ruling at Pegu and Tanasserim paid tributes. He is Deccan. He led a crushing defeat on the considered the greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty Shambuvaraya Kingdom of Arcot and the Reddis of was Deva Raya II. During his reign, Abdur

Pscnotes.com Page 112

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Razzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh visited the took the title of’ Yavanarajya Sthapanacharya’ Vijaynagara kingdom. He began the practice of (The restorer of the Yavana kingdom). He invaded employing Muslims in the army. He was called almost the whole of Telangana from the Gajapati Immadi Deva Raya. In his inscriptions he has the king Pratapraudra and the Sultan of Golcunda. title of Gajabetekara (the elephant hunter). Krishna Deva Raya helped the Portuguese to After the death of Deva Raya II, the empire was conquer Goa from the Bijapur rulers in 1510 and ruled by a series of some weak rulers. Since the retained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the rule of primogeniture was not established, there Portuguese governor whose ambassador Friar Luis was a series of civil wars among the princes. resided at Vijayanagar. His relations with Portuguese were governed by two factors: first Saluva dynasty common enemity with Bijapur and second, the supply of imported horses by the Portuguese to The founder of Saluva dynasty was Saluva Vijayanagar. He was a contemporary of . Narsimhan. He was a minister in the reign of Praudha Raya, the last ruler of Sangama dynasty. He was a Vaishainaite but respected all the major He crushed the rebellions of feaudatories and kept religions. He was a devotee of Lord the kingdom intact. Immadi Narsimha succeeded Venkateshwara of him. He was also known as Dhamma Tammaraya. . Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya He was a weak ruler and the control of state fell Mahaprabhu, the celebrated saints of the bhakti into the hands of Narsa Nayaka. Vasco da Gama movement visited his court. Madhwa reached in Calicut during his time in 1498. The saint Vyasathirtha was the Rajaguru of rulers of this dynasty were not able to establish Krishnadevaraya. Krishna Deva Raya was known law and order properly and that’s why the Suluvas as Andhra Bhoja as he was also a great patron of ruled for a short period. art and literature. He wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and one Sanskrit work Jambavati Tuluva dynasty Kalyanam. His court was embellished with the Ashtadiggajas (the eight well known poets), of The third dynasty which ruled the Vijaynagar whom, Allasani Peddana was the greatest. His empire was Tuluva dynasty. The The dynasty was famous works include Manucharitam and named "Tuluva" because they belonged to the Harikatha Saramsamu. Krishna Deva Raya also Tulu speaking region called "TULUNAD". The constructed the well known temples of greatest and successful king of Tuluva dynasy was Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Krishna Deva Raya who ruled from 1509 to 1539 Vitthalaswamy at his capital-city. Foreign AD. Some historians believed that he is the travellers like Nuniz, Barbosa and Paes wrote greatest ruler of the Vijaynagara empire. about his systematic and effective administration and the prosperity of the empire during the reign During the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara emerged as the strongest military power in the south. He defeated the rebellious After the fall of Krishna Deva Raya, the internal chiefs of Ummattur, the Gajapatis of Orissa and struggle for succession followed among his Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur. successors. After the weak reigns of Achyuta Raya and Venkata, Raya succeded the throne He successfully annexed Gulbarga and Bidar and in 1543, but the real power of administration was reinstated the puppet Sultan Mahmud to the in the hands of Rama Raja popularly known as throne. To commemorate this act of restoration he "Aliya" Rama Raya, was the progenitor of the

Pscnotes.com Page 113

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

"Aravidu" dynasty of Vijayanagar Empire. This Dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty that ruled the dynasty, the fourth and last to hold over the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1947, until the , is often not considered as a sovereignty of India from rule of British ruling dynasty of the empire. He took active part in Government in India and the subsequent Muslim politics and played off various muslim unification of Indian dominion and princely states powers against each other. He successively into the Republic of India. defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar.It seems After restoring the Wadiyar or the Wodeyars to that Rama Raya had no longer purpose than to the throne of Mysore, by the British East India maintain a balance of power favourable to Company as Dual Independent state political vijayanagar between these three powers. But they governance, the British shifted the capital back to soon understood his trick and joined hands with the city of Mysore from . each other. Then the confederacy of the four states of Bijapur, , Golkunda and Krishna Raja Wadiyar III, son of the last Wodeyar Bidar jontly fought against the ruler of King Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII, was anointed as the Vijayanagara in 1565 at Bannihathi near Talikota King of Mysore, as a minor ruler of Mysore. From also known as the Battle of Rakshi-Tangadi. In the that time onwards, Wadiyars or Wodeyars were battle, Vijayanagar was defeated and Ram Rai the subsidiaries of the British East India Company. was captured and murdered. The Muslim army The Wodeyers had to pay annual subsidy to the entered the capital and looted and destroyed British East India Company. everything there and ruined the famous and beautiful city Vijaynagar. The is one of the most momentous and decisive battles in the history of India. It sounded the death knell of the great Hindu empire in the south India. With the fall of the Vijaynagara empire and internal rivalry between the Muslim Kingdoms with one another after their Krishna Raja Wodeyar III was one of the most victory, they fell singly and severally before the efficient rulers of Mysore, famous for the Mughal invaders from the north. patronage of arts and music in Mysore. Krishna Raja Wodeyar III ruled Mysore from 30 June 1799 Later , the brother of Rama Raya, to 27 March 1868. dethroned Sadasiva Raya and captured the power and founded the last dynasty, Aravidu dynasty. During his reign the Southern Nayakas of Madurai and Gingee declared partial independence, while some others rebelled over Tirumala Deva Raya’s authority.

Krishna raja Wodeyar lll – his contributions Early Life of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III Wodeyar Dynasty during British rule played a most vital role in developing Mysore, as princely Mummadi Krishnaraja Wadiyar or Krishna Raja State. Wodeyar Dynasty also spelt as Wodeyar Wodeyar III was born at Srirangapatna. He was the

Pscnotes.com Page 114

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 son of Khasa Chamaraja Wadiyar IX and his first wife, Maharani Kempa Nanja Ammani Krishna Raja Wodeyar III ruled Mysore state when Avaru. Chamaraja Wadiyar IX was the adopted son the political life of South India is tumultuous. The of Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Devi, the widow of years that followed witnessed cordial relations Krishnaraja Wadiyar II. Maharani Lakshmi Ammani between Mysore and the British East India Devi played a major role in the development of Company until things began to sour in the 1820s. her adopted grandson, Mummadi Krishnaraja Even though the Governor of Madras, Thomas Wodeyar who was better known as Krishna Raja Munro determined after a personal investigation Wodeyar III. He played a most important role in in 1825 that there was no substance to the his ascendancy to the Mysore throne. allegations of financial impropriety made by A. H. Cole, the incumbent Resident of Mysore, the civil insurrection which broke out towards the end of Accession of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III the decade changed things considerably. In the year 1831, close to the heels of the insurrection and citing mal-administration, the British East The Wadiyars or the Wodeyars had lost the power India Company and later the British Government of Mysore to Hyder Ali in the year 1766. Maharani took direct control of the princely state of Mysore. Lakshmi Ammani Devi was waiting for a chance to For the next fifty years, the princely Mysore unseat Hyder Ali and later his son Tipu Sultan, and passed under the rule of successive British had sent numerous feelers to the British East India Commissioners; Sir Mark Cubbon, renowned for Company to unseat them and hand over the his statesmanship. kingdom to the Wadiyars. She also informed the British East Indian Company about the treaty Contribution of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III between Tipu Sultan and the French East India Company. When Tipu Sultan died at the hands of the British in the Battle of Seringapatna, in the Krishna Raja Wodeyar III was responsible for the year 1799, she discussed about the handover of cultural growth of the Mysore. Krishna Raja the Mysore throne, which finally led to the Wodeyar III was himself a writer, having written Krishnaraja Wodeyar, as the ruler of Mysore on 30 the books on Kannada Language like Sritattvanidhi June 1799. At that time, he was only five years old. and Sougandhikaparinaya. Krishna Raja Wodeyar The ceremony of coronation took place in a III also has a number of writers in his court who special pavilion constructed near together contributed to the development of the Lakshmiramana Swamy temple in Mysore. modern prose in Kannada language. The Champu Dewan Purnaiah was selected as the Dewan of style of prose was followed till then. Other Mysore with an indication that he should be loyal important writings of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III that to the king till the king himself attains an age of emerged during the rule of Krishna Raja Wodeyar discretion. III include Mudramanjusha by Kempu Narayana, Kalavati Parinaya by Yadava and Vachana Krishna Raja Wodeyar III attained the throne at Kadamabari. Krishna Raja Wodeyar III was well the age of 16 in early 1810. Hence Krishna Raja versed in many languages and could play "Veena". Wodeyar III attained the age of discretion. After He was a great patron of music also. He was an discussing with the British Resident, A. H. Cole, the expert player of board games and is credited to reins of the state of Mysore were transferred from have revived the art game. Krishna Raja Dewan Purnaiah to the king of Mysore. Wodeyar III was also a collector and an inventor of board games. During his kingship, there was a Rule of Krishna Raja Wodeyar III gradual progression of art, architecture and culture of Mysore.

Pscnotes.com Page 115

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a multifaceted, Maharaja’s English School which paved way for multitalented genius. He was a polyglot, scholar, the famous Maharaja’s college and finally, the an accomplished poet, writer, artist, and musician Mysore University later under Sir M. among other things. He has to his credit at least 50 Vishweshwarayya. literary works on various subjects. The nearly-70 year long rule of Krishnaraja His Sritattvanidhi is an encyclopaedic treatise Wodeyar III witnessed at least three generations interspersed liberally with iconography. The of a galaxy of poets and other literary figures objective of the work was to collate and mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit. These litterateurs combine all available information about the have stood the test of time, and their writings, iconography and iconometry of divine figures in plays, and poems are still read and recited in the South India. Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also wrote state. the illustrated epic prose- romance, Sougandhikaparinaya. It was a new He is still honoured with the titles of Abhinava prose style he devised, breaking away from the Kalidasa (Modern Kalidasa) and Kannada Nataka styles handed down until his time. Pitamaha (Progenitor of Kannada drama). He translated almost all the celebrated works of Of the most distinctive and unique regional dance Kalidasa. Kempu Narayana wrote his forms in India hailing from Karnataka, celebrataed Mudra Manjusha (the Kannada perhaps occupies the top spot. And its survival, version of Vishakhadatta’s Mudra ), the resurgence and growth owes a huge debt of play based on Chanakya’s life and achievements. gratitude to Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. It was during his reign that he patronized Parti Subba, a Perhaps one significant administrative decision he renowned Yakshagana writer and performer from took was to transfer the capital city of the Mysore South Canara. state from Srirangapattana to Mysore city. The original Mysore city had been razed to the ground Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was an accomplished earlier by Tipu Sultan. player of the Veena and patronized great musicians and composers of his time like Sadashiva Rao, Veena Venkatasubbayya and Doddaseshanna. Magadh with reference to Uttar Pradesh All the states were perpetually at war with each Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also encouraged graphic other. Kaushal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed arts. He had an army of accomplished artists Vats. Later on Kausha and Vats in turn were under his patronage. Among other things, they subjugated one by one by Magadh, which became were engaged to paint court-life in all its grandeur. most powerful in the entire region. Magadh was Apart from this, portraiture developed as a fine art ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and in Mysore during Krishnaraja Wodeyar’s rule Along Nand Dynasty. The Nandas ruled from 343 BC to with the paintings of court life, these form a very 321 BC. The was extended to whole valuable resource for researchers because of the of India except Punjab and Bengal. It was during visual clues they provide to the past. He was also their regime that Alexander invaded India in 326 responsible for the creation of the Jaganmohan art BC. According to the great historians, Alexander gallery of Mysore, and built the original building in the great could not even face the forceful Magadh 1861. army and had to return.

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also introduced English In the year 323 BC Chandragupta Maurya became education in the Mysore state by starting the new emperor of Magadh. His grandson Ashoka

Pscnotes.com Page 116

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 the great created the statue of four lions in Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances and sending Sarnath. The Lion Capitol inscribed in the Ashoka envoys to expand his power. Since patricide was in pillar at Sarnath has been adopted by the vogue those days, Bimbisara also became a victim as the State Emblem. The of it. His son Ajatshatru starved him to death. Ashoka pillars petrography are found in Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sakinssa, Basti and Ajatshatru was also a valorous king who expanded Mirzapur. All the cities are in Uttar Pradesh. In the his empire by fighting war with Kashi, Licchhavis year of 232 BC, the death of Ashoka led to the and others. During his reign, Mahavira, Buddha downfall of Magadh dynasty. and also Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path attained Nirvana. His whole empire was divided among his five sons. The Mauryan dynasty ruled over 137 years. Ajatshatru was a devout Buddhist as well as Jain. According to Purana the Mauryan dynasty He enshrined the relics of Buddha in a stupa and ruled for 134 years. also renovated many monasteries. Under his sponsorship, the first Buddhist Council was The later ruler of Magadh dynasty was Brihdratha, organized at Sattapani caves in . By that who was assassinated by his chief commander time, Rajgir served as capital of Magadha. Pushyamitra. Ajatshatru built a fort at Pataliputra and his son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city.

Ajatshatru was also a victim of patricide by his son Detailed Political History of Magadha Udayin. Same fate was shared by almost all kings of Haranyaka dynasty. Again there was a civil Of all the , Magadha eventually revolt and public placed on throne of emerged as most powerful mainly because of its Magadha. Shishunaga was amatya (minister) of peculiar geographical location. It was bordered by last Haranyaka king Nagadasaka. Kalasoka, the son Ganga River in North, Son River in West, Vindhya of Shishunaga made Pataliputra as new capital of ranges in south and Champa in East. The natural Magadha. He may be of dark complexion as the barriers protected Magadha from three sides and contemporary Sri Lankan texts mention his name it was not easy to invade such a territory. Here is a as Kakavarna (of color like a crow). Kalsoka brief account of the poltical history of Magadha sponsored second Buddhist council in 383 BC since Rig-Vedic period accounts. under monk Sabakami. His ten sons ruled simultaneously before Magadha slipped into hands of Nandas. Earliest known king of Magadha was Brihadrath whose name appears in Rig-Veda as well as The founder of Nanda dynasty was Puranas. His son Jarasandha was killed by Bhima in Mahapadmananda. Since he had one of the Mahabharata war. largest standing armies in the history of world {2 Lakh infantry, 8000 war , 6000 The Brihadrath dynasty was followed by elephants!}, he is also called Ugrasena. His army Pradyotas. By that time, the practice of killing was so large that he could arrange it in a lotus one’s father to usurp the throne had crept in. The shape {Padmavyuh} and he was so wealthy that Pradyotas were notorious for patricide and irked his wealth could be counted in Padma people overthrew them in a civil revolt. Next in (One quadrillion). He subdued all the the line was Haranyaka dynasty, whose great King contemporary powers and consolidated power of Bimbisara is remembered as most powerful King Magadha. of Magadha before Mauryas. Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha as well as Mahavira.

Pscnotes.com Page 117

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Mahapadmananda, who is thought to be from daughter / son of other. Seleucus also sent humble origin {son of a barber} was the first non- Megasthenes to court of Chandragupta. kshatriya ruler in the history of India. Nandas were also the first empire builders of India. In the old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara and became a The Nadas ruled for around 100 years. During the disciple of Jain Monk Bhadrabahu. He spent his reign of last Nanda ruler Dhananada, Alexander last days at Sharavanbelgola and supposed to have invaded from west. Alexander was able to cross died practicing Santhara there. Beas but before he could cross Ganga, he heard that Dhananda’s 2 Lakh strong army is waiting for Chandragupta’s successor Bindusara (also known his men for a bloody massacre. He lost the as Amitraghata- destroyer of enemies) carried on confidence and moved back. While moving back, the legacy of Mauryas and cemented good he died on the way probably due to Malaria. alliances with Greek King Antiochus-I. He ruled for some 25 years and was successes by Ashoka after However, this invasion along with several other a bloody battle of succession among his sons. such invasions from west had put the North-West on boil. In Magadha, the popularity of Dhananda During the time of Ashoka, the boundaries of had went down because of his lavishness and Maurya empire extended to maximum by that greed that led to extortion and corruption. The time. He invaded and annexed Kalinga mainly situation was such that any brave heart could because Kalinga controlled land and sea routes to seize the opportunity to topple the Nandas. This South India. However, this battle changed his opportunity was cashed by Kautilya, who was once mind and introduced a new element in the politics thrown out of Nanda’s court. To seek revenge, he of India in the form of cultural coherence based on groomed Chandragupta Maurya, the brave young the moral values of Buddhism and a norm of man, who is thought to be the son of Dhananda’s benignity, civility and humanity in matters of shudra concubine Mura. governance.

Chandragupta first gave a death blow to Greeks in However, such a policy was bound to have its side north-west and then attacked and dethroned the effects on polity after Ashoka’s death. Asoka died Nandas. Nandas life was spared and they were in 232 BC after ruling for four decades. His sons asked to run with as much treasure as much their could not survive the waves of changes. His six chariot could carry. The most important successors including Jaluka, Samprati and implication of rise of Chandragupta Maurya was Dasaratha could rule for only 52 years. that India was, for the first time perhaps, united The life of last Maurya ruler Brihadrath was politically. The below map shows the extent of troubled. By this time, there were repeated Maurya empire at that time. attacks of Yavanas / Greeks from western side. His Meanwhile, Alexander was succeeded by his one brave commander Pushyamitra Shunga was able of his generals Seleucus, who launched a to repel two attacks of Greeks but was not happy campaign to get back the Greek territories lost to with the attitude of his master. He killed Mauryas. He was able to cross Indus, but could not Brihadrath in 185-184 BC and thus closed the succeed to defeat Chandragupta. An alliance was chapter of Mauryas from Indian history, thus made in which Seleucus returned some of the won founding Sunga dynasty. areas to Chandragupta. Chandragupta gifted some Pushyamitra and his son Agnimitra ruled from 500 war elephants to Seleucus and also some kind Pataliputra. The later Shungas made as of matrimonial alliance was made in which their capital. However, by the time of Shungas, son / daughter of one was married to the many independent rulers had appeared in west as

Pscnotes.com Page 118

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 well as south. The most remarkable was rise of common people. So the need of some sort of Satavahanas in south and Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, reformed religion as keenly felt by the people. and many others in west and Kharvela in Kalinga (east). Thus, the boundaries of Magadh by the time of Shunga had narrowed down to some parts Secondly, Hinayana Buddhism sect was mean to of Central India. suit the Indian nationality alone but it could not The last Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed by his serve the purpose of Kanishka’s subjects which own amatya (minister) Vasudeva around were composed of different nationalities. To them 73BC. Thus, Magadha slipped into hands of a religion based on a personal God, devotion and , who were Brahmins by caste. Only few faith had a greater appeal. rulers of this are known on the basis of numismatics. This dynasty was finally overthrown by Satavahanas in 30BC and thus once Thirdly, with the fall of the Magadhan Empire, mighty Magadha was broken into many small Pataliputra the seat of Buddhist orthodoxy, lost parts ruled by different dynasties at different much of its importance and became only a periods. secondary city in India. Without this decrease in the importance of Pataliputra, the rise of a new cult in Buddhism would have become very difficult. Rise of Mahayana and Development of Art (Gandhara, Mathura and other Schools) Fourthly, a dispute over many doctrines of Buddhism had lately become so acute that it

required an immediate settlement.

Fourth Buddhist Council Mahayana Buddhism is sometimes called Northern Buddhism. It is mainly followed by Keeping all these things in view Kanishka called a monks and nuns, and is largely found throughout Buddhist council, the fourth of its kind, at China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal, Russia, Kundalvana, near Srinagar in Kashmir. It was Tibet, and Vietnam. attended by about 500 monks and scholars on the Buddhist theology. The chief among them were

Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna and Parshva. It The reign of Kanishka is known for the rise of the is generally believed that Vasumitra was the new cult of Buddhism known as the Mahayana President and Asvaghosa was the Vice-President cult or sect. There were any causes which were of this Council. Two important results were responsible for the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. achieved in this Council.

 One was the writing of commentaries on the First the old form of Buddhism, known as the sacred Buddhist texts” The Tripitakas.” Most Hinayana Buddhism, had now become quite out- of these commentaries were compiled in a of-date. It was based on icy idealism and lacked book-form known as “Mahavibhasha”, realism. It had no emotional appeal. Its chief which is generally regarded as the doctrines of self-suffering, non-violence and self- Encyclopedia of Buddhism. discipline were too difficult to be followed by  The other was the division of the Buddhist Church into two sects—the Hinayana

Pscnotes.com Page 119

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Buddhism and the Mahayana Buddhism. carved out images of Kubera, and of The Mahayana sect was recognized at the , Yakshinis and Nagas. Side by side, state religion by Kanishka. they also carved out Brahmanical and Jaina . They also constructed stone railings, female figures and decorative stone panels with floral designs.  Mathura and Gandhara School of Art Besides religious sculptures, the Gandhara School Mathura and Gandhara also strongly of Art carved secular statues according to need. influenced each other. During their artistic The finest example of this art is seen in the life- florescence, the two regions were even size statue of Kushana Emperor Kanishka. The King united politically under the Kushans, both stands in royal posture with majestic dignity. His being capitals of the empire. robes were typical of the Kushana era. The legacy of the Mathura art reached its culminating height  The rise of Mahayana system of Buddhism during the Gupta Era which saw a puranic religious during the Kushana rule provided golden revival. opportunity to the Mathura artists to show their talent in creation of Buddhist images and icons. In that work they did not need Main Differences Between Mathura School of foreign influence like the Gandhara artists. Arts and Gandhara School of Arts- The Mathura school of art developed on Indian traditions.

 Instead of looking at Greek sculptures for (1) Origin inspiration, the Mathura sculptors developed their own distinct style of work.  Mathura School: No foreign Influence, They found enough material from Buddhist however, later it cross fertilized with the Jataka storeis, from the life-events of Gandhara School. Its development took Gautama Buddha, from his divine birth, place indigenously. renunciation, enlightenment, sermons at  Gandhara School: Strong Greek many places, and his Mahaparinirvana. influence. Was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques  Since Mathura was within the Kushana and an alien spirit. It is also known as Empire, the scupltors who were known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. Initially the Salia-Rupakaras received enough of inspired by Images Assimilating royal patronage. They met the royal various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and demand and requirement of outside Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is countries by carving countless images of a hallmark of the Gandhara style. Initially Buddha. Those images presented divine inspired by Hellenistic features. attributes of the Lord in various mudras like the famous Abhaya-Mudra of Buddha. (2) Material Used Bodhisattva images also received Indian traditional faith as expected of divinities.  Mathura School: Spotted Red Sandstone  Gandhara School: Blue-grey Mica schist /  The Gandhara school of Art did not stop Grey Sandstone only with Buddhist images. From traditional Brahmanical faith, the artists (3) Image Features

Pscnotes.com Page 120

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 Mathura School: Early period: Light volume  In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces having fleshy body. Later Period:Flashiness etc. have got prominence. reduced. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Not much attention to detailed sculpting. Buddha is stout.  Gandhara School: Finer details and realistic Museums and Archives in Karnataka; images. Buddha carved out in various Preservation and protection of historical Mudras. Curly hair, anatomical accuracy, monuments – work of Archaeological Survey of spatial depth, and foreshortening. Buddha India – World Heritage Sites in Karnataka. is sometimes thin.

(4) Halo

 Mathura School: The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated. Images are less expressive.

Buddha with decorated Halo

 Gandhara School: Not decorated, generally.The images are very expressive.

Amaravati School of Art

 In Amaravati, situated in the eastern Deccan, Andhra Pradesh, a different type of art form evolved and flourished for nearly six centuries commencing from 200- 100 BC. Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the and also by other groups.  The Amaravati school of art occupies a pre- eminent position in the history of Indian Art. With its beginning in 3rd century BC the Amaravati unfolds its chapters through the galaxy of sculptural wealth that designed the Mahachaityas.  The lotus and the purnakumbha motifs are typical of Amaravati Art expressing auspiciousness and abundance.  White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks.

Pscnotes.com Page 121

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The concept of museums in India may be traced India. It has a painting section called Venkatappa Art back to the historic times, in which references to Gallery and houses a significant collection of the chitrasala (picture gallery) do occur. The conventional Mysore paintings. The museum earliest necessity to house objects of antiquarian contains Halmidi inscription, which is the earliest remains dates back to late 1796 AD when the Kannada inscription dating back to 450 AD. The Asiatic Society of Bengal felt the need to house museum is dedicated to the founder of Bangalore the enormous collection of archaeological, city, Yelahanka Chieftain Kempegowda. ethnological, geological, zoological pursuits. However, the first museum by them was started Archaeological Museum (Hampi)- The Archaeological in 1814. The nucleus of this Asiatic Society Museum is located at Kamalapura is dedicated to the Museum later provided to the Indian Museum ruins of Hampi and the Vijayanagara Empire. The Calcutta. Museum in Hampi is the first museum established by the Archeological Survey of India. The museum Museums are the storehouse of manuscripts, houses a collection of sculptures and artifacts. It sculptures, statues, art, artefacts and everything beautifully captures the history of Hampi. that is related to the erstwhile past of Karnataka. Karnataka has been an epicentre of South India's The , built in 1902 to mark the economy and culture since the ancient rule. coronation ceremony of Krishnaraja III, was Karnataka has been ruled by so many great converted into the Jayachamarajendra Art Gallery. dynasties like Kadambas, Gangas, Rashtrakutas, The museum exhibits the genealogical table of the Chalukyas, Hoysalas and great kingdoms Mysore kings from 1399 till today, painted in a leaf Vijayanagara and Mughal. Gallery like form in the Mysore style of art. Archaeological Museum in Hampi, Jaganmohan Palace and Art Gallery in Mysore and Indira Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum Gandhi Manav Sangrahalaya are home to some (Bangalore) is named after Sir M. Visveshwaraya, one of the most spectacular pieces of the art. The of the greatest Indian engineers. The museum is a in Mysore exhibits elements of tribute to his relentless efforts to bring science and folklore, dance, drama and music. technology to the common man.

Mysore and Bangalore are two important towns The museum has a great wealth of folk art and in Karnataka where museums are in abundance. folklore articles on display and is well known as one Other than the art museums that speak about of the biggest of its kind in Asia. The Tradition historical sculptures, there are some galleries museum has one of the most important ethnographic which tell about science and defence Museums of South Indian toys, puppets and development as well. Visvesvaraya Industrial and household things. Technological Museum in Bangalore is an interactive science centre, dedicated to the Railway Museum (Mysore) which established in 1979. different science disciplines like space gallery, This is the second museum of its kind in India. The science centre for kids, engine hall, etc. In short, first one is in Delhi. all the museums of Karnataka portray the history, civilization, culture and heritage of Other famous museums are Warship Museum Karnataka. (Karwar), Cubbon Park and Museum (Bangalore), Indira Gandhi Manav Sangrahalaya (Mysore), Famous Museums in Karnataka Regional Museum of Natural History (Mysore).

Karnataka Government Museum which was opened The most famous of Karnataka is the in 1866 in Bangaluru, is one of the oldest museums ofBijapur's Gol Gumbad. Gol Gumbad, a slightly

Pscnotes.com Page 122

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 bulbous dome, is the largest in the world after St The wonderful carvings of the temple attracts tourist Peter's in Rome. It was built in AD 1626 by to that place.The contribution of Ganga dynasty Mohammad Adil Shah. Another one is the Ibrahim certainly deserves recognition. The famous Rauza, often described as the finest Islamic building Gomateshwara temple, Jain Basadi's of in the Deccan. This modest edifice is the earliest royalShravanabelagola, Kambadahalli and lots of Hindu Mausoleum in Bijapur. Ali I constructed his own tombtemples of south Karnataka are the evidence to their in the fields of the southwest quarter of the city. Therich contributions. tomb is a low, almost square structure and each of its four walls is being pierced by five arches. The burial In the later period, the other dynasties like Chalukyas ground of Tipu Sultan, Gumbaz at Seringapatam, is of Badami, Western Chalukya Empire and one of the prehistoric monuments in the state. The Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta emerged as mausoleum was originally built by Tipu Sultan to holdindependent powers which ruled over the major the graves of his father Hyder Ali and mother Fakr- portions of the Deccan. The Western Chalukya rulers UN-Nisa. Gumbaz at Seringapatam is an imposing developed a unique style of architecture that became architecture, located amidst the manicured Lalbagh popular and was accepted by the Hoysala art of 12th Garden. century. The Hoysala dynasty constructed several religious monuments during their reign in the region. The historical monuments in Karnataka This style of architecture was known as the Vesara consist of temples as well as ancient city style. During the the period of Vijayanagara Empire ruins, caves palaces, forts and tombs. many famous monuments were constructed. Whereas the temples in the state are gems of various forms of architecture and The architecture and sculpture of Karnataka sculpture.The monuments depict the saga of experienced a major shift with the decline of Karnataka’s vast history. This can be traced back fromVijaynagara Empire in 1565. Islamic sultanates took the Indus Valley Civilization in ancient Karnataka as control of the Deccan and encouraged the Islamic evidence of such monuments are present in large style of building arts. In the late 17th century the amount in the region. It also has several monumentsSultanate was defeated by the Mughals. The most of third century BC when most of the region was the famous monument of this period is the Gol Gumbaz. part of Nanda Empire and later came under the Several monuments were also constructed by the Mauryan Empire of Ashoka's period. Several in the northern parts of monuments of Satvahana period had also been Karnataka, by the Mysore Kingdom in the southern unearthed. The deisintegration of Satavahanas gave parts, and later by the Britishers during the colonial way for the native kingdoms of the state. These rule. kingdoms such as Kadambas and Western Gangas emerged as an independent power and helped to UNESCO's World Heritage Sites - Several monuments develop monuments in a separate architectural style.of Karnataka fall under the list of UNESCO's World The contribution of the Kadambas in the architecturalHeritage Sites. These are the famous groups of heritage of Karnataka is precious which was the monuments at Pattadakal and at Hampi. foundation of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style. . Group of monuments at Pattadaka - Pattadakal was The most common features of this style is the Shikarathe capital-city of the Chalukya dynasty of medieval or Kadamba Shikara which is pyramid shaped with a India. The group of monuments is a collection of Kalasha at its peak and is similar to the Chalukyan ten Hindu and Jain temples and was built during the style and the Pallava style. The famous 7th and 8th centuries and has a harmonious blend of Madhukeshwara or Lord Shiva temple still exists in architectural forms of northern and southern India; Banavasi city, built by the Kadambas in 10th century.Rekha Nagara Prasada and the Dravida Vimana styles

Pscnotes.com Page 123

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 of temple building. The oldest temple at Pattadakal isat Aihole represent the popular Badami Chalukyan Sangamesvara built by Satyasraya. The style of architecture. UNESCO has also proposed to other notable temples at Pattadakal are the protect the monuments of the religious Hoysala Kadasiddhesvara, Jambulingeswara both attributed temples at Belur and as the World Heritage to 7th century A.D. while Galaganatha temple was sites. Caves in Karnataka are the finest specimen of built a century later in the style of rekha nagara its history, culture and spirituality. Cave Temples of prasada. The Kasivisvesvara temple was the last to beBadami are an important attraction of Karnataka built in early Chalukyan style. The Mallikarjuna Tourism. There are four major caves in Badami and temple was constructed by Rani Trilokyamahadevi toevery cave is finely furnished with scriptures, celebrate the victory over the Pallavas by sculptures and images of Hindu gods, Mahavir, and Vikramaditya II. She is also credited to have built theothe r Jain Thirthankaras. Another finest example of Virupaksha temple influenced by the architecture of caves in Karnataka is the Kavala Caves. Nestled the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. The amidst the Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary, Kavala is Virupaksha temple later served as a model for the amongst the few caves in India and are believed to be Rashtrakuta ruler (757 -783 A.D.) to carve formed by the limestone. Exploring caves are out the great Kailasa at Ellora. gradually becoming one of the most popular activities in Karnataka. Group of monuments at Hampi - Hampi is situated on the southern bank of the river Tungabhadra. It was Karnataka has many temples known for a unique once the capital-city of the mighty Vijayanagara style of architecture. Aihole was once the capital of empire in 14th century. The famous city had Dravidianthe Chalukya Dynasty, and has great cultural style temples and palaces which won the admiration significance as the cradle of of contemporary chroniclers who came from far off architecture. The temples and architecture in countries-such as Arabia, Italy, Portugal and Russia Aihole are closely associated with Hindu visited the empire between the 14th and 16th mythology. The prominent temples at Aihole are centuries. divided into two groups, which are Kontigudi and the Galaganatha. Aihole has a great number of A large number of royal buildings were constructed famous temples like Durga temple which by Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest ruler of the dedicated to Vishnu, the Ladh khan temple, Meguti dynasty. The period witnessed resurgence of Hindu Jain Temple, Hucchimalli Temple, Ravanphadi Cave, religion, art, architecture in an unprecedented scale. The Gowda temple dedicated to Goddess Bhagavati is Temples of Hampi are noted for their large built on similar lines as the Lad Khan temple. dimensions, ornate adornment, bold and delicate carvings, stately pillars, magnificent pavilions, The other most famous temples include iconographic and traditional depictions, which , , Kuruvathi include subjects from the Ramayana and the Basaveshwara temple, Galageshwar Shiva Temple, Mahabharata. Kateel Durgaparameshwari Temple, Murudeshwara Temple, Aanjaneya Temple near The Vitthala temple is an excellent specimen. TheAnegundi,Marikamba Temple Sagar, Hasanamba colossal statues of Lakshmi, Narasimha and temple, Jenukallu Siddeshwara Temple, Ganesha are noted for their massiveness and Gomatheswara at Shravanabelagola, Mahabaleshwar grace. The Krishna temple, Pattabhirama temple,Temple at Gokarna, Chamundeshwari Devi Temple at Hazara Ramachandra and Chandrasekhara templeMysore, Navagraha Jain Temple at , as also the Jain temples are other examples. Markandeshwara temple, Mookambika Devi Temple The religious monuments such as the cave temples at Kollur, Guddattu Mahaganapathi Temple, Sigandur and the rock-cut temples constructed at Badami and , Srikanteshwara Temple at Nanjangud, Keshava Temple at ,

Pscnotes.com Page 124

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Chandramouleshwara Temple at Hubli, Sadashiva The Solah Khamba mosque, the Mahals (Palaces), Temple at Nuggehalli, Shambhulinga Temple at secular structures, baths, kitchens and pleasure , heritage destination near Hampi, pavilions are notable structures inside the fort. Lord Rameshwara temple Sagar, Sri Krishna Temple at and Kadri Manjunatha Temple at Fort (Chitradurga)- The history of Mangaluru. dates back to around 17th or 18th century which was constructed by rulers belonging to Forts are the vast monuments of strength and powerthe, Rashtrakuta, Chalukyas, Hoysala and Chitradurga which were made by erstwhile leaders to protect Nayaka dynasties. their defensive weapon while fighting with enemies. Karnataka has a long history with forts. Many Raichur Fort (Raichur)-The Fort was built during the monarchs have ruled over Karnataka, some of them reign of Kakatiyas of Warangal, played a major role in conquered the old forts while others made new fortsthe history of Karnataka. The Krishna-Tungabhadra to expand their kingdom. With the help of forts, one Doab region witnessed many battles fought to peak into the life of the royal families and witness capture and control the fort, several battles their spectacular opulence. involving Vijayanagar kings, Bahmanis and Adilshahis.

Some other well-known forts in the state of Karnataka are Manjarabad Fort (), Mirjan Basavakalyan Fort (Bidar)- Earlier the fort was knownFort (), Aihole and Badami forts as Kalyani fort. The capital of Chalukyas was shifted (Bagalkot district), Kittur, Parasgad, Belgaum, from Manyakheta to Kalyana in the 10th century. TheSaundatti, , Bailhongal, , Gokak, fort, integral to the Basavakalyana town, is also Shirasangi, Bhimgad and Vallabhgat forts (Belgaum famous as Karmabhoomi of Basavanna (founder of district), Sanduru, , , Tekkalakotte, Virashaiva community) and hundreds of other Hampi, Kurugodu,Birala Gudda Kote and Gudekote Sharanas (saints of Virashaiva community). forts (), Devanahalli and Makalidurga forts (Bengaluru Rural district), (Bellary)- It was built on top of a hill (), Bidar, and called the "Ballari Gudda" or the Fort Hill. It was builtManyakheta Forts (), in two parts namely, the Upper Fort and the Lower (Bijapur district), Skandagiri, Nadhi Hill, Gudibanda Fort. The Upper Fort was built by Hanumappa and Gummanayakana Kote (), Nayaka, a feudatory of Vijayanagara Empire, but the Hosadurga forts (), Lower Fort was built by Hyder Ali in later part of the Fort (Dakshin Kannada district), Uchangidurga and 18th century. Channagiri Forts (), , (Gulbarga)- The fort was constructed , , Hemagudda, , during the reign of Maharaja Gulchand of the , Tippapura and Nargund Forts (Gadag Warangal dynasty. Many mosques, palaces and district), Gulbarga, and Shahpur forts tombs and various other structures were constructed(). inside the fort. Some of the structures found inside Palaces are the epitomes of luxury, victory, and the fort are Jami Masjid and Tomb of Kwaja Bande chivalry of the rulers who ruled the region. They are Nawaz. gems amongst the various forms of architecture. The (Bidar)- Sultan Alla-Ud Din Bahman of official "heritage city" tag is associated with Mysore. the Bahmanid Dynasty shifted his capital One of the finest palaces in the state is the Mysore from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1427 and built this fort Palace. The magnificent is a treasure along with a number of Islamic monuments. It was house of exquisite carvings and works of art from all considered one of the most formidable forts of India.over the world. It was the official residence of the

Pscnotes.com Page 125

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Wodeyars — the of Mysore. Some other 2001 has been framed to look after the protection important Palaces are Jagmohan Palace, Lalitha and management of the World Heritage Area. Mahal, Cheluvamba Mansion and . Apart from Mysore, Bangaluru also has some great In Archaeological Survey of India also, due to the Palaces like Bangalore Palace (the exact copy of various explorative investigations that was initiated England's Windsor Castle) and Tipu Sultan's Summer since the times of its first Director General, Alexander Palace, once the official summer residence of Tipu Cunningham, vast quantity of antiquarian remains Sultan, makes it to the top attraction of Bangalore. were collected. The creation of site museums had to wait until the arrival of Sir John Marshall, who Conservation & Preservation initiated the founding of the local museums like Sarnath (1904), Agra (1906), (1908), Delhi Fort The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), as an (1909), Bijapur (1912), Nalanda (1917) and attached office under the Department of (1919). Culture, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, is the The concept of site museums is well elucidated by premier organization for the archaeological Hargreaves, one of the former Director Generals of researches and protection of the cultural heritage of ASI: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is vested the nation. the prime concern of the ASI is with responsibility of identification, documentation, maintenance of ancient monuments and conservation, maintenance and management of such archaeological sites and remains of national heritage sites and monuments. Karnataka is among importance. It also regulate all archaeological most popular state in the country for heritage sites activities in the country as per the provisions of the and monuments. It is home to 608 of the 3600 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and centrally protected monuments in India; The State Remains Act, 1958. It also regulates Antiquities and Directorate of Archaeology and Museums protects an Art Treasure Act, 1972. additional 758 monuments and another estimated 25,000 monuments are identified. In 1885, The entire country is divided into 24 Circles for the constitution of an exclusive Department for this maintenance of ancient monuments and purpose paved the way for consolidation of earlier archaeological sites and remains of national efforts made under the patronage of rulers of the importance. The organization has a large work force time. In recent years the State is attracting large of trained archaeologists, conservators, epigraphist, number of tourists-both national and international, architects and scientists for conducting who frequent well known tourist destinations archaeological research projects through its comprising World heritage centers, historical Excavation Branches, Prehistory Branch, Epigraphy locations like Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Gangas Branches, Science Branch, Horticulture Branch, Kadamba dynasties, Deccan Sultanate Rattas, Forts, Building Survey Project, Temple Survey Projects and Places of worship such as Jain Basadis, Buddhist Underwater Archaeology Wing. temples, Shiva temples, Shakti Sthal & Temple tanks (Pushkarnis). The Tourism Department also is Different legal instruments exist for the protection of promoting tourism by educating prospective visitors the historical sites, including the Ancient Monuments about the heritage and culture of the state. and Archaeological Remains and Sites Act, 1958 (AMASR Act, 1958), AMASR (Amendment and The Karnataka Archaeology Department (KAD) is Validation) Act, 2010 and Rules 1959 of the vested with the task of identification of new Government of India and Karnataka Ancient and monuments and sites, and their conservation and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and maintenance. The GOK has a policy for conservation Remains Act, 1961. Recently, the Draft (Bill) of Hampiof such monuments by allocating resources and also World Heritage Area Management Authority Act, by drawing upon assistance from other sources and

Pscnotes.com Page 126

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

GOI. Public Private Partnership in conservation and career as an adventurer helped him to consolidate maintenance also is gaining momentum. the empire with ruthless conquests. The authenticity of the Puranic statement that he was the “destroyer of all Kshatriyas” and that he overthrew such disparately located powers as the Ikshvakus, Pancalas, Kashis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Ashmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Shurasenas, and Vitihotras is borne out by independent evidence, which also associated the Nandas with conquests in the distant valley, Kalinga, and part of Mysore.

Foundation of Nanda Dynasty

Maha•padma Nanda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty, proved to be a powerful ruler. From both the Buddhist and Jain sources we come to know that he belonged to very low family. Probably, he was born of a Sudra mother, as the Buddhist sources would inform us. Whatever may be the origin of this man, it is quite certain that he greatly extended the boundaries of the Magadhan Empire. He is said to have uprooted all the Kshatriya ruling dynasties of Northern India like the , Kurus, Asmakas, Ikshvakus and , etc., and annexed their states.

After Mahapadma Nanda his eight sons divided

the whole empire among them and ruled simultaneously for twelve years from different centers. Nothing definite and in detail is known about them except that when Alexander invaded Nanda dynasty India in 326 B.C. Magadha was ruled by Dhana Nanda who was known all around for his immense Nanda dynasty, family that ruled Magadha, in wealth and powerful army. According to the Greek northern India, between c. 343 and 321 BCE. The writers the army of the Nandas consisted of Nanda dynasty immediately preceded the dynasty 20,00,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 four- of the Mauryas, and, as with all pre-Maurya horsed charioteers and 30,000 elephants. From dynasties, what is known about it is a mixture of the Buddhist texts we come to know that the fact and legend. Indigenous traditions, both Nandas were very fond of wealth and had become Brahmanical and Jaina, suggest that the founder of very unpopular because of their heavy taxes and the dynasty, Mahapadma (who was also known as undue exaction from the public. It was because of Mahapadmapati, or Ugrasena), evidently had a this that people deserted them and helped low social origin—a fact confirmed by classical Chandragupta Maurya when the latter attacked scholarship. Mahapadma took over from the Magadha in about 323-322 B.C. Shaishunagas not only the reins of Magadhan power but also their policy of systematic Dhana Nanda expansion. His probable frontier origin and early

Pscnotes.com Page 127

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Dhana Nanda was the last king of Nanda Empire. within the Nanda Empire. But the validity He was one among the nine sons of Mahapadma of the information is doubtful. Nanda. He was called Dhana Nanda for his love of hoarding wealth, the last Nanda was called Dhana Significance of Nanda Empire Nanda. The Nanda Kings established a strong monarchy King Dhana Nanda inherited the vast empire of his based on an efficient bureaucracy and a mighty father. The army of Emperor Dhana Nanda army. The conquests made by the Nandas paved consisted of large number of cavalry, infantry, the way for the political unification of India under chariots and elephants. When the Mauryas. The age of the Nanda Empire was invaded India, the ruler of was significant also for the fact that it brought an end Dhana Nanda. Alexander and his army heard the to the immemorial orthodox tradition of the divine glory of the army of Nanda Empire. The right of the Kshatriyas to hold the royal power. Macedonian army was so frightened that the they Mahapadma Nanda was the founder of Nanda refused to move ahead to face the huge army of Empire. It is believed that his mother was a Magadha Empire. Shudra. The new ruler Mahapadma Nanda was a representative of inferior Sudra caste and a Apart from his vast empire and great army, Dhana “destroyer of Kshatriyas”. He was a product of the Nanda amassed huge wealth. He was huge mass prevailing spirit of revolt against all conservative of gold reserves. It is said that he built his treasure traditions both in religion and politics. house by causing a great excavation in a rock in the bed of the Ganges. He gathered wealth by If Buddhism and Jainism challenged the orthodox levying taxes on skins, stones and various articles. Brahmanical religion, the rise of a Sudra chief named Mahapadma Nanda on the throne of The revolution which brought the end of the Magadha signified a spirit of revolt against Nandas was not a bloodless revolution. There was traditional Kshatriya domination. The Nandas violent encounter between the Nanda army led by built canals and irrigation projects for increasing general Bhaddasala and the army of Chandragupta the fertility of the land. Magadha was prosperous in which the latter became victorious. The fall of for iron ores which she could steadily get from her the Nandas paved the way for the rise of the mines. The vast army of the Nandas could be well Maurya Empire. equipped with suitable weapons due to abundance of iron supply. The agriculturists could The Nanda Empire was extended upto Kalinga. The get plough shears and implements. southern frontier of the Nanda Empire did not limit itself to Kalinga. It extended over to the Nature and scope of philosophy and religion country in the Godavari valley in Deccan. Whether the Nanda Empire extended still further Philosophy:Nature and scope beyond the Krishna, is not definitely known. But The word ‘philosophy’ is derived from two Greek the discovery of Asokan edicts in and words philos and sophia. Philos stands for love Chitaldrug districts point to the extension of the and sophia for wisdom. It stood for serious Magadhan Empire up to the south of the Krishna. cultivation of the intellect and understanding. It Since Asoka was not responsible for the conquest was a searching inquiry into the deeper values of of these areas, it is inferred that the credit of the life. But simply stating that philosophy is love of conquest of the area must go either to the first wisdom does not carry any sense any more. For in Maurya or the first Nanda. the past, philosophy was the only sustained search Several Mysore inscriptions of later date refer to for knowledge. But these days you have a lot of the inclusion of the Kuntala lying to the south of other branches of study. For instance, science.

Pscnotes.com Page 128

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

When you say ‘philosophy is a love of wisdom’ – ‘what is the scope of art’- you mean with what does it mean that there is no love of wisdom in kind of things is art connected, what are the science? You may try to bypass this difficulty by different works that art does, what are the causes, differentiating between knowledge and wisdom. what are the uses and abuses etc. In the same That knowledge is empirical and wisdom is way, when you ask “what is the scope of valuational. That knowledge is theoretical and philosophy”, you mean the type of works that wisdom is practical. And while science strives for philosophy does. There may be a huge member of knowledge, philosophy strives for wisdom. But works that any study or discipline might be doing such a line of argument many philosophers do not and yet there are only some works which like. For them, love of wisdom is too old, too constitute the core of a particular study. There are vague and too wide a concept. Being imprecise, it certain core areas in which philosophical cannot be accepted as a concept of philosophy. investigation is active. If these are demarcated, we shall have found the scope of philosophy. You Then there is another difficulty which we have to should take this as tentative information, for the encounter: the random and reckless use of the final information is not available. The scope keeps term philosophy. It seems as if philosophy has no on increasing or expanding. Just as you cannot fixed meaning at all. For anybody and everybody completely specify the scope of science: whether attaches it to any and every concept. There is it is physics, or physics and chemistry; or it , philosophy of business, includes botany and biology and anthropology and , and psychology and sociology……. You are not sure. philosophy of what not. While being so used - this But about physics and chemistry, you are sure. In term stands for the basic nature, aim, purpose of the same way, though you cannot have a detailed the thing qualified. Or it may stand for the scope of philosophy; it has to include the core rationale - the logic of its being: why a thing is areas of philosophy. such and such and not otherwise. ‘The philosophy of your joining Krishna Kanta Handique State Open These are: University may be that you want more knowledge, better job, higher achievement and satisfaction in  Epistemology life. Now, though this seems to be fairly sensible,  Metaphysics but it does not give the essential quality of the  Ethics discipline or subject philosophy that is taught in  the universities.  Theology

Philosophy is the general name of some activities Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge. It is which are unique in themselves. You can call it an often called theory of knowledge also. We have umbrella concept under which some functions the experience or concept or phenomenon of occur. For instance, you know well how science is knowledge. Philosophy explains that concept. And not a specific concept. It is also an umbrella that is called epistemology. It is not knowledge of concept under which activities of physics, any other thing, but discussion on the problem of chemistry, biology, botany, psychology etc. take knowledge itself. If you know about ‘atoms’ in place. Exactly in the same way, under the brand physics, that constitutes the ‘knowledge’ of atoms. name or umbrella of philosophy, you have some In epistemology, you do not consider knowledge activities called epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, of anything –atom or molecule or whatever, but aesthetics, theology etc. the fact of knowledge itself. Here you study what is knowledge, how does it originate, what is its By the term ‘scope’ of anything you have to mean limitation, can we know everything about a ‘the area of work’ of that thing. When you ask phenomenon, etc.

Pscnotes.com Page 129

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Metaphysics is the philosophy or theory of the choices will have what is commonly called the ‘real’. Knowledge that is studied in epistemology ‘moral’ implication. If you are walking on the automatically leads us to the question of the pavement and an old man has fallen down- you ‘known’. You know, but what do you know? will have two choices before you: (a) let me pick Knowledge is different from mere thought or up the person, (b) why should I waste my time? imagination. Hence, like thought is related to thing Let me hurry up in my work. But you will see that in order to be complete, knowledge is linked with there is an instinctive or rational (We cannot the known in order to be meaningful. So, specify what it is at this point) impulse in you to philosophy has a distinct branch devoted to help the person. This is your voice of or understanding ‘what is known’. It considers the your wisdom or whatever you might call it. But nature of the real. Whether the real completely you feel like doing ‘good’. This sense of goodness reveals itself in the process of knowing or a or propriety or duty is central to all human portion of it remains beyond the reach of thought and behaviour. Ethics is the study of knowledge? That is, is there a scope for assuming human conduct based on moral impulses and that the known world and the real world are wisdom. fundamentally different? This is the famous problem of metaphysics technically known as Aesthetics and (e) theology are also important ‘appearance and reality.’ It is at the heart of every branches of philosophy. The first is concerned metaphysical enquiry. It is not necessary that you with the inquiry into the nature of beauty and the subscribe to any preconceived idea. You may have second investigates the nature of religious reason to believe that the real completely unbares experiences. In fact aesthetics is concerned with itself in the knowledge system. You will be a realist the creation and appreciation of all arts. Theology, then. You can also come to the conclusion that the which constitutes a deep inquiry into religious real is totally different from the appearance, but it phenomena, is more commonly called philosophy can be known through some sort of insight. You of religion. will be an idealist then. You may also reach a Nature and scope of religion position that the real is there and it upholds the apparent but it cannot be finally known, you will The theological concept of religion which is be an agnostic. You can also have many more reflected in the popular ones centers round as philosophically tenable positions. You can also supernatural power, other than independence, of argue quite powerfully against the possibility and human experience. The assurance of God's being use of any subject like metaphysics. It is virtually a comes in this approach, not from any internal philosophers’ paradise. With epistemology, experience but, from the faith in an external metaphysics forms the core of any philosophical revelation, primary emphasis thus, seems to be on inquiry. belief and faith and not on inner experience, though even this approach has to recognize that Ethics: After knowing what knowledge is and after man's religion is conditioned to a large extant by grappling with the issue of the known, you have man's interest in his own destiny. learnt quite a bit about the world and your life in it. A question will naturally arise in your mind. If On the other hand, man's inner experience is of the world is what it seems to be-then how shall I primary importance for the psychoanalytical live in this world? How do I behave in it? For you writers and humanist thinkers with existentialist will be continuously facing more than one sympathies. If man experiences God, argues alternative courses of action and you will be Ludwig Furbish, this experience gives us greater forced to choose among them. And you have to information about the man himself than about use your discretion while choosing. Any God, God being regarded by him as the projected consideration that you will bring to bear on your image of man himself. No man of religion would

Pscnotes.com Page 130

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 agree with this reduction of God to a creation of look at the sorts of questions that philosophers the human mind. Still the fact emphasized by all think are important and how they go about the psychologist, is undeniable that man's answering them. concerns for his own destiny is the prime motive behind man's search for god. A very important What is common to all such questions is that they contribution of the psychologists to the are questions that can be answered only by in their emphasis on the reasoning. In other disciplines, there are various basis of the individual's religions experience, and ways of finding out answers to questions – such as their conception of religious experience as private by studying. and internal. For William James, religion is "The nature or ancient manuscripts, by conducting feelings of acts and experiences of the individual experiments or surveys, by building a piece of men in their solitude, So far as they apprehend apparatus or a model or by running a simulation themselves to stand in relation to whatever they on a computer. By and large, these are what can many consider the divine. A.N. Whitehead's be termed ‘empirical investigations’. The famous definition religion as what the individual outcomes of these investigations – new does with his solitariness" equally seeks to explain discoveries, new data – will often be relevant to religion more or less excessively in terms of philosophy, but empirical investigations cannot personal inner experience He recognizes the provide the answers to philosophical questions. objective reference of religion as a rather secondary factor in religion. He believes that the There are many ways of dividing up the subject religion of solitariness is a later and a mature areas of philosophy. None of them is entirely emergent, which is preceded by religion as ritual satisfactory, since there will always be topics that and belief. Vedantic thinkers would agree with the cut across or fail to fit neatly into the divisions. above observation. Dr.Radhakrishan for example None the less, we begin to get a better idea of the differentiates the essence of religion from its scope of philosophy by considering the following social aspects and morality, Religion for him is three broad areas. some thing inward and personal that unifies all values and organizes all experiences. First, metaphysics. This area of philosophy deals with the ultimate nature of reality. Is the everyday Nature of Philosophy, it’s relation with world real? If not, what is the nature of the reality life,Science and culture that lies beneath the world of appearances? What is the nature of the space–time framework within Two answers are frequently given to the question which we and the objects around us appear to ‘What is philosophy?’ exist? Given that something exists, why that and One is that philosophy is an activity rather than a not something else? Why that and not nothing? subject – in other words, you do philosophy rather Why is there change? How can there also be than learn about it. The other is that philosophy is permanence through change? Do the things that largely a matter of conceptual analysis – it is exist fall into different types, such as minds and thinking about thinking. Both these suggestions bodies? If there are minds, are there disembodied contain more than a germ of truth but are minds? Is there a God? unsatisfactory, giving little or no idea of the Second, epistemology. Here the concern is with content of philosophy. It is all very well to say whether and how knowledge of reality is possible. ‘Philosophize’ or ‘Analyse concepts’, but What are the limits to our knowledge? Can we rely philosophize about what and in what sorts of upon sense perception to tell us what the world is ways; analyse what concepts and how? The most really like? Is there an unknowable reality lying direct way of seeing what philosophy is about is to behind appearances? Does science give us

Pscnotes.com Page 131

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 knowledge of a deeper reality? Does science give without which the mental life would be deprived us knowledge at all? Can our powers of reasoning of clearness and depth. To accomplish its task, give us knowledge? Can our powers of reasoning philosophy ought to be free and unhampered. at least correct errors that might arise from the senses? Are there other sources of knowledge, for Thought is an element of life which throws light on example, ones that would enable us to perceive the other elements, and these other elements values or know the true nature of God? have no right to dictate to thought on the ground that they alone con- stitute "life." The materials Third, the areas of moral and political philosophy. which thought requires for work- ing out its These areas deal with how we conduct ourselves problems must be discovered by thought itself. within the world. What is there, if anything, to Only with the help of thought is it possible to guide our conduct? Should we follow our feelings? distinguish between real experience and mere Can our reason tell us what is right and wrong? ideas or illusions. Philosophy is nothing but an Can reason tell us what political institutions to set endeavor to attain the clearest possible concep- up? Do we have obligations to the political tion of our place in the system of things, institutions that exist in the society in which we find ourselves? Are the only values the ones that It is difficult, however, to reach this stage of clear we, as individuals, create for ourselves? conscious- ness. Behind our clearest consciousness there are always un- conscious Philosophy : It’s relation with life tendencies and dispositions, which can perhaps be recognized later on, but which for long periods of We have more reason to examine the relation of time can function as latent coefficients. Our philosophy to life than the relation of other consciousness works itself out of a dark chaos, sciences to life, because philos- ophy is specially and its sporadic elements are combined through occupied with questions which have direct an involuntary synthetical process. Our clearest reference to life, or which are on the boundary thinking has, therefore, its heel of Achilles, line between the life of thought and the other namely, that point where the unconscious and forms of life. Philosophical problems concern the involuntary forces are at work. This heel of nature, conditions and limits of knowl- edge, the Achilles can be discovered later on, and thought. nature and worth of evidence, and the principles which underlie our valuation of human actions can perhaps avoid being wounded again at this and institutions. It is the task of philosophy to point. When Thetis immersed her son in fire to bring together all the facts which can throw light make him invulnerable, she grasped him by the on these questions and to use them for the pur- heel; she was not clever enough to immerse him pose of gaining a definite point of view with twice and to grasp the other heel the second time. respect to the fundamental problems of life and Philos- ophy acquires this cleverness in proportion reality. Philosophy is a dis- tinctive form of mental to the degree in which she emancipates herself life which reacts on the other forms of mental life. from dogmatism. Every philos- ophical work The philosophy of the Vedanta has had great makes use of certain presuppositions, of which the influence on mental development in India; philosophers cannot be completely conscious, has acted powerfully on the which are effects of the dependence in which development of the Christian Church; and in the thought, despite all its energy, ever stands to the past century the thought of Spinoza and Kant, of other sides of life. But subsequent thought can Hume and Comte have had a great influence even draw such presuppositions to the light, and in this on those who cher- ished the belief that they consists the progress of philosophy. were beyond the reach of philosophi- cal influences. Philosophy has a function to perform, Philosophy vs Science

Pscnotes.com Page 132

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The touchstone of the value of philosophy as a Russia's Mikhail Lomonosov. Philosophy nurtured world-view and methodology is the degree to the hypothesis of the cellular structure of animal which it is interconnected with life. This and vegetable organisms and formulated the idea interconnection may be both direct and indirect, of the development and universal connection of through the whole system of culture, through phenomena and the principle of the material unity science, art, morality, religion, law, and politics. As of the world. Lenin formulated one of the a special form of social consciousness, constantly fundamental ideas of contemporary natural interacting with all its other forms, philosophy is science—the principle of the inexhaustibility of their general theoretical substantiation and matter—upon which scientists rely as a firm interpretation. Can philosophy develop by itself, methodological foundation. without the support of science? Can science "work" without philosophy? Some people think The latest theories of the unity of matter, motion, that the sciences can stand apart from philosophy, space and time, the unity of the discontinuous and that the scientist should actually avoid continuous, the principles of the conservation of philosophising, the latter often being understood matter and motion, the ideas of the infinity and as groundless and generally vague theorising. If inexhaustibility of matter were stated in a general the term philosophy is given such a poor form in philosophy. interpretation, then of course anyone would agree Besides influencing the development of the with the warning "Physics, beware of specialised fields of knowledge, philosophy itself metaphysics!" But no such warning applies to has been substantially enriched by progress in the philosophy in the higher sense of the term. The concrete sciences. Every major scientific discovery specific sciences cannot and should not break is at the same time a step forward in the their connections with true philosophy. development of the philosophical world-view and Science and philosophy have always learned from methodology. Philosophical statements are based each other. Philosophy tirelessly draws from on sets of facts studied by the sciences and also on scientific discoveries fresh strength, material for the system of propositions, principles, concepts broad generalisations, while to the sciences it and laws discovered through the generalisation of imparts the world-view and methodological im these facts. The achievements of the specialised pulses of its universal principles. Many general sciences are summed up in philosophical guiding ideas that lie at the foundation of modern statements. Euclidian geometry, the mechanics of science were first enunciated by the perceptive Galileo and Newton, which have influenced men's force of philosophical thought. One example is the minds for centuries, were great achievements of idea of the atomic structure of things voiced by human reason which played 'a significant role in Democritus. Certain conjectures about natural forming world-views and methodology. And what selection were made in ancient times by the an intellectual revolution was produced by philosopher Lucretius and later by the French Copernicus' heliocentric system, which changed thinker Diderot. Hypothetically he anticipated the whole conception of the structure of the what became a scientific fact two centuries later. universe, or by Darwin's theory of evolution, We may also recall the Cartesian reflex and the which had a profound impact on biological science philosopher's proposition on the conservation of in general and our whole conception of man's motion in the universe. On the general place in nature. Mendeleyev's brilliant system of philosophical plane Spinoza gave grounds for the chemical elements deepened our understanding universal principle of . The idea of the of the structure of matter. Einstein's theory of existence of molecules as complex particles relativity changed our notion of the relationship consisting of atoms was developed in the works of between matter, motion, space and time. the French philosopher Pierre Gassendi and also Quantum mechanics revealed hitherto unknown

Pscnotes.com Page 133

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 world of microparticles of matter. The theory of philosophical thought and tried to inspire their higher nervous activity evolved by Sechenov and pupils with its beneficent influence in order to Pavlov deepened our understanding of the make them specialists capable of comprehensively material foundations of mental activity, of and critically analysing all the principles and consciousness. Cybernetics revealed new horizons systems known to science, discovering their for an understanding of the phenomena of internal contradictions and overcoming them by information interactions, the principles of control means of new concepts. Real scientists, and by in living systems, in technological devices and in this we usually mean scientists with a powerful society, and also the principles of feedback, the theoretical grasp, have never turned their backs man-machine system, and so on. And what on philosophy. Truly scientific thought is philosophically significant pictures have been philosophical to the core, just as truly presented to us by genetics, which deepened our philosophical thought is profoundly scientific, understanding of the relationship between the rooted in the sum-total of scientific achievements biological and the social in man, a relationship that Philosophical training gives the scientist a breadth has revealed the subtle mechanisms of heredity. and penetration, a wider scope in posing and resolving problems. Sometimes these qualities are The creation and development by Marx, Engels brilliantly expressed, as in the work of Marx, and Lenin of the science of the laws of particularly in his Capital, or in Einstein's wide- development of human society, which has ranging natural scientific conceptions. changed people's view of their place in the natural and social vortex of events, holds a special place in philosophy and culture this constellation of achievements of human reason. If we trace the whole history of natural The ability to transmit information across and social science, we cannot fail to notice that generations and peers by means other than scientists in their specific researches, in genetic exchange is a key trait of the human constructing hypotheses and theories have species; even more specific to humans seems the constantly applied, sometimes unconsciously, capacity to use symbolic systems to communicate. world-views and methodological principles, In the anthropological use of the term, "culture" categories and logical systems evolved by refers to all the practices of information exchange philosophers and absorbed by scientists in the that are not genetic or epigenetic. This includes all process of their training and self-education. All behavioral and symbolic systems. scientists who think in terms of theory constantly The German philosopher has speak of this with a deep feeling of gratitude both formulated an individualist definition of in their works and at regional and international "enlightenment" similar to the concept of bildung: conferences and congresses. So the connection "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self- between philosophy and science is mutual and incurred immaturity." He argued that this characterised by their ever deepening interaction. immaturity comes not from a lack of Some people think that science has reached such a understanding, but from a lack of courage to think level of theoretical thought that it no longer needs independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, philosophy. But any scientist, particularly the Kant urged: Sapere aude, "Dare to be wise!" In theoretician, knows in his heart that his creative reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann activity is closely linked with philosophy and that Gottfried Herder argued that human creativity, without serious knowledge of philosophical which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly culture the results of that activity cannot become diverse forms, is as important as human theoretically effective. All the outstanding . Moreover, Herder proposed a theoreticians have themselves been guided by collective form of bildung: "For Herder, Bildung

Pscnotes.com Page 134

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 was the totality of experiences that provide a elites and non-elites, some critics have argued coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, that the distinction between civilized and to a people. uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and In the 19th century, humanists such as English their colonial subjects. poet and essayist Matthew Arnold used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world." This concept of culture is comparable to the German concept of bildung: Comparative Study of Indian and Western "...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection Philosophy by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been  Philosophy is the root of all knowledge. It is thought and said in the world." In practice, considered as mother of all sciences. culture referred to an élite ideal and was Philosophy has interpreted man and his associated with such activities as art, classical various activities in a comprehensive manner. music, and haute cuisine.As these forms were It helps to coordinate the various activities of associated with urban life, "culture" was identified the individuals and the society. with "civilization" (from lat. civitas, city). Another  It helps us to understand the significance of all facet of the Romantic movement was an interest human experience. in folklore, which led to identifying a "culture"  “It explores the basic source and aims of life. It among non-elites. This distinction is often asks and tries to answer the deepest questions characterized as that between high culture, to life. It clarifies life and the basic values of namely that of the ruling social group, and low life. This clarity is very essential because it culture. In other words, the idea of "culture" that provides us with the wisdom to face the developed in Europe during the 18th and early challenges of life. 19th centuries reflected inequalities within  Wisdom is the supreme instrument in the European societies. hands of man in the struggle for his successful existence. Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers A GENERAL OUTLINE OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature".  In the early phases of human life on this planet According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native when man was struck with wonder or the Americans who were being conquered by natural phenomena or when he found Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living complex ad conflicting phenomena in life and in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed was filled with discontentment at the existing through the contrast between "civilized" and order of things, it was the beginning of "uncivilized." According to this way of thinking, philosophy. one could classify some countries and nations as The Vedas more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to  The origin of Indian philosophy may be Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and easily traced in the Vedas. The Vedas are Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. the earliest available records of Indian Just as some critics have argued that the literature. distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European

Pscnotes.com Page 135

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 The Upanishads are the foundation of Classfication of the Indian Philosophical Schools: Indian philosophy, which teach spiritual monism and mysticism. Orthodox and Heterodox  The systems of Indian philosophy are  The schools or systems of Indian systematic speculations on the nature of philosophy are divided into two broad the Realty in harmony with the teachings classes, namely, orthodox (astika, Vedic) of Upanishads, which contain various and heterodox (nastika, Non-Vedic). aspects of the truth. They aim at the  To the first group belong the six chief knowledge of the Reality with a view to philosophical systems (popularly known as transforming and spiritualizing human life. sad-darsana), namely, Mimamsa, Vedanta,  Philosophical knowledge does not aim at Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika. merely satisfying our theoretical and  These are regarded as orthodox (astika), speculative interest, but also at realizing not because they believe in God, but the highest truth in life because they accept the authority of the Dars’ana or vision of truth Vedas.  The Mimamsa and the Sankhya do not  Indian philosophy is intensely spiritual and believe in God as the creator of the world, emphasizes the need of practical yet they are called orthodox (astika), realization of truth. As philosophy aims at because they believe in the knowledge of truth, it is termed in Indian authoritativeness of the Vedas. literature, ‘the vision of truth’ (dars’ana).  Under the other class of Heterodox  The word ‘dars’ana’ means ‘vision’ and also systems, the chief three are the schools of the ‘instrument of vision’. It stands for the the Materialists like the Carvakas, the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Bauddhas and the Jains. They are called Reality, the actual perception of Truth , heterodox because they do not believe in and also includes the means which lead to the authority of the Vedas. this realization.  ‘See the Self’ is the keynote of all schools Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianism of Indian Philosophy. And this is the reason The nine major systems of Indian Philosophy may why most of the schools of Indian be classified on the basis of sources of knowledge Philosophy are intimately associated with ie. epistemology into three major groups- religious sects. Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianisn.

The schools of Indian philosophy D. Empiricism: The following are the major philosophical schools  Those who hold that or systems (dars’anas). perception is the only source of knowledge are forced to deny 10. The Nyaya system of Aksapada Gautama the existence of God , soul, 11. The Vaise esika system of Maharshi kanada rebirth, hell and heaven. 12. The Samkhya system of Kapila muni  This view is called Empiricism- 13. The Yoga system of Ptanjali Sense experience is the only 14. The Mimamsa system of Jaimini source of knowledge. Charvaka 15. The Vedanta system of Badarayana Vyas holds this view. 16. TheBauddha system of Guatama Buddha E. Rationalism: 17. The Jaina system of Mahavira  Those who hold that we are 18. The Carvaka system of Carvaka entitled to believe in what is not

Pscnotes.com Page 136

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

directly perceived but which can j. The Reality of the world: All schools of Indian be inferred from what is philosophy recognize the reality of the world. perceived. Even the Advaita Vedanta of Samkara regards  This view is called the world as a mere appearance from the Rationalism.eg., from the standpoint of the absolute. But it recognizes perception of smoke we are the empirical reality of the world-appearance. entitled to infere the existence k. The reality of the self: The reality of the of fire though we do not see permanent self is generally admitted. Among fire, on the ground that the heterodox schools the Carvaka and wherever there is smoke there Buddhist deny the reality of the permanent is fire. self.  The Nyaya-Vaisheshika, The l. The law of Karma : All schools of Indian Samkhya-yoga andBuddhism philosophy except the Carvaka believe in the are rationalist schools law of Karma. As we sow, so we reap. There is  They accept perception and no escape from the consequences of actions . inference as the valid pramanas Their fruits must be reaped in this life or in and regard inference as primary future life and sense perception as m. Transmigration: The idea of transmigration is subordinate common to all systems of Indian philosophy F. Authoritarianism except the Carvaka school.  Perception and Inference based n. Initial Pessimism and Ultimate Optimism: upon perception may be Indian philosophy is branded as pessimistic. adequate to give us knowledge Life is full of sufferings. But all kinds of pain about the empirical world , but can be destroyed in the state of liberation. So, what about transcendent Indian philosophy is characterised by initial realities like souls, God, past pessimism and ultimate optimism. birth, karma hell and heaven. o. Bondage: Another common view held by all  These objects are not knowable Indian thinkers except Carvaka school, is that by these two pramanas. But ignorance of reality is the cause of our they can be known through bondage and sufferings, and liberation from supra-sensuous experience to these cannot be achieved without knowledge the mystics, prophets, saints, of reality. sees directly and to us through p. Liberation: The idea of liberation is common to scriptures which are the records all the systems of Indian philosophy except the of such experience or Carvaka school. revelations This is called q. The means to liberation: The different Authoritarianism. systems of Indian philosophy lay down the  Of course, they accept other means to the attaintment of liberation. pramanas also. The remaining r. Pramanas: Indian philosophy is not dogmatic three schools of purva and uncritical. Every system of philosophy is Mimamsa, Vedanta and Jainism based on epistemology or theory of belong to this category. knowledge.

The Common Ideas in the System of Indian A GENERAL IDEA OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY Philosophy  Wonder is said to be the origin of philosophy. In the early human life on this planet, when

Pscnotes.com Page 137

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

man was struck with wonder at the natural  Philosophy then began to depend on the phenomena or when he found complex and reports of the investigation made by the conflicting phenomena in life and was filled different sciences, tried to understand their with discontentment at the existing order of meanings and implications critically , and things, it was the beginning of philosophy. utilized these results for understanding the  While the philosophy of Vedas began in general nature of the universe- man, nature wonder, the philosophy of Gautam Buddha and God. began in discontentment with the miserable world. Divisions of Western Philosophy  In the West, the early beginning of philosophy  Historians of philosophy have divided Western was in wonder, while the modern Western Philosophy according to their convenience. We philosophy had its origin in doubt. shall divide the Western Philosophy into  These are some of the many problems taken at Greek, Medieval, Modern, PostKantian, random, which we find agitating the human Metaphysicians and the 20th Century mind in every land, from the very dawn of philosophy. civilization.  Western philosophy has removed more or less I. Greek Philosophy: Ancient Philosophy true to the etymological meaning of ‘philosophy’ in being essentially an intellectual It covers a period between 600-400 A.D. This quest for truth period has three sections.

The Development of Western Philosophy: D. Section I. Pre-Socratic Philosophy E. Section II. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.  In the history of Western philosophy we find F. Section III. Greco-Roman Philosophy that as human knowledge about each of the IV. Medieval Philosophy 400-1500 A.D different problems mentioned above began to V. Modern Philosophy (Bacon to Kant) Post- grow, it became impossible for the same man Kantian Philosophy. to study everything about every problem. VI. 20th Century Philosophy  Division of labour or specialization became necessary and a group of man devoted Methods of Philosophy themselves to a particular problem or a few  A method for any science is a necessity. connected problems. There came into Method in philosophy is a systematic and existence in this way the different special consistent way of attaining philosophical sciences. knowledge. What our method is going to be  Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Geology largely determined by our attitude to and similar sciences took up each a part or philosophy. aspect of the world of nature.  Those who look upon philosophy as a universal  Physiology, Anatomy and the other medical science may think that a method of philosophy sciences devoted themselves to the different like a method of science is empirical. problems of the human body. Psychology  Others looking upon philosophy as an began to study the problems of the human intellectual pursuit may treat a method of mind. reason as the method of philosophy.  The detailed study of many of particular problems with which philosophical speculation The different methods of philosophy are as originally started became thus the subject follows: matter of the special sciences. Dogmatism

Pscnotes.com Page 138

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 This method of thinking consists in  Hence, our idea of substances, mind, assuming certain “fundamental principles matter and God cannot be known for as self-evident and axiomatic, without certain to correspond to realities, existing explanation or proof, and deducing independently of our ideas. conclusions from these unproved  Not only can we know nothing about the premises”. real nature of such meta-physical or  It also carries on its investigations without transcendental realities, but also we a previous criticism of uses. In other words cannot even know for certain that they without criticizing the quality of knowledge have any existence. and without determining how we know  Hume, Mill, Bain, and Spencer are the things, it at once hastens to interpret the advocates of this doctrine. objects of the world.  In its extreme form, skepticism denies the  Hence in this method of thinking the mind certainty of all knowledge. is too busy with its objects to attend to itself. Criticism  Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz may be  Criticism is the method which bases all mentioned as belonging to this line of philosophical speculation upon a critical thinking. inquiry into the nature, origin and limits of Empiricism knowledge.  According to this doctrine, the true  According to Empiricism, all knowledge , philosophical method must be critical. whether scientific or philosophical, is  Before we enter into philosophy, we must entirely built up of sensations and hold a thorough inquiry into the materials derived from sensations. antecedent conditions of knowledge and  It holds that the mind of every man at the the precise filed and range of its time of birth is like a blank sheet of white operations. paper (a tabula rasa) on which the  By thus ascertaining the scope of impressions coming from the outside are knowledge, criticism helps us in imprinted in the form of experience. determining the range of philosophical  Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume,Mill and Bain investigations. Kant is a great advocate of may be mentioned as the advocates of this critical method. school of thought. Rationalism Scepticism  It is a method which consist in showing  It results from carrying empiricism to its that sensations and feelings can only give most extreme and consistent form. the materials of knowledge and that such  Because, if we once admit that we can materials do not constitute knowledge have no genuine knowledge beyond what unless they are interpreted by reason. can be compounded out of the materials of  Hence, according to this method of sensations and feelings, it follows that we thinking, knowledge is a product, not of cannot have not only any understanding experience alone, but of reason realities outside of and apart from our own interpreting experience. sensations and feelings, but also any  Thus, this form of thinking gives a certain knowledge that such things exist as prominent place to reason, and a all. subordinate one to sensations and feelings in the structure of knowledge.

Pscnotes.com Page 139

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

 The Criticism of Kant, then, is a form of distinguishes between Pahlava and Pahnava, the Rationalism. Likewise some of the Purana and Matsya Purana refer to both dogmatic systems may be regarded as as Pallava. The Brahmanda Purana and forms of Rationalism. Markendeya Purana refer to both as Pahlava or Pallava. Bhishama Parava Mahabharata 6.11.66 . Dialectical Method of the Mahabharata also does not distinguish  According to Hegel, the proper method for between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas philosophy is dialectic. This is a natural are said to be same as the Parasikas.[citation method of philosophical thinking. needed] According to P. Carnegy, the Pahlava are  It is a commonplace experience that when probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, we think over a problem we arrive at that is the Parthian language. Buhler similarly certain positive facts. This is thesis. suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of Parthava  Now, after some time we come to know meaning 'Parthian'. In the 4th century BCE, Vartika some facts which are contradictory to the of Katyayana mentions the Sakah-Parthavah thesis; this is antithesis. demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-  Thesis and antithesis cannot live together Parthians, probably by way of commerce. for long hence they are synthesized into a Administration of pallavas synthesis. This synthesis arrived through antithesis is more comprehensive than the Monarchy original thesis.  Thus, knowledge grows in a dialectical The Pallavas had followed the system of process through thesis, anti-thesis and monarchy. The king was the head of the kingdom. synthesis. Hereditary succession to the throne had been in practice. Normally, the eldest son would be the Modern Methods next ruler. The Paliava kings had considered themselves as the representatives of God. They  The Pragmatists adopt the pragmatic had assumed many titles like Maharaja, method. The New Realists adopt the Maharajathi Raja and Dharma Rajathiraja. These method of intellectual analysis. titles indicate the imperial power of the Pallava  Bergson adopts the method of intuition in kings. The Pallava kings had also claimed a divine regard to life, and of intellect in regard to origin. matter.  The Logical Positivists adopt the method of Council of Ministers linguistic analysis and empirical verification. There was an efficient Council of Ministers in the  The naturalists adopt the naturalistic Pallava kingdom. The Ministers were known as methods of observation and experiment. Amatyas. They were given titles such as Croce and Gentile adopt the historical Uthamaseelan, Brahmarajan and Peraraiyan. The method Minister carried out the orders of the king. They had also rendered their co-operation and service Pallavas to the king in all matters of administration. Besides the Council of Ministers, there were many The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient officials to look after each department of the Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas, Pallava administration. the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita. In some texts the Pahlavas are also Judiciary mentioned as "Pallavas": While the Vayu Purana

Pscnotes.com Page 140

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

There were three types of courts in the Pallava background for sculpture than the rock-cut kingdom. The highest judicial organization was temples. And the Pallava sculpture was called Dharmasena. The king acted as its head. The monumental and linear in form resembling the courts in the towns were known as Adikarnas. The Gupta sculpture. Although the basic form was village courts were called as Karnas. The village derived from the older tradition, the end result Sabhas also acted as courts in settling the civil clearly reflected its local genius. Now for disputes in the villages. Punishments were not literature it has been recently proved that Bharavi cruel and harsh. Fines were also imposed along and Dandin lived in the Pallava court. Bharavi's with punishment. Kiratarjuniyam and Dandin's Dashakumaracharita were the two masterpieces. One of Dandin's Pallavas art and architecture poems was written with such skill that when read Four distinct stages of architecture can be gleaned normally it gives the story of the Ramayana; and from the Pallava temples. The first is the whe read in reverse, the study of Mahabharata. Mahendra style. The influence of the cave style of Dandin was the author of a standard work on architecture is to be seen in an ancient pillar poetics. Till the eight century Pallava influence was engraved in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram) predominant in . Saivism was the of temple. The second is the Mamalla style. The ficial form of worship. And the Pallava type of seven Pagodas are small temples, each of which is sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, hewn out of a single rock boulder. They lie near Cambodia and Annam. This dissemination of Mahabalipura Mahabalipuram, founded by Hindu culture proves that it was dynamic till 1,000 Narasimhavarman. These monolithic temples are A.D. in southern India. Thus, the Pallavas complete with all the details of an ordinary rendered invaluable service to the country both temples and stand as an undying testimony to the within and without as they were one of the torch superb quality of the Pallava art. The third is the bearers of Hindu civilization to south-east Asia. Far Rajasimha style. The most famous temple of this more singular is their contribution to architecture- style is the kailasha style. The most famous temple transforming the architecture and suculpture from of this style is the Kailasha temple of kanchi. It has wood to stone. Smith opines that this grat a pyramidal tower, a flat-roofed mandapam and a disparimmense length of the course of Indian series of cells surround it resembling rathas. This history, and the extreme slowness with which style is a very elaborate one foreshadowing the changes have been effeated. ornate Chola architecuture. The fourth is the Aparajita style. This is more ornate resembling the Chola architecture. A few temples built in the style Pandyan contributions are found at Dalavanur. The note worthy feature of some shrines is that they are aborned by Economic contribution beautiful life-like images of Pallava kings and their External trade was carried on between South India queens. All told they are unique in the history of and Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt and Arabia as temple architecture. well as the Malay Archipelago. The author of the Pallava sculpture owed more to the Buddhist Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (75 A.D.) gives the tradition. On the whole it is more monumental most valuable information about the trade and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical between India and the Roman Empire. He ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The free mentions the port of Naura (Cannanore) Tyndis standing temples at Aithole and Badami in the (Tondi), Muzuris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Deccan and the Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram Nelcynda as the leading ones on the west coast. in the Tamil country, provided a better

Pscnotes.com Page 141

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Other ports of South India were Balita (Varkalai), performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of Comari, Colchi, Puhar (Khaberis of Ptolemy), the Christian era. Saliyur, Poduca (Arikamedu) and Sopatma (Markanam). A landmark in the development of communications was the discovery of the monsoon winds by the Greek sailor Hippalus in around A.D. 46-47. Pandyan architecture

Connected with the phenomenon of trade was the The Pandyas contributed more for the growth of money economy in the early centu•ries. development of architecture. Gopuras, Prakaras, The imported coins were mostly used as bullions. Vimanas, Garbagrahas are the special features of The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck the Pandya temple architecture. Temples at by all the Roman emperors beginning from the Madurai, , Kumbakonam, reign of (and that of Tiberius) down to Thiruvannamalai, are good examples Nero (54-58 A. D.) found in the interior of Tamil for the development of Pandya architecture. The land, testify to the extent of the trade and the images of horses and other animals are carved on presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country. pillars.The zenith of Pandya architecture are Meenakshi temple at Madurai and Aranganathar Political contribution temple at Srirangam.

The Pandya territory occupied the southern-most The Pandya period is marked as renaissance and the south-eastern portion of the Indian period in the field of rock cut temple. The rock cut peninsula, and it roughly included the modern temples are known for their merit. More than 50 districts of Tinnevelly, Ramnad and Madurai in rock cut temples were excavated from the Pandya Tamilnadu. It had its capital at Madurai. The kingdom. More rock cut temples are found in Pandyas are rightly famous for patronising the Thirupparankundram, Anaimalai, Karaikudi, poets and scholars of the Tamil Sangams. Kalugumalai, Malaiyadikurichi and Trichy. These The earliest known Pandyan ruler was temples were constructed for Lord Siva and Mudukudumi who is mentioned in the Sangam Vishnu. Cave temples are also found in temples at text as a great conqueror. The most reputed Kalugumalai and Trichy. Rock cut caves were also Pandyan ruler was Nedunjhelian, who ruled from there. Madurai and was a great poet. Structural temples were built on stones. They According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjhelian, in a fit were simple in style. Each temple consists of of passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the Garbagraha, arthamandapa and mahamandapa. execution of Kovalan who was accused of theft of Such structural stone temples are found in the queen’s anklet. When Kovalan’s wife proved Kovilpatty, Thiruppathur and Madurai. The Pandya her husband’s innocence, the king was struck with kings constructed structural temples at remorse and died of shock on the throne. Ambasamuthram, Thiruppathur. Mannarkudi, Madurai, Alagarkoil. Srivilliputhur and in The Pandyan kings profited from trade with the Chinnmanur, Internal structures of these temples Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman were constructed in a planned manner. emperor Augustus. The Pandyan port Korkai was a great centres of trade and commerce, another Pandyn sculptures are beautiful and ornamental. port was Saliyur. The brahmanas enjoyed Some sculptures are engraved on single stone. considerable influence, and the Pandya kings They have got more messages and values. Pandya period witnessed renaissance in the art of sculpture. Sculptures of Somaskandar, Durgai,

Pscnotes.com Page 142

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Ganapathy, Narasimha, Nataraja are very good poem relates, and the occasion that called forth specimens. Sculptures at Kalugumalai, the eulogy. Thirupparankundram, Thiurmalaipuram and Narthamalai are very famous. Vishnu sculpture at It is from these colophons and rarely from the Kunnakudi and Nataraja sculpture at texts of the poems themselves, that we gather the Thiurkolakkudi are on par excellence with the names of many kings and chieftains and the poets sculptures of pallava, chola period. Paintings: The and poetesses patronized by them. The task of beauty of the Pandya mural painting can be seen reducing these names to an ordered scheme in in the Chittannavasal cave temples constructed which the different generations of contemporaries during the time of Srimaran and Srivallaba can be marked off has not been easy. To add to Pandyan. The ceilings and pillars at Chittannavasal the confusion, some historians have even bear the paintings of dancing girls, the kings, the denounced these colophons as later additions and queens, plants and animals. The picture of lotus, untrustworthy as historical documents. bathing elephants and playing fishes were good at Chittannavasal. Oil painting was also there. They are outstanding examples of pandiya paintings.

Sangam literature

Pandyas are mentioned in Sangam literature (c. Harsha or Harshvardhana (590-647) ruled 100 – 200 C.E.) as well as by Greek and Roman Northern India for over forty years. He was the sources during this period. Various Pandyan kings son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of are mentioned in a number of poems in the Rajyavardhan, king of Thaneshwar. At the height Sangam literature. Among them, Nedunjeliyan of his power his kingdom spanned the Punjab, ("the victor of Talaiyalanganam"), Nedunjeliyan Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo Gangetic plain. ("the conqueror of the Aryan army"), and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi ("of several sacrifices") As a consequence to the coronation of deserve special mention. Besides several short Harshavardhana, dynasty of Thaneshwar and poems found in the Akananuru and the Kannauj amalgamated. Kannauj became a Purananuru collections, there are two major prominent city of North India and for centuries its works, Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in glory perpetuated, only comparable to Patliputra. the collection of Pattupattu), that give a glimpse It was the desire of every state to rule kannauj. into the society and commercial activities in the The Chinese traveler, Yhan-Chawang visited the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. country at the time of Harsha and praised his reign. It is difficult to estimate the exact date of these Sangam-age Pandyas. The period covered by the After Harsha, there was again political instability in extant literature of the Sangam is unfortunately North India. It was difficult to put on record and not easy to determine with any measure of congruous and consistent history of that period on certainty. With the exception of the longer epics the basis material available. Only few events, here Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai, which by and there can be reckoned. In the first quarter of th common consent belong to the age later than the the 8 century, Yashoverman established his Sangam age, the poems have reached us in the supremacy over Kannauj. Almost entire India came forms of systematic anthologies. Each individual under his rule and Kannauj regained its lost fame poem generally has attached to it a colophon on and glory. With the co- operation of Lalitaditya the authorship and subject matter of the poem, Muktapeed he defended India from Arab’s attack. the name of the king or chieftain to whom the During that time there was a fear among the neighbouring states due to the Arab’s strength by

Pscnotes.com Page 143

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 which they ruled from China, Turkistan to the Chalukyas and thereby competed conquest of Carboda city of Spain. the Chalukya territories. He also occupied . It is not known for certain the name of the country Later on, Lalitaditya dethroned and assassinated over which Rahappa used to rule. Vishnuvardhana him in 740 AD. There was a long drawn rivalry of Vengi and the Ganga king of Mysore were among Pals of Bengal, Rashtrakutas of South and defeated at the hands of the Rashtrakuta King Gurjar Pratihars of Gujarat to gain the control of Krishna I. The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built Kannauj. However the ultimate success was by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I. He was a great achieved by the Gurjar Pratihars. Their empire was patron of art and architecture. vast and famed one, comparable to any king of the Gupta dynasty or emperor Harshavardhan. Gurjar Govinda II Pratihars dominated the entire 9th and 10th centuries in India. They were defeated by Krishnaraja’s eventful career came to an end Mohammad Ghaznavi in the year 1018-18. within a very short time and he was succeeded by his son Govindaraj who ruled for some time as The Madhyadesh was again in the grip of anarchy Govinda II. His worthlessness as a ruler and his with the downfall of Pratihars, but with the lack of interest in administration led to his emergence of Gaharwar dynasty peace and order deposition by his brother Dhruva who ascended was restored and a new era of prosperity began. the throne himself. There were two Gaharwar kings- Govind Chandra and Jaichand. It was the betrayal of Jaichand that Dhruva Prithviraj was defeated at the hands of Dhruva was by far the best ruler of the Muhammad Ghori at the Tarain in the year 1192. . He ruled for a short span of Jaichand himself was later on defeated and killed time but within this short time he entered into at Chandwar (Etawah). There was further unrest struggle with the Gurjara-Pratihara King Vatsyaraja and invasions continued till the Chandels came to and defeated him signally. He also like wise rule. They ruled more than two centuries and defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pala King brought peace and order. Dharmapala of Bengal.

Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants Govinda III of one named Satyaki. But there is difference of opinion about their origin among the historians. Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda III his son and According to some they were originally of with almost equal vigor as of his father. He Dravidian peasant extraction. From some of the succeeded in keeping the Gurjara power inscriptions of the Chalukya kings it is known that sufficiently under control. He defeated the great the Rashtrakutas were feudatories of the Gurjara King Nagabhatta II. It is said that the Pala Chalukyas. Perhaps their original home was King Dharmapala and his protégé Charayudh Karnataka and their mother tongue was Kanarese. sought the help of Govinda III. Govinda III made the Rashtrakutas dynasty one of the most Important rulers of rashtrakuta dynasty powerful dynasties of contemporary India. His Krishna I kingdom spread up to the Vindhyas and Malava in the north and the river Tungabhadra to the south. Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. He conquered the territories that were still under Amoghavarsha I

Pscnotes.com Page 144

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was of Kalyani. With Kaka’s defeat the Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I. As a warrior he was, however, no power came to an end. match with his father Govinda III, but he succeeded in defeating the East-Chalukya kings. Architecture of rashtrakutas Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State) architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian and during his reign Broach became the best port Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into of his kingdom. Amoghavarsha I was a great three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and patron of education and literature. From the Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga. The evidence of the Jaina works it is known that Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples Jinasena, a Jaina monk. at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Amoghavarsha spent the accumulated wealth of Jain monks, located in present-day Maharashtra. his predecessors to beautify his kingdom. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the 6th century whose structural details show of the world, the other three being the Caliph of Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the Hindus are from later periods. emperor of China. The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves Krishna II and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are Amoghavarsha ruled for 63 years and he was five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his succeeded by his son Krishna II who in his turn was period.The most extensive and sumptuous of the succeeded by Indra III. Rashtrakuta works at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid Indra III achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as Indra III was a powerful king. He defeated and "one among the four principal Kings of the world". deposed Mahipala. The Rashtrakuta Kings The walls of the temple have marvellous Amoghavarsha II, Govinda IV and Amoghavarsha sculptures from including III were weak kings. Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.

Krishna III

The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakutas was Krishna III. He had a prolonged Religious sects: Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, struggle with Mahipala, the Gurjara king. He also Madhwacharya – Sri Basaveshvara, Veerashaivism succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi. In and Vachana movement the middle of the tenth century for a time he The revival and expansion of Hinduism after the succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of Chola Gupta period took many forms. The chief gods kingdom. But towards the end of the same were the Shiva and Vishnu and many magnificent century the Rashtrakuta King Kaka was defeated temples were built to proclaim their supremacy. and deposed by Taila or Tailapa, the Chalukya king The rise of the worship of Shiva and Vishnu

Pscnotes.com Page 145

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 marked the growth of a process of cultural Vana, Aranya, Giri, Parvat, Sagai; , synthesis. Thus, in an era of disintegration, religion Bharati and Puri. played a positive part. The revival and growth of Hinduism led to increase the power and arrogance of Brahmanas. This resulted in a series of popular The path of knowledge showed by Shankaracharya movements against brahmanical monopoly of the could be followed by only a few. He did not religion. These movements emphasized on the opposed path of Bhakti by which the devotee human equality and freedom. These movements merged with the god but for this the heart had to led by many popular saints across India and they be cleaned through “” or knowledge. Thus, it emphasized on love. The saints went from place to could not influence the masses. place carrying their message of love and devotion. A many belonged to lower castes also and this Ramanujacharya marked the entry of the lower classes into the th popular Bhakti movements. These saints In the 11 century, Ramanuja preached disregarded the inequilities of caste, rejected fasts Vaishnavism. According to him, devotion to God and other social evils prevailed during the period. became the essential than knowledge in order to salvation. He laid great emphasis on total reliance The revival and expansion of the Hinduism took or “prapatti” , or surrender to God. He was born in two forms. First was a renewed emphasis on the Tamil Nadu in south India. According to Ramanuja, Vedas and Vedic worship and second, it was Bhakti was the real way to get salvation. God is accompanied by a powerful literary and the supreme being who created everything, of all intellectual movement. existence, and of all destruction. It is not possible for men to know the attributes of the Supreme Sankaracharya Being. It is also impossible to know about the At the intellectual level, the most serious mystery of creation. The real duty of man challenge was posed by the great Sankaracharya therefore was to offer himself to God. who reformulated the . He was th Ramanuja apreached men about the necessity of a born in Kerala in the 9 century. Sankara’s Guru. The Guru could initiate the devotee to the philosophy is called ‘advaitvada’ or the doctrine path of devotion to God. Ramanuja looked at all on non-dualism. According to him, the God and human beings equally. He showed the path of created world are same; the differences were Bhakti to all including the lower masses. According apparent but not real, and arose due to ignorance to him, all men had the equal right to worship God and ‘’ being a part of it. He said that the way and to work for salvation. He tried to open to salvation was devotion to God, strengthed by temples for the so-called untouchables and the knowledge that the God and created world are depressed. Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to same. This philosophy is called ‘Vedanta’. He the tradition of Vedas and to built a bridge upheld that the Vedas are the fountainhead of the between the popular movement based on bhakti true knowledge. Shankara travelled across whole and the upper caste movement based on Vedas. of India and other parts of South Asia to propagate He travelled and preached all over India to his philosophy through discourses and debates eradicate social evils and offered the path of with other thinkers. He established 4 great Mathas devotion to God. or monasteries at Badrinath, , , Puri and Kanchi. The heads of the Mathas are named Madhavacharya after him while the sanyasins who are his followers are called Dashnamis as they are known Dvaita philosophy was put forward by by the ten appellations namely, Teerth, Ashram, Madhavacharya, a bhakti saint. He was a Vaishnavite whose soul aim was to disprove

Pscnotes.com Page 146

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 the theory of Maya or unreality of the world and He popularize 'Yathar-Vada'. According to him establish the doctrine of Bhakti or love and faith there are seven senses which help us to know, on a secure basis. Manas and Saksin are the remaining two instruments and through which things are known. In contrast to Shankara's Non-dualism and The concept of Saksin as the seventh principle is a Ramanuja's qualified Non-dualism, unique feature of Dvaita philosophy. Madhavacharya put forward five eternal distinctions or individualities viz. Sri Basaveshvara

(i) Distinction between god and an individual spirit In 12th century South India witnessed the rise of new religion which was named as Lingayat (ii) God and the inanimate world movement.

(iii) The individual spirit and the inanimate world is the faith professed and followed by (iv) One individual spirit and another the Karnatak . Basaveshwara is considered as the founder of this faith. He (v) One inanimate object and another. composed Vachan Shastras which are believed to be the scriptures that embody the principles of The followers of Madhava sect follow the method the Lingayatism. Basaveshwara lived at the court of and divide all existing things into of Kalachuris and he established his faith after categories of substance, qualities etc. bitter disputes with jainas. It is believed that God or the Supreme being possesses an infinite Basava was born to a brahmin, rebelled against the rigid practices of the caste-system that number of qualities and his functions are eight viz. prevalent in the society during the time. He (i) creation (ii) protection (iii) dissolution (iv) eventually began propounding his philosophy with controlling all things (v) giving knowledge (vi) a caste-less society at its core. Soon, his manifestation of himself (vii) tying beings down to philosophy began attracting large numbers of the world (viii) redemption. people from various classes including lower class Lakshmi is independent of God as she is eternal also. Saints like , and blessed like the supreme soul and is his and Channabasavanna also played pivotal roles in consort. All knowledge emanates from the spreading of the message and the true Paramatma, whatever the means by which it is meaning of Lingayatism. achieved. The Lingayats are worshippors of the God Shiva. Direct perception is plaussible for everyone and They strongly opposed caste system and rejected can be aquired by different means like , fastes, feasts, pilgrimages, rituals and sacrifices. equanimity, self-control, acquaintance with the They opposed chil marriage and strongly support lore, attendance on Gupj or perceptor and widow remarriage. acquisition of knowledge from him, reflection on what has been taught, devotion and love of God. The philosophy of Basaveshwara may be classified into three propositions, viz., God is real, the world Dvaita, doctrine is simply theistic and recognized is a challenge and an inspiration, and the goal of the Supreme God with Narayan or he is generally life is to attune itself to living in communion with classified as Vishnu. The great saint earned the the Divine Being and making life harmonious with title of Poorna . His philosophy is realistic in society. His philosophy successfully make balance absolute sense. between the outer and inner in a man, the Bahiranga and the Antharanga. He was great

Pscnotes.com Page 147

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 reformer and at the same time, the Bhakti The only silver lining in that murky atmosphere bhandari, the very treasure of devotion. was the excellent literary work, Gathasaptasati, of Hala, the 17th Satavahana king.

Administration of satavahanas

The Satavahanas followed the administration guidelines of the Shastras. Their government was Satvahanas less top-heavy than that of the Mauryans, and featured several levels of feudatories: Rajan, the After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history hereditary rulers , petty princes who struck of the Andhras, as a continuous account of coins in their own names Maharathis, hereditary political and cultural events, commences with the lords who could grant villages in their own names rise of the Satavahanas as a political power. and maintained matrimonial relations with the According to Matsya Purana there were 29 rulers ruling family Mahabhojas Mahasenapati (civil of this dynasty. They ruled over the Andhradesa administrator under Pulumavi II; governor of a including Deccan for about 400 years from the 2nd under Pulumavi IV) Mahatalavara ("great century B.C. to beyond the 2nd century A.D. watchman") The royal princes (kumaras) were Satavahanas were also called Salivahanas and appointed as viceroys of the provinces. The ahara Satakarnis. In the 3rd century B.C., Simukha, the appears to have been the largest geographical founder of the , unified the subdivision of the Satavahana polity. Several various Andhra principalities into one kingdom inscriptions refer to aharas named after the and became its ruler (271 B.C. – 248 B.C.). appointed to rule them (e.g. Dharanikota near Amaravati in district was Govardhanahara, Mamalahara, Satavanihara and the first capital of Simukha, but later he shifted his Kapurahara). This suggests that the Satavahanas capital to Pratishtana ( in attempted to build a formal administrative and district). revenue collection structure. The inscriptions of Gautamiputra suggest the existence of a Satakarni II, the sixth ruler of the dynasty (184 bureaucratic structure, although it is not certain B.C.) was an able ruler who extended his kingdom how stable and effective this structure was. For to the west by conquering Malwa. According to example, two inscriptions from Cave 11 inscriptional evidence, he extended the record donations of agricultural land to ascetic boundaries of his realm far into central India communities. They state that the ascetics would across the Vindhyas, perhaps up to the river enjoy tax exemption and non-interference from Ganges. He ruled for a long period of 56 years. The the royal officials. The first inscription states that long reign of Satakarni II was followed successively the grant was approved by Gautamiputra's by eight rulers of whom none can be credited with minister Sivagupta on the king's verbal orders, and any notable achievement. It was the accession of preserved by the "great lords". The second Pulumavi I that brought renewed strength and inscription records a grant by Gautamiputra and glory to their kingdom. He struck down the last of his mother, and mentions Syamaka as the minister the Kanva rulers, Susarman, in 28 B.C. and of the Govardhana ahara. It states that the charter occupied Magadha. The Satavahanas thus was approved by a woman named Lota, who assumed an all-India significance as imperial rulers according to archaeologist James Burgess' in succession to the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas and interpretation, was the chief lady-in-waiting of Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear to Gautamiputra's mother. The Satavahana-era have been driven, by the Sakas, out of inscriptions mention three types of settlements: Maharashtra back to their home land in Andhra.

Pscnotes.com Page 148

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018 nagara (city), nigama (market town) and gama king Kanha. At , an inscription issued by (village). Nayanika, the widow of Satakarni I, has been found. It records Nayanika's lineage and mentions Economy during satavahanas the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family. The Satavahanas participated in (and benefited Another inscription at Naneghat comprises names from) economic expansion through intensification of Satavahana royals, appearing as labels over of agriculture, increased production of other their bas-relief portraits. The portraits are now commodities, and trade within and beyond the completely eroded, but the inscription is believed Indian subcontinent. During the Satavahana to be contemporary to Nayanika's inscription on a period, several large settlements emerged in the paleographic basis.The next oldest Satavahana-era fertile areas, especially along the major rivers. The inscription appears on a sculpted gateway amount of land under agricultural use also element of Stupa 1 at Sanchi. It states that the expanded significantly, as a result of forest element was donated by Ananda, who was the clearance and construction of irrigation reservoirs. son of Siri Satakarni's foreman of artisans. This The exploitation of sites with mineral resources inscription is probably from the reign of Satakarni may have increased during the Satavahana period, II. leading to the emergence of new settlements in these areas. Such sites facilitated commerce and crafts (such as ceramic ware). The increased craft Shungas production during the Satavahana period is evident from archaeological discoveries at sites The Sunga Empire (or Shunga Empire) is a such as Kotalingala, as well as epigraphic Magadha dynasty that controlled North-central references to artisans and guilds. The Satavahanas and Eastern India as well as parts of the northwest controlled the Indian sea coast, and as a result, (now Pakistan) from around 185 to 73 B.C.E. It was they dominated the growing Indian trade with the established after the fall of the Indian Mauryan Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea empire. The capital of the Sungas was Pataliputra. mentions two important Satavahana trade Later kings such as Bhagabhadra also held court at centres: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other important Vidisa, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. The urban centres included Kondapur, Banavasi and Sunga Empire is noted for its numerous wars with Madhavpur. Nanaghat was the site of an both foreign and indigenous powers although important pass that linked the Satavahana capital several kings patronized Buddhism. The Mathura Pratishthana to the sea. school of art and the works of Patanjali colored North India during this empire. It was replaced by Important Inscriptions during saatvahanas the Kanva dynasty.

Several inscriptions are available Foundation of dynasty from the Satavahana period, but most of these record donations to Buddhist institutions by The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 B.C.E., individuals, and do not provide much information about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the about the dynasty. The inscriptions issued by the king Brhadrata, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was Satavahana royals themselves also primarily assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of concern religious donations, although some of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga them provide some information about the rulers ("Pusyamitra is said in the Puranas to have been and the imperial structure. The earliest extant the senānī or army-commander of the last Maurya Satavahana inscription is from Nashik Cave 19, king Brhadratha") while he was taking the Guard which states that the cave was commissioned by of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then Mahamatra Saman of Nashik during the reign of ascended the throne.

Pscnotes.com Page 149

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the victories on their coins ("Victory of the Magadha and neighboring territories. The Arjunayanas," "Victory of the "), and kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended up to during the first century B.C.E., the Trigartas, Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas also started and in the Punjab in the north-western to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles regions, and the city of Ujjain in central India. The between the Greeks and the Sunga in Kabul Valley and much of the Punjab passed into Northwestern India are also found in the the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to Mālavikāgnimitram, a play by Kālidāsa which the Satavahanas. Pushyamitra died after ruling for describes a battle between Greek cavalrymen and 36 years (187-151 B.C.E.). He was succeeded by Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous Indus river, in which the Indians defeated the drama by one of India's greatest playwrights, Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed Kalidasa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the Yagna. the story takes place. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Nevertheless, very little can be said with great Sunga kings. The Sungas were succeeded by the certainty. However, what does appear clear is that Kanva dynasty around 73 B.C.E. the two realms appeared to have established normalized diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers. The Indo-Greeks and the Sungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 B.C.E., Wars and conflicts during sungas as indicated by the , which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador War and conflict characterized the Sunga period. named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo- They are known to have warred with the Kalingas, Greek king Antialcidas, to the court of the Sunga Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the king Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in central Panchalas and . The Sunga Empire's India. wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 B.C.E. the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius, Cultural achievements during sungas conquered the Kabul Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Indo While there is much debate on the religious Greek Menander is credited with either joining or policies of the Sunga dynasty, it is recognized for a leading a campaign to Pataliputra with other number of contributions. Art, education, Indian Kings; however, very little is know about philosophy, and other learning flowered during the exact nature and success of the campaign. The this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras net result of these wars remains uncertain. and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Ashvamedha Yagnas and Sunga imperial Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar. romanticized the love of Malavika and King Scriptures such as the Divyavadhana note that his Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue. rule extended even farther to Sialkot, in the Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with Punjab. Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was the rise of the Mathura school, which is regained by the Sungas around 100 B.C.E. (or by considered the indigenous counterpart to the other indigenous rulers: The Arjunayanas (area of more Hellenistic Gandhara school of Afghanistan Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military and Pakistan.

Pscnotes.com Page 150

Ancient History and Culture Booster 2018

During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 B.C.E.), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions undertaken at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under King Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.

The last of the Sunga kings was Devabhuti (83-73 B.C.E.). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been over fond of the company of women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.

Pscnotes.com Page 151