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Research Article Medical practice in Graeco-Roman antiquity

L Cilliers Dept, of English and Classical Languages, of the Free State

FP Retief Honorary Research Fellow, University of the Free State

Keywords: Hippocratic medical practice Abstract: Curationis 29(2): 34-40 Alexandrian / Hellenistic medical practice The roots of modem can be traced back to the 5th BC when Hippocratic Roman medical care Military medicine rational medicine originated on the Greek islands of Cos and Cnidos. In this study we Medicine in Roman North Hospi­ examine the way in which practitioners conducted their profession in Graeco-Roman tals in antiquity times, as well as their training. Medical training was by way of apprenticeship with recognized doctors, but no qualifying examinations existed and the standard of practice thus varied enormously. Even in the Roman era the vast majority of medical doctors were Greek and in private practice as itinerant . Civic doctors in the paid service of local communities appeared in Greek society from the BC onwards, but much later in - probably as late as the AD. Rome’s unique contributions to medicine lay in measures (e.g. their aqueducts, public baths and sewages systems) and an excellent medical service for their armies and navy. Hospitals (valetudinaria) were established for military purposes and for slaves on large Roman estates from the BC, but civic hospitals for the general public originated as late as the 4th century AD. The Greek medical schools of Cos and Cnidos were eventually superseded by the school of in Egypt and towards the end of the by that of in northern Africa. Its gradual demise in the Christian era lowered the curtain on original medical endeavours during antiquity.

Pre-classical and his son, the , (before the 5th Century BC) , are involved in the , as are Asclepius’s sons (Machaon and The roots of modern medicine can be Podaleirios) who are also doctors. Celsus traced back to the 5th century BC when, (Proem, c.3) later observed that tliey were together with the blossoming of , involved in treating battle wounds, but , arts and during the not in curing pestilential disease. The Golden Age of , the Greek does indeed mention 147 war communities at Cos and Cnidos laid the wounds (106 spear thrusts, 17 sword foundation of rational medicine. The slashes, 1 2 arrow wounds and 1 2 sling tells us much about shot wounds) (Porter 1997:51). Correspondence address: the logic and of the new medicine Prof L Cilliers but little about the way in which Faculty of the Humanities practioners conducted their profession. Porter (1997:51) suggests that the Dept of English and Classical Languages In this article we examine the basics of Olympic Games (founded 776 BC) University of the Free State medical practice in antiquity, and the introduced a cult of pride in physique PO Box 339 teaching of influential doctors who led and physical fitness which had an effect Bloemfontein the way during Greek and Hellenistic on healthy living. There are conflicting 9300 times but also the subsequent Roman views on the impact that ancient Egyptian era. medical heritage had on Greek medicine Tel: (051)401-2303 Greek medical history goes back to (Marganne 1993:35-43), which was Fax:(051)444-5803 Homeric times. In the Iliad (1.1 -43ff; 450- practiced by a very heterogeneous E-mail: [email protected] 480; XI.518 and 833) the healing god community of “healers” (demiourgoi). 34 Curationis May 2006 The concept that disease was caused and written by various authors from different rather than iatroi (Krug 1993:194-5; controlled by the gods was generally parts of the Greek world, mostly Godderis 1997:251-3).. accepted; religion and mantic influences completed by the BC, but thus played an overriding role. At this some added as late as the Christian era. The bed-side approach recommended in stage medicine was mainly in the hands Knowledge of was rudimentary, the Hippocratic Corpus shows of priests and healers, druggists based largely on the anatomy of animals, remarkable similarity to that of the modem and root cutters (rhizotomoi) (Godderis and was explained on the doctor. In addition to extensive advice 1997:235-237). However, towards the 6 Ih basis of four humours (white bile, black on appropriate dress, demeanour, even century BC a group of philosopher- bile, , ) which for good desirable physical features, the doctor is physicians came to the fore who health, had to be in equilibrium with each told that his assessment of the patient significantly influenced the course of other, but also with the four elements should be based on the proper use of his health care development. Among them (earth, air, fire, water) and four “qualities” senses: observation, listening, smell and was Thales of and his pupil (heat, cold, dryness, dampness). Disease palpation. He must inform himself of all , followed by the remarkable was explained as imbalances of this possibly relevant information, inter alia (570-489 BC) from Croton in system, and although quite unscientific through discussions with relatives or Southern . Besides his enormous as measured by modem knowledge, it friends. Examination of the patient would contributions in mathematics and was nevertheless “rational” insofar as include observation of the patient’s physics, he (possibly in association with superstition and religion played a very position in bed and general attitude, the his pupil, Alcmaeon) formulated the small role in their argumentation (Retief breathing, condition of the abdomen, of four body humours as the basis & Cilliers 2000:10-14). The admirable code pulse (in Hippocratic times not yet an of human physiology - a theory, which of ethical conduct contained in the extensive science), chest (including although quite wrong, remained Corpus was never enforced on the auscultation with the ear against the for more than two millennia (Major profession, and we do indeed have ample thoracic wall: pleural rubs and 1954:110-116). It is evident that as early evidence also of bad medicine practised succussion splashes were recognized), as the 6 th century BC there were centres by Greek physicians of the day urine and other excreta. The overall of medical education at Croton, Cyrene (, Law c.l; Van der Eijk assessment did not lead to a diagnosis, (Northern Africa) and Cnidos (Nunn 1999:70-71). Public comment affirmed but to the formulation of a and 19%: 12). this, as well as satire in the theatre appropriate treatment (to address the (Godderis 1997:249-250) and stinging patient’s assumed humoural imbalance). The assertion made by the Greek criticism from philosophers like , There were three levels of therapy, of historian, (12.13.4), that who condemned ignorant folk healers which the first was dietetics, comprising as early as the BC the state (Republic 364 b-c) as well as incompetent not only dietary measures, but also had already appointed salaried civic doctors (Charmides 156e). In the 4,h procedures affecting life style like doctors, is not generally accepted century BC the physician Diodes of exercise and fitness programmes. When (Nutton 1988:11), but ’s claim Carystus, a pupil of , contributed additional treatment was indicated, (3.13Iff.) that Democedes (one time much to the Hippocratic tradition, but of medicaments were prescribed. The third reluctant court physician to the Persian his writings only a few fragments therapeutic level comprised and King Darius) became a salaried doctor in survived (Van der Eijk 1997:70). Aristotle cautery, which was only used as a last Aegina in 530 BC (later also in Athens and his contributed resort. However, the Hippocratic Corpus and ) seems more credible (Nutton extensively to medical knowledge (inter does contain extensive advice on aspects 1988:12). This was then possibly the first alia anatomy and ) (Major of surgery and orthopaedics in particular, recorded example of physicians 1954:1390140). and one gets the impression that the employed by the state to render a pre­ average physician was expected to handle determined service to the populace. The Hippocratic doctor treated patients all therapeutic modalities (Edelstein from all sections of the community, 1987:87-8,91-102; Schlesinger 1999:95- (5th and although Godderis (1997:252-3) suggests 99). Diocles’s prescriptions on dietetics that the rich probably received more and maintenance of normal health are so 4th BC) attention than the poor. Training was detailed and intricate that only the During the 5th century BC and as part of acquired through apprenticeship to a advantaged rich could afford such a life the Golden age of Athens, a system of physician - for the fortunate ones this style. Plato (Republic 403e ff.) was quite rational medicine (technê iatrikê) in which happened at the schools of Cos and critical about such regimes. The ethical religion and supernatural factors played Cnidos. No professional registration was code which accompanied Hippocratic a minimal role was developed, mainly by needed and training standards must have medicine was an important conditioning the Greek medical fraternity on the island been extremely variable and inconsistent. factor in health care, containing classical of Cos under the inspiration of Most physicians were men (iatroi) but admonishments such as: “Practice two Hippocrates. In this evolutionary there were also woman doctors (iatrinai), things in your dealing with disease : try process, earlier physicians like midwives (maiai) and even iatro-maiai. to help but do not harm the patient” and made Nurses in the modern sense were (Epidemics 1:11). It is unsure what the significant contributions (Major unknown, but we read of assistants precise role of the was 1954:113-138). The gist of the new (huperetoi ton iatrón), usually slaves in - it was almost certainly not taken by all medicine was eventually formulated in training. Slaves could (and did) at a later qualifying doctors, and did not the so-called Hippocratic Corpus stage also qualify as doctors; when ill, necessarily represent the common consisting of approximately 70 books they were normally treated by huperetoi convictions of the times (Longrigg 35 Curationis May 2006 1998:105-6). was keen competition for these posts and anatomy. He also extended Hippocratic we have evidence that doctors from Cos- clinical medicine and wrote several major Hippocratic writings give little origin were in demand (Nutton 1988:11- works specifically on anatomy (Von information about the nature of the 14). Nutton also points out that precise, Staden 1994:1-88). built on professional organization or social details detailed information about their duties is Herophilus’s anatomy and established a of doctor-patient contact. But from other strangely lacking. They were expected to rational knowledge of physiology (the contemporary writings, and Plato’s works render services free of charge to a functioning of organs). In clinical in particular, much can be learnt component of the citizenry, but they medicine he was less impressive, but (Godderis 1997:233-273). In view of the could also charge fees. There is some distinguished between therapeutics heterogeneity of Greek physicians of this evidence that during financial stringency, (ia trikê) and hygiene (hygieina), era it is very difficult to generalize about e.g. after defeat in the stressing the latter as more important in their status, public acceptability, even (late 5th century BC), their stipends were curing disease (Longrigg 1993:205-218). modes of practice. However, Edelstein withdrawn - but the posts remained in As from the BC the (1987:87-90) suggests that the average high demand and good civic doctors gradually split into Hippocratic doctor would probably have clearly enjoyed public respect and factions consisting of the followers of had an itinerant practice in search of a popularity. Herophilus, Erasistratus and the Empiric professional niche somewhere in the school, and gradually lost its impact community. He would have been a The educated populace took great (Longrigg 1993:218-219). Although it had craftsman rather than a professional as interest in matters medical, and there was no formal system of teaching and offered we know it, with limited status. His no hard and fast differentiation between no professional qualifications, the school reputation would have been determined lay and - lay writers upheld the best in Hippocratic medicine solely by his clinical successes, and he regularly wrote on medical issues. and produced discoveries which would have had to sell himself in Matters of medical importance often illuminated medical science for ten competition with other doctors or healers. featured in theatre plays and in centuries (Major 1954:143). Its gradual On arriving in a new city or town he discussions between physicians and demise in the Christian era lowered the would probably have hired knowledgeable non-medical individuals. curtain on progressive medical teaching accommodation in or near the market It has indeed been suggested that the and discovery during antiquity. place, which would then serve as boundary between the self­ consulting rooms and living quarters. It acknowledged doctor and the educated In this period of would be quite in order for him to visit layman was often narrow (Nutton (370-288 BC), student of Aristotle and his the consulting rooms of other doctors, 1988a:30-38). successor as head of the Lyceum (the to watch them examining their patients famous school established by Aristotle and to join in discussion of the case - Hellenistic era (3rd Century in Athens), wrote one of history’s first differing loudly with his colleague if he authoritative works on the value of plants thought this might impress the patient or BC and later) and plant material in medicine (Major other people present. Being invited to The Hellenistic era following on 1943:140). visit a patient’s home would be a bonus, ’s conquests and length of stay at a particular location gradually merged into the Roman period. The Dogmatic medical school, founded would depend almost entirely on his In 331 Alexandria was founded in the Nile in the 4th century BC by sons of patient load and acceptability to the delta and rapidly developed into a Hippocrates, introduced speculation into community. flourishing centre of cultural excellence medical practice - “where observation under the influence of Greek kings (the failed, reason might surprise”. This Salaried civic doctors in service of a local ). underlay Alexandrian thinking, leading to community existed from early times. the anatomical and physiological Mention has already been made of the Cos and Cnidos were now replaced by discoveries mentioned above. The appointment of Democedes at Aegina in the Alexandrian school as the Empiric school (3rd century BC) was 530 BC. However, the next clear record of Mediterranean world’s centre of medical founded by a pupil (and eventual the appointments of civic doctors excellence. Alexandria with its opponent) of Herophilus in protest occurred in 440 BC in , Southern extraordinary and libraries, against the growing impact of Italy (at that stage colonized by Greek containing at its peak 400 000-700 000 Alexandrian anatomy and physiology, citizens). Subsequently civic doctors documents, consisting of papyrus and claiming that this factual knowledge were appointed in most towns and cities parchment rolls and (McLeod contributed little to actual healing of the of the Greek world. They were assured of 2004:5), attracted learned men from all sick. The Empirics favoured medicine a salary (at least initially) and additional over the Greek world - including poets, based purely on experience and analysis perks, such as tax reduction, living philosophers, scientists (e.g. and of clinical cases (Major 1954:150-1). accommodation, remuneration in kind ) and physicians among (e.g. wheat), free entry to the theatre, and whom Herophilus of Chalcedon and The Asclepian cult of incubation sleep even statues in their honour. They were Erasistratus of Ceos were the most and temple healing, commencing at appointed by lay members of the ruling famous (Porter 1997:66-68; Major during the 4th century BC, co­ council, who regularly re-appraised them 1954:141-151). Herophilus was the first existed in harmony with Hippocratic and could also discharge incompetent to dissect human cadavers (possibly medicine. It gradually spread through the incumbents (although we have no real even living convicts supplied by Greek world and reached Rome in 293 BC, evidence of this ever happening). There I and II) and so laid the foundation of but was abolished as a pagan rite by early 36 Curationis May 2006 in the 4lh century AD (Major centres to a maximum of 4, 7 or 10, 135). 1954:103-110). depending on the size of town’s population. In Rome all practitioners were There is little information on the The appointment of civic doctors tax exempted (Nutton 1988:15,18 and 19). organization of medical practice, and it mentioned above, continued, and from Scarborough (1969:132) suggests that probably largely followed the Greek halfway through the 2nd century BC they these doctors might even have been paid pattern. Nutton (1988b:30-46) argues that become known as archiatri. Rulers and to treat the poor and to give medical Pliny’s severe criticism of Greek medicine even rich citizens commonly appointed instruction. in Rome was highly biased. Wealthy personal physicians. Alexander the Great, patients were seen at their homes while for instance, was on his expeditions Among the healers of Rome counted poorer patients visited the doctor at his accompanied by full-time military doctors, large numbers of fringe healers, consulting room, which was either at his and he also had a personal physician, magicians, masseurs and druggists, in home or in a tabema medica on the street, Philippus (Krug 1993:204-5). addition to recognized physicians, at a market place or even at the public trained in apprenticeship with approved baths. Druggists and other healers also The Roman era (up to the doctors. Unlike Greece there were no worked from the taberna. It is probable recognized centres of medical training, that a large proportion of patients used 3rd Century AD) but there is some evidence that a “non-professional” treatment based on As early as the 4,h century BC Greek Museum based on the Alexandrian model folk remedies as recorded in Pliny’s medicine started infiltrating Rome. Up till existed at Ephesus, associated with a writings and prescribed by then traditional Roman medicine, very group of physicians who organised Dioscorides and others (Jackson 1986:60- much like Greek medicine four to five academic activities (Scarborough 78). However, the standard clinical centuries earlier, had been based on folk 1969:132). (2nd century), critical of handling of patients, as recorded by remedies, , religious influences and colleagues everywhere, was not Galen in particular, was based on the superstition (Nutton 1988c:31-40). impressed with medical standards in Hippocratic method. Examination of the Although the Greek doctors were readily Rome (De methodo medendi 1.9-10). The patient led to a prognosis (not accepted by most Romans, there was also incompetence of the medical profession diagnosis). From this flowed an vicious resistance from certain leading was regularly lampooned in theatre and assumption (hupolêpsis) which after due figures. Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) in literature (Nutton 1988b:48-9), but evaluation would lead to a conclusion particular who had been treating his Scarborough (1969:123-130, 135) (epistêmê). Treatment followed which family, dependants and slaves with illustrates the problem of generalizing could consist of diet and lifestyle traditional remedies, cabbage and wine, about a very heterogeneous medical adjustment, medicaments or surgery. It was violently opposed to the , and system which undoubtedly produced was a time-consuming process even denied them access to his home excellent as well as poor doctors. Total (Horstmanshoff 1999:130-139). (Nutton 1988b:42). (106-43 BC) medicine undoubtedly included elements considered doctors people of low of astrology, magic, religion, folk Rome’s original and unique contributions standing - tradesman rather than traditions and superstition. to health care are represented by their gentleman. But paradoxically enough he remarkable public health measures, as had high praise for his own Greek The majority of doctors (medici) were manifested mainly in construction of the physician (Nutton 1988a:28). Pliny the Greek migrants; there were also woman massive Cloaca Maxima which initially Elder (AD 23-79) launched a sustained, doctors (m edicae) and midwives drained the marshes of central Rome (6 th influential and potentially devastating (iobstetrices) (Jackson 1988:86-7). Rich century BC) and later served as a sewer, attack on everything Greek and Greek families commonly had their private and the building of aqueducts to supply medicine in particular, which he saw as physicians. had full-time court the city with water. The first was causing progressive decline of Roman physicians: Musa, a freed slave, served constructed in 312 BC, and in AD 96 there culture (Nutton 1988a:43). Greek doctors the with great were 1 0 aqueducts; half of the water went nevertheless proceeded to dominate the distinction; however, C. Stertinius to the public baths, which left about 50 medical scene, and Nutton (1988b:37) , as doctor at the court of gallons or 225 litres per person per day estimates that more than 90% of Rome’s , was suspected of conspiring for a population of around 1,5 million doctors in the 1st century AD were Greek, to poison the emperor (Krug 1993:208- (Major 1954:162-3). 75% in the 2nd century and approximately 210). Literature makes mention of a 65% in the 3rd century. variety of specialists e.g. in eye diseases, Another unique achievement was Rome’s ear disorders, women’s conditions, efficient military health care system, In order to practice in the Roman Empire, hernias and anal complaints, fevers, established in the lsl century BC. A team doctors only needed permission from the dietetics and hydrotherapy. There were of full time doctors (mostly Greeks) called local magistrate. welcomed also dentists, and people specializing in milites medici, accompanied the armies. Greek doctors, made them citizens and eye diseases and in operations like They were supported by assistants exempted them from tax. These trephination and lithotomy (Jackson (capsarii, named after the boxes of concessions were upheld by subsequent 1988:113-126). Whether these persons medical supplies they had to carry) whilst emperors like Augustus, and were necessarily all regular doctors, is some soldiers (immunes) were given first Hadrian. However, during the middle of probable but not certain. Doctors were aid training. In time the medici specialized the 2nd century Antoninus Pius for drawn from all layers of society, and even as medici chirurgi or medici clinici. financial reasons restricted the number slaves could qualify themselves Veterinary surgeons cared for horses and of practitioners exempted in provincial medically (Scarborough 1969:123-130, other animals, and veterinary services 37 Curationis May 2006 were also available in the civic community In the dedicatory letter prefacing this work Rome in 476, medical science showed little (Scarborough 1969:171-2). In the fleet the he gave an excellent overview of development. In fact, Nutton describes full time doctors were called duplicarii - contemporary medical ethics (Hamilton the medical writers of this period as “the they received double salaries because 1986:209-215). Dioscorides, an army medical refrigerators of antiquity” their task was considered more surgeon of this period, wrote what was (1984:2), since most of them merely dangerous. Well-organized military probably antiquity’s best known produced compilations and translations hospitals (valetudinaria) were erected at pharmacopeia, the (AD of the authorities. It was, strategic points on the Roman frontiers 77). however, a crucial period in the (Krug 1993:204-8). Although it is transmission of medical texts - generally accepted that no civic Aretaeus of (a supporter of knowledge of Greek was dwindling, and valetudinaria for the general public the Pneumatic school) was virtually thanks to these medical writers the existed at this stage, we have evidence unknown in his time, but through his contents of the works of ancient Greek that such hospitals were erected on large published works posterity has authorities were preserved for posterity. estates, primarily for the treatment of recognized him as one of the best Equally important, this medical slaves (Columella XI. 1.8; XII.3.8). clinicians of the 2nd century AD. A knowledge was disseminated to laymen contemporary, , greatly for self-help due to increasing complaints A number of sects or schools of medical impressed with his wide-ranging clinical about the lack of expertise of doctors. theory arose in the Roman era, but their contributions. Although little of his practical influence on the development original works survived, Galen and later The main centre for medical knowledge of medicine was probably limited. The Arabic physicians quoted him profusely. after Alexandria now shifted to re­ Methodist school ( 1st century BC) taught (1st century AD) was founded Carthage in , which that all diseases resulted from the the greatest gynaecologist and experienced a flowering of scientific and abnormal functioning of minute body obstetrician of antiquity, but also especially medical activity in especially pores. Treatment to remedy this was contributed in other fields of medicine the late 4th century AD. Between c.370 considered simple and it was thus not (Major 1954:179-188). and 450 AD a number of doctors/medical necessary for a physician to have authors/translators/adaptors of medical advanced knowledge of anatomy or The encyclopedist, Cornelius Celsus works were active, to such an extent that physiology. In spite of their ridiculous wrote extensively on a wide variety of Sabbah (1998:132) even refers to an , this sect did produce a number subjects and, like Pliny, was one of the “African School”. The founder, as it were, of able physicians. The Pneumatists (1st few authors of the time to use in - of this “school” was Helvius Vindicianus, century AD) based their theories on the stead of Greek. Although not medically a distinguished physician, who in 368 was qualified, his voluminous De medicina importance of , a primitive vital appointed by the emperor Valentinian I was an authoritative and objective spirit which controlled the body as part as Count of the newly established summary of medical knowledge during of the standard humoural theory. They College of Physicians in Rome, and in the 1st century AD, and is still admired were gradually absorbed by the Eclectic 380/1 became Proconsul of the Roman today (Major 1954:169-172). school which attempted to combine the province of North Africa. Unfortunately best of the Empiric and Methodist few of his works have survived, and we But the giant of Roman medicine was schools; most of the significant have little knowledge of his practice as undoubtedly the Greek, Galen. Major physicians of the next five centuries doctor apart from enthusiastic praise by (1954:188-202) rightly states that no supported this school (Major 1954:168- various of his students and physician, before or since, has exercised 9,1178-9). acquaintances. Theodorus Priscianus so great an influence on medical history. was one of these students; his book, the An ardent admirer of Hippocratic Important medical personalities of the era Euporista (literally “easily obtainable medicine, he wrote extensively on included the following: [remedies]”), was very popular during the science, philosophy and law, in addition . Cassius Felix also came to medicine. His exaent medical writings came to Rome from Roman Africa, and is known for a comprise close on two and a half million in 91 BC as an experienced Greek short handbook, the De medicina, words, and in the course of time at least physician, who immediately impressed dedicated to his son in 447, containing half as many more were lost to posterity. valuable advice derived from the ancient the capital with his strong personality Although strictly rational in his and medical acumen. A controversial approach, Galen paid more heed to the Greeks on all kinds if diseases. Of Caelius figure and a firm opponent of the significance of , visions and Aurelianus, probably a contemporary of Hippocratic humoural theories (he amulets in medicine than did his Cassius Felix, three works survived, two believed that health depended on proper Hippocratic forebears. He believed in an of which are Latin translations of Greek functioning of bodily pores and atoms, all-powerful monotheistic god, and works of Soranus of Ephesus. Caelius’s anticipating the Methodist movement), though not a Christian, his views on book, On acute and chronic diseases, is he was criticised by inter alia Pliny the many aspects were accepted as dogma an important account of all aspects, Elder and later castigated by Galen by the Christian church through the theoretical and practical, of (Major 1954:164-6). Middle Ages. and therapeutics as known and applied in his time. Scribonius Largus, probably a Greek Twilight of the Roman freedman of the 1st century AD, is best The elite College of Physicians remembered for his extensive work on empire mentioned above originally consisted of pharmaceutical recipes (Compositiones). From the late 3rd century up to the fall of 14 members, who would then elect, on 38 Curationis May 2006 strict merit and by majority vote, future rational/secular physicians. When ook een Filosoof? Peeters. physicians as needed. Appointments Christianity was elevated to were ratified and probably supervised by in the 4th century and the Church became , 1924: Iliad. Loeb Classical the emperor. This is the first instance very powerful, they proceeded to Library Vol. 1. Transl. A.T. Murray. where medical doctors were selected on dominate most facets of civil society, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University medical grounds by peers and not by lay including the art of medicine, which had Press. members of the public. The College, a negative effect on all scientific however, had no mandate to ensure advancement and medicine in particular HERODOTUS, 1921: The Persian Wars. acceptable professional conduct. These (Retief & Cilliers 2001:61-73). Loeb Classical Library. Transl. A.D. doctors were held in high regard and Godley. Cambridge, MA: Harvard received commoda annonaria (payment Conclusion University Press. in kind), possibly in addition to a salary. The period covered in this study They were exempted of tax and allowed HIPPOCRATES, 1923: Law et al. Loeb represents a thousand of to charge private fees to the wealthy, but Classical Library Vol. II. Transl. W.H.S. development and consolidation of the the emperor’s request was that free Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard science and practice of medicine. It is a service to the poor should receive University Press. story of remarkable Greek innovation and preference. To what extent this happened original thought, consolidated by solid is unclear. 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