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The Florida Federal Writers' Project and Racial Identity, 1935-1943 Angela E

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The Florida Federal Writers' Project and Racial Identity, 1935-1943 Angela E Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2008 Writing Race: The Florida Federal Writers' Project and Racial Identity, 1935-1943 Angela E. Tomlinson Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES WRITING RACE: THE FLORIDA FEDERAL WRITERS' PROJECT AND RACIAL IDENTITY, 1935-1943 By ANGELA E. TOMLINSON A Thesis submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2008 Copyright © 2008 Angela E. Tomlinson All Rights Reserved The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Angela E. Tomlinson defended on March 28, 2008. Elna Green Professor Directing Thesis Maxine Jones Committee Member Jennifer Koslow Committee Member The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although for me writing has always been a very solitary endeavor, completion of this thesis entailed so much more than writing and depended upon so many more people than myself. I thus take great pleasure in acknowledging those who have supported and encouraged me over the past four years. I am deeply grateful to my major professor, Elna C. Green, who not only introduced me to the Federal Writers' Project, but also patiently guided me through the process of research and writing. As a student in Dr. Green's classes, I also learned so much about the people, places, and events addressed in the following pages that it would be impossible to overstate her influence on Writing Race. I am similarly indebted to the other members of my committee, Maxine D. Jones and Jennifer Koslow, both of whom were always ready to lend a supportive ear and, like Dr. Green, offered courses that enriched my understanding of America and the South from Reconstruction through the New Deal. A special thank you goes to Dr. Jones, who graciously loaned me multiple books from her personal collection and gave me access to her own research on the Florida Federal Writers' Project. Perhaps more importantly, I could always count on her to ask, with genuine interest and concern, "How's your thesis coming?" and then patiently listen to my usual list of complaints and frustrations. But it has not all been complaints. This thesis benefited greatly from the assistance of current and former members of the reference staff of the Florida State Archives. Not only did they help me navigate my way through numerous collections, they alleviated the tedium of months spent pouring over documents with many a jovial conversation. The able staff of the History Department Advising Office—Debbie Perry, Anne Kozar, and Chris Pignatiello—also deserve much gratitude for assisting me with many a scheduling and paperwork hiccup and encouraging me to hurry up and finish. I also could not have made it through this process without the support of the best group of friends a person could ask for. Annie, Denise, Grandage, Holly, Jackie, Jon, Jonathan, Joyce, Kendra, Laura, Max, Michelle, Nate, Paul, Sheppard, Sherri, Stacy, Teri, Tiffany, Vin—they all laughed with me, listened to me, and encouraged me, and I could not have done it without them. Two people in particular, however, deserve special credit for helping me bring this chapter to a successful close. Daniel Hutchinson read and commented on multiple drafts of parts of this iii thesis, but more than that, he has provided me with a daily example of what a good friend and student should be. He truly is a scholar and a gentleman. More than anyone, though, Meghan Martinez has shared the ups and downs of "thesis-ing" with me. During all those 48-hour study sessions, early-morning coffee dates, and spur-of-the-moment weekend study retreats I came to rely upon her unfailing generosity of spirit, keen sense of humor, and unflagging support. I can only hope that I have been the kind of omnicompetent friend to her that she has been to me. And lastly, I must thank my family, without whose unwavering love and support none of my accomplishments, academic or otherwise, would have been possible. I love you all. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................vi INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1 1. "WHAT IS AN AMERICAN?": CONCEPTIONS OF CULTURE AND IDENTITY IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY .............................................17 2. THE FLORIDA FEDERAL WRITERS' PROJECT AND THE AFRICAN AMERICAN ......................................................................................34 3. THE FLORIDA FEDERAL WRITERS' PROJECT AND CONSTRUCTION OF RACIAL IDENTITIES ............................................................58 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................77 APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................81 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................84 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ....................................................................................................90 v ABSTRACT In the late 1930s, the Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration employed thousands of out-of-work writers and other white-collar professionals. Although publication of a comprehensive guidebook for each state was the main task of the FWP, project writers also traveled their respective states collecting life histories, interviewing former slaves, and compiling local histories and ethnographic studies. As a result, the work of the FWP entailed much more than preparation of travel books, for taken as a whole, its writings represented an attempt to craft a new portrait of America and its people. Like many other New Deal programs, the FWP was a product of the liberal, progressive intellectual community that had emerged at the turn of the twentieth century. By the 1930s, this community, influenced by concepts of cultural pluralism, cosmopolitanism, and cultural relativism, was engaged in an ongoing discourse on redefining American identity and culture to include a broader spectrum of the American people. These concepts also influenced many of the national officers of the FWP, who wanted the project to present a more inclusive depiction of America that celebrated the country's diversity. As this thesis demonstrates, however, this goal broke down at the state level, particularly in the South, which was deeply committed to Jim Crow segregation in the 1930s. An examination of both published and unpublished writings of the Florida Federal Writers' Project, including Florida: A Guide to the Southernmost State and The Florida Negro, reveals that where race was concerned, traditional biases and prejudices trumped the national office's more liberal ideology. As a result, despite the efforts of liberal members of the Florida staff, such as Zora Neale Hurston and Stetson Kennedy, and the editorial oversight of the national office, the Florida FWP ultimately failed to provide three-dimensional, unbiased portraits of the state's African-American and mixed-race populations. vi INTRODUCTION The Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration employed thousands of jobless writers and other white-collar professionals between 1935 and 1943.1 Although the main project of the FWP was the American Guide Series, each state office produced numerous publications on local history, industry, and culture. Florida writers alone published works on the cotton industry, the fruit industry, the Seminole Indians, and Spanish missions, as well as Florida: A Guide to the Southernmost State. In addition, the FWP's Folklore Project collected "life histories" of ordinary Americans in an attempt to create a "composite and comprehensive portrait of various groups of people in America."2 Florida, with its long history and diverse population, would eventually undertake 160 separate studies of the state's various nationality, occupational, and ethnic groups.3 Although the Florida FWP never published most of these studies, much of the information collected by its workers remains in the scattered archives of the FWP.4 These field notes and unpublished manuscripts provide valuable insight into not only the cultures of long-forgotten communities, but also the contemporary cultural context of the project, including the class and racial biases that influenced the work of the FWP in the South. 1 Pursuant to the Emergency Relief Act of 1939, the FWP moved from federal to combined state and federal sponsorship in July 1939 and was thereafter known as the WPA Writers' Program. After that time, state programs were required to obtain state sponsors to fund twenty-five percent of their operating costs. Jerre Mangione, The Dream and the Deal: The Federal Writers' Project, 1935-1943 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1972), 330. The Florida Writers' Program continued to function until 1943, turning out small projects under the aegis of organizations like the University of Florida, the Florida State Planning Board, the Florida Department of Agriculture, the Florida Department of State, and the Florida State Defense Council. Pamela G. Bordelon,
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