Fezile Dabi District Municipality Air Quality Management Plan 89

FEZILE DABI DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY AIR QUALITY

MANAGEMENT PLAN

SEPTEMBER 2010

1 REPORT AUTHORS

Nicola Walton - Gondwana Environmental Solutions (Pty) Ltd Loren Webster - Gondwana Environmental Solutions (Pty) Ltd

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 12 1.1 Geographic Overview ...... 14 1.2 Methodological Approach for the development of an Air Quality Management Plan for Fezile Dabi District ...... 17 1.3 Local Air Quality Management Plans ...... 20 1.4 Outline of Report ...... 20 2. POLICY AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS ...... 22 2.1. Air Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965...... 22 2.2. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 ...... 22 2.3. Legislation for Local Government ...... 26 2.4. Local Air Quality By-Laws ...... 27 2.5. Ambient Air Quality Guidelines and Standards ...... 28 2.5.1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards ...... 29 2.6. Listed Activities and Minimum Emission Standards ...... 30 3. METEOROLOGICAL OVERVIEW AND AMBIENT AIR QUALITY OF FEZILE DABI DISTRICT ...... 34 3.1. Macroscale Air Circulations ...... 34 3.2. Mesoscale Air Circulations ...... 35 3.3. Local Wind Field ...... 37 3.3.1. Temperature ...... 47 3.3.2. Precipitation ...... 47 3.4. Current Ambient Air Quality Situation ...... 48 3.4.1. Ambient Particulate Concentrations ...... 50 3.4.2. Diurnal Concentrations ...... 52 3.4.3. Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations ...... 55 3.4.4. Diurnal Concentrations ...... 57 3.4.5. Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations ...... 60 3.4.6. Diurnal Concentrations ...... 62 4. STATUS QUO OF THE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN FEZILE DABI DISTRICT ...... 66 4.1. Baseline Emissions Inventory ...... 66 4.1.1. Industries ...... 66 4.1.2. Domestic Fuel Burning ...... 70 4.1.3. Transportation ...... 74 4.1.4. Agriculture ...... 80 4.1.5. Biomass Burning ...... 82 4.1.6. Waste Treatment and Disposal ...... 85 4.1.7. Summary of Air Pollution Sources in the District ...... 91 4.1.8. Predicted Ambient Air Quality in Fezile Dabi District ...... 92 4.2. Gap Analysis ...... 96 5. AIR QUALITY PRACTICES AND INITIATIVES WITHIN PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT ...... 98 5.1. Government Structure and Functions ...... 98 5.1.1. Provincial Level ...... 98 5.1.2. District Level ...... 98 5.1.3. Local Level ...... 99 5.2. Air Quality Management Tools ...... 100 5.2.1. Complaints Response Database ...... 100 5.2.2. Emissions Inventory Database ...... 100 5.2.3. Dispersion Modelling Software ...... 100 5.2.4. Data Reporting Practices ...... 101 6. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND OBJECTIVES ANALYSIS ...... 102 6.1. Small Industries ...... 102

3 6.1.1. Problem Analysis ...... 102 6.1.2. Causes ...... 103 6.1.3. Effects ...... 104 6.1.4. Objectives ...... 104 6.2. Scheduled and Mining Processes ...... 105 6.2.1. Problem Analysis ...... 105 6.2.2. Causes ...... 106 6.2.3. Effects ...... 107 6.2.4. Objectives ...... 107 6.3. Domestic Fuel Burning ...... 108 6.3.1. Problem Analysis ...... 108 6.3.2. Causes ...... 109 6.3.3. Effects ...... 110 6.3.4. Objectives ...... 110 6.4. Vehicle Emissions ...... 111 6.4.1. Problem Analysis ...... 112 6.4.2. Causes ...... 112 6.4.3. Effects ...... 113 6.4.4. Objectives ...... 114 6.5. Agriculture and Biomass Burning ...... 115 6.5.1. Problem Analysis ...... 115 6.5.2. Causes ...... 115 6.5.3. Effects ...... 116 6.5.4. Objectives ...... 116 6.6. Landfills ...... 117 6.6.1. Problem Analysis ...... 117 6.6.2. Causes ...... 118 6.6.3. Effects ...... 119 6.6.4. Objectives ...... 119 6.7. Air Quality Management Capacity ...... 120 6.7.1. Problem Analysis ...... 121 6.7.2. Causes ...... 121 6.7.3. Effects ...... 122 6.7.4. Objectives ...... 123 7. CAPACITY BUILDING WITHIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT ...... 125 7.1. Human Resources ...... 125 7.2. Air Quality Management Tools ...... 131 7.2.1. Emissions Inventory Database ...... 131 7.2.2. Dispersion Modelling Software ...... 132 7.2.3. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring ...... 134 7.3. Financial Implications ...... 137 8. EMISSION REDUCTION INTERVENTIONS ...... 140 8.1. Small Industries ...... 140 8.1.1. Proposed Interventions ...... 140 8.2. Mining Operations ...... 141 8.2.1. Proposed Interventions ...... 142 8.3. Petrochemical Industry ...... 142 8.3.1. Sasol Emission Reduction Commitments ...... 142 8.3.2. NATREF Emission Reduction Commitments ...... 143 8.3.3. OMNIA Fertilizer Emission Reduction Commitments ...... 145 8.3.4. Proposed Interventions ...... 147 8.4. Power Generation ...... 147 8.4.1. Eskom Emission Reduction Commitments ...... 147 8.4.2. Proposed Interventions ...... 149 8.5. Domestic Fuel Burning ...... 150 8.5.1. National Government Interventions ...... 150

4 8.5.2. Proposed Interventions ...... 151 8.6. Transportation ...... 153 8.6.1. National Government Interventions ...... 153 8.6.2. Proposed Interventions ...... 154 8.7. Agriculture ...... 155 8.7.1. Proposed Interventions ...... 155 8.8. Biomass Burning ...... 156 8.8.1. Proposed Interventions ...... 156 8.9. Waste Treatment and Disposal ...... 157 8.9.1. Proposed Interventions ...... 157 9. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 159 9.1. Pollutants, Sources and Impact Areas ...... 159 9.2. Capacity Building within Government ...... 160 9.2.1. Air Quality Management Tools ...... 161 9.3. Emission Reduction Interventions ...... 161 9.3.1. Industries ...... 161 9.3.2. Domestic Fuel Burning ...... 162 9.3.3. Transportation ...... 162 9.3.4. Agriculture and Biomass Burning ...... 163 REFERENCES ...... 164 APPENDIX A CRITERIA POLLUTANTS AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH IMPACTS ...... 167 A.1 Human Health Impacts ...... 168 A.1.1 Particulate Matter ...... 168 A.1.2 Sulphur dioxide ...... 169 A.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide ...... 170 A.1.4 Ozone ...... 171 A.1.5 Carbon monoxide ...... 172 A.1.6 Volatile Organic Compounds ...... 173

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Local Municipalities of Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 14 Figure 2: Population density of the Fezile Dabi District Municipality (Census 2001)...... 16 Figure 3: Topography of Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 17 Figure 4: Diurnal variation of local winds on slopes (after Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). 36 Figure 5: Diurnal variation of local winds in valleys (after Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). .37 Figure 6: Period surface wind roses for Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008])...... 41 Figure 7: Diurnal wind roses (00:00 – 06:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008])...... 43 Figure 8: Diurnal wind roses (06:00 – 12:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008])...... 44 Figure 9: Diurnal wind roses (12:00 – 18:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008])...... 45 Figure 10: Diurnal wind roses (18:00 – 24:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008])...... 46 Figure 11: Maximum and minimum temperature (°C) for Kroonstad for the period 1967 – 1990...... 47 Figure 12: Average monthly rainfall (mm) for Kroonstad for the period 1967 – 1990...... 48 Figure 13: Location of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations in the District...... 49 Figure 14: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at Makalu for the period 2004. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3...... 50 Figure 15: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3...... 51 Figure 16: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at Zamdela for the period 2007 - 2009. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3...... 52 Figure 17: Diurnal PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations...... 53

Figure 18: Daily average SO2 concentrations (pbb) at Makalu for 2004. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb...... 55

Figure 19: Daily average SO2 concentrations (ppb) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb.56

Figure 20: Daily average SO2 concentrations (ppb) at Zamdela for the period 2007 - 2009. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb...... 57

Figure 21: Diurnal SO2 concentrations (ppb) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations ...... 58

Figure 22: Daily average NO2 concentrations (pbb) at Makalu for 2004...... 60

6 Figure 23: Daily average NO2 concentrations (ppb) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008...... 61

Figure 24: Daily average NO2 concentrations (ppb) at Zamdela for the period 2007 – 2009. ...62

Figure 25: Diurnal NO2 concentrations (ppb) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations ...... 63 Figure 26: Spatial distribution of industrial sources in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 68 Figure 27: Household coal usage in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 72 Figure 28: Contribution by Local Municipality to the total domestic fuel burning emissions of SO2 (top left), NO (top right) and PM10 (bottom)...... 74

Figure 29: Contribution by Local Municipalities to the total vehicle emissions of SO2 (top left), NO (top right) and PM10 (bottom)...... 79 Figure 30: Biomes of South Africa (National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment, 2004)...... 83 Figure 31: South African Municipalities classified according to four levels of veld fire risk (Kruger et al., 2006)...... 84 Figure 32: Spatial distribution of fires in Fezile Dabi District Municipality for 2004 – 2007...... 85 Figure 33: Location of waste disposal sites in Fezile Dabi District Municipality (for sites where co-ordinates were obtained)...... 87 Figure 34: Highest daily average PM10 (µg/m3) concentrations...... 94 Figure 35: Annual average PM10 (µg/m3) concentrations...... 94 3 Figure 36: Highest hourly average SO2 (µg/m ) concentrations...... 95 3 Figure 37: Highest daily average SO2 (µg/m ) concentrations...... 95 3 Figure 38: Annual average SO2 (µg/m ) concentrations...... 96 Figure 39: Organisational structure for Air Quality Management in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 99 Figure 40: Problem Tree for Small Industries...... 103 Figure 41: Objectives Tree for Small Industries...... 105 Figure 42: Problem Tree for Scheduled and Mining Processes...... 106 Figure 43: Objectives Tree for Scheduled and Mining Processes...... 108 Figure 44: Problem Tree for Domestic Fuel Burning...... 109 Figure 45: Objectives Tree for Domestic Fuel Burning...... 111 Figure 46: Problem Tree for Vehicles...... 113 Figure 47: Objective Tree for Vehicles...... 114 Figure 48: Problem Tree for Agriculture and Biomass Burning...... 116 Figure 49: Objectives Tree for Agriculture and Biomass Burning...... 117 Figure 50: Problem Tree for Landfills...... 118 Figure 51: Objective Tree for Landfills...... 120 Figure 52: Problem Tree for Air Quality Management Capacity...... 122 Figure 53: Objectives Tree for Air Quality Management Capacity...... 124 Figure 54: The Basa Njengo Magogo fire-lighting Method (left) and classical fire lighting method (right)...... 151

7 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population per Local Municipality in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 15 Table 2: Air quality responsibilities and functions of National, Provincial and Local Government...... 25 Table 3: National standards (µg/m3) with allowable frequencies of exceedance for immediate compliance. The values indicated in blue are expressed in ppb...... 30 Table 4: Meteorological stations in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 38 Table 5: Number of exceedances of the National daily PM10 standard at all stations over the respective monitoring periods...... 53 Table 6: Highest hourly, daily and annual average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold...... 54

Table 7: Number of exceedances of the National hourly (top) and daily (bottom) SO2 standards at all stations over the respective monitoring periods...... 58

Table 8: Highest hourly, daily and annual average SO2 concentrations (ppb) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold...... 59

Table 9: Number of exceedances of the National hourly NO2 standard at all stations over the respective monitoring periods...... 63

Table 10: Highest hourly, daily and annual average NO2 concentrations (ppb) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold...... 64 Table 11: Types of scheduled processes in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 67 Table 12: Summary of Industrial Sources in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 69 Table 13: Household fuel usage in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 71 Table 14: Emission factors for domestic fuel burning (FRIDGE, 2004)...... 73 Table 15: Vehicle sales per licencing district in Fezile Dabi District for the period 1985 – 2009...... 76 Table 16: Fuel sales per magisterial district within Fezile Dabi District for January – December 2008...... 77 Table 17: Highveld emission factors for petrol vehicles (Wong and Dutkiewicz, 1998)...... 78 Table 18: Highveld emission factors for diesel vehicles (Stone, 2000)...... 78 Table 19: Burned area using number of detected fires as a proxy...... 84 Table 20: Waste Disposal Facilities in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 88 Table 21: Waste water treatment works in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 90 Table 22: Air pollution sources and their associated emissions in Fezile Dabi District...... 91 Table 23: Air quality responsibilities of Fezile Dabi District Municipality as per the National Requirements...... 128 Table 24: Approximate costs for the appointment of air quality personnel in Fezile Dabi District Municipality...... 137

8 Table 25: Approximate costs for emissions inventory and dispersion modeling software and hardware...... 138 Table 26: Approximate costs for the installation, operation and maintenance of a complete ambient air quality monitoring station for a period of one year...... 139 Table 27: Proposed emission reduction strategies for small industries within the Fezile Dabi District...... 141 Table 28: Proposed emission reduction strategies for mining operations within the Fezile Dabi District...... 142 Table 29: NATREF emission reductions since 2000...... 144 Table 30: Proposed emission reduction strategies for the petrochemical industry within the Fezile Dabi District...... 147 Table 31: Proposed emission reduction strategies for the power generation industry within the Fezile Dabi District...... 149 Table 32: Proposed emission reduction strategies for domestic fuel burning within the Fezile Dabi District...... 152 Table 33: Proposed emission reduction strategies for transportation within the Fezile Dabi District...... 154 Table 34: Proposed emission reduction strategies for agriculture within the Fezile Dabi District...... 155 Table 35: Proposed emission reduction strategies for biomass burning within the Fezile Dabi District...... 156 Table 36: Proposed emission reduction strategies for waste treatment and disposal within the Fezile Dabi District...... 158

9 ABBREVIATIONS

AEL - Atmospheric Emission License AFIS - Advanced Fire Information System APPA - Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act (Act No.45 of 1965) - National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (Act No. 39 of NEM(AQA) 2004) AQO - Air Quality Officer AQM - Air Quality Management AQMP - Air Quality Management Plan

C6H6 - Benzene CAPCO - Chief Air Pollution Control Officer CBOs - Community Based Organisations

CH4 - Methane CO - Carbon monoxide

CO2 - Carbon dioxide CSIR - Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research DEA - Department of Environmental Affairs DMR - Department of Mineral Resources DWA - Department of Water Affairs FDDM - Fezile Dabi District Municipality GIS - Geographical Information Systems GGP - Gross Geographic Product

H2O - Water

H2S - Hydrogen sulphide IDP - Integrated Development Plan LPG - Liquid Petroleum Gas LSF - Low sulphur fuels MODIS - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer NAAMSA National Automobile Association of South Africa NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation

NH3 - Ammonia NO - Nitrous oxide

NO2 - Nitrogen dioxide

NOx - Oxides of nitrogen

O3 - Ozone Pb - Lead PM10 - Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm PM2.5 - Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm PPB - Parts per billion PPM - Parts per million SAAQIS - South African Air Quality Information System SABS - South African Bureau of Standards

10 SANS - South African National Standards SANAS - South African National Accreditation Services SoER - State of the Environment Report

SO2 - Sulphur dioxide

SOx - Oxides of sulphur µg/m³ - Micrograms per cubic meter USEPA - United States Environmental Protection Agency VEP - Vehicle Emissions Project VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds VTAPA - Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area WHO - World Health Organisation

11 1. INTRODUCTION

Chapter 3, Section 15 of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 (AQA) requires Municipalities to introduce Air Quality Management Plans (AQMP) that set out what will be done to achieve the prescribed air quality standards. Municipalities are required to include an AQMP as part of its Integrated Development Plan as contemplated in Chapter 5 of the Municipal Systems Act (Act 32 of 2000).

Fezile Dabi District Municipality (FDDM) is located in the northern part of the Free State Province in South Africa. Fezile Dabi is comprised of four Local Municipalities, namely, Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Ngwathe. Metsimaholo forms part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area. The District comprises of several air pollution sources including heavy industries, a refinery, a power station, motor vehicles, small industries as well as households using coal for domestic fuel burning purposes.

The overall project objective is to develop an Air Quality Management Plan for Fezile Dabi District Municipality in accordance with the provisions of the Air Quality Act and the manual for developing Air Quality Management Plan’s in South Africa. This Plan seeks to identify and reduce the negative impacts on human health and the environment, and ultimately through vigorous implementation, the Air Quality Management Plan should efficiently and effectively bring air quality in the District Municipality into sustainable compliance with National air quality standards within agreed timeframes.

The immediate project objectives of the Fezile Dabi District Air Quality Management Plan are:

a) The Participation Objective – to ensure the FDDM AQMP is developed in accordance with the spirit and letter of the cooperative and participatory governance requirements and principles contained in Chapter 3 of the Constitution, the National Environmental Management Act, the Integrated Pollution and Waste Management Policy and the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act.

b) The Planning Objective – to ensure the FDDM AQMP is based on current, accurate and relevant information, informed by best practices in the field of air

12 quality management and that it provides a clear and practical plan to effectively and efficiently bring air quality in the area into sustainable compliance with National ambient air quality standards within agreed timeframes.

c) The Capacity Development Objective – to ensure the District Municipality is capacitated in preparation for the implementation of the FDDM AQMP and to be able to effectively and efficiently manage the implementation process.

In order to meet these objectives, the immediate goals are: -

a) A Problem Analysis to determine pollution sources, ambient pollutant concentrations and the potential for human health effects in the Fezile Dabi District,

b) A Strategy Analysis to develop problem and objectives trees for identified problems,

c) Intervention Descriptions to identify and describe interventions with feasible timeframes for implementation,

d) An Air Quality Management Plan for Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

1.1 Geographic Overview

Fezile Dabi District Municipality covers an area of approximately 21 301 m2. The four Local Municipalities of Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Ngwathe fall within the District (Figure 1). The four Municipalities are made up of fifteen urban centres and surrounding rural areas of which Kroonstad, Parys, Sasolburg and Frankfort form the main centres.

Figure 1: Local Municipalities of Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

The prominent economic activities in Fezile Dabi District are industry, mining, agriculture and tourism. The Petrochemical industry in and around Fezile Dabi’s largest town, Sasolburg, constitutes 49% of the District’s Gross Geographic Product (GGP). This sector includes the production of synthetic rubber, plastics, pure and impure waxes as well as agro-chemicals. Coal, diamonds and gold mining is also an important economic activity for the region, contributing 6.7% to the GGP of the area. Much of the Fezile Dabi landscape is dominated by agricultural activities. The district produces a considerable

14 percentage of South Africa’s grain crop, including maize, wheat and sunflowers. The frost free climate is also suited to the cultivation of tobacco, sorghum and peanuts while livestock farming for dairy, beef, wool and mutton production is also popular throughout the area. Agricultural activities contribute 5.3% to the GGP of the Free State, making it the third biggest contributor to the economy of the province, after mining and tourism. The district serves as an important tourist destination as it is rich in Afrikaans history and is host to South Africa’s 7th world heritage site, the Vredefort Dome which is the world’s largest and oldest meteorite crater. The area is also home to numerous nature reserves as well as the Vaal Dam which is the main source of water to South Africa’s industrial heartland.

Based on the Census 2001, Fezile Dabi District has a total population of approximately 460 316 (Table 1). The most recent Community Survey in February 2007 shows a 3% population growth rate in the District, with a total population of approximately 474 089. Moqhaka Local Municipality, which includes the towns of Kroonstad, Steynsrus, Vierfontein and Viljoenskroon has the largest population in the District Municipality (36%). Metsimaholo Local Municipality, which has the second largest population (33%) in the District, experienced a growth rate of 33% from 2001 to 2007. Ngwathe Local Municipality has 20% of the population in the District and includes the towns of Parys, Koppies, Heilbron and Edenville. The smallest population group (11%) is found in Mafube Local Municipality. Both Ngwathe and Mafube experienced a negative growth rate (-20% and -7%, respectively) from 2001 to 2007.

The spatial distribution of the population in Fezile Dabi District is given in Figure 2.

Table 1: Population per Local Municipality in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Community Survey Local Municipality Census 2001 % Growth Rate 2007

Mafube 57 637 53 722 -6.79

Metsimaholo 115 977 154 658 33.35

Moqhaka 167 898 170 522 1.56

Ngwathe 118 804 95 187 -19.88

Total 460 316 474 089 2.99

Figure 2: Population density of the Fezile Dabi District Municipality (Census 2001).

The terrain of the Fezile Dabi District is similar to that of the entire Free State Province in that it is predominately characterized by flat boundless plains. A gradual increase in elevation from the western border to the eastern border is evident. Altitude in the western extremity of the Fezile Dabi region is estimated at 1290 m while ground level along the opposing eastern border is estimated at 1660 m. The partial ring of hills along the north-western border clearly depicts the Vredefort Dome in the vicinity of Parys and Vredefort (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Topography of Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

1.2 Methodological Approach for the development of an Air Quality Management Plan for Fezile Dabi District

The development of an Air Quality Management Plan for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality was undertaken in a phased approach, which included a Problem Analysis, Strategy Analysis, Interventions Descriptions, an Air Quality Management Plan as well as ongoing consultation with all key stakeholders in the District.

Problem Analysis

A Problem Analysis was undertaken as part of the first phase of the Plan which included a detailed baseline assessment of the meteorological conditions and the ambient air quality situation in the District. Meteorological data was obtained from various agencies including the South African Weather Services, the Agricultural Research Institute and

17 Government. Ambient air quality monitoring data was obtained from monitoring stations operated by National Government and industries within Metsimaholo Local Municipality.

Ambient pollutants recorded include particulates (PM10), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Ambient air quality monitoring is not undertaken in any of the other Local Municipalities.

An emissions inventory was compiled for air pollution sources in the District with specific focus on quantifiable sources such as industries, vehicles and domestic fuel burning. The development of an emissions inventory of industrial sources was initiated by the District Municipality during the development of the Plan. Information for industrial sources within Metsimaholo Local Municipality has already been collated as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Air Quality Management Plan. For sources such as vehicles and domestic fuel burning, use was made of international and local emission factors to estimate emissions. Vehicle traffic counts were obtained from Mikros Traffic Monitoring for major roads and highways in the District. The composition of the vehicle fleet on the roads was based on vehicle sales per region as obtained from the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA). Fuel sales per magisterial district were obtained from the Department of Mineral Resources. For domestic fuel burning, household fuel usage was obtained from the Census 2001 and Community Survey databases. Other sources such as agriculture, biomass burning and waste disposal sites are discussed but not quantified due to the availability of accurate, current information for these sources.

Within the District as a whole, air pollution sources, in particular, large industrial operations, occur predominantly within Metsimaholo Local Municipality. Use was therefore made of dispersion modeling simulations undertaken for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Air Quality Management Plan for this region. Further modeling studies were not required given the nature (small, non-scheduled processes) and distribution of industries within other areas in the District.

The current capacity of Government (Local, District and Province) for air quality management and control was also evaluated in terms of personnel, skills, resources and tools. Recommendations to address the identified shortages in Government for air quality management were given.

18 Strategy Analysis

The second phase included the development of problem and objective trees for identified problem complexes. Seven problem complexes were identified in the District and include: small industries, scheduled and mining processes, domestic fuel burning, transportation, agriculture and biomass burning, landfills and air quality management capacity. The Logical Framework Approach was applied to each of the above mentioned problem complexes.

Intervention Descriptions

Emission reduction strategies were proposed for the major source contributors with achievable timeframes associated with each intervention. Emission reduction measures identified as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan for industrial sources in Metsimaholo Local Municipality were included in this plan to prevent duplication.

Air Quality Management Plan

The development of the Air Quality Management Plan for Fezile Dabi District incorporated the findings from the Problem Analysis, Strategy Analysis and Intervention Descriptions. An overview of National air quality legislation as well as legislation influencing Local Government is provided. Recommendations are also made for the implementation of an air quality monitoring programme in the District.

Stakeholder Engagement

Ongoing throughout the development of the Air Quality Management Plan is stakeholder engagement. Stakeholder engagement is critical to the success of the Plan. Monthly stakeholder meetings were held in the District including representatives from each sphere of Government. Two public participation meetings were held in June 2010 in Sasolburg and Kroonstad, respectively, and included representatives from Government, Industry and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

19 1.3 Local Air Quality Management Plans

The Air Quality Act aims to provide reasonable measures to prevent air pollution and give effect to Section 24 of the Constitution. The Air Quality Act states that local authorities are required to develop AQMPs as part of their Integrated Development Plans. Within South Africa, various Municipalities have addressed their responsibilities and developed AQMPs, including Rustenburg Local Municipality (2005), Capricorn District Municipality (2006), Eden District Municipality (2008), City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality (2003), Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality (2004), City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality (2006), City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (2006), eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality (2007), Cape Winelands District Municipality (2008) and Waterberg District Municipality (2009).

Chapter 4, Section 18 of the Air Quality Act also makes provision for the identification of priority areas where the air quality is regarded as poor and detrimental to human health and the environment. The Vaal Triangle was declared the first priority area in South Africa by the Minister of Environmental Affairs on the 21st of April 2006. Once declared, a Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan must be developed within 6 months after declaration. The Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan was the first Air Quality Management Plan to be developed for a priority area in South Africa. Metsimaholo Local Municipality falls within the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area. The Highveld was declared the second priority area by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism on the 23rd of November 2007. The Highveld Priority Air Quality Management Plan is currently in the process of being developed.

1.4 Outline of Report

Section 2 describes the policy and legislative requirements with specific reference to air quality legislation and the National air quality standards. Section 3 provides an overview of the prevailing meteorological conditions in the District as well as an assessment of the current air quality situation. The baseline assessment, which includes the development of an emissions inventory, dispersion modeling predictions and gap analysis, is presented in Section 4. The capacity for air quality management and control within Fezile Dabi District is given in Section 5. The problem and objectives trees for the seven identified problem complexes are outlined in Section 6 with the required human

20 resources and air quality tools described in Section 7. Emissions reduction strategies to be implemented in Fezile Dabi District are outlined in Section 8. The recommendations and conclusions are summarized in Section 9.

21 2. POLICY AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

2.1. Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965

The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965 (APPA) focused mainly on source based control with registration certificates issued for Scheduled Processes. Scheduled Processes are defined as processes which emit more than a defined quantity of pollutants per year. This legislation made provision for the control of noxious or offensive gases from Scheduled Processes which are subject to the Best Practicable Means (BPM) of pollution abatement. BPM is a set of guidelines issued by the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) stipulating the level of technology that is the best practicable means of preventing or reducing to a minimum the escape of noxious or offensive gases into the atmosphere at source. The Chief Air Pollution Control Officer (CAPCO) of DEA was responsible for the implementation of the BPM approach. Control of smoke emissions was enforced by local authorities through regulation and smoke control zones. Dust emissions from mining and quarrying activities were also controlled and enforced by the CAPCO as well as by the Department of Minerals and Energy through the inspection of mines. Provision was also made for the control of vehicle exhaust emissions. However, APPA is outdated and is being replaced with the Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 (AQA) which came into effect on 11 September 2005. Section 60 of AQA repeals APPA but provision is made for sections of APPA to remain in force pending the establishment of appropriate systems and services introduced by AQA and for different provisions of AQA to come into effect at different times.

2.2. National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004

The National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 has shifted the approach of air quality management from source-based control to receptor-based control. The main objectives of the Act are to:

Give effect to everyone’s right ‘to an environment that is not harmful to their health and well-being’ Protect the environment by providing reasonable legislative and other measures that (i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation, (ii) promote conservation

22 and (iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development

The Act makes provision for the setting and formulation of national ambient air quality standards for ‘substances or mixtures of substances which present a threat to health, well-being or the environment’. More stringent standards can be established at the provincial and local levels. The control and management of emissions in AQA relates to the listing of activities that are sources of emission and the issuing of emission licences. Listed activities are defined as activities which ‘result in atmospheric emissions and are regarded to have a significant detrimental effect on the environment, including human health’ will be identified by the minister of DEA. Once published, atmospheric emission standards will be established for each of these activities and an atmospheric emission licence will be required to operate. The issuing of emission licences for Listed Activities will be the responsibility of the metropolitan and district municipalities. In addition, the minister may declare any substance contributing to air pollution as a priority pollutant. Any industries or industrial sectors that emit these priority pollutants will be required to implement a Pollution Prevention Plan. Municipalities are required to ‘designate an air quality officer to be responsible for co-ordinating matters pertaining to air quality management in the Municipality’. The appointed Air Quality Officer will be responsible for amongst others, the issuing of atmospheric emission licences.

The Act also introduces the compulsory monitoring of ambient air quality. The national framework will legislate protocols, standards and methodologies for monitoring. The Act also requires relevant national departments, provinces and municipalities to introduce Air Quality Management Plans (AQMPs) that set out what will be done to achieve the prescribed air quality standards. Metropolitan, District and Local Municipalities are required to include an AQMP as part of its Integrated Development Plan.

The content of such air quality management plans is prescribed in terms of section 16(1) of the NEM: AQA. An air quality plan must, as a minimum contain the following components:

• To give effect, in respect of air quality, to Chapter 3 of NEMA to the extent that that Chapter is applicable to it; • To improve air quality;

23 • To identify and reduce the negative impact on human health and the environment of poor air quality; • To address the effects of emissions from the use of fossil fuels in residential applications; • To address the effects of emissions from industrial sources; • To address the effects of emissions from any point or non-point source of air pollution other than those listed; • To implement South Africa’s obligations in respect of international agreements; • To give effect to best practice in air quality management; • Describe how the relevant national department, province or municipality will implement its air quality management plan; and • Comply with requirements as may be prescribed by the Minister.

Reporting frequency is prescribed in terms of Section 17 of the NEM:AQA. The annual report which an organ of state must submit in terms of section 16(1)(b) of the NEMA must contain information on the implementation of its air quality management plan, including information on the following: • Air quality management initiatives undertaken by it during the reporting period; • The level of its compliance with ambient air quality standards; • Measures taken by it to secure compliance with those standards; • It’s compliance with any priority area air quality management plans applicable to it; • It’s air quality monitoring activities.

A summary of the functions and responsibilities of National, Provincial and Local Government, as informed by the new Air Quality Act and the National Framework for Air Quality Management in the Republic of South Africa, are given in Table 2.

24 Table 2: Air quality responsibilities and functions of National, Provincial and Local Government.

National Government Provincial Government Local Government

Establish and review National None None Framework Identify National priority Identify Provincial priority Identify priority pollutants (in pollutants pollutants terms of its by-laws) Establish Provincial air quality Establish National air quality Establish Local air quality standards (stringent than standards standards (more stringent) national standards) Establish Local emission Establish National emission Establish Provincial emission standards (stringent than both standards standards (stringent) spheres) Appoint National Air Quality Appoint Provincial Air Quality Appoint Air Quality Officer Officer Officer Prepare a National AQMP as a Prepare a Provincial AQMP as a Develop an AQMP as part of component of their EIP component of their EIP their IDPs Execute overarching auditing function to ensure that adequate Ambient air quality monitoring Ambient air quality monitoring air quality monitoring occurs

Declare National priority areas Declare Provincial priority areas None

Prepare National priority areas Prepare Provincial priority areas None AQMP AQMP Prepare an annual report Prepare an annual report Prepare an annual report regarding the implementation of regarding the implementation of regarding the implementation of the AQMP the AQMP the AQMP Prescribe regulations for Prescribe regulations for implementing and enforcing the implementing and enforcing the None priority area AQMP priority area AQMP

List activities List activities None

Assist in matters relating to Perform emission licensing Perform emission licensing emission licensing authority functions authority functions

Declare controlled emitters Declare controlled emitters None

Declare and set requirements for Declare and set requirements for None controlled fuels controlled fuels Establish a programme of public Set requirements for pollution recognition of significant None prevention plans achievement in air pollution prevention Prescribe measures for the Prescribe measures for the None control of dust, noise and odours control of dust, noise and odours Investigate and regulate None None transboundary pollution

25 Investigate potential international None None agreement contraventions

2.3. Legislation for Local Government

The Local Government: Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000, together with the Municipal Structures Act, establishes local government as an autonomous sphere of government with specific powers and functions as defined by the Constitution. Section 155 of the Constitution provides for the establishment of Category A, B and C municipalities which each has different levels of municipal executive and legislative authorities. According to Section 156(1) of the Constitution, a municipality has the executive authority in respect of, and has the right to, administer the local government matters (listed in Part B of Schedule 4 and Part B of Schedule 5) that deal with air pollution. Section 156(2) makes provision for a municipality to make and administer by-laws for the effective administration of any matters which it has the right to administer as long as it does not conflict with national or provincial legislation. The Municipal Systems Act as read with the Municipal Financial Management Act requires municipalities to budget for and provide proper atmospheric environmental services. In terms of the National Health Act 61 of 2003, municipalities are expected to appoint a health officer who is required to investigate any state of affairs that may lead to a contravention of Section 24(a) of the Constitution. Section 42(a) states that each person has the right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being.

The Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000, in conjunction with Section 32 of the Constitution, entitles everyone to the right of access to any information held by government and private individuals. The relevance of the right to information is that government, industry and private individuals can be compelled, through court proceedings if required, to make information available regarding the state of the atmosphere and pollution. The Promotion of Administrative Justice Act 3 of 2000 which was introduced by the State to give effect to Section 33 of the Constitution provides everyone with the right to administrative action that is lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair and the right to be given written reasons when rights have been adversely affected by administrative action.

26 2.4. Local Air Quality By-Laws

Section 156(2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa makes provision for a Local Municipality to make and administer by-laws for the effective administration of the matters which it has the right to administer so long as such by-laws do not conflict with National or Provincial legislation.

Within the Fezile Dabi District, no current air quality by-laws have been established at either the District or Local levels. Air pollution control is addressed in the Municipal Health Services by-laws published in the Government Gazette on 27 March 2009. This by-law applies to the regulation of smoke emissions from fuel burning appliances and dwellings, emissions from open burning and vehicles as well as nuisance-related emissions.

Regulations for fuel burning appliances include:

1) Prohibition – dark smoke shall not be emitted any premises for an aggregate period exceeding three minutes during any continuous period of thirty minutes, 2) Installation of fuel-burning equipment – No person shall install, alter, extend or replace any fuel-burning equipment on any premises without the prior written authorization of the Council, which may only be given after consideration of the relevant plans and specifications, 3) Operation of fuel-burning equipment – No person shall use or operate any fuel- burning equipment on any premises contrary to the authorization referred to in section 145(1), 4) Installation and operation of obscuration measuring equipment – Council or an authorized person may give notice to any operator of fuel-burning equipment or any owner or occupier of premises on which fuel-burning equipment is used or operated, or intended to be used or operated, to install, maintain and operate obscuration measuring equipment at his or her own cost.

Regulations for compressed ignition powered vehicles include:

1) Prohibition – No person may on a public road drive or use, or cause to be driven or used, a compressed ignition powered vehicle that emits dark smoke, 2) Stopping of vehicles for inspection and testing – In order to enable an Council or an authorized person to enforce the provisions of this Part, the driver of a vehicle

27 must comply with any reasonable direction given by an authorized person: (a) to stop the vehicle; and (b) to facilitate the inspection or testing of the vehicle, 3) Testing procedure – An authorized person must use the free acceleration test method in order to determine whether a compressed ignition powered vehicle is being driven or used in contravention of section 153(1), 4) Repair notice – A repair notice must direct the owner of the vehicle to repair the vehicle within a specified period of time, and to take the vehicle to a place identified in the notice for re-testing before the expiry of that period.

The Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) has developed a generic air pollution control by-law for Municipalities. It is recommended that an air quality by-law for the Fezile Dabi District should be modeled on these by-laws.

2.5. Ambient Air Quality Guidelines and Standards

Guidelines provide a basis for protecting public health from adverse effects of air pollution and for eliminating, or reducing to a minimum, those contaminants of air that are known or likely to be hazardous to human health and well-being (WHO, 2000). Once the guidelines are adopted as standards, they become legally enforceable. Air quality guidelines and standards can be developed for the following averaging periods, namely an instantaneous peak, 1-hour average, 24-hour average, 1-month average and annual average.

The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS), in collaboration with DEA, established ambient air quality standards for criteria pollutants. Two standards were published as part of this process:

• SANS 69:2004 - Framework for setting and implementing national ambient air quality standards • SANS 1929:2005 - Ambient Air Quality - Limits for common pollutants

SANS 69 defines the basic principles of a strategy for air quality management in South Africa. This standard supports the establishment and implementation of ambient air

28 quality objectives for the protection of human health and the environment. Such air quality objectives include:

• Limit values - to be based on scientific knowledge, with the aim of avoiding, preventing or reducing harmful effects on human health and the environment as a whole. Limit values are to be attained within a given period and are not to be exceeded once attained. • Target values - to be set to avoid harmful long-term effects on human health and the environment. Target values represent long-term goals to be pursued through cost-effective progressive methods. At these values, pollutants are either harmless or unlikely to be reduced through expending further reasonable cost on abatement due to background sources or other factors. • Alert thresholds - refer to levels beyond which there is a risk to human health from brief exposure. The exceedance of such thresholds necessitates immediate steps.

The SANS 1929 standard sets limit values based on human health effects of SO2,

PM10, NOx, O3, Pb and C6H6 concentrations.

2.5.1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards

The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism issued ambient air quality guidelines for several criteria pollutants, including particulates, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, lead, ozone and carbon monoxide. The Air Quality Act of 2004 adopted these guidelines as National ambient air quality standards. On 2 June 2006, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism announced his intention of setting new ambient air quality standards in terms of Section 9(1)(a) and (b) of the Air Quality Act. The proposed new standards were published for public comment in the Government Gazette of 9 June 2006 with revised National standards, including allowable frequencies of exceedance and compliance timeframes, published for comment on 13 March 2009. On 25 December 2009, the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs established National ambient air quality standards (Table 3).

29 Table 3: National standards (µg/m3) with allowable frequencies of exceedance for immediate compliance. The values indicated in blue are expressed in ppb.

Frequency of Pollutant Averaging Period Concentration Exceedance

10-min average 500 (191) 526

Sulphur dioxide 1-hr average 350 (134) 88

SO2 24-hr average 125 (48) 4

Annual average 50 (19) 0

1-hr average 200 (106) 88 Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Annual average 40 (21) 0

1-hr average 30 000 (26 000) 88 Carbon monoxide CO 8-hourly running 10 000 (8 700) 11 average Ozone 8-hourly running 120 (61) 11 O3 average

24-hr average 120 4 Particulate Matter PM10 Annual average 50 0

Lead Annual average 0.5 0 Pb Benzene Annual average 10 (3.2) 0 C6H6

2.6. Listed Activities and Minimum Emission Standards

In terms of Section 57 (1) of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act of 2004, listed activities and associated minimum emission standards were published in the Government Gazette on 31 March 2010. All identified listed activities will require an Atmospheric Emission Licence to operate. Listed activities have been identified to include:

30 • Category 1: Combustion Installations (1) Subcategory 1.1: Solid fuel combustion installations (2) Subcategory 1.2: Liquid fuel combustion (3) Subcategory 1.3: Solid biomass combustion installations (4) Subcategory 1.4: Gas combustion installation • Category 2: Petroleum Industry (1) Subcategory 2.1: Combustion installations (2) Subcategory 2.2: Storage and Handling of Petroleum Products (3) Subcategory 2.3: Industrial fuel oil recyclers • Category 3: Carbonization and Coal Gasification (1) Subcategory 3.1: Combustion installation (2) Subcategory 3.2: Coke production and coal gasification (3) Subcategory 3.3: Tar production (4) Subcategory 3.4: Char, charcoal and carbon black production (5) Subcategory 3.5: Electrode paste production • Category 4: Metallurgical Industry (1) Subcategory 4.1: Drying (2) Subcategory 4.2: Combustion installations (3) Subcategory 4.3: Primary aluminium production (4) Subcategory 4.4: Secondary aluminium production (5) Subcategory 4.5: Sinter plants (6) Subcategory 4.6: Basic oxygen furnace steel making (7) Subcategory 4.7: Electric arc furnace and steel making (primary and secondary) (8) Subcategory 4.8: Blast furnace operations (9) Subcategory 4.9: Ferro-alloy production (10) Subcategory 4.10: Foundries (11) Subcategory 4.11: Agglomeration operations (12) Subcategory 4.12: Pre-reduction and direct reduction (13) Subcategory 4.13: :Lead smelting (14) Subcategory 4.14: Production and processing of zinc, nickel and cadmium (15) Subcategory 4.15: Processing of arsenic, antimony, beryllium chromium and silicon

31 (16) Subcategory 4.16: Smelting and converting of sulphide ores (17) Subcategory 4.17: Precious and base metal production and refining (18) Subcategory 4.18: Vanadium ore processing (19) Subcategory 4.19: Production and casting of bronze and brass, and casting copper (20) Subcategory 4.20: Slag processes (21) Subcategory 4.21: Metal recovery (22) Subcategory 4.22: Hot dip galvanizing • Category 5: Mineral Processing, Storage and Handling (1) Subcategory 5.1: Storage and handling of ore and coal (2) Subcategory 5.2: Clamp kiln for brick production (3) Subcategory 5.3: Cement production (using conventional fuels) (4) Subcategory 5.4: Cement production (using alternative fuels and/or resources) (5) Subcategory 5.5: Lime production (6) Subcategory 5.6: Glass and mineral wool production (7) Subcategory 5.7: Ceramic production (8) Subcategory 5.8: Macadam preparation (9) Subcategory 5.9: Alkali processes • Category 6: Organic Chemicals Industry (1) Subcategory 6.1: Organic chemical manufacturing (2) Subcategory 6.2: Printing works • Category 7: Inorganic Chemicals Industry (1) Subcategory 7.1: Primary production and use in manufacturing of ammonia, fluorine, and chlorine (2) Subcategory 7.2: Primary production of acids (3) Subcategory 7.3: Primary production of chemical fertilizer (4) Subcategory 7.4: Manufacturing activity involving the production, use in manufacturing or recovery of antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, selenium, not associated with the application of heat (5) Subcategory 7.5: Production of calcium carbide (6) Subcategory 7.6: Production of phosphorus and phosphate salts not mentioned elsewhere

32 • Category 8: Disposal of Hazardous and General Waste • Category 9: Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Activities, including By-Products Recovery (1) Subcategory 9.1: Lime recovery kiln (2) Subcategory 9.2: Alkali waste chemical recovery furnaces (3) Subcategory 9.3: Copeland alkali waste chemical recovery furnaces (4) Subcategory 9.4: Chlorine dioxide plant (5) Subcategory 9.5: Wood drying and the production of manufactured wood products • Category 10: Animal Matter Processing

33 3. METEOROLOGICAL OVERVIEW AND AMBIENT AIR QUALITY OF FEZILE DABI DISTRICT

An overview of the macroscale and mesoscale atmospheric circulations influencing airflow and the subsequent dispersion and dilution of pollutants is discussed. The local meteorological conditions in the District are evaluated using surface meteorological data from weather stations operated by various agencies including the South African Weather Service, Agricultural Research Institute, industry and National Government.

3.1. Macroscale Air Circulations

The mean circulation of the atmosphere over southern Africa is anticyclonic throughout the year due to the dominance of three semi-permanent, subtropical high-pressure cells over the subcontinent. Seasonal changes in the intensity and position of the high- pressure cells, together with the influence of the easterlies in the north and westerlies in the south, controls the climate of southern Africa.

Synoptic circulations within the general circulation influence the everyday weather of southern Africa. Subtropical control of southern Africa is effected through the three semi- permanent anticyclones, tropical control occurs through tropical easterly waves while temperate control occurs through travelling perturbations in the westerlies.

Anticyclones centered over the subcontinent are associated with subsidence of air which produces clear, dry, stable conditions. The frequency of occurrence of anticyclones reaches a maximum over the interior plateau in June and July (79%) with a minimum during December (11%). Although the dominant effect of winter subsidence is such that the mean vertical motion is downward, weather occurs when uplift is produced by localized systems. Subsidence associated with anticyclones is conducive to the formation of absolutely stable layers in the troposphere that prevent the vertical transport of pollution. Over the interior plateau, three stable layers occur at 700 hPa, 500 hPa, 300 hPa respectively with another layer at 800 hPa between the plateau and the coast. On days when these stable layers occur, dense haze layers are evident (Tyson et al., 1996). Absolutely stable layers at the surface in the form of surface inversions develop due to cooling during the night. Surface inversions prevent the vertical distribution of pollutants in the atmosphere which can reduce visibility during the early morning. During the day,

34 the stable boundary layer is eroded away by heating and a mixing layer develops which may erode away the surface inversion (Tyson et al., 1988). Pollutants trapped below the surface inversion are then able to rise and disperse.

Over southern Africa, semi-stationary easterly waves form in deep easterly currents in the vicinity of an easterly jet. The waves are barotropic (axes not displaced with height) and the perturbations take the form of open waves or closed lows which are evident near the surface. Surface convergence and upper air divergence to the east of the wave produces strong uplift, instability and the potential for precipitation. Ahead of and to the west surface divergence and upper air convergence occurs, ensuring clear, dry conditions. Easterly lows are deeper systems than easterly waves, with surface convergence through the 500 hPa level to the east and divergence to the west. Such phenomena are associated with copius rains if airflow has a northerly component. Tropical disturbances are mainly a summer phenomenon and peak during the summer months of December and February.

Westerly waves are baroclinic, Rossby waves and are tilted westward with height. Westerly waves are associated with surface convergence and upper-level divergence which produce gentle uplift of air. Subsidence and stable conditions occur ahead of the trough with cloud and precipitation to the rear of the trough. Other disturbances in the westerlies include cut-off lows, southerly meridional flow, ridging anticyclones, west- coast troughs and cold fronts. Cold fronts occur together with westerly waves, depressions or cut-off lows. Cold fronts occur most frequently in winter and bring cool weather due to airflow from the south and south-west. Ahead of the front, northerly airflow is associated with divergence and subsidence that brings stable, clear conditions. Behind the front, southerly airflow, associated with low-level convergence causes cool conditions and rain (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). With the passage of a cold front, wind direction changes from north-west to west and south-west.

3.2. Mesoscale Air Circulations

Air transport near the surface can either be induced by horizontal spatial discontinuities in temperature, pressure and density fields or by topographically induced local winds such as those on slopes and in valleys. Such mesoscale circulations have implications for the transport and recirculation of pollutants in an airshed.

35 On slopes, differential heating and cooling of the air produces local baroclinic fields (Figure 4). During the day, the absorption of radiation by the slopes warms the air near the surface, initiating low-level, up-slope anabatic flow with an upper-level return flow to complete the closed circulation. During the night, the mechanism and the circulation are reversed as surface cooling produces down-slope katabatic flow and its return flow. The formation of frost hollows and the accumulation of fog and pollutants are associated with down-slope flow (Atkinson, 1981).

Figure 4: Diurnal variation of local winds on slopes (after Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).

Within valleys, local airflow is dependent on the geometry (depth and orientation) of valleys and the time of day or night (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000). In valleys whose slopes are equally heated (east-west valleys), early morning circulations are up-slope and down-slope in the evening (Figure 5). During the day, up-valley valley winds occur with an upper-level anti-valley wind to complete the closed circulation. During the night, down-valley mountain winds and the return anti-mountain wind occur. In valleys at right angles to the rising and setting sun (north-south valleys), the flow patterns are similar except that a unicellular circulation is set up at sunrise and sunset. These wind fields control the transport and dispersion of low-level pollutants within valleys (Tyson et al., 1988). Nocturnal mountains winds can transport pollution long distances down valleys under stable conditions while daytime valley winds can effectively disperse and dilute pollution trapped within the valley. Valley winds dominate and are strongest in summer when heating is greatest while mountain winds dominate and are strongest in winter when cooling is strongest (Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).

Figure 5: Diurnal variation of local winds in valleys (after Tyson and Preston-Whyte, 2000).

3.3. Local Wind Field

Characterisation of the wind field in the Fezile Dabi District was undertaken using surface meteorological data from available weather stations in the District. Surface meteorological data was obtained from the South African Weather Service (SAWS) only station in Kroonstad. The Agricultural Research Commission (ARC) operates a network of monitoring stations in the District as part of a larger National Meteorological Monitoring Network. Meteorological monitoring is also undertaken by various agencies in Metsimaholo Local Municipality including the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) which own a station in Zamdela and Sasol which operate five stations in Sasolburg. Meteorological data was also obtained from the decommissioned Makalu station previously owned by Eskom.

Meteorological parameters were obtained from these stations for the period January 2006 – December 2008 (given data availability for each station). A summary of the meteorological stations operated in the Fezile Dabi District is provided in Table 4.

37 Table 4: Meteorological stations in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Monitoring Latitude Longitude Monitoring Averaging Station Name Town/Farm Status Parameters Measured Agency (°S) (°E) Period Period

Wind speed, Wind direction, Bothaville - Oct 2004 - 10 sec Agricultural Bothaville -27.152 26.579 Active Temperature, Humidity, Doornhoutrivier current intervals Research Radiation, Rainfall Council Wind speed, Wind direction, Jan 2009 - 10 sec Ditsem - -26.982 27.027 Active Temperature, Humidity, current intervals Radiation, Rainfall Wind speed, Wind direction, Gladdedrift Jan 2001 - 10 sec Klippoort -26.995 28.958 Active Temperature, Humidity, Klippoort current intervals Radiation, Rainfall Wind speed, Wind direction, June 2000 – 10 sec Koppies Koppies -27.205 27.429 Active Temperature, Humidity, current intervals Radiation, Rainfall

Wind speed, Wind direction, Midvaal: 10 sec Zuikerbosch -26.691 28.003 Active June 2004 Temperature, Humidity, Zuikerbosch intervals Radiation, Rainfall

Wind speed, Wind direction, Aug 2007 - 10 sec Moray Moray -26.943 27.337 Active Temperature, Humidity, current intervals Radiation, Rainfall

Wind speed, Wind direction, Rietpan Dec 2003 - 10 sec Viljoenskroon -27.179 26.909 Active Temperature, Humidity, Viljoenskroon current intervals Radiation, Rainfall

Wind speed, Wind direction, Dec 2003 - 10 sec Villiers Silo Villiers -27.037 28.615 Active Temperature, Humidity, current intervals Radiation, Rainfall Wind speed, Wind direction, Mar 2007 - 10 min DEA Zamdela Zamdela Active Temperature, Humidity, -26.845 27.855 current intervals Radiation, Rainfall Wind speed, Wind direction, Decommis Eskom Makalu - 27.903 -26.835 1984 - 2004 Temperature, Relative humidity, Hourly sioned Sigma Theta

38 Monitoring Latitude Longitude Monitoring Averaging Station Name Town/Farm Status Parameters Measured Agency (°S) (°E) Period Period

2003 - 10 min Sasol AJ Jacobs Sasolburg 27.826 -26.823 Active Wind speed, Wind direction Present intervals

2003 - 10 min *Boiketlong Sasolburg 27.846 -26.836 Active Wind speed, Wind direction Present intervals

2003 - 10 min Hospital Sasolburg 27.826 -26.803 Active Wind speed, Wind direction Present intervals

Wind speed, Wind direction, 2003 - 10 min *Steam Station Sasolburg 27.853 -26.820 Active Temperature, Humidity, Present intervals Pressure, Rainfall

2003 - Wind speed, Wind direction, 10 min Leitrum Sasolburg 27.871 -26.850 Active Present Temperature, Humidity intervals

Wind speed, Wind direction, South African 1960 - 5 min Kroonstad Kroonstad -27.633 27.233 Active Temperature, Humidity, Weather current intervals Pressure, Rainfall Services Note: * Meteorological data to be obtained from Sasol for inclusion into the report.

39 Wind roses summarize the occurrence of winds at a location, representing their strength, direction and frequency. Calm conditions are defined as wind speeds less than 1 m.s-1. Each directional branch on a wind rose represents wind originating from that direction. Each directional branch is divided into segments of different colours which are representative of different wind speeds. Wind speed classes are represented as 1 – 2 m.s-1 (slow), 2 – 4 m.s-1 (moderate), 4 – 6 m.s-1 (strong) and > 6 m.s-1 (fast).

Significant variation in the wind field is observed across the Fezile Dabi District (Figure 6). The wind field in the south-eastern parts of the District is characterised by moderate to strong airflow from the east, north-north-east and northerly directions at the Kroonstad station. A similar wind pattern is recorded at the Koppies station, located approximately 50 km inland to the north- north-east of Kroonstad. Winds at the Rietpan station in Viljoenskroon originate predominantly from the north-north-west with faster winds recorded from the westerly sector. The Bothaville station in Doornhoutrivier shows a different wind field with moderate to fast winds from the northerly and easterly sectors. Airflow at both the Ditsem and Moray stations in the northern parts of the District is influenced by the nearby Vredefort Dome. Winds at Ditsem originate predominantly from the north-west with a decrease in wind speeds observed at this station. The Moray station, which is located within the Vredefort Dome, has winds frequently occurring from the west-north-west and the north-north-west.

A number of meteorological stations can be found in Metsimaholo Local Municipality as various agencies undertake monitoring in and around the Sasolburg area. Despite their close proximity to each other, all the stations in the area have slightly different wind patterns. Slow to moderate winds are recorded at the AJ Jacobs and Hospital stations with an increase in wind speeds observed at the Leitrum station. Winds at AJ Jacobs originate from the north-east and north- north-east with a shift to the east-north-east and west-north-west observed at the Hospital station. Fast winds originating from all sectors are recorded at Leitrum. The Makalu station, located 3.5 km to the north-east, has moderate to fast winds from the easterly and northerly sectors. Bordering Metsimaholo to the north is the Midvaal station which has winds originating from the east-north-east and north. In the eastern parts of the District, a similar wind pattern is observed at both Villiers and Gladdedrift, with winds occurring from the east and west.

To be obtained To be obtained

L Ditsem Moray AJ Jacobs Fenceline Hospital Steam Statioin eitrum

Bothaville Makalu

Rietpan Midvaal

Koppies Villiers

Kroonstad Gladdedrift

Figure 6: Period surface wind roses for Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008]).

41 The diurnal variation of winds in Fezile Dabi District is given in Figure 7 - Figure 10. A distinct diurnal variation in wind patterns is observed at all the meteorological stations across the district. Winds originate from the easterly and northerly sectors during the night-time (18:00 – 06:00) and early morning (06:00 – 12:00) periods, with a distinct shift to the westerly and northerly sectors evident during the afternoon (12:00 – 18:00) period. An increase in wind speeds is also observed in the afternoon. As is usually observed, a lower percentage of calm conditions are recorded during the day-time with a higher percentage during the night-time.

The diurnal shift in airflow is evident at Kroonstad as winds originate from the easterly and northerly directions during the night-time and the westerly and northerly directions during the day-time (afternoon). A similar shift in wind patterns is also observed at the inland Koppies station and at the Rietpan station in the western parts of the District. The Bothaville station to the far west shows a slightly different diurnal wind pattern, although the afternoon shift in wind direction is evident. The topographical influence of the Vredefort Dome is evident in the diurnal signature at both the Ditsem and Moray stations. Winds at Ditsem remain predominantly from the north-east over most time periods although winds shift to a more westerly and northerly direction and increase in speed during the afternoon period. The same effect is recorded at the Moray station with winds occurring predominantly from the west-north-west over most time periods, with winds from the westerly sector becoming more frequent in the afternoon period.

In the northern parts of the district, in Metsimaholo Local Municipality, AJ Jacobs, Hospital, Leitrum, Makalu and Midvaal all reflect the same change in diurnal wind patterns. Villiers and Gladdedrift in the eastern parts of the district exhibit a strong diurnal signature as winds show a predominant east to west signature at these two stations.

Not obtained Not obtained

L Ditsem Moray AJ Jacobs Fenceline Hospital Steam Statioin eitrum

B othaville Makalu

Rietpan Midvaal

Koppies Villiers

Kroonstad Gladdedrift Figure 7: Diurnal wind roses (00:00 – 06:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008]).

Not obtained Not obtained

L Ditsem Moray AJ Jacobs Boiketlong Hospital Steam Statioin eitrum

B othaville Makalu

Rietpan Midvaal

Koppies Villiers

Kroonstad Gladdedrift Figure 8: Diurnal wind roses (06:00 – 12:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008]).

Not obtained Not obtained

L Ditsem Moray AJ Jacobs Boiketlong Hospital Steam Statioin eitrum

B othaville Makalu

Rietpan Midvaal

Koppies Villiers

Kroonstad Gladdedrift Figure 9: Diurnal wind roses (12:00 – 18:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008]).

Not obtained Not obtained

L Ditsem Moray AJ Jacobs Boiketlong Hospital Steam Statioin eitrum

Bo thaville Makalu

Rietpan Midvaal

Koppies Villiers

Kroonstad Gladdedrift

Figure 10: Diurnal wind roses (18:00 – 24:00) for the Fezile Dabi District Municipality for the period 2006 – 2008 (except for the Eskom Makalu station [2004], ARC Ditsem station [2009] and Sasol stations [2007 – 2008]).

46 3.3.1. Temperature

The Free State Province experiences a continental climate, characterised by warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters. Long-term average maximum, minimum and mean temperatures for Kroonstad are given in Figure 11. Average maximum temperatures range from 29.7 °C in January to 18.7 °C in July in with average daily minima ranging from 15.9 °C in January to -1.1 °C in July.

Figure 11: Maximum and minimum temperature (°C) for Kroonstad for the period 1967 – 1990.

3.3.2. Precipitation

The Free State is a summer rainfall region, with summers being hot but experiencing most rainfall. Monthly average rainfall in Kroonstad varies between 99 mm in January and 5 mm in July (Figure 12).

Figure 12: Average monthly rainfall (mm) for Kroonstad for the period 1967 – 1990.

3.4. Current Ambient Air Quality Situation

Limited air quality monitoring information is available in Fezile Dabi District as a whole, making it difficult to accurately quantify the current state of the air quality across the District. Continuous ambient air quality monitoring is limited to Metsimaholo Local Municipality with no other monitoring occurring in the other Local Municipalities. Reference is made to data obtained from existing and discontinued monitoring stations in the region. Ambient air quality monitoring has previously been undertaken by various industries in the region as well as more recently, by National Government. The location of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations in the District is shown in Figure 13.

Eskom operated a station in Makalu, approximately 12 km south-south-west of Lethabo Power Station between 1984 and 2004. This station was commissioned to assess the impacts from the Vaal and Highveld power stations but was found to be outside the maximum impact zone and subsequently decommissioned at the end of 2004.

Sasol operate five complete monitoring stations in Sasolburg at AJ Jacobs, Sasolburg Hospital, Boiketlong, Leitrim and Steam Station. Sasolburg Hospital is located on the north-eastern border of Sasolburg residential area with AJ Jacobs School located in the

48 south-western suburbs. Boiketlong was decommissioned at the end of 2007 and relocated for fenceline monitoring purposes. Leitrum is situated on the border of the Zamdela residential area and the Steam Station site is located within the Sasolburg Chemical Industrial Complex.

The Department of Environmental Affairs established and commissioned an ambient air quality monitoring station in Zamdela in February 2007 as part of a network of six monitoring stations in the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area. This station measures a range of pollutant parameters including PM10, PM2.5, NOx, SO2, CO and O3 as well as a various meteorological parameters.

Figure 13: Location of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations in the District.

49 3.4.1. Ambient Particulate Concentrations

3.4.1.1. Eskom Makalu Station

Ambient PM10 concentrations rarely exceed the National daily standard at the relatively remote Makalu station in 2004 (Figure 14). A maximum daily average concentration of 145 µg/m3 was recorded over the 12 month period. Exceedances of the standard are observed when westerly and south south-westerly winds transport emissions from Sasol and the neighbouring residential areas such as Boiketlong and Zamdela. However, winds from these sectors have a low frequency of occurrence. Increased PM10 concentrations also coincide with airflow from the north-west and north north-west.

Figure 14: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at Makalu for the period 2004. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3.

3.4.1.2. Sasol Monitoring Network

Elevated daily average PM10 concentrations are recorded at all stations over the monitoring period (Figure 15). PM10 concentrations increase during the autumn and winter months. Maximum concentrations are recorded at the Leitrum station where frequent exceedances of the standard are recorded (Table 5 and Table 6). Concentrations at the AJ Jacobs and Hospital stations exceed the standard on occasion.

50 These elevated ambient PM10 concentrations can be attributed to the combined impact of domestic fuel burning in Zamdela and the surrounding areas together with industrial emissions from Sasol.

Figure 15: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3.

3.4.1.3. DEA Zamdela Station

Ambient PM10 concentrations at Zamdela frequently exceed the National daily standard (Figure 14) with a maximum concentration of 387.23 µg/m3 recorded in 2008 (Table 6). Higher concentrations are recorded at this station compared to the other monitoring stations. However, a similar trend in concentrations is recorded at both the Leitrum and Zamdela stations, given their close proximity to each other.

Figure 16: Daily average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at Zamdela for the period 2007 - 2009. The red line represents the National daily standard of 120 µg/m3.

3.4.2. Diurnal Concentrations

Diurnal PM10 concentrations are shown in Figure 17. A distinct diurnal signature is recorded in PM10 concentrations at Zamdela due to the use of domestic fuels for heating purposes in the early morning and evening periods. This same signature is also reflected in both the Sasol Leitrum and Eskom Makalu stations although a delay in the morning peaks is observed at both these stations. Given the close proximity of the Letirum and Zamdela stations to each other, it is interesting to note the difference in diurnal trends recorded at these stations.

Figure 17: Diurnal PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations.

Table 5: Number of exceedances of the National daily PM10 standard at all stations over the respective monitoring periods.

Daily PM10 Exceedances Monitoring Agency Station 2006 2007 2008 2009 DEA Zamdela x 58 60 97 AJ Jacobs x 10 3 - Sasol Hospital x 3 8 - Leitrum 27 42 40 - Eskom Makalu x x x x

53 Table 6: Highest hourly, daily and annual average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold.

Monitoring Highest Hourly Average Highest Daily Average Annual Average Station Agency 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009

DEA Zamdela x 873.2 1496.7 1287 x 240.14 387.23 303.26 x 91.61 85.26 102.76

AJ Jacobs x - - - x 185.58 173.51 - x 55.44 45.56 -

Sasol (1) Hospital x - - - x 165.31 142.24 - x 54.08 48.42 -

Leitrum 946.69 - - - 293.64 252.49 200.46 - 40.81 78.95 64.98 -

Eskom (2) Makalu x x x x x x x x x x x x

Notes: (1) Particulate monitoring at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum is from July – December 2007, therefore highest daily average and annual average concentrations for 2007 are shown are for this period. (2) Makalu monitoring station was decommissioned in 2004. x Indicates that station was not operational - Indicates that data was not available

54 3.4.3. Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations

3.4.3.1. Eskom Makalu Station

Sulphur dioxide concentrations at Makalu are low and do not exceed the daily average standard (Figure 18) although it was approached on one occasion with a maximum daily 3 average concentration of 47 ppb (124 µg/m ). Increased SO2 concentrations coincide with airflow from the north-west and north north-west which are indicative of emissions from Sasolburg’s industrial area. The industrial signature evident in the diurnal concentrations at Makalu supports this (Figure 21). The contribution of Lethabo Power

Station to SO2 concentrations at Makalu is low due to the low frequency of occurrence of winds from the north and north-east. No seasonal variation is observed in SO2 concentrations at Makalu due to its remote location.

Figure 18: Daily average SO2 concentrations (pbb) at Makalu for 2004. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb.

55 3.4.3.2. Sasol Monitoring Network

In the Sasolburg region, daily average SO2 concentrations exceed the daily standard on several occasions over the monitoring period (Figure 19). Hourly average SO2 concentrations also exceed the standard on numerous occasions at all stations (Table 7). Maximum hourly average concentrations fell in the range of 202 – 344 ppb (Table 8) with maximum daily average concentrations of between 43 – 96 ppb. Annual average concentrations ranged from 11 – 21 ppb over the three year monitoring period. The highest hourly, daily and annual average concentrations occurred at AJ Jacobs due to the combined influence of industrial emissions and domestic fuel burning.

A distinct seasonal signature in SO2 concentrations is not observed at the stations in Sasolburg. This is indicative of a very strong industrial signature as industrial activity is less prone to seasonal cycles and therefore the observed SO2 data is more indicative of industrial emissions. Higher concentrations are recorded at the Sasolburg stations compared to other industrial sites.

Figure 19: Daily average SO2 concentrations (ppb) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb.

56 3.4.3.3. DEA Zamdela Station

Daily average SO2 concentrations recorded at Zamdela fall below the daily standard over the monitoring period (Figure 20). Although maximum hourly average concentrations exceed the hourly standard, the recorded number of exceedances is in compliance within the allowable frequency of exceedance (Table 7 and Table 8).

Figure 20: Daily average SO2 concentrations (ppb) at Zamdela for the period 2007 - 2009. The red line represents the National daily standard of 48 ppb.

3.4.4. Diurnal Concentrations

Diurnal SO2 concentrations recorded at all stations show a similar diurnal trend, indicative of an overall regional impact in SO2 concentrations (Figure 21). A combined industrial and domestic fuel burning signature is recorded within the Sasolburg region with a similar diurnal trend observed at all the monitoring stations. This combined source influence is also recorded at the remote Makalu station. This diurnal trend is associated with emissions from tall stacks. During the night-time, plumes from elevated sources emitting above or within the surface inversion are unable to reach ground level. Increased convection during the day-time erodes the surface inversion, promoting the down-mixing and entrainment of elevated plumes which result in the peak concentrations observed during this period.

Figure 21: Diurnal SO2 concentrations (ppb) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations

Table 7: Number of exceedances of the National hourly (top) and daily (bottom) SO2 standards at all stations over the respective monitoring periods.

Hourly SO2 Exceedances Monitoring Agency Station 2006 2007 2008 2009 DEA Zamdela x 3 1 7 AJ Jacobs 51 50 21 -

Sasol Hospital 14 47 17 - Leitrum 11 17 13 - Eskom Makalu x x x x

Daily SO2 Exceedances Monitoring Agency Station 2006 2007 2008 2009 DEA Zamdela x 0 0 0

AJ Jacobs 9 9 7 - Sasol Hospital 0 4 1 - Leitrum 0 0 1 -

Eskom Makalu x x x x

58 Table 8: Highest hourly, daily and annual average SO2 concentrations (ppb) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold.

Monitoring Highest Hourly Average Highest Daily Average Annual Average Station Agency 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009

DEA Zamdela x 151.96 158.63 169.14 x 32.92 30.03 38.41 x 8.85 7.96 9.19

AJ Jacobs 300.76 274.97 344.58 - 79.29 95.90 63.75 - 14.11 21.27 20.67 -

Sasol Hospital 212.48 251.51 318.04 - 46.56 77.87 59.01 - 10.48 21.11 15.20 -

Leitrum 245.13 202.22 260.49 - 43.27 42.91 54.55 - 12.04 15.73 19.14 -

Eskom (1) Makalu x x x x x x x x x x x x

Notes: (1) Makalu monitoring station was decommissioned in 2004. x Indicates that station was not operational - Indicates that data was not available

59 3.4.5. Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations

3.4.5.1. Eskom Makalu Station

Low NO2 concentrations were recorded at the Eskom station in 2004 with no exceedances of the one hour average standard (Figure 22). Concentrations remain fairly constant over the monitoring period although a slight increase is observed during the months of June and September when stable conditions promote the stagnation of pollutants. Sources within the Sasolburg area are possible contributers to the increased

NO2 concentrations recorded at this remote station.

Figure 22: Daily average NO2 concentrations (pbb) at Makalu for 2004.

3.4.5.2. Sasol Monitoring Network

Ambient NO2 concentrations recorded at the Sasolburg stations are well in compliance with the hourly standard (Figure 23). A similar seasonal trend is recorded at all three stations, indicative of the increased seasonal use of fuels for domestic purposes at these sites. Exceedances of the hourly standard were recorded on one occasion at Leitrum (Table 9) with a maximum hourly average concentration of 121 ppb during 2006 (Table 10).

Figure 23: Daily average NO2 concentrations (ppb) at AJ Jacobs, Hospital and Leitrum for the period 2006 - 2008.

3.4.5.3. DEA Zamdela Station

Slightly lower NO2 concentrations are recorded at Zamdela compared to the Sasol stations (Figure 24) with no exceedances of either the hourly or annual average standards (Table 9). A similar seasonal trend is observed to the Sasol stations.

Figure 24: Daily average NO2 concentrations (ppb) at Zamdela for the period 2007 – 2009.

3.4.6. Diurnal Concentrations

Diurnal NO2 concentrations recorded at all the stations show a similar diurnal trend over the monitoring period (Figure 25). This is indicative of a similar type of pollution source(s) and the regional influence of the prevailing meteorological conditions. Increased concentrations are recorded in the early morning (05:00 – 09:00) and late afternoon/early evening (17:00 – 21:00) periods. These periods are associated with increased traffic volumes in urban areas as well as possible emissions from domestic fuel burning. The reduced diurnal signature at the Makalu station could be attributed to the remote location of the station. However, increased stability during the evening period produces the peak in NO2 concentrations observed at the other monitoring stations.

Figure 25: Diurnal NO2 concentrations (ppb) at the Eskom, Sasol and DEA stations

Table 9: Number of exceedances of the National hourly NO2 standard at all stations over the respective monitoring periods.

Hourly NO2 Exceedances Monitoring Agency Station 2006 2007 2008 2009 DEA Zamdela x 0 0 0 AJ Jacobs 1 0 0 - Sasol Hospital x x 0 - Leitrum 0 0 0 - Eskom Makalu x x x x

63 Table 10: Highest hourly, daily and annual average NO2 concentrations (ppb) recorded at the monitoring stations. Exceedances of the National air quality standards (where applicable) have been highlighted in bold.

Monitoring Highest Hourly Average Highest Daily Average Annual Average Station Agency 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009 2006 2007 2008 2009

DEA Zamdela x 71.21 78.69 74.2 x 31.2 37.74 26.62 x 11.98 12.5 9.54

AJ Jacobs 120.84 85.65 91.04 - 46.33 40.69 42.00 - 14.93 17.39 16.21 -

Sasol Hospital x x 91.39 - x x 44.90 - x x 19.42 -

Leitrum 64.26 88.49 94.86 - 38.09 41.15 38.79 - 14.38 21.78 20.93 -

Eskom (1) Makalu x x x x x x x x x x x x

Notes: (1) Makalu monitoring station was decommissioned in 2004. x Indicates that station was not operational - Indicates that data was not available

64 Based on the available ambient air quality monitoring data for Metsimaholo Local Municipality, the major findings of the air quality assessment indicate that:

• Particulate concentrations are elevated in the Sasolburg region, with PM10 concentrations generally approaching and exceeding both the daily and annual average standards,

• Sulphur dioxide concentrations are also elevated in Sasolburg with short-term hourly concentrations exceeding the standard at all stations,

• Nitrogen dioxide concentrations are low in Sasolburg although a seasonal

signature is observed in NO2 concentrations with increased concentrations during the winter months. Nitrogen dioxide concentrations have a regional impact within the region.

65 4. STATUS QUO OF THE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN FEZILE DABI DISTRICT

4.1. Baseline Emissions Inventory

An emissions inventory for Fezile Dabi was compiled for air pollution sources where information was available or where emission factors could be applied to quantify emissions. Potential air pollution sources in Fezile Dabi have been identified as:

• Agricultural activities,

• Biomass burning (veld fires),

• Domestic fuel burning,

• Industrial operations,

• Mining,

• Vehicle tailpipe emissions,

• Waste treatment and disposal (landfills and incineration),

• Vehicle entrainment of dust from paved and unpaved roads,

• Other fugitive dust sources such as wind erosion of exposed areas.

Particulate and gaseous emissions from industrial operations, domestic fuel burning and vehicle tailpipe emissions were quantified for this assessment, due to the availability of data for these sources. Emissions from other sources could not be accurately quantified due to the limited availability of data and information. However, it is recognised that some of these sources could contribute significantly to the ambient air quality in the District.

Ambient pollutants that were assessed include the criteria pollutants, SO2, NO2 and PM10.

4.1.1. Industries Scheduled Processes, as defined by the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, are processes that emit more than a defined quantity of pollutants per year. No person may carry on a scheduled process in or on any premises unless he is the holder of a current registration certificate. Scheduled processes in the District include power generation, petrochemical and chemical activities, brickworks and abattoirs (Table 11).

66 Table 11: Types of scheduled processes in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Process Description Mafube Metsimaholo Moqhaka Ngwathe Process 3: Gas Liquor 9 Processes Process 4: Nitric Acid 9 Processes Process 5: Ammonium Sulphate and Ammonium 9 Chloride Processes Process 7: Hydrochloric Acid 9 Processes Process 8: Sulphide Processes 9 Process 9: Alkali Waste 9 Processes Process 12: Carbon Disulphide 9 Processes Process 14: Hydrocarbon 9 Refining Processes Process 15: Bisulphite 9 Processes Process 16: Tar Processes 9 Process 21: Hydrofluoric Acid 9 Processes Process 29: Power Generation 9 Processes Process 30: Iron and Steel 9 Processes Process 33: Producer Gas 9 Processes Process 34: Gas and Coke 9 Processes Process 35: Ceramic 9 9 9 Processes Process 39: Waste Incineration 9 9 9 9 Processes Process 42: Phosphorous 9 Processes Process 43: Ammonia 9 Processes Process 54: Metal Recovery 9 Processes Process 63: Silicon Processes 9 Process 69: Animal Matter 9 9 9 Reduction Processes

Overall, Fezile Dabi District is not considered to be an industrialized area with most medium to large-scale industries located in Metsimaholo Local Municipality. The petrochemical industry in Sasolburg forms the economic base of Fezile Dabi District

67 Municipality. Other smaller scale industries are located within the town of Kroonstad in Moqhaka Local Municipality. The spatial distribution of industries within Fezile Dabi is shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26: Spatial distribution of industrial sources in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

An emissions inventory of industrial sources in Fezile Dabi was compiled using information obtained from the APPA Registration Certificate Review database as well as various studies undertaken in the Vaal Triangle region (Scorgie, 2004; Liebenberg- Enslin et al, 2008). This inventory was updated and verified through new source information provided by the District Municipality as well as through site visits to selected towns. Main industries within each Local Municipality have been identified as:

Ngwathe – Van Slab, Twin Palms Meat Abbatoir, Floreat Foundary, Koepel Abbatoir

Moqhaka – Voorspoed and Lace diamond mines, gold mining, Sasko Mill, Kroonstad Regional Laundry, Arabest, CC Chickens and Country Meat Abbatoirs.

Mafube – FAC Abbatoir, Clover, Mill

68 Metsimaholo – Lethabo Power Station, Sasol Chemical Industries Complex, Natref, Omnia Fertiliser, Karbochem and Safripol as well as Sigma Colliery and Wonderwater strip-mining operations (both Sasol Mining)

Table 12: Summary of Industrial Sources in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Municipality Source Process Description Longitude (°S) Latitude (°E) Ngwathe Atla Granite Granite Manufacturing 27.4736 ‐26.9078 Van Slab Brick Manufacturing 27.4729 ‐26.9085 Van Niekerk Broers Sand and Brick Depot 27.4729 ‐26.9088 Terblanche Sand Depot 27.4519 ‐26.9026 Rock I Parys (RIP) Funerals Funeral Services 27.4551 ‐26.9049 Twin Palms Meat Abbatoir Abbatoir 27.4691 ‐26.9066 Parys Dry Cleaners Dry Cleaning 27.4603 ‐26.9055 Parys Provincial Hospital Hospital 27.4716 ‐26.8959 Parys Gietery (Floreat Foundary) Foundry 27.4551 ‐26.9284 Koepel Abbatoir Abbatoir 27.3768 ‐27.0097 Heilbron Hospital Hospital 27.9604 ‐27.2888 Moqhaka Voorspoed Diamond Mine Diamond Mining 27.1974 ‐27.4005 Lace (Crown) Diamond Mine Diamond Mining 27.1241 ‐27.4448 Power Station (decommisioned) Power Generation 27.2020 ‐27.6704 Boitomelo Regional Hospital Hospital 27.2141 ‐27.6454 Premier Foods (IWISA) Food Manufacturing 27.2188 ‐27.6643 Sasko Mill Grain Mill 27.2132 ‐27.6695 Kroonstad Regional Laundry Laundry Services 27.2076 ‐27.6725 Arabest Tissue Manufacturing 27.2037 ‐27.6656 CC Chickens Abbatoir Abbatoir 27.2137 ‐27.6601 Country Meat Abbatoir Abbatoir 27.2155 ‐27.6593 Kroonstad Fuel Depot Fuel Depot 27.2305 ‐27.6740 Kroon Hospital Hospital 27.2304 ‐27.6536 Community Health Centre Hospital Mafube Concor Roads Road Construction Frankfort Provincial Hospital Hospital 28.4996 ‐27.2772 FAC Abattoir Abbatoir 28.5100 ‐27.2736 Clover Butter Manufacturing 28.5161 ‐27.2726 Mill Grain Mill 28.5949 ‐27.0260 Villiers Abbatoir Abbatoir 28.6044 ‐27.0249 Metsimaholo African Catalyst (Seud chemie) 27.8361 ‐26.8000 Fabuleis (Pty) Ltd Rendering Plant JJ Bricks Brick Manufacturing Karbochem (Senmin) Rubber latex 27.8556 ‐26.8278 Lethabo Power Station Power Generation 27.9806 ‐26.7417 Merichem ‐ Sasol Phenolic purification Natref Crude Oil Refinery 27.8417 ‐26.7875 Omnia Fertilizer Fertilizer 27.8639 ‐26.8028 Polifin (AECI Midlands) Chemical Production 27.8500 ‐26.8292 Polifin (Sasolburg) Chemical Production 27.8500 ‐26.8292 Rubnic Oil and Solvent Oil and Solvent Supplier Safripol (Pty) Ltd Polyethylene And Polypropylene 27.8625 ‐26.8042 Sasol Chemical Industries Chemical Production 27.8306 ‐26.8236 Sasolburg Provincial Hospital Hospital 27.8250 ‐26.8000 Separation and Recovery System Coal Tar Recovery Plant 27.8306 ‐26.8236 Sigma Colliery Colliery 27.8333 ‐26.8500 SMX Sasolburg (Sasol Nitro) 27.8500 ‐26.8333 United Carbon Products Vaal Silicon Smelters Silicon Manufacturing Midland (EAC) Tannery Tannery 27.8282 ‐26.9053 Coalbrook Colleries Colliery 27.8930 ‐26.9147

69 The emissions inventory compiled for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan was requested from the Department of Environmental Affairs to prevent duplication of information obtained from industries during the development of theVaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan. However, this information was not provided by the Department of Environmental Affairs and could not be included in this plan. It is recommended that Fezile Dabi District Municipality follow up with the Department of Environmental Affairs to ensure that this information is maintained at the District Level.

4.1.2. Domestic Fuel Burning

Fuels used for domestic burning include coal, wood, paraffin and gas with other fuels such as animal dung used to a lesser extent. Where available, electricity is also used, although factors such as cultural traditions and affordability influence electricity consumption in many of these low-income areas. Other factors such as rapid urbanization and the growth of informal settlements have also resulted in backlogs in the distribution of basic services such as electricity and waste removal. The backlog in household electrification in the Free State Province was estimated to be 25% in 2006.

Although a high percentage of households are electrified in Fezile Dabi, use is still made of domestic fuels such as coal, wood and paraffin for cooking and space heating purposes (Table 13). Areas in the District still utilizing domestic fuels include Namahadi and Qalabotjha (Mafube), Refengkgotso and Zamdela (Metsimaholo), Rammulutsi and Moakeng (Moqhaka) and Phiritona and Kwakwatsi (Ngwathe),

Pollutants released from these fuels include CO, NO2, SO2, inhalable particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Particulates are the dominant pollutant emitted from the burning of wood. Smoke from wood burning contains respirable particles that are small enough in diameter to enter and deposit in the lungs. These particles comprise a mixture of inorganic and organic substances including aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, trace metals, nitrates and sulphates. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are produced as a result of incomplete combustion and are potentially carcinogenic in wood smoke (Maroni et al., 1995). The main pollutants emitted from the combustion of paraffin are NO2, particulates, carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Domestic fuel burning shows a characteristic diurnal and seasonal signature. Periods of

70 elevated domestic fuel burning, and hence emissions, occurs in the early morning and evening for space heating and cooking purposes. During the winter months, an increase in domestic fuel burning is recorded as the demand for space heating and cooking increases with the declining temperature.

Table 13: Household fuel usage in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Lighting (%) Cooking (%) Heating (%) Fuel Census Census Census CS 2007 CS 2007 CS 2007 2001 2001 2001 Electricity 80.34 91.41 51.20 85.86 42.01 69.66

Gas 0.10 0.13 3.32 1.35 1.48 1.39

Paraffin 1.39 1.32 24.21 8.15 10.11 5.32

Wood - - 7.35 2.83 10.44 7.00

Coal - - 11.45 1.37 30.79 12.92

Animal dung - - 2.04 0.42 2.06 0.46

Solar 0.38 0.17 0.21 0.02 0.41 0.02

Other 0.22 0.30 0.23 0.01 2.68 3.24

The spatial distribution of household coal burning in Fezile Dabi District is shown in Figure 27. The spatial distribution of household paraffin and wood burning is similar to that for coal and is therefore not shown. Domestic fuel burning occurs predominantly in informal areas in and around the major towns in the District where population densities are the highest.

Figure 27: Household coal usage in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Information on the numbers and spatial distribution of households using domestic fuels for domestic purposes in Fezile Dabi District was estimated based on fuel use statistics and household numbers from the Census 2001. Monthly fuel consumption figures for low-income households (Afrane-Okese, 1998) were used together with the numbers of households using the various fuel types to estimate the total quantities of fuels being consumed. The emission factors used to calculate domestic fuel burning emissions are given in Table 14.

72 Table 14: Emission factors for domestic fuel burning (FRIDGE, 2004).

Emission Factors Fuel SO2 (g/kg) NO (g/kg) PM10 (g/kg) Coal 11.6(a) 4(d) 12(f) Paraffin 0.1(b) 1.5(e) 0.2(e) Wood 0.2(c) 1.3(c) 17.3(c)

(a) Based on sulphur content of 0.61% and assuming 95% of the sulphur is emitted. The lowest percentage sulphur content associated with coal used by local households was used due to previous over predictions of sulphur dioxide concentrations within residential coal burning areas. Previous predictions were significantly above measured sulphur dioxide concentrations. With the assumption of a sulphur content of 0.61%, predicted sulphur dioxide concentrations are slightly above, but within an order of magnitude, of measured concentrations. (b) Based on sulphur content of paraffin (<0.01% Sulphur). (c) Based on US-EPA emission factor for residential wood burning (EPA, 1996). (d) Based on the Atomic Energy Corporation (AEC) household fuel burning monitoring campaign (Britton,

1998) which indicated that an average of 150 mg/MJ of NOx were emitted during cooking and space heating. Given a calorific value of 27 Mj/kg, the emission rate was estimated to be ~4 g/kg. (e) US-EPA emission factors for kerosene usage (EPA, 1996). (f) Initially taken to be 6 g/kg based on 2001 synopsis of studies pertaining to emissions from household coal burning (Scorgie et al., 2001). Results from simulations using this emission factor undertaken as part of the current study indicated that fine particulate concentrations within household coal burning areas are under predicted by a factor of two. This emission factor was therefore scaled to 12 g/kg in order to facilitate the more accurate simulation of airborne fine particulates within household coal burning areas.

Estimated SO2, NO and PM10 emissions due to paraffin, coal and wood burning in each Local Municipality in Fezile Dabi is given in Figure 28. Emissions have been calculated using household statistics from the Census 2001. The more recent Community Survey 2007 records a decrease in the number of households using domestic fuels due to increased electrification since 2001 and therefore current domestic fuel burning emissions (due to paraffin, wood and coal burning) is overestimated. However, this survey only provided information at the lowest level of Municipalities and was therefore was not used.

Figure 28: Contribution by Local Municipality to the total domestic fuel burning

emissions of SO2 (top left), NO (top right) and PM10 (bottom).

4.1.3. Transportation

4.1.3.1. Vehicle Emissions

One of the major contributors to urban air pollution is vehicular emissions. Atmospheric pollutants emitted from motor vehicles include hydrocarbons, CO, NOx, SO2 and particulates. Hydrocarbon emissions, such as benzene, result from the incomplete combustion of fuel molecules in the engine. CO is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is only partially oxidized to carbon dioxide. NOx are formed by the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen under high pressure and temperature conditions in the engine. SO2 is emitted due to the high sulphur content of the fuel. Particulates such as lead originate from the combustion process as well as from brake and clutch linings wear. With the introduction of unleaded fuel, lead emissions have been reduced. Diesel engines are a significant source of particulate emissions. Vehicle emission rates are affected by specific vehicle-related factors such as vehicle class, model, fuel-delivery system, vehicle speed and maintenance history; fuel-related factors such as fuel type, oxygen, sulphur, benzene and lead content and environmental factors

74 such as altitude, humidity and temperature (Samaras and Sorensen, 1999).

The Fezile Dabi District road network is made up of National, Provincial and Local roads. The N1 and N3 National roads pass through Fezile Dabi District Municipality. Vehicle count data was obtained from Mikros Traffic Monitoring for major roads and highways within the District for the period 2008 – 2009. However, the traffic count data provided by Mikros Traffic Monitoring was limited to Mafube, Moqhaka and Ngwathe Local Municipalities and did not include Metsimaholo Local Municipality. Based on vehicle and fuel sales, Metsimaholo Local Municipality is likely to be the main source of vehicle emissions in the District.

The composition of light and heavy vehicles to the vehicle fleet on these roads is shown in Table 15, as per the vehicle sales for each region (NAAMSA). Fuel sales per magisterial district were obtained from the Department of Minerals and Energy and are given in Table 16.

75 Table 15: Vehicle sales per licencing district in Fezile Dabi District for the period 1985 – 2009.

Market Fuel Type Edenville Frankfort Heilbron Koppies Kroonstad Parys Sasolburg Steynsrus Viljoenskroon Vredefort BUS Diesel 2 1 7 1 HCV Diesel 1 9 265 102 9 80 22 6 LCV Diesel 76 1 216 1 188 565 3 270 1 407 1 496 43 753 107 LCV Petrol 41 443 754 135 2 760 1 164 2 496 41 434 39 MCV Diesel 7 13 106 11 131 52 144 1 25 7 MCV Petrol 2 5 1 7 PAS Diesel 4 111 78 49 643 181 833 6 76 7 PAS Hybrid 1 1 PAS Petrol 98 934 1 825 345 7 521 2 443 9 679 28 1 083 79 XHV Diesel 8 52 161 27 102 84 552 1 92 3 Total 235 2 778 4 379 1 132 14 536 5 343 15 295 120 2 486 248

PAS – Passenger Vehicle BUS – Bus (> 8500 kg) LCV – Light Commercial Vehicle (< 3501 kg) MCV – Medium Commercial Vehicle (3501 – 8500 kg) HCV – Heavy Commercial Vehicle (8501 – 16 500 kg) XHV – Extra Heavy Vehicle (> 16 500 kg)

76 Table 16: Fuel sales per magisterial district within Fezile Dabi District for January – December 2008.

Local Magisterial Petrol Diesel Municipality District Mafube Frankfort 6 660 001 12 032 337 Metsimaholo Sasolburg 135 582 136 243 173 719 Moqhaka Kroonstad 25 112 212 88 741 415 Ngwathe Heilbron 6 032 488 4 596 207 Ngwathe Koppies 6 391 867 17 768 114 Ngwathe Parys 10 110 412 7 350 464 Moqhaka Viljoenskroon 2 198 797 9 887 865 Ngwathe Vredefort 782 782 692 955

As part of the Vehicle Emissions Project (VEP), emission factors were developed for tailpipe exhaust emissions from petrol (Wong and Dutkiewicz, 1998) and diesel driven vehicles (Stone, 2000). In the study undertaken by Wong and Dutkiewicz (1998) two light duty diesel vehicles were tested using a local and European reference diesel at the coast (Cape Town) and Highveld (Johannesburg), respectively. These emission factors were only determined for fixed driving cycles and are not correlated to different vehicle speeds. In addition, no evaporative emission rate factors were established. Emission factors are given for specific vehicle models such as carburetted and fuel injected models. In the later study done by Stone (2000), exhaust emissions from six locally manufactured heavy diesel engines were measured at the coast (Cape Town) and highveld (Sasolburg). The emission factors used in the plan are given in Table 17 and Table 18.

77 Table 17: Highveld emission factors for petrol vehicles (Wong and Dutkiewicz, 1998).

Pollutant Leaded Petrol (g/km) Unleaded (g/km)

NOx 1.99 2.15 CO 16.13 10.70

CO2 188.00 190.00

SO2 0.05 0.04 Total HCs 1.79 1.63 Methane 0.06 0.04 Benzene 0.03 0.02 1,3 Butadiene 0.02 0.03 Formaldehyde (mg/km) 14.57 16.50 Acetaldehyde (mg/km) 4.93 11.30 Particulates 0.00 0.00

Table 18: Highveld emission factors for diesel vehicles (Stone, 2000).

Pollutant LCV (g/km) M&HCV (g/km)

NOx 11.680 11.680 CO 3.540 3.540

CO2 739.000 739.000

SO2 1.540 1.540 Total HCs 1.010 1.010 Methane 0.147 0.088 Benzene 0.008 0.000 1,3 Butadiene 0.007 0.004 Formaldehyde (mg/km) 0.016 0.016 Acetaldehyde (mg/km) 0.010 0.010 Particulates 0.640 0.640

Estimated total vehicle emissions for Fezile Dabi District are given in Figure 29. Vehicle count data was provided by Mikros Traffic Monitoring for major roads and highways in the District with the exception of Metsimaholo Local Municipality. Although not represented on the pie charts below, this Municipality is likely to be the main contributor to vehicle emissions in the District with Moqhaka the second largest contributor due emissions from the N1 highway.

Figure 29: Contribution by Local Municipalities to the total vehicle emissions of SO2 (top left), NO (top right) and PM10 (bottom).

4.1.3.2. Airports

Airports are important generators of air pollution due to airport operations, vehicle traffic, on-site fuel storage facilities and aircraft maintenance and operation. On a local level, commercial aircraft are a significant contributor to urban air pollution. Airports produce large amounts of air pollution, emitted from aircraft operations, ground service equipment, vehicular activity (motor vehicles, taxis and buses), fueling facilities and other stationary sources such as airport power sources. Air pollution sources from airport activities can be categorised into the following (Dracoulides, 2002) -

• Aircraft activities (taxi in and out, runway queue, aircraft takeoff and climb-out,, aircraft approach and landing, aircraft parking and routine engine testing)

• Ground support equipment and auxiliary power units while the aircraft is parked at the gates,

• Vehicle activities (traffic within and around the airport, parking lots),

79 • On-site fuel storage tanks and emissions from emergency power generators.

Aircraft engines produce CO2, H2O, NOx, CO, SOx, VOCs, particulates and other trace elements. About 10% of all aircraft emissions, except hydrocarbons and CO, areproduced during ground level activities and during landing and takeoff. The majority of aviation emissions (90%) occur at higher altitudes (FAA, 2005).

Emission factors have been developed for the estimation of gaseous emissions from aircraft engines. Emission factors are available for different aircraft types, which can have several different engine combinations. These factors are provided in kg of pollutant per landing-takeoff cycle and in kg of pollutant per ton of fuel used to calculate landing- takeoff emissions and cruise emissions, respectively. Emissions generated by the ground support equipment, generators and auxiliary power units can also be estimated. Stationary sources, such as power and heating plants, fuel storage tanks and incinerators can be calculated using emission factors from the USEPA AP-42 database (Dracoulides, 2002).

Information required to estimate emissions from airports includes an inventory of aircraft types, average durations of taxi in and out operations, frequency of landings and take- offs, auxiliary power units operation, amount of fuel burned etc.

No major airports are located within Fezile Dabi District Municipality. Small airfields are located in some of the larger towns including Frankfort, Heilbron, Kroonstad, Parys, Sasolburg and Villiers. These airports provide for the landing of small aircraft to the District. Emissions from these airports are considered to be insignificant to ambient pollution levels and are therefore not quantified as part of this plan.

4.1.4. Agriculture

Emissions from agricultural activities are difficult to control due to the seasonality of emissions and the large surface area producing emissions (USEPA, 1995). Expected emission resulting from agricultural activities include particulates associated with wind erosion and burning of crop residue, chemicals associated with crop spraying and odiferous emissions resulting from manure, fertilizer and crop residue.

Dust associated with agricultural practices may contain seeds, pollen and plant tissue, as well as agrochemicals, such as pesticides. The application of pesticides during

80 temperature inversions increases the drift of the spray and the area of impact. Dust entrainment from vehicles travelling on gravel roads may also cause increased particulates in an area. Dust from traffic on gravel roads increases with higher vehicle speeds, more vehicles and lower moisture conditions.

Air emissions from pesticides arise because of the volatile nature of many active ingredients, solvents, and other additives used in formulations, and of the dusty nature of some formulations. Most modern pesticides are organic compounds. Emissions can result directly during application or as the active ingredient or solvent volatilizes over time from soil and vegetation. Organic compounds and particulate matter are the main air emissions from pesticide application. The active ingredients of most types of synthetic pesticides used in agriculture have some degree of volatility, ranging from non-volatile, semi-volatile to volatile organic compounds (e.g fumigants). Many pesticide formulations are liquids or emulsifiable concentrations which contain volatile organic solvents such as xylene, emulsifiers, diluents and other organics.

Of the total area of the Free State Province, agriculture accounts for 90% of the total land use. About 57% of the land is used for stock farming, including beef and dairy cattle and sheep while 33% is for crop production, including maize, sorghum, wheat, groundnuts and sunflowers (Hoffman et al, 1999). Maize is the most important crop in the Free State with the north-western areas, including Viljoenskroon and Kroonstad, being where most maize is produced. The highest concentration of cattle is in Brandfort, Frankfort, Harrismith and Vrede while the south, western and southern areas, as well as the eastern Free State are the main sheep production areas (Free State SoER, 2008).

The agricultural sector of the Free State is estimated to consume 20% of the total domestic fertiliser consumption. Maize is estimated to be the largest single consumer of fertiliser, with almost 40% of the total fertiliser market, followed by sugar cane (15%) and wheat (10%). The other crops together represent approximately 35% of the total fertiliser market (van der Linde and Pitse, 2006). Information on the amount and type of chemicals sold and used in the agricultural sector is not available. The Provincial Department of Health is in the process of collecting data that includes chemical usage and incidents of poisoning to determine the status of chemical usage and human health impacts (Free State SoER, 2008).

81 4.1.5. Biomass Burning

Biomass burning emissions constitute a significant proportion of the aerosols and trace gases present in the prevalent haze layer found over southern Africa (Li et al., 2003). In southern Africa, fires are mostly lit by people for land management or by lightning (Roy et al., 2005). In the southern African region, fire is the dominant process producing hydrocarbons and aerosols (Swap et al., 2003) and burning is a significant source of greenhouse gases, especially CO2 and methane (CH4), and photochemical gases (NOx,

CO and hydrocarbons) that lead to the production of tropospheric ozone (O3) (Levine et al., 1996; Piketh and Walton, 2004).

The properties of emissions are directly related to the type of burning process, fuel type and age of the smoke (Li et al., 2003). Smouldering fires (less efficient) have less complete combustion and release more CO, whereas, flaming (intense, efficient) fires have more complete combustion and release more CO2 (Ward et al., 1996; Scholes et al., 1996 ). A flaming fire, due to the lack of oxygen, will lead to the formation of soot, which due to its absorbing properties may disturb the regional vertical temperature profile (Ross et al., 1998). Flaming combustion usually dominates in the early burn of savanna and scrubland where emissions such as NOx are favoured over

CO or CH4 (Barbosa et al., 1999). This is followed by a smouldering stage that can continue for a number of days or possibly weeks (Edwards et al., 2006). Fully oxidised products such as CO2 and NOx usually result from the combustion of grasslands, whereas the smouldering nature of leaf litter and twigs in woodland beds generate more products of incomplete combustion (Korontzi et al., 2004).

Fire is less common in arid regions in the west and south-west interior of southern Africa, as there is insufficient available biomass fuel (e.g. dead wood, grass, shrubs and litter) (Roy et al., 2005). South Africa has a complex relationship between fire incidence and rainfall. This is a consequence of winter rainfall and summer/autumn burning on the south west coast and summer rainfall and winter/spring burning over the rest of the country. In general, there is an inverse relationship between fire incidence and rainfall, i.e. burning occurs mainly during the dry season. The emissions released due to burning can be calculated by using active fire detection as a proxy for burning and applying emissions factors for relevant vegetation types.

82 Kruger et al., 2006 developed a classification of veld fire risk for Municipalities in South Africa based on the prevailing vegetation type. Areas of extreme risk occur mainly within the savanna and grassland biomes while areas of high risk occur in the savanna and fynbos biomes. As the Free State Province, and hence, Fezile Dabi District falls within the Grassland biome (Figure 30), the veld fire risk has been classified as extreme (Figure 31).

Figure 30: Biomes of South Africa (National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment, 2004).

Figure 31: South African Municipalities classified according to four levels of veld fire risk (Kruger et al., 2006).

Burned areas for Fezile Dabi District are approximated by assuming each fire is 1 km × 1 km (Table 19). The spatial distribution of fires in the District is shown for the period 2004 – 2007 in Figure 32. As a whole, biomass burning has a low frequency of occurrence within the District. Neighboring regions such as Gauteng Province to the north has a higher frequency of occurrence and is a likely contributor to ambient air quality concentrations in the District, particularly during the fire burning season.

Table 19: Burned area using number of detected fires as a proxy.

Period Burned area (km2) 2004 219 2005 365 2006 243 2007 213

Figure 32: Spatial distribution of fires in Fezile Dabi District Municipality for 2004 – 2007.

4.1.6. Waste Treatment and Disposal Waste treatment and disposal methods which are of interest in terms of the toxicity and odiferous nature of their emissions include: incineration, landfills and waste water ponds used for the treatment, storage and disposal of liquid wastes.

4.1.6.1. Landfills

Emissions from landfills are a concern in terms of the potential for health effects and the odours generated. Landfills are important sources of the greenhouse gases such as CH4 and CO2, which account for approximately 40 – 60% of all landfill emissions. Landfill gases also contain trace amounts of non-methane organic compounds, including various

85 hazardous air pollutants and VOCs (USEPA, 1995). Odourous emissions from landfills can also be a severe public nuisance.

Based on air quality impact assessments conducted for general and hazardous waste disposal sites (Liebenberg-Enslin and Petzer, 2005) found that within 500 m of the landfill severe health effects occur, odour is potentially an issue between 200 m and 5 km depending on the management of the facility and nuisance dust impacts are usually restricted to the landfill boundary.

In terms of the Environment Conservation Act No 73 of 1989, all landfill sites must obtain a disposal site permit before such sites are established or operated. The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) was previously responsible for the issuing of these permits. With the transfer of the permitting function from DWA to DEA, DEA initiated the Waste Disposal Site Permitting Backlog Project to address the backlog in landfill permits.

Currently, there are four permitted waste disposal facilities in Fezile Dabi District with most landfills not being permitted (Table 20). Most of the waste disposals sites are used for general waste disposal, including domestic waste, garden waste as well as commercial and industrial waste. The distribution of landfills in the District is shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33: Location of waste disposal sites in Fezile Dabi District Municipality (for sites where co-ordinates were obtained).

87 Table 20: Waste Disposal Facilities in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Local Latitude Longitude Landfill Site Status Classification Municipality (°S) (°E) Mafube Cornelia - - Not Permitted G:C:B Frankfort - - Not Permitted G:C:B Tweeling 27° 32’ 51.78” 28° 30’ 32.82” Not Permitted G:C:B Villiers 27° 03’ 8.70” 28° 37’ 20.10” Not Permitted G:C:B Metsimaholo Deneysville 26° 54’ 22.86” 27° 49’ 41.52” Not Permitted G:C:B Holly Country - - - - Oranjeville 26° 54’ 25.86” 28° 10’ 59.70” Not Permitted G:S:B Sasolburg - - Not Permitted - Moqhaka Kroonstad 27° 39’ 33.9” 27° 10’ 52.8” Permitted G:S:B- Steynsrus - - Permitted G:C:B- Vierfontein 27° 05’ 46.7” 26° 47’ 25.1” Not Determined G:S:B Viljoenskroon 27° 12’ 04.7” 26° 57’ 50.3” Not Permitted - Ngwathe Edenville - - Not Permitted - Heilbron 27° 16’ 16.56” 27° 57’ 20.04” Not Permitted G:C:B- Koppies - - Permitted G:C:B- Parys 26° 54’ 41.34” 27° 30’ 9.36” Permitted G:S:B- Vredefort 26° 59’ 56.82” 27° 20’ 58.26” Not Permitted G:C:B-

88 4.1.6.2. Incinerators

Waste incineration processes (Scheduled Process 39) are processes for the destruction by incineration of waste that contains chemically bonded halogens, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur or metal, or any waste that can give rise to noxious or offensive gases. Incinerators are classified into various classes, whereby Class 1 incinerators are incinerators in which the waste serves as the fuel or supplementary fuel in an industrial process (e.g use of cement kilns for the disposal of waste), Class 2 incinerators are used for the disposal of hazardous or potentially hazardous waste and medical waste and Class 3 incinerators are used for the disposal of general waste.

Since March 1998, Environmental Impact Assessments have been required for proposed incinerator operations. The Department of Environmental Affairs is in the process of introducing air emission standards for the treatment of hazardous waste and co- processing of alternative fuels and raw materials in cement kilns.

The listed activities and minimum emission standards in the Government Gazette on 31 March 2010 identify the disposal of hazardous and general waste as a listed activity. Minimum emission standards have been proposed for facilities with an incinerator capacity of 10 kg of waste processed per hour or larger capacity.

Pollutants released from waste incineration include sulphur dioxide, heavy metals, acid gases, dioxins and furans, which represent a considerable air quality and human health risk. Particulate emissions from incinerators may also contain heavy metals such as chromium and cadmium, which are suspected human carcinogens.

Information on incinerator operations within Fezile Dabi District is limited, although incineration is likely to occur on a small-scale within the District. Parys Provincial Hospital, Frankfort Provincial Hospital and Sasolburg Provincial Hospital have been known to operate incinerators although their status is currently unknown.

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4.1.6.3. Waste Water Treatment Works

Pollutants released during waste water treatment include a range of Volatile Organic Compounds. Species measured at local waste water treatment works include hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans, ammonia, formaldehyde, acetone, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes, perchloroethylene, butyric acid, propionic acid, valeric acid and acetic acid. Waste water treatment works also have the potential to generate unpleasant odours, which can result in annoyance and consequently have a detrimental effect on a local population. Species associated with odours include hydrogen sulphide and ammonia as well as a variety of organic sulphides and organic nitrogen based compounds along with some oxygenated organic compounds and organic acids.

Waste water treatment works within Fezile Dabi was obtained from the Comprehensive Infrastructure Plan: Cycle 1 report developed by the CIP Programme Management Unit (2009) and is given in Table 21.

Table 21: Waste water treatment works in Fezile Dabi District Municipality. Process Main Type of Local Municipality Site Class Description Process Mafube Cornelia B Activated sludge Activated sludge Namahadi D Bio filtration Bio filter Tweeling E Oxidation ponds Oxidation ponds Activated sludge and Villiers C Bio filter bio filtration Metsimaholo Deneysville - Bio filtration Bio filter Oranjeville - Bio filtration Bio filter Moqhaka Activated sludge and Activated sludge Kroonstad B bio filtration and bio filter Viljoenskroon C Activated sludge Activated sludge Ngwathe Activates sludge and Koppies C Activated sludge bio filtration Activated sludge and Heilbron C Activated sludge bio filtration Activated sludge and Parys B Activated sludge bio filtration Activated sludge and Vredefort C Activated sludge bio filtration

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4.1.7. Summary of Air Pollution Sources in the District

The main air pollution sources in the District Municipality have been identified and where possible, quantified. A summary of the air pollution sources and their emissions are provided in Table 22.

Table 22: Air pollution sources and their associated emissions in Fezile Dabi District.

Sector Source Description PM10 SO2 NO2 Other Abbatoirs CC Chickens Abbatoir Abbatoir 9999 Country Meat Abbatoir Abbatoir 9999 FAC Abattoir Abbatoir 9999 Koepel Abbatoir Abbatoir 9999 Twin Palms Meat Abbatoir Abbatoir 9999 Villiers Abbatoir Abbatoir 9999 Agriculture Mafube and Moqhaka, Wheat, maize and cattle farming 99 Bi oma ss burning Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Agricultural burning and veld fires 9999 Ngwathe (controlled and uncontrolled) Brickworks JJ Bricks Brick Making 999 Van Slab Brick Making 999 Domestic fuel burning Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Coal, paraffin and wood burning in 9999 Ngwathe informal settlements Hospitals Boitomelo Regional Hospital Hospital 9999 Community Health Centre Hospital 9999 Frankfort Provincial Hospital Hospital 9999 Heilbron Hospital Hospital 9999 Kroon Hospital Hospital 9999 Parys Provincial Hospital Hospital 9999 Sasolburg Provincial Hospital Hospital 9999 Landfills Cornelia General waste disposal 9999 Deneysville General waste disposal 9999 Edenville General waste disposal 9999 Frankfort General waste disposal 9999 Heilbron General waste disposal 9999 Holly Country General waste disposal 9999 Koppies General waste disposal 9999 Kroonstad General waste disposal 9999 Oranjeville General waste disposal 9999 Parys General waste disposal 9999 Sasolburg General waste disposal 9999 Tweeling General waste disposal 9999 Steynsrus General waste disposal 9999 Vierfontein General waste disposal 9999 Viljoenskroon General waste disposal 9999 Villiers General waste disposal 9999 Vredefort General waste disposal 9999 Mining Coalbrook Colleries Colliery 9 Lace (Crown) Diamond Mine Diamond Mining 9 Sigma Colliery Colliery 9 Voorspoed Diamond Mine Diamond Mining 9 Gold Mines (Names Unknown) Gold Mining 9999 Petrochemical and Chemical African Catalyst (Seud chemie) 9999 Karbochem (Senmin) Rubber latex 9999 Merichem - Sasol Phenolic purification 9999 Natref Crude Oil Refinery 9999 Omnia Fertilizer Fertilizer 9999 Polifin (AECI Midlands) Chemical Production 9999 Polifin (Sasolburg) Chemical Production 9999 Safripol (Pty) Ltd Polyethylene And Polypropylene 9999 Sasol Chemical Industries Chemical Production 9999 SMX Sasolburg (Sasol Nitro) 9999

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Sector Source Description PM10 SO2 NO2 Other Power generation Eskom Lethabo Power Station Power Generation 9999 Small Industries/Other Arabest Tissue Manufacturing 999 Atla Granite Granite Manufacturing 999 Clover Butter Manufacturing 999 Concor Roads Road Construction 9 Fabuleis (Pty) Ltd Rendering Plant 9999 Kroonstad Fuel Depot Fuel Depot 9999 Kroonstad Regional Laundry Laundry Services 999 Midland (EAC) Tannery Tannery 9999 Parys Dry Cleaners Dry Cleaning 999 Parys Gietery (Floreat Foundary) Steel Foundry 999 Premier Foods (IWISA) Food Manufacturing 999 Rock I Parys (RIP) Funerals Tombstone Manufacturing 999 Rubnic Oil and Solvent Oil and Solvent Supplier 9999 Sasko Mill Grain Mill 9 Separation and Recovery System Coal Tar Recovery Plant 999 Terblanche Sand Depot 9 United Carbon Products Vaal Silicon Smelters Silicon Manufacturing 9999 Van Niekerk Broers Sand and Brick Depot 9 Villiers Mill Grain Mill 9 Trans-boundary transport Neighbouring countries and Biomass burning emissions will Municipalities (inc. Vaal Triangle impact Fezile Dabi District during 9999 region) the spring season Tyre burning Illegal tyre burning for extracting Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and copper and for space heating 9999 Ngwathe purposes Vehicle entrainment on Dust emissions from vehicle Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and unpaved roads activity on dirt roads in the District 9 Ngwathe

Vehicle tailpipe emissions High vehicle volumes on the Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and National (N1 and N3) and major 9999 Ngwathe roads Wind-blown dust Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Wind erosion of exposed, open 9 Ngwathe areas in the District

4.1.8. Predicted Ambient Air Quality in Fezile Dabi District

Dispersion modeling simulations have previously been undertaken for sources in Sasolburg as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan (Liebenberg-Enslin et al., 2006). Given that this is the main industrial area within the District as a whole and dispersion modeling simulations have already been undertaken, further quantification of concentrations in the area is not required.

Within Sasolburg, daily and annual average PM10 concentrations were predicted to exceed their respective PM10 targets while SO2 concentrations were found to be problematic in the short-term, exceeding the 10-min and 1-hour targets. Daily and annual average SO2 concentrations were in compliance with their respective targets (Figure 34 - Figure 38).

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Based on the modeled results, the residential areas of Sasolburg, Coalbrook and Zamdela were identified to be a priority hotspot zone in the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area due to industrial and mining activities and domestic fuel burning. Within this zone, the main sources of emissions are petrochemical processes which contribute more than

90% of SO2, NO and NO2 emissions. For PM10 emissions, petrochemical processes contribute 70% and mining activities contribute 18%. Ranked in order of importance, petrochemical processes, power generation, iron and steel processes and domestic fuel burning were identified to be the main contributors to SO2, NO and NO2 concentrations in this zone. Mining operations were the main contributors to PM10 concentrations.

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Figure 34: Highest daily average PM10 (µg/m3) Figure 35: Annual average PM10 (µg/m3) concentrations. concentrations.

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3 3 Figure 36: Highest hourly average SO2 (µg/m ) Figure 37: Highest daily average SO2 (µg/m ) concentrations. concentrations.

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3 Figure 38: Annual average SO2 (µg/m ) concentrations.

4.2. Gap Analysis

The following assumptions and limitations need to be taken into account for this assessment:

• The air quality baseline assessment was only undertaken for Metsimaholo Local Municipality given the availability of continuous ambient air quality monitoring data only for this Local Municipality, • Small industries and boilers in the District were identified through a site visit to selected towns during the development of the Plan but not quantified further.

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• The contribution of industries to PM10, SO2 and NO2 emissions in the District could not be evaluated as emissions information for these sources was not provided. The emissions inventory compiled for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Air Quality Management Plan was requested from the Department of Environmental Affairs but not provided during the development of this Plan.

• The contribution of vehicles to PM10, SO2 and NO2 emissions in Metsimaholo Local Municipality could not be evaluated as traffic count data was not available for major roads in this Municipality. • Vehicle emission estimations were limited to the National highways (N1 and N3) and major roads where traffic counts where available. • Domestic fuel burning emissions were estimated from the Census 2001 database of household fuel burning. Domestic fuel burning emissions are potentially overestimated for informal areas in the District as the Community Survey 2007 shows an increase in electrification and hence, a decrease in the percentage of households using domestic fuels. • Use was made of the dispersion modeling simulations undertaken for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan in 2007. Updated simulations were undertaken by the Department of Environmental Affairs in 2009 although this information could not be obtained for this study.

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5. AIR QUALITY PRACTICES AND INITIATIVES WITHIN PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

5.1. Government Structure and Functions

The capacity for air quality management and control within Fezile Dabi District is assessed within the various spheres of Government. The current capacity at Provincial, District and Local levels is evaluated in terms of available personnel, functions and resources.

5.1.1. Provincial Level

The responsibility for air quality management in the Free State Province lies within the Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs. However, air quality management functions within the Free State are not undertaken as no personnel are available to undertake this function.

5.1.2. District Level

Air quality management is the responsibility of the Environmental Health Practitioners in Fezile Dabi District Municipality. The organisational structure for a quality management in the District is given in Figure 39. Environmental and air quality related functions at this District are the responsibility of Municipal Health and Environmental Services. Current functions include the investigation of air quality complaints from the public. Fezile Dabi District Municipality is part of the Sasol Community Working Group which is involved in the Basa Njenjo Magogo project.

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Director: Community, Health and Environmental Services (L.K Mahlatsi)

Deputy Manager: Deputy Manager: Disaster Municipal Health and Management Environmental Services (Aletta Moshoeshoe) (Andre van Zyl)

Assistant Manager: Assistant Manager: Assistant Manager: Municipal Health Services Municipal Health Auxiliary Municipal Health West Region Services Services – East Region (Paulina Radebe) (Chakane Sibaya) (Andre van Zyl)

Environmental Health Senior Pollution Practitioner: Pollution Control Officer Control (Vacant) (Jacquelene Peterson)

Industrial Pollution Control Officer (Mcebo Mkhatshwa)

Figure 39: Organisational structure for Air Quality Management in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

5.1.3. Local Level

On 1 July 2004, all Environmental Health Practitioners (EHPs) were transferred from the Local Municipalities to Municipal Health Services at the District and Metropolitan Municipalities. As a result, Local Municipalities do not have enough capacity in terms of personnel, budget or equipment to undertake their air quality functions in terms of AQA. Therefore, few air quality management or control functions are undertaken by the Local Municipalities. Air quality related queries and functions within Mafube, Metsimaholo, Moqhaka and Ngwathe are referred to Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

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5.2. Air Quality Management Tools

5.2.1. Complaints Response Database

A complaints register was initiated by the District Municipality at the end of 2009 to log any air quality related complaints. It is important that air pollution complaints received from the public are recorded in an electronic database, investigated and addressed within each level of Government. Pollution complaints need to be logged into a centralised electronic pollution complaints database at the Department of Environmental Affairs to ensure the effective co-ordination and management of complaints received. Prior to such a system being implemented, it is recommended that the District maintain a complete complaint system, keeping records of responses, letters, notices and feedback to the complainant.

5.2.2. Emissions Inventory Database

The development and regular maintenance of a comprehensive emissions inventory database is an important component of any air quality management system. Such a database contains information regarding pollution sources (point, line, volume and area), source parameters (stack height, diameter, gas exit velocity and gas exit temperature) and emission rates.

An emissions inventory of industrial sources in Metsimaholo Local Municipality was compiled as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan and is currently held with the Department of Environmental Affairs. A preliminary assessment of industrial sources in the other Local Municipalities has been undertaken as part of this plan in conjunction with the District Municipality. Emissions information for these identified sources will need to be obtained by the District Municipality and compiled into an electronic database.

5.2.3. Dispersion Modelling Software

Limited software and knowledge exists within each sphere of Government to support dispersion modelling. Dispersion modelling software is not available at either the Local,

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District or Provincial levels. The use of such modelling software is critical to the understanding of the temporal and spatial distribution of pollutants in the atmosphere.

5.2.4. Data Reporting Practices

Ambient air quality monitoring is currently not undertaken by any of the Local Municipalities or the District Municipality. Ambient air quality monitoring is undertaken in the Vaal Triangle region which falls within Metsimaholo Local Municipality, although these stations are owned and operated by Sasol and the Department of Environmental Affairs. The management of the Department of Environmental Affairs’ station at Zamdela will soon be transferred to the South African Weather Services.

Within South Africa, the co-ordinated transfer of data from all monitoring stations to a centralised database is a critical component to ensure the effective and efficient management and verification of the monitoring data. As part of the South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS), a centralised database will be developed at the South African Weather Services to which all verified ambient monitoring data will be transferred and databased.

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6. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND OBJECTIVES ANALYSIS

From the outcomes of the baseline assessment, a number of key issues or problems were identified. These issues were either classified as ‘emission’ or ‘non-emission’ problem complexes and include: • Small industries (non-scheduled processes), • Scheduled and mining processes, • Domestic fuel burning • Vehicle emissions, • Agriculture and biomass burning • Landfills • Air Quality Management Capacity

The Logical Framework Approach was applied to each of the above identified problem complexes. The Logical Framework Approach is a project design methodology aimed at assisting planners and implementers in analysing the existing problems, establishing a logical hierarchy of means by which objectives will be reached, identifying the potential risks to achieving the objectives and in establishing how outputs may best be monitored and evaluated. For each identified problem complex, a problem tree was developed around which cause and effect relationships were established. These problems were then restated into achievable objectives that would result in the desired outcome.

6.1. Small Industries

Various fuel burning appliances, including boilers at dry-cleaners, hospitals and abattoirs, are located within the Fezile Dabi District.

6.1.1. Problem Analysis

Small industrial sources generally have low stack heights with a related poor dispersion potential. Therefore, pollutants released from these sources tend to have a localised impact. The problem is further complicated as emissions from small industrial sources are often uncontrolled and unregulated and as a result, emissions are unquantifiable. A

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detailed emissions inventory of small industrial sources in Fezile Dabi District is not available and therefore the sources, pollutants and their respective emissions are unknown.

6.1.2. Causes

The main cause of the problem in this sector is the previous absence of legislation and regulations to effectively manage emissions from small industries. Given the absence of such legislation and limited capacity of Government for control and enforcement, emissions from these sources are generally unknown and unregulated. The problem tree for small industries is provided in Figure 40.

Effects Possible human health Possible environmental effects effects

Possible exceedance of

ambient air quality standards

Emissions are Focal Point un-quantified

Emissions from Poor atmospheric industries unregulated dispersion potential

Not controlled under Short stacks result in APPA low level emissions

Causes

Figure 40: Problem Tree for Small Industries.

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6.1.3. Effects

The main effect is that emissions from small industries are not quantified, and therefore the impacts on the environment and human health remain largely unknown and uncontrolled.

6.1.4. Objectives

The objectives tree for small industries is given in Figure 41. The main objective is to develop a detailed emissions inventory of all small industrial sources in Fezile Dabi District Municipality which will ensure all sources are characterised and quantified in the District Municipality. Proper regulation and regular monitoring will ensure that these sources are in compliance with the National ambient air quality standards.

In the case of industries that are identified to emit large quantities of pollution, these sources, in accordance with the Air Quality Act, can be declared as controlled emitters if considered to have a significant environmental and health impact. Provision is also made in the Air Quality Act for the setting of emission standards for controlled emitters.

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Acceptable air quality

Emissions quantified (emissions inventory)

Emissions from Compliance and industries regulated enforcement (monitoring)

Controlled through Section 23 of AQA and Local By-Laws

Figure 41: Objectives Tree for Small Industries.

6.2. Scheduled and Mining Processes

Metsimaholo Local Municipality is the main industrial hub of Fezile Dabi District Municipality with coal mining, petrochemical and power generation activities occurring in this Municipality. Coal mines include Sigma Colliery and Coalbrook Colleries in Metsimaholo with the diamond mines of Voorspoed and Lace in Moqhaka. The main petrochemical industries include the refineries of Sasol and Natref in the Sasolburg area in Mesimaholo. Lethabo Power Station is also located within Metsimaholo.

6.2.1. Problem Analysis

Gaseous and particulate emissions are the main problems associated with scheduled processes while excessive dust emissions are the main problem in the mining sector.

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6.2.2. Causes

With scheduled processes, particulate emissions are associated with dust emissions from the waste dumps and stockpiles, as well as the combustion process which generates both particulate and gaseous emissions. Fugitive dust emissions associated with mining activities arise from the mine pits, haul roads and materials handling operations. The problem tree for scheduled processes is given in Figure 42.

Effects

Environment and Human health effects Climate

Exceedance of ambient air quality standards (SO2 and PM10)

Elevated gaseous and particulate emissions Focal Point from scheduled

processes

Transportation, storage and processing

Extraction of minerals Use of fossil fuels for and fossil fuels industrial processes

Need for goods and High energy demand commodities

Causes

Figure 42: Problem Tree for Scheduled and Mining Processes.

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6.2.3. Effects

The resultant effect of the identified problems is non-compliance of the scheduled processes and mining activities with the ambient air quality standards due to excessive particulate and/or gaseous emissions from these sources.

6.2.4. Objectives

The main objectives for the scheduled and mining processes are to reduce emissions to be in compliance with the National ambient air quality standards Figure 43). Stricter ambient air quality targets have been proposed for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area which should be considered for implementation in Metsimaholo Local Municipality given its location within the Priority Area.

Listed activities and associated minimum emission standards were published for public comment in the Government Gazette on 24 July 2009. As per the requirements of the Air Quality Act, all identified listed activities will require an Atmospheric Emission Licence to operate. The implementation of Atmospheric Emission Licences, and the enforcement thereof, will ensure that emissions from this sector are regulated and controlled.

Emissions from scheduled processes can be reduced and/or minimised through various measures such as improving process efficiency, the application of best available techniques including process design, process control optimization, high efficiency dust collectors, primary NOx control measures and post-combustion control technologies.

Mining activities can minimize both gaseous and particulate emissions through good materials handling practices (such as covered conveyer belts, chemical suppressants at loading and offloading areas), controlled crushing and screening (enclosed with extraction systems venting through bagfilters) and best practice techniques to reduce emissions from haul roads, waste dumps and stockpiles.

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Reduced human health Reduced environmental effects and climatic effects

Reduced frequency of exceedance of ambient standards

Emissions are in

compliance with emission standards

Implement emission Awareness and Improved process reduction measures behavioural change efficiency using BAT and BPEO

Figure 43: Objectives Tree for Scheduled and Mining Processes.

6.3. Domestic Fuel Burning

The use of domestic fuels such as coal, wood and paraffin still occurs in Fezile Dabi District Municipality despite many areas being electrified. Areas in the District still utilizing domestic fuels include Namahadi and Qalabotjha in Mafube, Refengkgotso and Zamdela in Metsimaholo, Rammulutsi and Moakeng in Moqhaka and Phiritona and Kwakwatsi in Ngwathe.

6.3.1. Problem Analysis

Emissions from domestic fuel burning in informal settlements result in respiratory and cardiovascular health effects due to exposure to low level pollution in these areas, particularly during the winter months.

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6.3.2. Causes

The continued use of domestic fuels in informal settlements in the District is directly related to poverty, which makes electricity and other cleaner fuels inaccessible, either through its un-affordability or through its unavailability (Figure 44). Poor planning for informal settlements (in terms of infrastructure requirements) together with access to basic services such as electricity and waste removal, continues the use domestic fuels in these areas.

Effects

Poverty

Human health effects

Exposure to low level pollution in informal Focal Point

settlements

Use of domestic fuels

for heating and cooking purposes

Inaccessibility of Behavioural use of electricity and other domestic fuels cleaner fuels

Poor town planning for Poverty low income households (infrastructure) Causes

Figure 44: Problem Tree for Domestic Fuel Burning.

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6.3.3. Effects

The main impact of domestic fuel burning is human health effects, particularly respiratory and cardiovascular effects, associated with prolonged exposure to pollution. Coal burning emits a large amount of gaseous and particulate pollutants including sulphur dioxide, heavy metals, total and respirable particulates including heavy metals and inorganic ash, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and benzo(a)pyrene. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are recognised as carcinogens. Pollutants arising due to the combustion of wood include respirable particulates, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particulate benzo(a)pyrene and formaldehyde.

6.3.4. Objectives

The main objective is to reduce the current air pollution concentrations to acceptable levels in domestic fuel burning areas by making available alternative energy sources that are affordable and accessible (Figure 45). Education and awareness-raising campaigns should be initiated in domestic fuel burning areas around the negative health impacts associated with the use of such fuels and the alternative methods available (e.g the use of the Basa Njengo Mago method for fire-lighting purposes). Electrification programmes, together with the use of cleaner energy sources in these areas, should be considered to be the primary option to address emissions from domestic fuel burning.

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Human health effects minimised

Reduced pollution and exposure to pollution

Decreased use of domestic fuels

Access to and Education and

affordability of electricity awareness-raising

and alternative fuels

Town planning includes Electrification infrastructure and programme capacity building

Figure 45: Objectives Tree for Domestic Fuel Burning.

6.4. Vehicle Emissions

The main vehicle activity within Fezile Dabi District is confined to the main routes. These include the N1 and N3 National roads which pass through the western and eastern parts of the District. Vehicle emissions were only quantified for Mafube, Moqhaka and Ngwathe Local Municipalities based on the available traffic count data for these regions. However, based on vehicle and fuel sales, Metsimaholo Local Municipality is likely to be the main source of vehicle emissions in the District.

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6.4.1. Problem Analysis

Overall, vehicle emissions are not considered to be a significant source of air pollution in the District. The problem tree developed for the transportation sector is given in Figure 46.

6.4.2. Causes

Emissions from vehicles include gaseous and particulate emissions from vehicle tailpipes as well as particulate emissions generated from travelling on secondary dust roads.

An unsafe and unreliable public transport system has resulted in an increasing number of privately owned vehicles which results in congestion on the major roads and highways. More time spent idling in traffic results in more emissions. Emissions from vehicles are generally uncontrolled and therefore the contribution of vehicular emissions to ambient air quality, and human health, is unknown.

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Effects

Human health effects Environmental effects

Emissions from diesel

and petrol vehicles

Uncontrolled

emissions (no Focal Point

emission standards)

Vehicle tailpipe Particulate emissions

emissions (tailpipe and fugitive)

Congestion on roads Poor vehicle Secondary dust roads (private car use) maintenance

Unsafe and unreliable Increasing number of privately owned public transport vehicles Causes

Figure 46: Problem Tree for Vehicles.

6.4.3. Effects

Emissions from petrol and diesel vehicles have the potential to impact the ambient air quality in the District in the future, which could result in both human health and environmental impacts.

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6.4.4. Objectives

The objectives tree for transportation is provided in Figure 47. To prevent emissions from diesel and petrol vehicles becoming a problem in the future, a safe and reliable public transport system is needed in the major towns in the District, which will in turn decrease the number of privately owned vehicles. Town planning should include future infrastructure requirements for future transport developments. Vehicle emissions can be regulated through their declaration as controlled emitters if considered to have a significant environmental and health impact. Emission standards can then be set for such controlled emitters. Regular vehicle maintenance and monitoring will also ensure that vehicles, especially heavy diesel vehicles, are well maintained, which will in turn minimize emissions.

Reduced human health and environmental effects

Reduced emissions from diesel and petrol vehicles

Vehicle emissions are Regular vehicle Reduced congestion on regulated through maintenance and the roads emission standards monitoring

Decreasing number of Safe and reliable public privately owned transport system vehicles

Figure 47: Objective Tree for Vehicles.

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6.5. Agriculture and Biomass Burning

Agriculture is a predominant land use in both the Free State Province and the District. Within the District, maize is grown in Viljoenskroon and Kroonstad with cattle farming occurring in Frankfort.

Despite falling within the grassland biome and having a high veld fire risk, biomass burning has a low frequency of occurrence in the District. Neighbouring regions such as Gauteng Province are a likely contributor to biomass burning emissions in the District.

6.5.1. Problem Analysis

Agricultural activities and biomass burning contributes to elevated gaseous and particulate emissions, although the contribution of these sources remains unknown.

6.5.2. Causes

Agricultural activities include land tilling operations, fertiliser and pesticide applications and harvesting. Land tilling operations includes dust entrainment, wind-blown dust and scraping and grading activities which generate fugitive dust emissions. The application of fertiliser and pesticides generates fugitive dust emissions through vehicles driving on unpaved roads and exposed soil as well as releasing gaseous pollutants such as NO,

NO2, NH3, SO2 and VOCs. Cattle farming releases significant quantities of fugitive dust generated during the handling and disposal of manure and the use of animal feeds.

Manure is the largest contributor to air pollution from farming and releases H2S, CH4,

NH3 and CO2 gases as well as odours emissions.

Uncontrolled illegal burning (non-permitted) for agricultural management purposes, as well as accidental veld fires contributes to elevated pollution levels in the District. Lack of awareness around suitable meteorological conditions for controlled burning is also a contributing factor. Crop burning, under poor meteorological conditions, such as inversion conditions, will result in smog and reduced visibility which can have an impact for many kilometres from the source. The problem tree for agriculture and biomass burning is given below in Figure 48.

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Effects

Human health effects

Exceedance of ambient Smog and reduced air quality standards visibility

Elevated levels of Focal Point gaseous and particulate pollution

Lack of awareness Uncontrolled illegal around suitable Agricultural activities Accidental veld fires burning for agricultural meteorological management purposes (tilling, plowing etc) conditions for burning Causes

Figure 48: Problem Tree for Agriculture and Biomass Burning.

6.5.3. Effects

Elevated levels of gaseous and particulate pollution are experienced during seasonal burning periods in the District, resulting in poor ambient air quality and potential human health impacts.

6.5.4. Objectives

The main objective is to minimise air pollution associated with agricultural activities and biomass burning (Figure 49). Emissions from the agricultural sector can be reduced through agricultural best management practices such as chemical irrigation, integrated pest management, limited activity during a high-wind event and artificial wind barriers. Crop burning should be managed by the District Municipality through local by- laws which have regulations for controlled farm burning. Controlled burning should be undertaken during periods of good dispersion potential, such as during the middle of the day and at the beginning of the dry season. Public awareness, specifically with farm

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owners, should be raised about the dangers around uncontrolled fires and the implications for air quality and human health. Possible forms of media include community forums, television, radio, newspapers and posters.

Human health effects

Minimize impact of gaseous and particulate

pollution

Reduced emissions from agriculture and biomass burning

Increased awareness Reduced number of Agricultural burning around suitable Good agricultural controlled through local accidental veld fires meteorological management practices by-laws conditions for burning

Figure 49: Objectives Tree for Agriculture and Biomass Burning.

6.6. Landfills

Currently, there are four permitted waste disposal facilities in Fezile Dabi District with most landfills not being permitted. Most of the waste disposals sites are used for general waste disposal, including domestic waste, garden waste as well as commercial and industrial waste

6.6.1. Problem Analysis

Most landfills in the District Municipality are unpermitted and hence, uncontrolled and therefore the contribution of landfill emissions to ambient air quality in the District remains unknown and un-quantified.

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6.6.2. Causes

The poor regulation and management of landfills, together with poor service delivery in informal areas, has resulted in the creation of many small illegal and unpermitted landfill sites (Figure 50). Uncontrolled waste burning also occurs at these sites which releases toxic and odourous gases to which residents living in and around the landfills are exposed to.

Effects Greenhouse gases Odour emissions (CO and CH ) 2 4

Uncontrolled emissions from landfills Focal Point

Illegal waste dumping and burning

Illegal and unpermitted landfills

Poor regulation of Poor service delivery landfills

Causes

Figure 50: Problem Tree for Landfills.

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6.6.3. Effects

6.6.4. Objectives

The key objective is to control emissions from all landfills sites in the District (Figure 51). Illegal waste burning in informal areas can be reduced through effective and efficient municipal waste collection services. Emissions from uncontrolled burning in landfill sites can be minimized if all landfill sites are regulated and permitted. The Department of Environmental Affairs has taken over the permitting of landfills from the Department of Water and Forestry.

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Reduced greenhouse Reduced odour gases (CO2 and CH4) emissions

Controlled emissions from landfills

Illegal waste dumping and burning is controlled and minimised

Landfills controlled and permitted

Improved service Better regulation of delivery landfills (DEA)

Figure 51: Objective Tree for Landfills.

6.7. Air Quality Management Capacity

Air quality management capacity is evaluated in terms of available human resources, finances and tools for air quality management and control within each sphere of Government.

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6.7.1. Problem Analysis

Limited capacity is available for air quality management in the Free State Province and the four Local Municipalities which prevents Government from being able to carry out their legal mandate in terms of the Air Quality Act.

6.7.2. Causes

The problem tree for air quality management capacity is given in Figure 52. Limited capacity is available within all spheres of Government with no air quality functions undertaken by the Province and all four Local Municipalities due to staff shortages. Air quality functions are undertaken by Fezile Dabi District although this is limited to the investigation air quality complaints from the public. Air quality functions are the responsibility of Municipal Health and Environmental Services at the District with air quality functions forming part of other MHS functions. There are no dedicated personnel for air quality management or a separate, dedicated air quality division within the District Municipality.

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Effects

Potentially poor air quality

Unavailability of air quality data and information

Air quality management functions not undertaken by Government

Limited air quality management capacity Focal Point for Government to carry out legal mandate

No air quality division in Lack of support from Fezile Dabi District or Province Local Municipalities

No resource allocation No dedicated staff for for air quality air quality management management

Air quality issues not prioritised by council

Causes

Figure 52: Problem Tree for Air Quality Management Capacity.

6.7.3. Effects

Municipalities have not allocated resources for air quality management and therefore minimal to few air quality functions are undertaken in Government. Within Fezile Dabi

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District, the lack of capacity has resulted in District officials not being able to undertake functions such as compiling emissions inventories, ambient air quality monitoring and regulating and enforcing the Air Quality Act. Delays in implementing such functions have resulted in the unavailability of air quality data and information on which informed decisions for air quality management can be made in the District. As a result, the air quality situation, with the exception of Metsimaholo Local Municipality, is generally unknown and unquantified.

6.7.4. Objectives

The main objective is to develop capacity within all spheres of Government, in terms of resources, tools and finances (Figure 53). Air quality issues need to be prioritized by Council so that resources and funds are allocated for air quality management. It is essential that a separate, dedicated air quality division is established within Fezile Dabi District (and the Local Municipalities when required) to focus on air quality management and control. A dedicated Air Quality Officer should also be appointed in the District and undergo training on emission inventories, dispersion modeling, air quality monitoring and emission licencing. Over time, as air quality data and information is collected and collated, air quality in the District can be effective managed through informed decisions.

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Air quality can be effectively managed in the District

Air quality data and

information is available

to make informed decisions

Air quality management functions are undertaken by Government

Capacity for Government to undertake air quality management

Air quality division in Air quality officer Fezile Dabi District appointed in Free State and/or Local Province Municipalities

Dedicated and trained Resources and funds staff for air quality allocated for air quality management management

Air quality issues prioritised by council

Figure 53: Objectives Tree for Air Quality Management Capacity.

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7. CAPACITY BUILDING WITHIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

7.1. Human Resources

Air quality functions are primarily the responsibility of the District Municipality, with little to no capacity for air quality management in the Local Municipalities. For the Fezile Dabi District AQMP to be effective, co-operative governance and political buy-in across all spheres of government will be required, as well as the capacity to enforce compliance with the new legislation. In terms of the Air Quality Act, air quality management and control is primarily a function of the Local Municipalities with emission licencing functions undertaken by Metropolitan and District Municipalities. In order to increase the capacity in Municipalities, authorities need to invest both time and capital. For Municipalities to fulfill their regulatory role in terms of air quality, dedicated Air Quality Officers and personnel need to be appointed.

Universities and Technikons do not have dedicated courses and degrees in Air Quality Management and Modelling. Courses in Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Management specific to air are only part of other courses. Environmental Health Practitioners are trained specifically on occupational health and safety issues related to environmental health with some focus on ambient air quality issues. Certain universities such as the University of Johannesburg and the University of Potchefstroom do offer short courses in air quality management. Such courses focus on air pollution topics such as sources of air pollution, meteorology, emissions inventory compilation, dispersion modeling, air quality monitoring and air quality management planning. All existing and newly appointed Air Quality Officers should be sent to undergo such training.

Municipalities are also required to undertake monitoring, data analysis and reporting on ambient air quality as per their mandate as air quality authorities. Training on calibration and maintenance of analysers in ambient monitoring stations will be required, as well as training on data acquisition and the analysis thereof. For this task, technical personnel will need to be appointed. Such functions and personnel are currently not required for Fezile Dabi District Municipality as monitoring is not undertaken by the District Municipality.

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According to legislation, Municipalities are required to appoint an Air Quality Officer. Currently, no dedicated Air Quality Officers have been appointed at either the District or the Local Municipalities, with air quality functions forming part of other responsibilities. At a minimum, the following appointments are recommended within the District Municipality:

• One Air Quality Officer

This person will be responsible for air quality management within both the District and Local Levels (until such capacity is available within each Local Municipality). This person should have a good understanding of air quality issues within Fezile Dabi District. Duties and functions of Air Quality Officers, as outlined in AQA, include:

o Coordinating the development of an Air Quality Management Plan, o Preparing the Municipal Air Quality Officer’s Annual Report. The report should include the Municipality’s progress towards the implementation of its Air Quality Management Plan, o Submitting the Municipality’s report to the Provincial Air Quality Officer, o May require the holder of an atmospheric emission licence to appoint an Emission Control Officer.

Other responsibilities could include: o General air quality management and control, o Development and maintenance of a comprehensive emissions inventory for the District (including point, non-point and mobile sources), o Undertake dispersion modeling simulations of predicted pollutant concentrations, o Emission licencing of scheduled processes, o Enforcement and control of non-scheduled processes, o Training of Environmental Management Inspectors (EMIs)

• One Air Quality Technician (as and when required)

This person will be responsible for the technical aspects of air quality management including maintenance and calibrations of ambient air quality monitoring stations as well

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as the co-ordination and implementation of passive sampling campaigns. This person will report directly to the Air Quality Officer.

Within the Local Municipalities, it is recommended that an Air Quality Officer be appointed in Metsimaholo given the occurrence of most major industries in this Local Municipality. Until such a time that this appointment is made, Fezile Dabi District should continue to undertake all air quality functions in Metsimaholo as well as Mafube, Moqhaka and Ngwathe through a service level agreement. No capacity currently exists in the Free State Province to provide air quality management support to Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

A summary of the air quality responsibilities of Fezile Dabi District as per the National requirements are given in Table 23.

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Table 23: Air quality responsibilities of Fezile Dabi District Municipality as per the National Requirements.

Air Quality Functions National Requirements Current Resources Required Resources Identify priority pollutants Municipalities may in terms of a by- Six National criteria pollutants have Such measures are currently not law identify substances or mixtures of been identified (SO2, NO2, O3, CO, required for any additional priority substances which represent a threat Pb, PM10 and C6H6) pollutants in the District. to health, well-being or the No clear capacity exists for the In the future, such measures may be environment in the Municipality identification and prioritisation of required for Metsimaholo Local As per the generic air pollution priority pollutants in the District Municipality given its location in the control by-law, a Municipality must Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area. compile a list of substances (using set criteria) which must be submitted to the Standards South Africa to develop local emission standards Establish local emission standards Municipalities may in terms of a by- National emission standards have The National emission standards law establish local standards from been developed as part of the Listed should be adopted for the District. point, non-point and mobile sources Activities and Minimum Emissions More stringent local emission If National or Provincial standards Standards project. standards are currently not required have been established, a Municipality Insufficient capacity exists for the for pollution sources in the District. may not alter such standards except drafting of local emission standards In the future, more stringent emission by establishing stricter standards standards may be required for As per the generic air pollution sources in Metsimaholo Local control by-law, a Municipality must Municipality given its location in the formally request the Standards South Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area. Africa to develop local emission standards The Standards South Africa will develop (using a set methodology) local emission standards Once developed, the local emission standards will be published Establish local air quality standards No provision is made for the setting National air quality standards have The National air quality standards of standards by local authorities been published by DEA should be adopted for the District However, Local Government may Local air quality guidelines have not Stricter ambient air quality targets establish more stringent local air been established for the District. have been recommended for quality guidelines for the purpose of Metsimaholo Local Municipality as

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air quality management part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan. Appoint Air Quality Officer Each Municipality must designate an One Air Quality Officer is appointed A dedicated Air Quality Officer to be Air Quality Officer from its in the District appointed in the District Municipality administration to be responsible for However, air quality functions form and Metsimaholo Local Municipality. air quality management part of other functions and is not a All Air Quality Offices to attend air Duties and functions for an Air separate, dedicated function quality courses including monitoring, Quality Officer have been prescribed modeling and management in the draft generic air pollution control by-law Develop and implement an Air Each Municipality must include an Air Limited capacity is available to An AQMP Implementation Task Quality Management Plan Quality Management Plan in its develop and implement an Air Quality Team to be established in the District Integrated Development Plan Management Plan comprising representatives from An annual report must be submitted industry, Government, NGOs, CBOs on the implementation of its Air and other institutions Quality Management Plan Implementation Task Team to meet on a quarterly basis during the implementation phase Ambient air quality monitoring The National Framework will Ambient air quality monitoring is not When required, an ambient air quality establish national norms and undertaken by either the District or monitoring network should be standards for Municipalities to Local Municipalities. installed in the District. monitor ambient air quality Ambient air quality monitoring is only At such a time, a trained, skilled undertaken in Metsimaholo Local technician should be appointed in the Municipality (Sasolburg) by Sasol District. and DEA Precision checks to be undertaken every two weeks with a full dynamic calibration every three months Future stations to be SANAS accredited Perform emission licensing authority Metropolitan and District Limited capacity exists for the District Emission licencing is proposed to be functions Municipalities must implement the Municipality to undertake its emission undertaken by the District atmospheric licencing system and licencing functions. The District Municipality perform the functions of a licencing Municipality will need to be Once implemented, the issuing of authority restructured for this purpose. atmospheric emission licences will Such functions include the become the responsibility of the Air

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processing of atmospheric emission Quality Officer licences of applicants and the issuing of the licence fee

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7.2. Air Quality Management Tools

7.2.1. Emissions Inventory Database For effective air quality management and control, an accurate, electronic emissions inventory of point, non-point and mobile sources needs to be established. An emissions inventory includes information on source parameters (source location, stack height, stack diameter, exit gas velocity, exit temperature) and associated pollutant emission rates. An emissions inventory serves the following functions - • Providing spatially resolved source strength data on each pollutant for dispersion modeling, • Predicting environmental impacts, • Helping in urban and regional planning, • Supporting the design of regional monitoring networks, • Contributing a basis for evaluating trends, • Assisting in the formulation of air quality management policies.

Emissions inventories can either be developed by a) estimating emissions using emission factors and manually integrating into a database or by b) using existing emissions inventory software which has built-in emission factors. The selection of software for this purpose should take into account the applicability of this software for the local environment, accessibility to software support and its interface between a suitable dispersion model and Geographical Information System (GIS). Possible emissions inventory software for this purpose includes the Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants (CERC) EMIT software, which is already being used by the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality.

EMIT is an Emissions Inventory Tool that can be used to store and assess emissions data from a variety of sources such as industrial sources (point and area) and major roads and rail sources (line). EMIT can store data from small area sources that are treated as average emissions on a 1 km2 grid such as commercial and domestic using activity data. Emission rates for road and rail traffic are calculated using traffic flows, number of vehicle kilometres travelled and trips made. For industrial sources, activity data includes fuel consumption, the amount of raw materials used and the number of

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products produced. In order to calculate emissions from activity data associated emission factors are required. A range of emission factors datasets are held in EMIT to estimate mobile emissions and industrial sources using various inventories. Datasets are also available to estimate emissions from electricity and fuel used for power generation. Emissions can also be estimated in EMIT by using population statistics. However, many of these emissions factors cannot be used locally due the factors being based on UK sources. Currently, local emissions factors are available for vehicle emissions and domestic fuel burning.

As a whole, Fezile Dabi District is not considered to be an industrialised area, with the exception of Sasolburg in Metsimaholo Local Municipality. Given the number, nature and distribution of sources in the District, it is not necessary for the District to purchase emissions inventory software. Emissions information should instead be electronically captured into either Microsoft Excel or Microsoft Access. This information should be reviewed on an annual basis to ensure the database is updated and complete.

As part of SAAQIS, all source and emissions data recorded within each Municipality and Province will be incorporated into a National electronic database, allowing for easy access and manipulation of data from any sphere of Government. Fezile Dabi District will need to ensure they have a complete emissions inventory database that is incorporated into the SAAQIS.

7.2.2. Dispersion Modelling Software

Atmospheric dispersion modelling forms an integral component of air quality management and planning. Air quality models are used to establish a relationship between emissions and air quality. Dispersion models require the input of data which includes:

• Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction, the amount of atmospheric turbulence, ambient air temperature and the height to the bottom of any inversion layers in the upper atmosphere,

• Emission parameters such as source location and height, stack diameter, exit gas temperature and exit velocity,

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• Terrain elevations at the source and surrounding regions,

• Location, height and width of any obstructions (such as buildings).

Dispersion modelling is typically used to determine compliance with ambient air quality guidelines or standards, assist in health and environmental risk assessments, provide information for ambient monitoring networks and to assess source contributions to air quality concentrations.

When selecting an appropriate model, the following considerations should be taken into account, including:

• Applicability to the local environment, in particular, an urban airshed, • Compatibility with a GIS such as ArcGIS 9.3, • Compatibility with emissions inventory software, • Availability of meteorological data (ie should upper air data be required), • Accessibility to software support (local and international), • Chemical reactions such as ozone formation, • IT requirements.

Within South Africa, a range of urban airshed models are currently being utilised, including ADMS Urban by the City of Johannesburg, Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality and the City of Cape Town, the Norwegian AirQuis model by eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality and the locally developed Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) model, the latter not currently available for purchase. Other USEPA regulatory models such as CALPUFF and AERMOD are freely downloadable from the USEPA website. CALPUFF is designed to model long-range transport of pollutants and is most applicable in areas of complex terrain. AERMOD has replaced ISC as the USEPA approved preferred regulatory model.

The Department of Environmental Affairs is in the process of developing an internal discussion document which relates to dispersion modeling in general. Once this document has been developed, the Department will be in a position to provide guidance to Municipalities on dispersion modeling. This document will take into account a wide range of factors including the cost of the models, the cost of support and training and

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model validation and appropriateness for use in South Africa. AERMOD is likely to become the preferred regulatory model for South Africa. A short description of the model is provided in the section below.

7.2.2.1. AERMOD AERMOD, a state-of-the-art Planetary Boundary Layer air dispersion model, was developed by the American Meteorological Society and USEPA Regulatory Model Improvement Committee (AERMIC). AERMOD utilizes a similar input and output structure to ISCST3 and shares many of the same features, as well as offering additional features. AERMOD fully incorporates the PRIME building downwash algorithms, advanced depositional parameters, local terrain effects, and advanced meteorological turbulence calculations.

The AERMOD atmospheric dispersion modeling system is an integrated system that includes three modules: • A steady-state dispersion model designed for short-range (up to 50 kilometers) dispersion of air pollutant emissions from stationary industrial sources. • A meteorological data preprocessor (AERMET) for surface meteorological data, upper air soundings, and optionally, data from on-site instrument towers. It then calculates atmospheric parameters needed by the dispersion model, such as atmospheric turbulence characteristics, mixing heights, friction velocity, Monin- Obukov length and surface heat flux. • A terrain preprocessor (AERMAP) which provides a physical relationship between terrain features and the behavior of air pollution plumes. It generates location and height data for each receptor location. It also provides information that allows the dispersion model to simulate the effects of air flowing over hills or splitting to flow around hills

7.2.3. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring

An ambient air quality management system consists of various hardware, software, communication systems as well as activities related to the ongoing maintenance and calibration of the system. Continuous ambient air quality monitoring requires among

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other things; a set of trace gas analysers housed in a secure shelter, meteorological equipment, a data communication and acquisition system, as well as various other mechanical, civil and electrical structures such as an inlet manifold, fencing, concrete plinth, air conditioner, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) and safety devices such as a lightning conductor. As part of a monitoring network design (macro and micro-siting) it is important to consider the following aspects:

• Proximity to residential areas, • Location of industries, major roads, domestic fuel burning emissions etc, • Dominant wind direction, • Dispersion modelling results, • Topography, • Location of existing monitoring stations, • Sensitive environments, • Sensitive populations, • Trans-boundary transport of air pollution from neighbouring sources.

7.2.3.1. Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring

Continuous ambient air quality monitoring of atmospheric emissions ensures that the environment is being properly protected and helps Local Government manage their impact on the environment. Such monitoring provides continuous, accurate data on pollution concentrations at a specific location. However, limitations of this type of monitoring are associated with spatial coverage, technical skills required for maintenance and calibration as well as the ongoing financial implications.

Municipalities would need to acquire air monitoring equipment as well as a system that will automatically retrieve air quality data from loggers and sensors for the management of remote data acquisition equipment. This system should have data correction functions for quality assurance. An ambient air quality monitoring station requires a person responsible for maintaining the network, calibrating the instruments as well as analysing data and compiling reports for compliance assessment.

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An ambient air quality monitoring station requires ongoing maintenance and calibration and is not just a once-off capitol expense. Ongoing maintenance costs should be budgeted for at the onset of the project. Approximate costs associated with the installation, operation and maintenance of a complete ambient air quality monitoring station for a period of one year are given in Table 25. The maintenance and calibrations of such stations should be undertaken on a regular basis, with zero and spans performed every two weeks and a full dynamic calibration undertaken every three months. In addition, all stations should obtain SANAS accreditation to ensure the standardisation of monitoring practices in the region.

7.2.3.2. Passive Diffusive Monitoring

Passive monitoring is an inexpensive method of monitoring over a large area and requires little human intervention. Passive badges can measure a range of pollutants including SO2, NO2, O3, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), hydrochloric acid, VOCs and various aldehydes among others. Passive badges have a detection limit of 0.1 µg/m3, 0.2 µg/m3 3 and 1 µg/m for NO2, SO2 and O3, respectively, and a precision of ± 5%. Passive diffusive sampling calculates an average reading over a time period as opposed to real- time data acquisition that continuous monitoring can provide. Passive badges have to be sent away to an accredited laboratory for analysis further extending the lag time in getting results (2 – 3 weeks). Passive sampling conforms to international methodologies and standards and can be used to validate dispersion modelling results.

7.2.3.3. Proposed Air Quality Monitoring for Fezile Dabi

Based on the location of air pollution sources, residential areas and available ambient air quality monitoring data, an extensive continuous ambient air quality monitoring network is currently not required in the District. Continuous ambient air quality monitoring is already undertaken in Metsimaholo Local Municipality by National Government and Industry and therefore further monitoring stations are not required in this Local Municipality.

A passive badge monitoring campaign is recommended in the short to medium-term for the purpose of characterizing the spatial distribution of air pollutant concentrations

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across the District. Ambient SO2 and NO2 monitoring should be undertaken for three – four months preferably during the winter months. The results from the passive badge monitoring campaign can then be used to determine zones of maximum concentrations in the District and possible continuous ambient air quality monitoring sites.

7.3. Financial Implications

The required budget for the District has been based on the required human resources, software and hardware for air quality monitoring and management within the District (Table 24 – Table 26. Please note that approximate figures have been provided.

Table 24: Approximate costs for the appointment of air quality personnel in Fezile Dabi District Municipality.

Position Unit Approximate Price

Air Quality Officer Per annum R 400 000

Senior Technician Per annum R 300 000

Junior Technician Per annum R 160 000

TOTAL R 860 000

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Table 25: Approximate costs for emissions inventory and dispersion modeling software and hardware.

Requirements Unit Approximate Price

Dispersion Modelling Software

Option 1 (ADMS Urban) (1) R 229 000

ADMS Urban (Permanent Licence) Once off R 207 000

Annual support (optional) Per annum R 22 000

Option 2 (AERMOD) R 17 200

AERMOD View Once off R 13 000

Annual maintenance (optional) Per annum R 4 200

Emissions Inventory Software R 40 000

EMIT (Permanent Licence) Once off R 30 000

Annual support (optional) Per annum R 10 000

Other R 56 000

ArcGIS 9.3 and Spatial Analyst Once off R 40 000

Courses/Training Per Person R 10 000

Computer Once off R 6 000

Note: ADMS Urban can either be purchased with an annual licence which is valid for one year and inclusive of support for the period covered by the licence or a permanent licence which is valid for use indefinitely and support for the first year is covered by the licence.

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Table 26: Approximate costs for the installation, operation and maintenance of a complete ambient air quality monitoring station for a period of one year.

Requirements Unit Approximate Price Equipment Trace Gas Analysers (SO , NO , O 2 x 3 Four analysers R 500 000 and CO) PM10 Instrument (Beta Gauge) Per instrument R 140 000 PM2.5 Instrument Per instrument R 150 000 Gas Chromatograph (VOCs) Per instrument R 300 000 Meteorological station (1) Per station R 60 000 Shelter, air conditioner, glass inlet Once off R 150 000 manifold, UPS and alarm system Installation Civils (concrete plinth and fencing) Once off R 50 000 Delivery, Installation and Once off R 30 000 Commissioning Operation and Maintenance Zero and spans every two weeks Every two weeks R 60 000 (outsourced) Full Dynamic Calibration Quarterly (4) R 20 000 (outsourced) Meteorological Calibration Per annum R 16 000 Consumables, maintenance and Per annum R 30 000 repairs for analysers SANAS Accreditation (optional) SANAS accreditation calibration (by Four Analysers R 12 000 a SANAS accredited laboratory) Preparation of quality manual and Once off R 90 000 application to SANAS SANAS accreditation audit (by Per annum R 13 000 SANAS) Hardware and Software Data acquisition and communication Once off R 100 000 for Point Source analysers Data transmission and verification Per annum R 30 000 for Point Source analysers TOTAL (Point Source) R 1 751 000

Note: (1) Wind speed, wind direction, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, pressure, rainfall and 9 m mast Equipment and associated costs are provided for Thermo point source analysers. Other equipment options include Teledyne-Advanced Pollution Instrumentation, Open Path Monitoring System (OPSIS) etc.

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8. EMISSION REDUCTION INTERVENTIONS

Emission reduction measures are proposed for sources identified in the Fezile Dabi District. Where possible, dates have been assigned to each intervention. If dates are unknown, generic timeframes ranging from short-term (1 – 2 years), medium-term (3 – 5 years) and long-term (5 – 10 years) have been assigned. Emission reduction measures identified as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan for industrial sources in Metsimaholo Local Municipality were included in this plan to prevent duplication.

8.1. Small Industries

8.1.1. Proposed Interventions

Limited information is available on small industries within Fezile Dabi District with small to medium-sized industries located in the towns of Frankfort and Villiers in Mafube, Kroonstad in Moqhaka and Parys in Ngwathe Local Municipality. Prior to the development of this plan, the District Municipality had compiled a list of small industries in these towns, which was verified during the plan through a site visit. Further to this, the District Municipality will need to compile a detailed electronic emissions inventory which includes information on:

• Company name and contact details, • Latitude and Longitude co-ordinates, • Type of fuel burning appliance (e.g. boiler, incinerator, furnace), • Make and model of fuel burning appliance, • Type of fuel, • Quantity of fuel used, • Stack parameters (height, diameter, gas exit temperature and gas exit velocity), • Sulphur and ash content of fuel (where applicable), • Periods of operation, • Control equipment (e.g. grit collectors).

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Emission reduction interventions for small industries are given in Table 27. Possible medium- to long-term interventions to be introduced by National Government could include the declaration of fuel burning appliances as controlled emitters.

Table 27: Proposed emission reduction strategies for small industries within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Electronic database of all small industries to be FDDM Short –Term (2011) compiled by District Municipality Periodic site inspections and emissions FDDM Ongoing measurements Develop a permit system for all non-listed DEA Short –Term activities FDDM Short – medium Model scheduled trade by-laws Term (2013) Small boilers to be declared as controlled DEA Short – medium emitters Term

8.2. Mining Operations

The main mining operations within Fezile Dabi District include Sigma Colliery in Sasolburg, Coalbrook Colleries in Coalbrook and Voorspoed and Lace Diamond Mines in Kroonstad. Gold mining also occurs on the boundary of Moqhaka Local Municipality near Orkney in Dr Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality. The proposed interventions for the mining sector are given in Table 28.

The mineral processing industry has been identified to be a listed activity (Category 5) in the Listed Activities and Minimum Emission Standards published in the Government Gazette on 24 July 2009. All new and existing installations will need to comply with the emission standards and monitoring protocols/requirements that have been set out. All identified listed activities are now required to have an Atmospheric Emission Licence (AEL) to operate and will need to lodge an application with Fezile Dabi District Municipality which will be the licencing authority for the region.

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8.2.1. Proposed Interventions

Table 28: Proposed emission reduction strategies for mining operations within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Obtain comprehensive emission inventories Sigma Colliery, Short –Term from the mines Coalbrook Colliery, Voorspoed and Lace Diamond Mines Submit detailed emission reduction strategies Sigma Colliery, Short –Term to DEA and FDDM ensure compliance with Coalbrorok Colleries, ambient air quality standards Issuing of AELs to mining operations in the FDDM, Mines Short – Medium District Municipality Term Implement emission reduction measures as FDDM, Mines Short – Medium part of listed activity requirements for the Term Mineral Processing Industry Compliance with listed activities and minimum Sigma Colliery, Short – Medium emission standards Coalbrook Colliery, Term Voorspoed and Lace Diamond Mines

8.3. Petrochemical Industry

The main petrochemical industries within Fezile Dabi District include Sasol, Natref and Omnia Fertilizers, located near Sasolburg. The emission reduction measures outlined below for Sasol, Natref and Omnia have been extracted from the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan.

8.3.1. Sasol Emission Reduction Commitments

Sasol, Sasolburg continuously strives towards implementing cleaner technologies as a way of reducing its environmental impact of its chemical processes. As a result, the Sasolburg operations converted from a predominantly coal based feedstock to a natural gas feedstock and through this conversion have realized improvements in their emissions to atmosphere, water and land (Waste).

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This was done prior to the declaration of the Vaal Triangle as a priority area. The present boilers operated as part of the steam and power generation systems have also been optimised and are operated at emission concentrations much lower than the current allowable emission limits.

The course ash heap, which is a source of wind-blown dust, is presently being mined and used for brick making and hence it is foreseen that this ash heap and dust associated with it will disappear within the next couple of years.

As a result of the abovementioned interventions Sasol would be required to make major capital investment to further improve on its atmospheric emission sources. Sasol, Sasolburg according to the latest baseline assessment report is required to reduce ambient particulate concentrations by 1%, SO2 concentrations by 7% and NO2 concentrations by 18%. This equates to a minor reduction at the respective point sources.

Sasol is committed to reduce its point source emissions, however to commit to a time frame where large capital expenditure is required for minor changes in the absence of emission standards does not make business sense. Therefore, Sasol Sasolburg is committed to submit an improvement plan to DEA after the Minimum National Emission Standards have been published which will indicate time frames to which Sasol and other companies will comply with the new standards.

8.3.2. NATREF Emission Reduction Commitments

The National Petroleum Refiners of South Africa (NATREF) have an approved Environmental improvement plan mutually agreed with DEA and NGO’s in 2002. The refinery currently awaits legislation to be promulgated about further improvements in fuel specifications and therefore does not have a mandate to include long range improvement projections. However, the refinery remains committed to fulfill its commitments towards the improvement plan by 2009 agreed upon in 2000. The improvements agreed upon as well as projections towards 2009 and indicative 2015 improvements are reflected in Table 29.

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Table 29: NATREF emission reductions since 2000.

Capital Pollutant % Invested 2000 2006 2009 (tons/day) Improvement (RM) Refinery static (point) source emissions

SO2 126.9 65 38 41 NO 3.0 3.5 2.9 17 VOC 10.9 4.55 3.08 33 Post 2006 improvements

2 SO2 25 32 16 NO 2.65 9 VOC 34.12 3.05 1 Mobile source emissions (vehicles)

1 SO2 543 18.75 1.75 >80 NO VOC Post 2015 improvements (subject to DMR/DEA regulations)

1 SO2 > 5000 0.20 >80 NO (t/d) VOC (t/d)

Note 1 Not adjusted for increased product volumes Note 2 Operating cost and or renewal maintenance

It was also agreed with DEA that Natref will submit an update of its environmental improvement plan by June 2008 when the current improvement plan comes to its end. This will also allow incorporation of the anticipated impacts of the second phase of South African fuel specification improvements. In order to comply with the intended improvements, the routine operational monitoring associated with point source management as well as routine ambient air quality monitoring station information interpretation (operated by Sasol) will continue.

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8.3.3. OMNIA Fertilizer Emission Reduction Commitments

In order to comply with the relevant environmental legislation for air pollution control, Omnia has installed emissions monitoring and control systems at its various production units at the Sasolburg site and is also investigating others. Air emission reduction systems have also been installed and optimisation plans to improve their effectiveness are currently underway.

In order to comply with the stricter ambient air quality requirements for the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area, Omnia will optimise the existing emissions monitoring, control and reduction strategies. In addition, Omnia will investigate and commission new emission reduction strategies as detailed in this report.

Omnia is currently implementing the EnviNOx project for the abatement of NOx emissions from the nitric acid plant. The design studies have been completed and the technology has already been procured and construction has commenced. This technology will reduce N2O by 94% as a minimum. The project will reduce the NOx emissions from the current levels to below 30 ppm which is in-line with international standards. The committed capital for this project is ZAR 55 million and the expected commissioning date is 1st quarter of 2008.

A pilot study for the reduction of airborne particulate matter at the raw material offloading bins has been completed. The study focused on the efficiency of dust suppression hoppers in reducing dust emissions. This system was commissioned and results were positive in that the dust in the raw material storage area was reduced by over 50% and thus a marked improvement in the ambient air quality in plant vicinity. The opportunity of installing more dust suppression hoppers is being investigated.

In order to develop a baseline database to be used for future design of air emissions reduction and control strategies, Omnia has purchased a mobile ambient air monitoring station. This station monitors fugitive dust emissions in the granulation plants. This station is to be commissioned by the last quarter of 2007. The cost for this project is approximately ZAR 200 000.

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Omnia is currently installing online stack analyser for the monitoring of particulate matter from the stacks at the granulation plants. One analyser has already been commissioned (May 2007) at the Granulation 3 plant with positive results. The data from the analyser is being used for online control of stack emissions by optimising the scrubbing system at this plant. Since commissioning of this project, the particulate matter emissions have reduced by approximately 50% from the pre-May 2007 average to the current permit levels in the Granulation 3 stack. An opportunity to optimise and automate this scrubbing system in order to further reduce the emissions is being investigated.

The remaining 6 stack analysers will be commissioned by end 2007. The estimated cost for this project is ZAR 600 000. The data from the online stack analysers will be used for the baseline database and as a design basis for future emission reductions and control systems.

Going forward, Omnia will use the online data from the various stack analysers, ambient air monitoring station and the dispersion model to complete a baseline database. The baseline data will be used to design, review, optimise and evaluate different emission reduction strategies and to benchmark with other fertiliser production facilities globally. This exercise will be important for providing a correct design basis to ensure that implemented solutions will be sustainable and will result in the improvement of ambient air quality in the VTAPA as set out in the AQMP.

The chosen strategies or technology must have minimal negative environmental impact as possible. For example, if emission scrubbing systems are implemented in the various production units onsite, this will have a positive impact in reducing air emissions but the negative impact will be increased usage of water (natural resource) and the increased production of effluent. Another example to be considered is the installation of bag filter plant as done by other fertiliser plants globally. This is capital intensive and there are space constraints as typically these bag filters require large space for adequate efficiency in reducing air emissions. More options of available air emissions reduction strategies or solutions will be investigated going forward.

In conclusion, Omnia will complete the baseline database within the short term. During this period, the current projects will also be completed as detailed above. Also, the

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different available air emission reduction strategies and control strategies will be evaluated using the baseline database as the design basis. At the end of this period, a suitable strategy or strategies will be chosen and this will be implemented and commissioned within the medium to long term. The primary objective is to implement air emissions reduction strategies and to improve the ambient air quality as soon as feasible, taking into account all possible constraints and impacts. Omnia Fertilizer Sasolburg is committed to sustainable development and will implement required actions in a responsible manner in order to fulfil this objective.

8.3.4. Proposed Interventions

Petrochemical activities have also been identified to be a listed activity (Categories 2 and 6), and as such have associated emissions standards and require an Atmospheric Emission Licence to operate. The enforcement and compliance thereof will need to be undertaken by the Department of Environmental Affairs in conjunction with the District Municipality. A detailed list of interventions has been provided in the Vaal Triangle Airshed Air Quality Management Plan (2008).

Table 30: Proposed emission reduction strategies for the petrochemical industry within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Issuing of AELs to petrochemical industries in FDDM Short – Medium the District Municipality Term Development of government / community / FDDM Short –Term industry liaison committees Compliance with listed activities and minimum Sasol, Natref, Omnia Short – Medium emission standards Term Companies Social Responsibility programme Sasol, Natref, Omnia Short –Term Enforcement and Compliance DEA Short –Term

8.4. Power Generation

8.4.1. Eskom Emission Reduction Commitments

Like all power stations, it was built with tall stacks, in this case 275 m, to prevent high ground level concentrations of SO2 from occurring. Significant down-mixing of the plume

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only occurs during daytime turbulent atmospheric conditions. This is observed to result in some intermittent ad hoc increases in local ground level SO2 concentrations, normally close to the power station. It is presently not possible to evaluate the potential non compliance of these SO2 concentration peaks, as complete national ambient air quality standards have not yet been published in regulations. Subsequent estimates of the required percentage reduction of ground level SO2 concentrations directly attributable to Lethabo power station were based on a single modelled exceedance of a proposed limit value, rather than on comprehensive monitoring data. In order to ensure that holistic decisions, which include all environmental and economic aspects, the retrofitting of any deSOx technology cannot be justified at this moment. Once Lethabo’s emissions can be compared to complete ambient air quality standards a comprehensive technical assessment can be carried out which will identify the various options, associated costs, environmental and resource impacts and operational implications. Based on extensive monitoring data, some instances of poor air quality do occur in the Vaal priority area, mainly associated with particulate matter but also with some of the other criteria pollutants. Lethabo power station has already reduced particulate emissions by 51%. (8.9 kt/annum to 4.4 kt/annum).

Eskom is committed to contributing to alleviating this situation, and thus has initiated work in a number of areas which will be shared on an on-going basis with DEA. These include:

1. Fully investigating the potential benefits and impacts resulting from various technologies and practices, both at the coal mine and the power station, which will result in overall reduced emissions. Such investigations will include but not necessarily be limited to the following aspects: • Resource availability (water and limestone required in the case of FGD); • Coal quality; • Relevant power station, mine and coal technical considerations; • Efficiency improvements; • Non-calcium based flue gas desulphurisation; and • Timing issues.

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This work has already begun within Eskom and a final report is anticipated to be complete by the first quarter of 2008. 2. Identify and actively contribute to suitable emission offset projects aimed at improving the overall air quality within the Vaal priority area airshed. Potential projects that Eskom will investigate include: • Appropriate demand side management interventions aimed at reducing low level pollutants; • Electrification of non electrified areas; and • Subsidization of Basa Njengo Magogo projects within the Vaal Priority Area.

This work has also already begun and an action plan identifying all suitable offset projects should be complete by the end of 2007.

8.4.2. Proposed Interventions

Power generation activities have also been identified to be a listed activity (Category 1.1), and as such have associated emissions standards and require an Atmospheric Emission Licence to operate. Lethabo Power Station participated in the APPA Registration Certificate Review Project and was issued with a new Registration Certificate in November 2009 which is valid for a period of 4 years. Lethabo Power Station will apply for a renewal of their licence within 3 years, as required in section 61 (2) (c) of the Air Quality Act (K. Ross, pers. comm).

Proposed measures to address emissions from the power generation industry are outlined in Table 31. Detailed interventions have been provided in the Vaal Triangle Airshed Air Quality Management Plan (2008).

Table 31: Proposed emission reduction strategies for the power generation industry within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Development of government / community / FDDM Short –Term industry liaison committees Issuing of an Atmospheric Emission Licence FDDM, Eskom Short – Medium for Lethabo Power Station Term

Compliance with listed activities and minimum Eskom Short – Medium

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emission standards Term Companies Social Responsibility programme Eskom Short –Term Enforcement and Compliance DEA Short –Term

8.5. Domestic Fuel Burning

8.5.1. National Government Interventions

In 2003, the DMR developed the Integrated Clean Household Energy Strategy. This strategy identified three phases; (1) REFINE current combustion methods and appliances, (2) REPLACE coal with electricity, Low Smoke Fuels, other alternative fuels and solar power and (3) REDUCE energy requirements of homes through the introduction of energy efficient methods (insulation and solar power).

More recently in 2005, the DMR published the Energy Efficiency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa. This strategy allows for the immediate implementation of no-cost and low-cost interventions, as well as higher-cost measures with a short payback period. This strategy aims to make energy affordable to everyone, and to minimise the effects of energy usage on human health and the environment. An overall national target for energy efficiency improvement of 12% by 2014 has been set. Within the residential sector, a reduction of 10% in energy demand by 2014 has been set. Measures to reduce energy demand include the introduction of standards for housing and household appliances, energy labelling of appliances and awareness campaigns around the cost- benefits of energy efficiency within households. The approach is focused on energy efficiency in higher income areas and state-subsidised housing which will incorporate energy efficiency measures.

The top down ignition method (called ‘Basa Njengo Magogo’) is considered a short – medium term solution to address domestic fuel burning (Figure 60). This method, meaning ‘make fire like grandmother’ is a top-down approach to fuel loading in mbawulas and stoves. In the classical bottom-up fire ignition approach, the order of preparing a fire is paper, wood then coal. In the ‘Basa Njengo Magogo’ method, the order of preparing a fire is coal, paper, wood and a few pieces of coal at the top. Smoke generated in the latter method is burnt as it rises through the hot zone, resulting in

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reduced smoke emissions. In 2004, the CSIR undertook controlled laboratory tests of the Basa Njengo Method to determine the reduction in particulate emissions. These tests demonstrated an 80% to 90% reduction in smoke emissions and a 20% reduction in fuel consumption.

Figure 54: The Basa Njengo Magogo fire-lighting Method (left) and classical fire lighting method (right).

National rollout of the Basa Njengo Magogo technology will occur over the next 12 years (2003 - 2015). The DMR piloted the Basa Njenjo Magogo method in Orange Farm during the winter of 2003. A total of 19 425 houses were directly and indirectly targeted. Approximately 76% of households reported a reduction in smoke in their homes, 67% reported less smoke in the streets after one month of using this method and 99% of households reported a saving of R26 per week and half a 25 kg bag of coal per week. The number of households still using the method was assessed in 2005. Of the 8 300 households surveyed, retention was approximately 40% with approximately 64% and 61% of household reporting economic and health benefits.

8.5.2. Proposed Interventions

Emissions from domestic fuel burning need to be accurately determined to ensure that the contribution to the overall ambient air quality in the District is accurately quantified. As part of the baseline assessment, a first step in the quantification of domestic fuel burning was undertaken. However, emissions from domestic fuel burning are potentially overestimated as population and household fuel usage statistics were used from the

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2001 census database. This initial domestic fuel burning emissions inventory needs to be updated as population statistics become available. The next National population census has been planned for 2011.

An awareness campaign should be initiated in the District to educate people on the social and financial benefits of using alternative options. This awareness campaign should use all forms of media including television, radio, newspapers and flyers. The use of other forms of domestic energy such as Low Smoke Fuels (LSF), gas and paraffin should also be encouraged (where available and accessible).

A viable option is considered to be the introduction of energy efficiency measures into low-cost housing. Such measures include solar water heaters, roofing insulation and energy efficient lighting to reduce the financial costs and environmental impacts. Although electrification is often the preferred option, domestic fuels are often still used even after electrification due to affordability, accessibility and social preferences.

Table 32: Proposed emission reduction strategies for domestic fuel burning within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Review domestic fuel burning emissions FDDM Medium–Term inventory with updated population statistics as (2013) these become available (Census 2011) Create awareness campaigns around the negative health impacts of domestic fuel FDDM Short –Term (2011) burning Encourage the distribution of alternative forms of domestic energy such as LPG, LSF, gas, FDDM Medium– Term methanol, etc Integrate energy efficiency measures in low- FDDM, DMR, Short –Medium cost houses such as housing insulation, solar Department of Term (2011 – 2016) panels and stove maintenance and Housing replacement Electrification in informal settlements such as Namahadi, Qalabotjha, Refengkgotso, FSP, FDDM, Local Medium – Long Zamdela, Rammulutsi, Moakeng, Phiritona and Municipalities Term Kwakwatsi

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8.6. Transportation

8.6.1. National Government Interventions

In 2003, DEA, in collaboration with DMR, developed the Joint Implementation Strategy for the Control of Exhaust Emissions from Road-going Vehicles in South Africa. Measures to reduce vehicle emissions in urban areas include:

• Introduction of Euro vehicle emission regulations in petrol-driven vehicles, • Introduction of ECE standards for diesel-driven vehicles, • Reduction in the maximum sulphur content of unleaded petrol to 500 ppm from 2004 and to 50 ppm from 2010, • A maximum benzene content in petrol of 3% from 2006 and 1% from 2010, • A maximum aromatic content in petrol of 42% from 2006, • Prohibition of lead based additives to petrol from 2006, • Reduction in the maximum sulphur content of diesel to 500 ppm from 2006 and 50 ppm from 2010.

The Air Quality Act makes provision for the Minister or Provincial MECs to declare vehicles or vehicles falling within a specified category as a ‘controlled emitter’. Emission standards, which include standards setting the permissible amount, volume, emission rate or concentration of a specified substance or a mixture of substances needs to be established for such emitters. Measurements of emissions from controlled emitters must also be carried out. The Act also makes provision for the declaration of a substance or a mixture of substances as a ‘controlled fuel’. Standards may be established for the use, manufacture, sale and composition of the controlled fuel. Alternatively the manufacture, sale or use of the controlled fuel could be prohibited.

Vehicles are likely to be declared the first controlled emitter in South Africa. The following phased approach for the implementation of vehicle emission standards has been recommended in the National Framework document:

Euro 1 emission standards for all homologated vehicles - January 2004 Euro 2 emission standards for all newly homologated vehicles - January 2006 Euro 2 emission standards for all newly manufactured vehicles - January 2008 Euro 4 emission standards for all newly homologated vehicles - January 2010

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Euro 4 emission standards for all newly manufactured vehicles - January 2012

8.6.2. Proposed Interventions

Where available, vehicle traffic count data was obtained for the highways and major roads in the District and emissions quantified as part of the Baseline Assessment. However, traffic count data could not be obtained for roads in Metsimaholo Local Municipality. Other sources such as airports and railways were not quantified as these were not considered to be significant air pollution sources.

National government initiatives which the Fezile Dabi District will need to take cognisance of include the possible regulation of diesel driven vehicles, the declaration of vehicles as controlled emitters and the subsequent introduction of emission standards for vehicles. The Future Emitters Project and the Norms and Standards Setting Project will develop regulations for new vehicles which will not be applicable to on-road vehicles. Local authorities will be expected to establish control measures for on-road vehicles through local by-laws. Such measures will be implemented in the medium-long term.

Proposed emission reduction interventions to address emissions from the transportation sector are given in Table 33.

Table 33: Proposed emission reduction strategies for transportation within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe

Obtain traffic count data for Metsimaholo Local Short Term– Municipality (and updated traffic count data for FDDM Ongoing other areas where available) Compile a detailed assessment of the vehicle fleet in the District including information on FDDM Medium– Term vehicle numbers, type, age and fuel usage. Short – Medium Regulation of diesel driven vehicles DEA Term (2013) Medium – Term Vehicles to be declared controlled emitters DEA (2012)

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Enforce emission standards developed as part Medium – Term FSP of the National Vehicle Emission Standards (2013) Improved fuel quality with a reduction in the Short – Medium DMR sulphur content (50 ppm) term (2013)

8.7. Agriculture

8.7.1. Proposed Interventions

Given the extent of agricultural activities in the District, emissions from agricultural activities such as crop spraying and crop burning are potentially significant sources of air pollution in the District. Information on the quantity of pesticides sold in the District was not obtained for this study. Impacts associated with crop spraying can be minimised by ensuring that crops are sprayed during periods of favourable meteorological conditions such as when wind speeds are low to reduce spray drift.

Proposed emission reduction strategies for agricultural activities are given in Table 34.

Table 34: Proposed emission reduction strategies for agriculture within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Obtain information on the quantity of pesticides FDDM Short –Term (2011) consumed in the District Ensure that crop spraying takes place under favourable atmospheric conditions that reduce Short – Medium FDDM spray drift, ie when wind speeds and Term (2013) temperatures are low Agricultural burning should only be allowed Medium – Long under favourable dispersion conditions which FDDM Term occur in the middle of the day.

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8.8. Biomass Burning

8.8.1. Proposed Interventions

Emissions arising from biomass burning are difficult to accurately quantify due to the seasonal and irregular nature of this source. However, biomass burning is recognised to be a potentially significant contributor to the ambient air quality in the District, especially in terms of particulate emissions.

As a first step, total burned areas in the District have been calculated for 2004 – 2007 using fire counts from the Advanced Fire Information System. The Advanced Fire Information System only detects fires 1 km × 1 km in size and not smaller, more localised veld fires. Information from this system should be supplemented with information from the local fire departments and Municipalities regarding the locations of the smaller veld fires and areas burnt (if available). In addition, satellite imagery is a useful tool to identifying burn scars which will provide information on the size of the areas burnt. The frequency and duration of fires is also important information.

Public awareness, specifically with farm owners, should be raised about the dangers around uncontrolled fires and the implications for air quality and human health. Possible forms of media include community forums, television, radio, newspapers and posters.

The emission reduction interventions for biomass burning are given in Table 35.

Table 35: Proposed emission reduction strategies for biomass burning within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Identify and quantify emissions from biomass Short – Medium FDDM burning Term (2013) Identify the role of fire services to assist in air Short – Term FDDM pollution control (2011) Each local Fire Department to maintain and Short – Medium update a database of the locations of veld fires FDDM Term (initiation) – and the extent of the areas burnt ongoing

Regional scheduled burn areas that are Short – Medium FSP published for agricultural and management Term (2013)

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fires Establish a biomass burning advisory line which will aid people to burn on days that are FSP, FDDM Medium – Term not hazardous to air quality or run-away fires. A complaints line should also be set up.

8.9. Waste Treatment and Disposal

8.9.1. Proposed Interventions

Emissions from waste treatment and disposal facilities were not quantified due to the variability in emissions from these sources and the availability of information. As a first step to address waste burning in the region, a comprehensive emissions inventory of all waste sources should be compiled. This should include information on landfill sites, incinerators, sewage and waste water treatment works. Preliminary information on the site, location, status and classification of landfill sites in the District was obtained for this study. Information on waste water treatment works was also obtained.

Incineration of medical waste potentially occurs on a small-scale in the District in the Provincial Hospitals and funeral homes, although the legal and operational status of such incinerators is unknown. The District should initiate an investigation into the legal status of incinerators operating in the District and ensure that all incinerators are permitted and in compliance with their permits.

Major landfill sites within Fezile Dabi District also need to be permitted to ensure that these landfills are effectively managed and controlled to reduce illegal dumping and waste burning. The status of landfill sites will be reviewed as part of the proposed landfill permitting backlog project which commenced in 2009.

Again, awareness campaigns around the environmental benefits of recycling should be promoted. These campaigns should focus on schools with recycling bins and depots installed at each school in the region. Proper refuse collection in all areas within the Fezile Dabi District will also minimise illegal waste dumping and domestic waste burning in the informal settlements.

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Other possible interventions include landfill gas monitoring and rehabilitation of closed landfill sites. The proposed interventions for waste treatment and disposal are provided in Table 36.

Table 36: Proposed emission reduction strategies for waste treatment and disposal within the Fezile Dabi District.

Intervention Responsible Party Timeframe Develop an emissions inventory of waste Short –Term (2011) burning sources (incinerators, sewage and FDDM waste water treatment works) Ensure all operating incinerators are permitted Short– Term (2011) and are operating within their permit FSP, FDDM requirements Maintain a current database of permitted and FSP, DEA Short– Term (2011) non-permitted landfill sites Ensure waste disposal sites are in compliance Medium –Term FSP, DEA with DWA minimum requirements (2013) Introduce awareness programmes and public Medium– Term education of waste minimization and recycling FDDM (2013) initiatives Reduce illegal dumping and the creation of Medium– Term informal landfills through efficient service FSP, FDDM (2013) delivery in residential areas Undertake landfill gas monitoring and FSP, FDDM Ongoing management schemes Landfill permitting backlog project DEA Short– Term (2011) Promote landfill rehabilitation schemes FSP Ongoing

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9. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1. Pollutants, Sources and Impact Areas

Due to the unavailability of ambient air quality monitoring data in the District, a comprehensive assessment of the spatial distribution of pollution across the District could not be undertaken. Ambient air quality monitoring data was limited to Metsimaholo Local Municipality where various industries and National Government operate continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations. Based on the available data, ambient

PM10 and SO2 concentrations are elevated in the Sasolburg region while NO2 concentrations are low.

The main sources influencing the air quality in the District have been identified to be: • Industrial emissions – mainly emissions from large industries (petrochemical power generation) and small boiler sources in the District. These sources

contribute to PM10 and SO2 concentrations. • Mining – coal, diamond and gold mining which contribute to elevated PM10 concentrations. • Domestic fuel burning – mainly wood and paraffin burning in informal settlements such as Namahadi and Qalabotjha (Mafube), Refengkgotso and Zamdela (Metsimaholo), Rammulutsi and Moakeng (Moqhaka) and Phiritona and Kwakwatsi (Ngwathe), • Vehicle emissions – from petrol and diesel vehicles along major roads and the N1 and N3 National Roads in the District. • Agricultural activities – although not quantified, agricultural activities are considered to be an important contributor to ambient particulate concentrations. Agricultural activities in the District include maize, cattle and sheep farming. • Biomass burning – also not quantified due to the irregular and seasonal nature of this source, but also considered to be an important contributor to ambient particulate concentrations, particularly during the fire-burning season.

Based on the available ambient air quality monitoring data and the nature and distribution of air pollution sources in the District, Metsimaholo Local Municipality was identified to be the main focus area in the District. Air pollution sources in this District

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include large scale industrial activity (power generation, petrochemical activities), mining operations, iron and steel processes and domestic fuel burning which contribute to elevated PM10 and SO2 concentrations.

Dispersion modelling simulations have been undertaken for this Municipality as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan (and updated by the Department of Environmental Affairs in 2009) and therefore additional modelling simulations were not required. Within Sasolburg, daily and annual average PM10 concentrations were predicted to exceed their respective PM10 targets while SO2 concentrations were found to be problematic in the short-term, exceeding the 10-min and

1-hour targets. Daily and annual average SO2 concentrations were in compliance with their respective targets.

9.2. Capacity Building within Government

The current capability of the Fezile Dabi District is limited by the shortage of personnel, skills and tools required for effective and co-ordinated air quality management. Air quality management is undertaken by Fezile Dabi District with none of the Local Municipalities able to undertake basic air quality functions. Human Resources

Human resources required in the District Municipality include a dedicated, skilled air quality officer whose responsibilities are only related to air quality management and control. As and when ambient monitoring is expanded in the District, a skilled, trained technician must be appointed in the District Municipality.

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9.2.1. Air Quality Management Tools

Air quality management tools are required in the District Municipality to effectively fulfill their air quality functions. Such tools include emissions inventory software, dispersion modeling software and air quality monitoring hardware. A detailed emissions inventory of all sources in the District Municipality needs to be undertaken in the short-term. The emissions inventory compiled for scheduled processes in Metsimaholo Local Municipality as part of the Vaal Triangle Airshed Priority Area Air Quality Management Plan should be obtained from DEA and reviewed and updated. As and when dispersion modeling skills are available, a range of models are available either as freeware or to purchase. Appropriate models for the District Municipality include AERMOD which is likely to become the regulatory model for South Africa. Air quality monitoring options include continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations or passive sampling methods. Given the lack of available air quality monitoring data across the District, the implementation of passive badge monitoring campaign is the recommended option for the District to determine the spatial distribution of pollutants.

9.3. Emission Reduction Interventions

Emission reduction interventions have been recommended for air pollution sources in the District. Interventions for the major sources are described in the sections below.

9.3.1. Industries

Recommended interventions in the short-medium term include:

• Electronic database of all small industries should be compiled by the District Municipality, • Periodic site inspections and emissions measurements should be undertaken by the District Municipality, • DEA should develop a permit system for all non-listed activities, • Model scheduled trade by-laws. This is the responsibility of the District Municipality.

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• Small boilers will be declared controlled emitters. There is a proposal on the requirements for small boilers in the current standard setting process which was expected to be gazetted by the end of 2008.

9.3.2. Domestic Fuel Burning

Recommended interventions in the short-medium term include:

• The domestic fuel burning emissions inventory should be reviewed with updated population statistics as these become available. A National Census has been planned for 2011, • An awareness raising programme through media campaigns and community forums should be developed to educate the public around the negative health impacts of domestic fuel burning, • The District should encourage the distribution of alternative forms of energy such as low smoke fuels and gas, • Energy efficiency measures should be integrated into low-cost houses such as housing insulation, solar panels and stove maintenance and replacement, • Electrification in informal areas should be actively undertaken.

9.3.3. Transportation

Recommended interventions in the short-medium term include:

• Traffic count data should be obtained for Metsimaholo Local Municipality (and updated traffic counts for other areas, where available) • A A detailed assessment of the vehicle fleet in the District should be undertaken including information on vehicle numbers, type, age and fuel usage. Information has been obtained on the vehicle sales and fuel sales for the District. • The future regulation of diesel-drive vehicles. The Future Emitters Project and the Norms and Standards Setting Project will develop regulations, although this will not be applicable to on-road vehicles. Local authorities will be expected to establish control measures for on-road vehicles through local by-laws, • Vehicles are likely to be declared the first controlled emitters in South Africa, • Improved fuel quality with a reduction in the sulphur content (50 ppm).

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9.3.4. Agriculture and Biomass Burning

Recommended interventions for agriculture in the short-long term include:

• The District Municipality should obtain information on the quantity of pesticides consumed in the District. • Crop spraying should only take place under favourable atmospheric conditions to reduce spray drift, • Agricultural burning should also only be allowed under favourable dispersion conditions to reduce the air quality impact.

Recommended interventions for biomass burning in the short-long term include:

• Emissions from biomass burning need to be accurately quantified, • The role of the fire services in air pollution control needs to be identified in each Local Municipality, • Each local Fire Department should maintain and update a database of the locations of veld fires and the extent of the areas burnt. This will assist with the quantification of biomass burning emissions, • Regional scheduled burning areas should be published for agricultural and management fires, • A biomass burning advisory line should be established by the District to assist with agricultural burning.

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REFERENCES

Atkinson, B.W., 1981: Meso-scale atmospheric circulations, Academic Press, London.

Free State Department of Tourism, Environmental and Economic Affairs., 2008: Free State Environment Outlook: A report on the State of the Environment, Free State Department of Tourism, Environmental and Economic Affairs, Bloemfontein.

Hély, C., Caylor, K., Alleaume, S., Swap, R.J. and Shugart, H.H., 2003: Release of gaseous and particulate carbonaceous compounds from biomass burning during the SAFARI 2000 dry season field campaign, Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, D13, 8470, doi:10.1029/2002JD002482.

IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J.T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, D.K. Maskell, C.A. Johnson (eds), The Climate System: An Overview, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 288 - 348.

Kaufmann, Y.J., Justice, C.O., Flynn, L., Kendall, J., Prins, E., and Ward, D.E., 1998: Potential global fire monitoring from EOS_MODIS, Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, 32215-32238.

Korontzi, S., Roy, D.P., Justice, C.O. and Ward,D.E., Modeling and sensitivity analysis of fire emissions in southern Africa during SAFARI 2000, 2004: Remote Sensing of Environment, 92, 255-275.

Levine, J.S., Cahoon, Jnr., D.R., Costulis, J.A., Couch, R.H., Davis, R.E., Garn, P.A., Jalink, Jnr., A., McAdoo, J.A., Robinson, D.M., Roettker, W.A., Sasamoto, W.A., Sherrill, R.T., and Smith, K.D. 1996: FireSat and the Global Monitoring of Biomass Burning, in Levine, J.S., Biomass Burning and Global Change Volume 1: Remote Sensing, Modelling and Inventory Development, and Biomass Burning in Africa, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

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Li, J., Pósfai, M., Hobbs, P.V. and Buseck, P.R., 2003: Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in southern Africa: 2. Compositions and aging in inorganic particles, Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, D13, 8484, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002310, 20-1 – 20-12.

Moeller, C.C., Revercomb, H.E., Ackerman, S.A., Menzel, W.P. and Knuteson, R.O., 2003: Evaluation of MODIS thermal IR and L1B radiances during SAFARI 2000, Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, D13, 8494, doi:1029/2002JD002323., 30- 1 – 30-12.

Morisette, J.T., Giglio,L., Csiszar,I., Setzer,A., Schroeder,W., Morton, D and Justice, C.O., Validation of MODIS active fire detection products derived from two algorithms, Earth Interactions, 2005: 9, 1-25.

Piketh, S.J. and Walton, N.M., 2004: Characteristics of Atmospheric Transport of Air Pollution for Africa, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Vol.4, Part G, 173-195.

Ross, J.L., Hobbs, P.V. and Holben, B., 1998: Radiative characteristics of regional hazes dominated by smoke from biomass burning in Brazil: Closure tests and direct radiative forcing, Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, D24, 31,925-31,941.

D.P. Roy, Y.Jin, P.E. Lewis and C.O. Justice, 2005: Prototyping a global algorithm for systematic fire-affected area mapping using MODIS time series data, Remote Sensing of the Environment, 97, 137-162.

Scholes, R.J., Ward, D.E. and Justice, C.O., 1996: Emissions of trace gases and aerosol articles due to vegetation burning in southern hemisphere Africa’, Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, D19, 23677-23682.

Scholes, R.J., Kendall, J and Justice, C.O. 1996b: The quantity of biomass burned in southern Africa, Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, D19, 23,667-23,676.

Stone, A., 2000: South African Vehicle Emissions Project: Phase II, Final Report: Diesel Engines, February 2000.

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Swap, R.J., Annegarn, H.J., Suttles, J.T., King, M.D., Platnick, S., Privette, J.L. and Scholes, R.J. 2003: Africa burning: A thematic analysis of the southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000), Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, D13, 8465, doi: 10.1029/2003JD003747.

Tyson, P.D., Kruger, F.J and Louw, C.W., 1988: Atmospheric pollution and its implications in the Eastern Transvaal Highveld, South African National Scientific Programmes, Report, 150, Foundation for Research and Development, Pretoria.

Tyson, P.D., Garstang, M and Swap, R., 1996: Large-Scale Recirculation of Air over Southern Africa, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 35, 2218 – 2234.

Tyson, P.D and Preston-Whyte, R.A., 2000: The Weather and Atmosphere of Southern Africa, Oxford University Press, Cape Town.

Wong ., 1999: Vehicle Emissions Project (Phase II). Volume I, Main Report, Engineering Research, Report No. CER 161, February 1999.

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APPENDIX A CRITERIA POLLUTANTS AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH IMPACTS

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A.1 Human Health Impacts

A.1.1 Particulate Matter

Particles can be classified by their aerodynamic properties into coarse particles, PM10 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm) and fine particles,

PM2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm) (Harrison and van Grieken, 1998). The fine particles contain the secondarily formed aerosols such as sulphates and nitrates, combustion particles and recondensed organic and metal vapours. The coarse particles contain earth crust materials and fugitive dust from roads and industries (Fenger, 2002).

In terms of health impacts, particulate air pollution is associated with effects of the respiratory system (WHO, 2000). Particle size is important for health because it controls where in the respiratory system a given particle deposits. Fine particles have been found to be more damaging to human health than coarse particles as larger particles are less respirable in that they do not penetrate deep into the lungs compared to smaller particles (Manahan, 1991). Larger particles are deposited into the extrathoracic part of the respiratory tract while smaller particles are deposited into the smaller airways leading to the respiratory bronchioles (WHO, 2000).

Short-term exposure

Recent studies suggest that short-term exposure to particulate matter leads to adverse health effects, even at low concentrations of exposure (below 100 µg/m3). Morbidity effects associated with short-term exposure to particulates include increases in lower respiratory symptoms, medication use and small reductions in lung function.

Long-term exposure

Long-term exposure to low concentrations (~10 µg/m3) of particulates is associated with mortality and other chronic effects such as increased rates of bronchitis and reduced lung function (WHO, 2000). Those most at risk include the elderly, individuals with pre- existing heart or lung disease, asthmatics and children.

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A.1.2 Sulphur dioxide

SO2 originates from the combustion of sulphur-containing fuels and is a major air pollutant in many parts of the world. Health effects associated with exposure to SO2 are also associated with the respiratory system. Being soluble, SO2 is readily absorbed in the mucous membranes of the nose and upper respiratory tract (Maroni et al., 1995).

Short-term exposure

Most information on the acute effects of SO2 is derived from short-term exposure in controlled chamber experiments. These experiments have demonstrated a wide range of sensitivity amongst individuals. Acute exposure of SO2 concentrations can lead to severe bronchconstriction in some individuals, while others remain completely unaffected. Response to SO2 inhalation is rapid with the maximum effect experienced within a few minutes. Continued exposure does not increase the response. Effects of

SO2 exposure are short-lived with lung function returning to normal within a few minutes to hours (WHO, 2000).

Exposure over 24 hours

The effects of exposure to SO2, averaged over a 24 hour period, are derived from epidemiological studies in which the effects of SO2, particulates and other associated pollutants are assessed. Studies of the health impact of emissions from the inefficient burning of coal in domestic appliances have shown that when SO2 concentrations exceed 250 µg/m3 in the presence of particulate matter (as sulphates), an exacerbation of symptoms is observed in selected sensitive patients. More recent studies of health impacts in ambient air polluted by industrial and vehicular activities have demonstrated at low levels effects on mortality (total, cardiovascular and respiratory) and increases in hospital admissions. In these studies, no obvious SO2 threshold level was identified (WHO, 2000).

Long-term exposure

Long-term exposure to SO2 has been found to be associated with an exacerbation of respiratory symptoms and a small reduction in lung function in children in some cases. In adults, respiratory symptoms such as wheezing and coughing are increased.

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A.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide Nitric oxide (NO) is a primary pollutant emitted from the combustion of stationary sources

(heating, power generation) and from motor vehicles. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is formed through the oxidation of nitric oxide. Oxidation of NO by O3 occurs rapidly, even at low levels of reactants present in the atmosphere. Altshuller (1956) calculated that 50% conversion of nitric oxide would take less than 1 minute at a NO concentration of 120 3 3 μg/m (0.1 ppm) in the presence of an O3 concentration of 200 μg/m (0.1 ppm). As a result, this reaction is regarded as the most important route for nitrogen dioxide production in the atmosphere.

Nitrogen dioxide is an important gas, not only because of its health effects, but because it (a) absorbs visible solar radiation and contributes to visibility impairment, (b) could have a potential role in global climate change if concentrations were to increase significantly, (c) is a chief regulator of the oxidizing capacity of the free troposphere by controlling the build-up and fate of radical species, including hydroxyl radicals and (d) plays a critical role in determining ozone concentrations.

Short-term exposure

At concentrations greater than 1880 µg/m3 (1000 ppb), changes in the pulmonary function of adults is observed. Normal healthy people exposed at rest or with light exercise for less than 2 hours to concentrations above 4700 µg/m3 (2500 ppb), experience pronounced decreases in pulmonary function. Asthmatics are potentially the most sensitive subjects although various studies of the health effects on asthmatics have been inconclusive. The lowest concentration causing effects on pulmonary function was reported from two laboratories that exposed mild asthmatics for 30 – 110 minutes to 565 µg/m3 (301 ppb) during intermittent exercise (WHO, 2000).

Long-term exposure

Epidemiological studies have been undertaken on the indoor use of gas cooking appliances and health effects. Studies on adults and children under 2 years of age found no association between the use of gas cooking appliances and respiratory effects. Children aged 5 – 12 years have a 20% increased risk for respiratory symptoms and

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3 disease for each increase of 28 µg/m (15 ppb) NO2 concentration, where the weekly average concentrations are in the range of 15 – 128 µg/m3 (8 – 68 ppb) (WHO, 2000).

Outdoor studies consistently indicate that children with long-term ambient NO2 exposures exhibit increased respiratory symptoms that are of a longer duration. However, no evidence is provided for the association of long-term exposures with health effects in adults (WHO, 2000).

A.1.4 Ozone Ozone in the atmosphere is a secondary pollutant formed through a complex series of photochemical reactions between NO2 and VOCs in the presence of sunlight. Sources of these precursor pollutants include motor vehicles and industries. Atmospheric background concentrations are derived from both natural and anthropogenic sources.

Natural concentrations of O3 vary with altitude and seasonal variations (i.e. summer conditions favour O3 formation due to increased insolation). Diurnal patterns of O3 vary according to location, depending on the balance of factors affecting its formation, transport and destruction. From the minimal levels recorded in the early morning, concentrations increase as a result of photochemical processes and peak in the afternoon. During the night, O3 is scavenged by nitric oxide. Seasonal variations in O3 concentrations also occur and are caused by changes in meteorological conditions and insolation. Quarterly mean (arithmetic average of daily values for a calendar quarter) O3 concentrations are typically highest in summer (WHO, 2000).

Ozone contributes to the formation of significant amounts of organic and inorganic aerosols. Correlations between concentrations of O3 and sulphuric acid, nitric acid, sulphates and nitrates have been observed (Grennfelt, 1984).

Ozone is a powerful oxidant and can react with a wide range of cellular components and biological materials. Health effects and the extent of the damage associated with O3 exposure is dependent on O3 concentrations, exposure duration, exposure pattern and ventilation (WHO, 2000).

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Short-term exposure

Short-term effects include respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function changes, increased airway responsiveness and inflammation. Field studies in vulnerable persons (children, adolescents, young adults, elderly and asthmatics) have indicated that pulmonary function decrements can occur as a result of short-term exposure to O3 concentrations in the range 120 – 240 µg/m3 (61 – 122 ppb) and higher. Ozone exposure has also been reported to be associated with increased hospital admissions for respiratory causes and exacerbation of asthma (WHO, 2000).

Long-term exposure

There is limited information linking long-term O3 exposure to chronic health effects, however, there are suggestions that cumulative O3 exposures may be linked with increasing asthma severity and the possibility of increased risk of becoming asthmatic (Abbey et al., 1993).

Evidence provided by studies of health effects related to chronic ambient O3 exposure is consistent in indicating chronic effects on the lung. Some studies have shown that long- 3 term exposure to concentrations of O3 in the range 240 – 500 µg/m (122 – 255 ppb) causes morphological changes in the region of the lung resulting in a reduction in lung function (WHO, 2000).

A.1.5 Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common and widely distributed air pollutants. CO is a tasteless, odourless and colourless gas which has a low solubility in water. In the human body, after reaching the lungs it diffuses rapidly across the alveolar and capillary membranes and binds reversibly with the haem proteins. Approximately 80 - 90% of CO binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) which is a specific biomarker of exposure in blood. The affinity of haemoglobin for CO is 200 – 250 times that for oxygen. This causes a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood which leads to hypoxia as the body is starved of oxygen.

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Anthropogenic emissions of CO originate from the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. The largest proportion of these emissions is produced from exhausts of internal combustion engines, in particular petrol vehicles. Other sources include industrial processes, coal power plants and waste incinerators. Ambient CO concentrations in urban areas depend on the density of vehicles and are influenced by topography and weather conditions. In the streets, CO concentrations vary according to the distance from the traffic. In general, the concentration is highest at the leeward side of the ‘street canyon’ with a sharp decline in concentration from pavement to rooftop level (Rudolf, 1994).

Short and Long-term exposure

The adverse health effects of CO vary depending on the concentration and time of exposure. Clinical symptoms range from headaches, nausea and vomiting, muscular weakness, and shortness of breath at low concentrations (10 ppm) to loss of consciousness and death after prolonged exposure or after acute exposure to high CO concentrations (>500 ppm). Poisoning may cause both reversible, short-lasting neurological deficits and severe, often delayed, neurological damage. Neurobehavioural effects include impaired co-ordination, tracking, driving ability, vigilance and cognitive ability at COHb levels as low as 1.5 - 8.2% (WHO, 2000).

High risk patients with regards to CO exposure include persons with cardiovascular diseases (especially ischaemic heart disease), pregnant mothers and the foetus and newborn infants. Epidemiological and clinical studies indicate that CO from smoking and environmental or occupational exposures may contribute to cardiovascular mortality (WHO, 2000).

A.1.6 Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that easily vapourise at room temperature and are colourless. VOCs are released from vehicle exhaust gases either as unburned fuels or as combustion products, and are also emitted by the evaporation of solvents and motor fuels. Short-term exposure to VOCs can cause eye and respiratory tract irritation and damage, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders,

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fatigue, loss of coordination, allergic skin reactions, nausea, and memory impairment, damage the bone marrow and even death. Long-term exposure to high levels of VOCs has been linked to an increase in occurrence of leukaemia. VOCs can also cause damage to the liver, kidneys and central nervous system.

A.1.6.1 Benzene

Benzene in air exists predominantly in the vapour phase, with residence times varying between a few hours and a few days, depending on the environment, climate and the concentration of other pollutants. The only benzene reaction, which is important in the lower atmosphere, is the reaction with hydroxy radicals. The products of this reaction are phenols and aldehydes, which react quickly and are removed from air by rain.

Benzene is a natural component of crude oil, and petrol contains 1 – 5% by volume. Benzene is produced in large quantities from petroleum sources and is used in the chemical synthesis of ethyl benzene, phenol, cyclohexane and other substituted aromatic hydrocarbons. Benzene is emitted from industrial sources as well as from combustion sources such as motor engines, wood combustion and stationary fossil fuel combustion. The major source is exhaust emissions and evaporation losses from motor vehicles, and evaporation losses during the handling, distribution and storage of petrol.

Information on health effects from short-term exposure to benzene is fairly limited. The most significant adverse effects from prolonged exposure to benzene are haematotoxicity, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Chronic benzene exposure can result in bone marrow depression expressed as leukopenia, anaemia and/or thrombocytopenia, leading to pancytopenia and aplastic anaemia. Based on this evidence, C6H6 is recognized to be a human and animal carcinogen. An increased mortality from leukemia has been demonstrated in workers occupationally exposed (WHO, 2000).

A.1.6.2 Toluene

Toluene is produced from the catalytic conversion of petroleum and aromatization of aliphatic hydrocarbons and as a by-product of the coke oven industry. The bulk of

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production is in the form of a benzene-toluene-xylene mixture that is used in the back blending of petrol to enhance octane ratings. Toluene is used as a solvent, carrier or thinner in the paint, rubber, printing, cosmetic, adhesives and resin industries, as a starting material for the synthesis of other chemicals and as a constituent of fuels (WHO, 2000).

Toluene is believed to be the most prevalent hydrocarbon in the atmosphere. Reactions with hydroxy radicals are the main mechanisms by which toluene is removed from the atmosphere. The lifetime of toluene can range from a few days in summer to a few months in winter (WHO, 2000).

The short-term and long-term effects of toluene on the Central Nervous System are of great concern. Toluene may also cause developmental decrements and congential abnormalities in humans. The potential effects of toluene exposure on reproduction and hormonal imbalances in women are also of concern. Men occupationally exposed to toluene at 5 – 25 ppm have also been shown to exhibit hormonal imbalances. Limited information suggests an association between occupational toluene exposure and spontaneous abortions at an average concentration 88 ppm. Toluene has minimal effects on the liver and kidney, except in cases of toluene abuse. Studies have not indicated that toluene is carcinogenic (WHO, 2000).

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