The Extragalactic Distance Scale

The Cepheid Distance Scale and its Application to the Absolute

Calibration of the Luminosity – Linewidth Relation

A thesis presented

Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The Department of Astronomy

in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements

for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the subject of

Astronomy

Harvard University

Cambridge, Massachusetts

September 2001 c 2001, by Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

ii The Extragalactic Distance Scale The Cepheid Distance Scale and its Application to the Absolute Calibration of the Luminosity – Linewidth Relation

Advisor: John P. Huchra Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Abstract

This Thesis presents research into several topics related to the Extragalactic Distance Scale; in particular, the Cepheid Period – Luminosity Relation and the Luminosity – Linewidth relation for spiral galaxies.

The primary distance indicator of choice in the Local Supercluster is the Cepheid Period – Luminosity Relation. While its absolute calibration is still uncertain at the 10% level, it can yield precise relative distances. I present the discovery of Cepheids in, and the determination of distances to, two galaxies in the Local Supercluster: M33 and NGC 2841. I also present a test of the standard extinction law in other galaxies using near-infrared observations of Cepheids.

One of the most-widely used secondary distance indicators for extragalactic work is the luminosity – linewidth relation of spiral galaxies, commonly referred to as the Tully – Fisher relation. I present a complete and consistent database of optical and infrared magnitudes of spiral galaxies that are suitable for the absolute calibration of that relation, and I perform that calibration in the RIHK bands.

iii iv Contents

Abstract ...... iii Table of Contents ...... v List of Figures ...... ix List of Tables ...... xiii Acknowledgments ...... xv Citations to Previously Published Work ...... xvii

1 Introduction and Summary 1 1.1 Structure of this thesis ...... 1 1.2 The Cepheid Distance Scale ...... 2 1.2.1 A historical introduction to Cepheid variables ...... 2 1.2.2 A modern introduction to Cepheid variables ...... 8 1.3 The Tully-Fisher relation ...... 15

2 A Cepheid distance to M33 21 2.1 Introduction ...... 22 2.2 Observations and data reduction ...... 23 2.3 Photometry ...... 26 2.3.1 Initial Processing ...... 26 2.3.2 Photometry of template images ...... 27 2.3.3 Photometry of individual frames ...... 28 2.3.4 Determination of aperture correction coeﬃcients ...... 28

v 2.3.5 Standard star observations and photometric solutions . . . . . 30 2.3.6 Photometric comparisons ...... 32 2.3.7 Artiﬁcial star tests ...... 35 2.4 The star catalog ...... 39 2.5 Variable search and classiﬁcation ...... 42 2.5.1 Previously-known variables in M33 ...... 74 2.6 A Cepheid Distance to M33 ...... 75 2.6.1 The P-L relation of LMC Cepheids ...... 79 2.6.2 Extinction corrections ...... 81 2.6.3 Blending bias ...... 86 2.6.4 The metallicity dependence of the P-L relation ...... 94 2.6.5 The distance to the LMC ...... 97 2.6.6 An absolute distance to M33 ...... 99

3 A Cepheid distance to NGC 2841 101 3.1 Introduction ...... 102 3.2 Observations and Data Reduction ...... 102 3.3 Photometry and Calibration ...... 103 3.4 The Cepheids found in NGC 2841 ...... 111 3.5 Period-Luminosity Relations and Distance Moduli ...... 113 3.5.1 Methodology ...... 113 3.5.2 Distance moduli ...... 133 3.5.3 Metallicity correction ...... 136 3.5.4 Error Budget ...... 136 3.6 Discussion ...... 138 3.7 Conclusions ...... 140

4 Infrared observations of extragalactic Cepheids 143 4.1 Introduction ...... 144

vi 4.2 Observations and Data Reduction ...... 145 4.2.1 Observations ...... 145 4.2.2 Data reduction ...... 146 4.3 Photometry ...... 148 4.3.1 Technique ...... 148 4.3.2 Absolute photometric calibrations ...... 149 4.3.3 Photometric recovery tests ...... 152 4.3.4 Photometry checks ...... 153 4.4 The Cepheid sample ...... 157 4.4.1 Sample selection and identiﬁcation ...... 157 4.4.2 Period-Luminosity relations ...... 174 4.4.3 Observed distance moduli ...... 174 4.5 Blending eﬀects in M101 Inner ...... 175 4.6 Consistency of reddening determinations ...... 191 4.6.1 Predicted relation between E(V–I) and E(V–H) ...... 191 4.6.2 Observed relation ...... 192 4.7 Summary ...... 196

5 Optical and infrared observations of Tully-Fisher calibrators 197 5.1 Introduction ...... 198 5.2 Optical observations and data reduction ...... 199 5.3 Infrared observations and data reduction ...... 201 5.4 Galaxy photometry ...... 204 5.4.1 Surface photometry measurements ...... 204 5.4.2 Photometry results and external comparisons ...... 212 5.5 21-cm linewidths ...... 215 5.6 Conclusions ...... 216

6 The absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation 219

vii 6.1 Introduction ...... 220 6.2 The calibrator sample ...... 221 6.3 Analysis ...... 222 6.4 An application to 2MASS data ...... 227 6.5 Conclusion ...... 230

viii List of Figures

1.1 Light and radial velocity curves of δ Cephei ...... 4 1.2 P-L relation of SMC Cepheids ...... 6 1.3 Evolutionary track of a 7M star ...... 9

1.4 P-L tracks for Cepheids of diﬀerent masses ...... 14 1.5 The original B- and H-band line width-luminosity relations ...... 16

2.1 Location of DIRECT M33 fields ...... 24 2.2 Mosaic of DIRECT M33 fields ...... 25 2.3 Histogram of seeing values in our frames ...... 29 2.4 Growth curve corrections ...... 31 2.5 Test of the internal consistency of our photometry ...... 34 2.6 Test of the external consistency of our photometry ...... 36 2.7 Artificial star tests ...... 37 2.8 Cumulative luminosity functions ...... 40 2.9 Color-magnitude diagram of 56950 stars in M33 ...... 41 2.10 Phase coverage as a function of period ...... 43 2.11 Representative Cepheid light curves ...... 46 2.12 Representative eclipsing binary light curves ...... 47 2.13 Representative miscellaneous variable light curves ...... 48 2.14 Color-magnitude diagram of 682 variables in M33 ...... 72 2.15 Observed I-band P-L relation for all Cepheids ...... 73 2.16 LMC Cepheid P-L relations ...... 80

ix 2.17 Interstellar extinction curves ...... 83 2.18 Determination of the extinction towards a Cepheid ...... 83 2.19 Eﬀect of blends on Cepheid colors ...... 84 2.20 Blending data for 91 Cepheids in our sample ...... 87 2.21 V and I P-L relations of 61 Cepheids in M33 ...... 90

2.22 Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. P for 61 Cepheids with V & I data ...... 91

2.23 Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. P for 20 Cepheids with B, V & I data . . . . 93

2.24 Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. r for 20 Cepheids with B, V & I data. . . . . 96

3.1 Ground-based image of NGC 2841 ...... 105 3.2 Mosaic of the WFPC2 field of view of NGC 2841 ...... 106 3.3 Medianed images of the four WFPC2 chips ...... 114-117 3.4 Individual finding charts for the variables ...... 118 3.5 V and I light curves for the variables ...... 119-123 3.6 Color-magnitude diagram for the stars detected in our images . . . . 124 3.7 Observed differential luminosity functions ...... 125 3.8 V-band P-L relation for the selected Cepheids in our sample . . . . . 134 3.9 I-band P-L relation for the selected Cepheids in our sample ...... 135 3.10 Distribution of Leo Cloud & Spur galaxies ...... 141

4.1 Growth curves for the NICMOS bandpasses ...... 150 4.2 Photometric recovery tests ...... 154-155 4.3 External photometry comparison ...... 159 4.4 Astrometric selection of candidates ...... 161 4.5 Color-color selection of candidates ...... 162-163 4.6 Images of the ﬁelds ...... 164-169 4.7 Individual ﬁnding charts ...... 170-171 4.8 Near-IR P-L relations ...... 176-181 4.9 Optical P-L relations ...... 182-186

x 4.10 Simulated M101 Inner fields ...... 188 4.11 P-L relations from simulated M101 Inner fields ...... 190 4.12 Correlation between color excesses in our fields ...... 195

5.1 BVRI surface brightness profiles ...... 207 5.2 HK surface brightness profiles ...... 208 5.3 Disk scale lengths ...... 209 5.4 Extrapolation from last isophote ...... 210 5.5 Sky surface brightness ...... 211 5.6 21-cm profiles ...... 217

6.1 Near-infrared luminosity–linewidth relations ...... 224 6.2 Optical luminosity–linewidth relations ...... 225 6.3 Ursa Major RIK luminosity–linewidth relations ...... 228

6.4 Luminosity–linewidth relations for 20 mag/ 00 magnitudes ...... 229 ut 6.5 Luminosity–linewidth relations for the Coma and A1367 clusters . . . 231

xi xii List of Tables

2.1 Photometric solutions ...... 33 2.2 Photometry comparisons ...... 33 2.3 Artiﬁcial star test results ...... 38 2.4 Cepheids ...... 49-61 2.5 Eclipsing Binaries ...... 62-63 2.6 Miscellaneous variables ...... 64-71 2.7 M33 Classical variables ...... 76-78

3.1 HST Observations of NGC 2841 ...... 104 3.2 WFPC2 Zeropoints ...... 108 3.3 Secondary standard stars in NGC 2841 ...... 109 3.3 Secondary standard stars in NGC 2841 ...... 110 3.4 Variables discovered in NGC 2841 ...... 112 3.5 Individual V band photometric measurements ...... 126-130 3.6 Individual I band photometric measurements ...... 131-132 3.7 Error Budget for the Cepheid Distance to NGC 2841 ...... 137 3.8 Galaxies with Cepheid Distances in the Leo Cloud & Spur ...... 139

4.1 Log of observations ...... 147 4.2 Photometry apertures ...... 150 4.3 Results of the photometric recovery tests ...... 156 4.4 Secondary standards in the IC 1613 ﬁeld ...... 158 4.5 Cepheid magnitudes ...... 172-173

xiii 4.6 Observed H, I and V distance moduli ...... 187 4.7 Observed J and K distance moduli ...... 188 4.8 Mean color excesses ...... 194

5.1 Cameras used in the observations ...... 200 5.3 Inclination data ...... 206 5.4 Photometric data ...... 213 5.5 Photometric data ...... 214 5.6 Linewidth data ...... 218

6.1 Calibrator data ...... 223 6.2 Fit results ...... 226

xiv Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge my Thesis Advisor, John Huchra, for his guidance over the past six years, and for letting me carry out my research activities in an independent way. That independence helped me grow and mature as a scientist, and it is greatly appreciated.

I would also like to acknowledge many collaborators and colleagues for their help and guidance, including Kris Stanek, Dimitar Sasselov, Guillermo Torres and Chris Kochanek at CfA; Jeremy Mould at NOAO; Robert Kennicutt at Steward Observatory; Shoko Sakai at UCLA; Peter Stetson at DAO; Wendy Freedman, Barry Madore and Eric Persson at Carnegie; and Paul Schechter at MIT.

An important part of graduate school are the relationships one establishes with other students. I am grateful to HéctorArce, for his friendship since our first day at Harvard and to Gregory Sobczak, for being a great office mate and putting up with me for three years. I also want to thank Pauline Barmby, David Charbonneau, Saurabh Jha and Scott Ransom for their comaraderie.

I would also like to thank to my parents Alicia & Eduardo, for their love, support and constant encouragement over the past three decades; to my sisters Carolina & Constanza and my brother Mariano, for their constant love and friendship; to my extended family, for remembering me in spite of the 9,000 km. between us; and to my life-long friends, Santiago & Fernando.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife Gloria for her constant love and support during the past eight years and the decades to come.

xv xvi Citations to Previously Published Work

Chapter 2 contains material from:

“The DIRECT Project: Catalogs of Stellar Objects in Nearby Galaxies. I. The Central Part of M33”, L.M. Macri, K.Z. Stanek, D.D. Sasselov, M. Krockenberger & J. Kaluzny, Astronomical Journal 121, 861 (2001).

“DIRECT distances to nearby galaxies using detached eclipsing binaries and Cepheids. VI. Variables in the ﬁelds M33A and M33B”, L.M. Macri, K.Z. Stanek, D.D. Sasselov, M. Krockenberger & J. Kaluzny, Astronomical Journal 121, 870 (2001).

Chapter 3 contains material from:

“The Discovery of Cepheids and a New Distance to NGC 2841 Using the Hubble Space Telescope”, L.M. Macri, P.B. Stetson, G.D. Bothun, W.L. Freedman, P.M. Garnavich, S. Jha, B.F. Madore & M.W. Richmond, Astrophysical Journal 559, 243 (2001).

Chapter 4 contains material from:

“HST/NICMOS observations of extragalactic Cepheids. I. Photometry Database and a Test of the Standard Extinction Law.”, L.M. Macri, D. Calzetti, W.L. Freedman, B.K. Gibson, J.A. Graham, J.P. Huchra, S.M.G. Hughes, B.F. Madore, J.R. Mould, S.E. Persson & P.B. Stetson, Astrophysical Journal 549, 721 (2001).

Chapter 5 contains material from:

“A Database of Tully-Fisher Calibrator Galaxies”, L.M. Macri, J.P. Huchra, S. Sakai, J.R. Mould & S.M.G. Hughes”, Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 128, 461 (2000).

xvii I dedicate this Thesis to my parents, Alicia & Eduardo, and to my wife, Gloria.

xviii Chapter 1

Introduction and Summary

1.1 Structure of this thesis

This thesis contains research into two areas of the Extragalactic Distance Scale:

The determination of Cepheid distances to spiral galaxies in the Local • Supercluster (Chapters 2 and 3), and a test of the methodology commonly used to correct these distances for the eﬀects associated with the scattering of light by dust in the interstellar medium (Chapter 4).

Optical and near infrared observations, and the resulting surface photometry • measurements and determinations of total magnitudes for spiral galaxies with existing Cepheid distances (Chapter 5), that are suitable for the absolute calibration of the luminosity – linewidth relation (Chapter 6).

The two halves can be read separately from each other; however, the second subject relies on Cepheid distances such as those derived in the ﬁrst half of the Thesis. Brief introductions to these two areas of research are presented below.

1 2 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

1.2 The Cepheid Distance Scale

1.2.1 A historical introduction to Cepheid variables

The knowledge that some stars exhibit changes in their brightness may date back to humankind’s distant past. The ﬂux of β Persei, the sixty-third brightest star in the sky, drops to 30% of its maximum every 3 days. This star is named “Algol”, ∼ meaning “Demon Star” in Arabic, which suggests that this civilization knew about its peculiar behavior. The ﬁrst variable star known to Western civilization was o Ceti, whose variability was discovered in 1596 by Fabricius. β Persei’s variability was noticed in 1669 by Motanari, and within a few years, three more variable stars were known: η Carinae (by Halley in 1677), χ Cygni (by Kirch in 1687) and R Hydrae (by Maraldi in 1704). After a long hiatus, R Leonis was found to be variable by Koch in 1782. With the exception of β Persei, all other stars are semi-regular variables with long-term periodicities.

John Goodricke was born in 1764 to an aristocratic family in Yorkshire, England. He was found to be deaf at an early age, and sent to a school for the “deaf and dumb” in Scotland. He was later enrolled in Warrington Academy, a progressive Unitarian theological seminary, where he was introduced to astronomy. By 1781 he was back in Yorkshire, living with his parents, and had met a 28-year old man named Ed Pigott, whose father had built one of three existing private observatories in England, located near to the Goodricke home. A scientific collaboration ensued between the two young men, and by November 1782 they started observations of β Persei. Goodricke found it to be periodic, and presented his results to the Royal Society in May 1783. Following confirmation of the periodicity a year later, he was awarded the “Copley Medal” for the most significant discovery in science of the year. He also discovered a second Algol-like system, β Lyrae, around the same time, and proposed that Algol’s unequal minima were due to the transit of a planet.

Starting on October 19, 1784 and continuing until June 28, 1785, Goodricke made observations of δ Cephei on an almost daily basis. He found the star The Extragalactic Distance Scale 3 was variable and had a period of “5 days, 8 hours, 37 1/2 minutes” (Goodricke 1786), but unlike β Persei and β Lyrae, its light curve did not exhibit narrow, deep minima, but rather a sharp rise followed by a slow decay and a pronounced minimum (see the top panel of Figure 1.1 for a modern version of the light curve of δ Cephei from Moﬀet & Barnes 1984). Soon thereafter, Pigott discovered that η Aquilae was variable and that it had a similar light curve. For his contributions to astronomy, Goodricke was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in April of 1786, but died later that month of pneumonia, likely contracted from prolonged exposure to cold winter nights during the second season of observations of δ Cephei.

Other stars with photometric variations similar to δ Cephei and η Aquilae were discovered during the nineteenth century, and by the end of that century, the advent of photographic plates allowed the study of their radial velocity curves. The first one to be obtained was that of δ Cephei, reported in the first issue of the Astrophysical Journal by Bélopolsky (1894) (see the bottom panel of Figure 1.1 for modern version of this curve from Bersier et al. 1994). Fifteen years later, fourteen Cepheids had been studied spectroscopically (Duncan 1909), and the favored explanation for the flux and velocity variations involved a binary system, albeit of a very peculiar nature: the size of the semi-major axis of the system was of the order of R , and the unseen secondary star had a very small mass function, around

3 2.5 10− . Once the parallaxes of some Cepheids were measured, it was found × that the “primary stars” of these systems had radii of 5R and luminosities of ∼ 103L , making the binary star hypothesis untenable. Shapley (1914) presented ∼ the aforementioned facts as evidence for the dismissal of the binary-star hypothesis and stated that:

“... [t]he explanation that appears to promise the simplest solution of most, if not all, of the Cepheid phenomena is founded on the rather vague conception of periodic pulsations in the masses of isolated stars. The vagueness of the hypothesis lies chiefly in our lack of knowledge of the internal structure of stellar bodies, and not in the difficulty of explaining the observed facts if once we assume the stars to be ideally gaseous figures of equilibrium [...] It is to this phenomenon of pulsating 4 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 1.1.— Modern versions of the light and radial velocity curves of δ Cephei. The former comes from Moﬀet & Barnes (1984), while the latter is due to Bersier et al. (1994). The Extragalactic Distance Scale 5

stellar masses, however, that the writer would ascribe the light and velocity variation of Cepheid and cluster variables, and the theoretical work of Moulton, Jeans, Emden and others on the properties of gaseous spheres already justiﬁes the conclusion that such oscillations are both possible and probable...”

A similar paradigm shift, from a binary-star hypothesis to a single pulsating star hypothesis, was proposed a few months later by Martin & Plummer (1915) to explain the radial velocity variations of RR Lyrae, the prototype of another class of variables, then known as “cluster variables”.

A few years before the papers by Shapley and Martin & Plummer, Cepheids had been discovered in the Magellanic Clouds by Leavitt (1908), who subsequently found that the variables the Small Magellanic Cloud exhibited a clear relation between their periods and their mean magnitudes (Leavitt 1912). A modern version of that relation (with a much larger sample of variables) due to Udalski et al. (1999) can be seen in Figure 1.2. This relation came to be known as the “Cepheid Period-Luminosity Relation”, commonly abbreviated as the “P-L relation”.

A few years after Leavitt’s discovery of the P-L relation, Eddington (1918) strengthened the case for the pulsating-star hypothesis by developing a theory of adiabatic oscillations of a stellar atmosphere. He noticed that for Galactic

Cepheids, Π√ρc constant, where Π is the period of a variable and ρc is its ∼ central density; this correlation was hard to explain in terms of a binary system, but came out naturally from pulsation theory. In a companion paper, Eddington (1919) showed that the pulsations would not dissipate after a few cycles, but would last for more than 103 years. Furthermore, based on the already-known Cepheid Period-Luminosity Relation, he dismissed the hypotheses of collisions of meteorites with the stellar surface, or the close encounter of two stars, as the starting mechanisms for pulsations, and postulated that they were due to one of two sources: 6 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 1.2.— Modern version of the Period-Luminosity Relation of Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud, from Udalski et al. (1999). The ﬁrst Cepheid P-L relation was based on Cepheids present in this Milky Way satellite, and was constructed by Leavitt (1912). The Extragalactic Distance Scale 7

“1) During a certain stage the conditions are such that an oscillation having the appropriate period would tend to increase; thus the pulsation would start automatically.

2) At a certain stage there is a sudden change in the state of stable equilibrium, and the collapse to the new state throws the star into a pulsation, which [...] could last for a period of the order 1000 years.

In either case, it seems likely that every star of suﬃcient mass will become a Cepheid for a brief part of its life [...]”

Eddington continued on to hypothesize that “the condition for Cepheid variation may be a particular distribution of internal temperature” and that “the speciﬁc heat may change with temperature, being abnormally high for temperatures at which ionisation occurs rapidly”, concluding that “the occurrence of variation depends on the conditions in the outer layers [of the star].” As we know today (see 1.2.2), all these statements are accurate descriptions of the mechanisms § responsible for Cepheid pulsations.

Lastly, it is of interest that Eddington (1926) used the lack of changes in the period of δ Cephei from 1785 until the publication of his work as evidence against the “contraction” hypothesis and in favor of the “sub-atomic” hypothesis for the mechanism responsible for energy generation in stars. That same year, Hubble (1926) published his discovery of Cepheid variables in Messier 33, thus establishing the extragalactic nature of the “spiral nebulae”.

Our increased understanding of the physical properties and processes associated with stellar structure and evolution since the days of Eddington has resulted in a clear picture of the mechanisms responsible for the origin of pulsations in Cepheid variables. These are described in the following sub-section. 8 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

1.2.2 A modern introduction to Cepheid variables

Brieﬂy stated, Cepheid variables are stars with masses between 4 10M that − are in the evolutionary stage where helium is fused into carbon in their cores, and hydrogen is fused into helium in a shell outside the core. During this phase, their outer stellar envelope becomes vibrationally unstable and starts to pulsate. The period of pulsation is related to the mean density of the star, which is in turn related to its mass. The latter determines the luminosity of the star, thus resulting in a relation between period and luminosity, known as the Cepheid Period-Luminosity Relation.

Let us expand upon this brief summary as follows. First, we will describe the evolutionary history of a 7M star, to put the Cepheid phase in context. Second, we will describe the physical processes that drive the evolution of high-mass stars and the mechanisms responsible for the onset of vibrational instabilities. These descriptions are based on material from Kippenhahn & Weigert (1991).

Figure 1.3 shows the evolutionary track of a 7M star with a composition similar to the Sun (Z = 0.02,Y = 0.28), based on the models of Siess et al. (2000) (for evolution up to the zero-age main sequence) and Alibert et al. (1999) (for evolution after the zero-age main sequence). The total amount of time covered by the track is 5 107 years. × At (a), the future Cepheid is a proto-star with R = 61R , L = 103L , and

5 Tc = 8.5 10 K, i.e., no nuclear processes are taking place in its core. The × proto-star collapses for some 103 yr, after which time the central temperature reaches 106 K and deuterium is fused into helium for 4 104 yr before becoming × depleted. At this point (b) the proto-star has R = 28R and L = 3 102. It × continues to collapse for another 2.2 105 yr before any further nuclear processes × 3 7 12 take place. When R = 8R , L = 2 10 L and Tc = 1.4 10 K all C present in × × its core is converted into 14N via the ﬁrst steps in the CNO cycle; during this time, the star settles on a short-lived “carbon main sequence” at (c). Once the carbon is exhausted, the star completes its collapse onto the zero-age main sequence at (d). The elapsed time from (a) to (d) is about 6 105 yr. × The Extragalactic Distance Scale 9

Fig. 1.3.— Evolutionary track of a 7M star, based on the models of Siess et al.

(2000) and Alibert et al. (1999). During a short phase of its life, such a star becomes a Cepheid with a period near 10 days. See text for details. 10 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

3 4 At the ZAMS, the star has L = 1.7 10 L , Teﬀ = 2.05 10 K, and × × R = 3.2R . The nuclear fusion reactions of the CNO cycle proceed at a temperature close to 3 107 K in a convective core that contains 4.4M within 0.3 × stellar radii. As the nuclear reactions proceed, the ongoing conversion of hydrogen into helium starts to increase the mean molecular weight of the core and hence the stellar luminosity. The star reacts by expanding its radius and hence cooling its photosphere; after 3.8 107 yr, it reaches a maximum attainable radius (e) of × 4 R = 6.5R and a minimum temperature of Teﬀ = 1.67 10 K. At this point, the × hydrogen content in the core has dropped to only X = 0.05. As the remaining hydrogen is fused, the radius decreases slightly and the luminosity continues to increase for another 106 yr, until hydrogen is completely exhausted in the core (f).

Soon thereafter, the mass shell near 0.2m/M contracts slightly and reaches conditions suitable for hydrogen fusion. This “hydrogen shell burning” has a tremendous impact on the outer sections of the star, expanding the photosphere out to R 60R in a mere 8 105 yr. By that time, the inert helium core contracts ∼ × to the point that its central temperature and density are high enough to initiate the fusion of helium into carbon (g). The star increases its luminosity and expands following a track parallel to the Hayashi line, at which time it develops a convective outer zone that may reach down into areas whose composition was modified during the initial hydrogen core burning. Thus, the photospheric abundances may be modified by this dredge-up mechanism. After reaching its maximum expansion in 1.2 105 yr, it contracts again, following essentially the same track down to (h) in × 3.3 106 yr. × At this point, the stage is set for the beginning of the Cepheid phase. This phase takes place while the star traverses a “loop” in the H-R diagram, from (h) to (i) to (j). During this motion, the star passes through the “instability strip” a region delineated by dashed lines in Figure 1.3 where conditions are favorable for the onset of pulsational instabilities. The hydrogen content profile of the stellar interior, prior to the start of hydrogen shell burning, can be thought of as a smooth increasing function. Once shell burning starts, the profile becomes increasingly more steep, until there is no hydrogen left below the shell. Above the shell, there is The Extragalactic Distance Scale 11

a region where the hydrogen content increases until reaching the initial value. The shape of the profile influences the envelope, mainly through a hydrostatic effect; as the profile steepens and becomes increasingly step-like, the core radius increases and the envelope contracts, leading to higher effective temperatures and a leftward motion from (h) to (i) that takes 1.6 106 yr. By that point, about 70% of the × helium in the core has been depleted through fusion; the subsequent reduction in helium content results in a decrease of the core radius, which makes the envelope expand and cool, moving the star towards the right from (i) to (j) in 4.2 106 yr. × The total elapsed time from the ZAMS to end of the loop (i.e., from (d) to (j)) is 4.8 107 yr. × Once the “loop” ends, the stellar core contains a degenerate mixture of carbon and oxygen, and the formation of an outer convective envelope results in the cessation of hydrogen shell burning. Only helium shell burning continues to take place, and it initiates another expansion of the outer envelope along the Hayashi track. Eventually, the outer convective zone extends inwards to m/M as small as 0.16, and two closely spaced shells (hydrogen- and helium-burning, respectively) develop. Thermal pulses ensue, leading to mass ejections in the envelope. If the degenerate C-O core of the Cepheid reaches 1.4M , it will ignite a runaway

explosive carbon burning and the star will become a supernova. The minimum initial mass required to generate a 1.4M C-O core is not well constrained at

present, but it seems clear that the most massive Cepheids are above the lower limit.

The evolutionary track displayed in Figure 1.3 shows that the 7M star

described above crosses the instability strip a total of three times during its post-main-sequence evolution. The ﬁrst one, while traversing from (f) to (g), proceeds along the thermal time scale of the star and takes only 1.6 104 yr. The × two crossings related to the loop take a increasingly longer amount of time, of the order of 6.1 104 and 1.5 105 yr, respectively. Thus, most Cepheids are expected × × to be undergoing the last of the crossings. 12 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The timescales for stellar evolution, and thus the amount of time spent in the Cepheid phase, decrease dramatically as a function of mass. The models in Table 6 of Alibert et al. (1999) indicate that stars with masses of 5, 7, 9 and 11 M spend a total of 6.9 106, 2.1 105, 3.1 104 and 9 103 yr in the instability strip, × × × × respectively. The combination of decreasing timescales and the intrinsic shape of the stellar mass function imply that in a survey where the lower ﬂux limit is well below that of Cepheids, short-period variables will be discovered in greater numbers than long-period ones. The OGLE survey (Figure 1.2) is a good example of this case. Below a certain mass, the contraction and expansion of the helium core is not large enough to drive the envelope into a loop that would cross the instability strip. This sets a minimum mass (and hence period) for Cepheids, which according to the models is a function of both helium and metal content. Unfortunately, theoretical predictions for this short-period cutoﬀ are not yet in agreement with the observed distributions in the Magellanic Clouds.

Finally, let us turn our attention to the mechanism responsible for Cepheid pulsations. Stars with eﬀective temperatures near 6000 K contain a zone close to the surface (at T 8000 K) where hydrogen becomes ionized, and another zone ∼ deeper in the interior (at T 40000 K) where helium becomes doubly ionized. In ∼ both zones, the onset of ionization increases the opacity (κ) and lowers the local value of the adiabatic gradient, favoring instability.

A 7M star, such as the one described earlier in this section, with an effective temperature near 6300 K, has the ionization zones located deep enough inside its surface that their excitation drives the outer stellar envelope outwards. As the envelope grows in radius, it cools down and its total flux decreases. As the expansion progresses, the effective temperature drops until the excitation mechanism becomes ineffective, at which point the expansion is only propelled by the momentum of the mass shell. Once all kinetic energy is converted into potential energy, the mass shell contracts again, increasing the effective temperature and the total flux. Once the contraction increases the temperature back to the initial value, the cycle starts again. Since this pulsation mechanism is driven by the increase of opacity in the ionization zones, it is commonly referred to as the “κ mechanism”. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 13

A 7M star with an effective temperature higher than 6300 K will have ∼ the ionization zones located very close to each other and to its surface, making the pulsation mechanism ineffective. Additionally, if the effective temperature is lower than 4700 K, non-adiabatic effects in the convective zone of the envelope ∼ also make the pulsation mechanism ineffective. These two processes delineate the “blue” and “red” edges of the instability strip, which are shown as dashed lines in Figure 1.3.

Each pass of a star through the instability strip subtends a narrow range of luminosity, temperature, and radius. Given the mass and the range of radii of the star during the passage, one can calculate the equivalent range of densities. The theory of stellar pulsation shows that, to ﬁrst order, the period of pulsation only depends on the mean density of the star; thus, a Cepheid of a given mass will cover a small range in periods during each passage through the instability strip.

The 7M star described earlier in this introduction will, according to Alibert et al. (1999), change its period of pulsation from 10.6 d to 6.4 d during the first half of the “loop”, while the second half will be characterized by periods between 8.2 d and 13.7 d. The different periods and luminosities exhibited by Cepheids of different masses during their crossings of the instability strip contribute to the finite width of the P-L relation, as seen in Figure 1.4 (based on the models of Alibert et al. 1999). 14 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 1.4.— Period-Luminosity tracks followed by Cepheids of diﬀerent masses and solar composition, based on the models of Alibert et al. (1999). Masses range from 4.75M at the lower left to 11M at the upper right. The tracks delineate the edges, and contribute to the ﬁnite width, of the observed Period-Luminosity relation. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 15

1.3 The Tully-Fisher relation

The concept that the rotational velocity of a galaxy might be related to its absolute luminosity was first used by Opik¨ (1922) to determine the distance to the Andromeda galaxy. Nearly fifty years later, Roberts (1969) conducted a study of the integral properties of ninety-one spiral and irregular field galaxies and found a clear correlation between their luminosities (based on photographic magnitudes) and total H I masses (based on the width of 21-cm profiles).

A few years later, Tully & Fisher (1977) used a sample of eight inclined spiral galaxies located in the Virgo Cluster to study the relation between 21-cm line widths (a distance-independent property) and total magnitudes (a distance-dependent quantity). They also studied the relation between 21-cm line widths and apparent diameters for the Virgo cluster sample and for a larger ensemble of 22 galaxies located in the Ursa Major cluster. Both relations exhibited signiﬁcant correlations, with log-log slopes of 6.25 and 3.7 and r.m.s. deviations of of 15% and 30%, − − respectively. The left panel of Figure 1.5 shows the original relation published by these authors.

The large slope and small scatter of the line width-luminosity relation made it a promising extragalactic distance indicator. Tully & Fisher (1977) used distance estimates to ten galaxies in the Local, M81 and M101 Groups to establish the absolute zeropoints of the relation and found a distance to the Virgo Cluster of 13 1 Mpc, an estimate that is not too far from the modern value. The line ± width-luminosity relation is now commonly referred to as the “Tully-Fisher” relation.

The galaxy magnitudes used by Tully & Fisher (1977) were obtained using blue-sensitive photographic plates. That bandpass is far from an ideal indicator of the total galaxian luminosity, for several reasons. First, it depends on the recent star formation history of the galaxy, since massive, young stars are blue, while the older and more signiﬁcant stellar population has redder colors. Second, blue light is subject to signiﬁcant absorption and scattering by interstellar dust and gas. 16 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 1.5.— The original B- and H-band line width-luminosity relations published by Tully & Fisher (1977) and Aaronson, Huchra & Mould (1979). They were based on eight and eleven galaxies, respectively, all of which are members of the Virgo Cluster. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 17

This so-called “internal extinction” is increasingly more severe for galaxies with larger inclination angles, because of the additional path length that must be covered by the light before exiting the host galaxy. Tully & Fisher (1977) included a correction term to account for this eﬀect, based on the observed axial ratio of each object (modern derivations of the correction include additional type- and linewidth- dependences, which can only be reliably determined through the analysis of large samples).

Aaronson, Huchra & Mould (1979) recognized these limitations of blue light and proposed the use of near-infrared photometry instead. They characterized the line width-luminosity relation in the H band using a sample of eleven Virgo Cluster and eighteen Ursa Major Cluster galaxies, and found an increased correlation with a log-log slope of 10 and a scatter of 10%. The original relation published by − these authors can be seen in the right panel of Figure 1.5.

A theoretical basis for the Tully-Fisher relation has been sought since the initial characterizations of the relation; both Tully & Fisher (1977) and Aaronson, Huchra & Mould (1979) included sections devoted to this matter. The latter states that, generally speaking, the basis for the Tully-Fisher relation can be obtained from the virial theorem, under the assumptions that “[...] all [spiral] galaxies have (a) the same mass profiles and rotation curves as a function of some dimensionless scale-length; (b) the same central mass surface density; (c) the same mean mass-to-light ratio.” Recent theoretical work on the origin of the Tully-Fisher relation (Steinmetz & Navarro 1999; Bell & de Jong 2001) support that initial view, although the modern studies are based on more complex ideas. They are based on high-resolution cosmological simulations that include the effects of gas dynamics, different star formation rates and initial mass functions, and spectrophotometric galaxy evolution models. These theoretical studies predict log-log slopes around 9, in agreement with modern observational studies (Giovanelli et al. 1997b; Tully − & Pierce 2000), but cannot easily match the overall normalization of the relation. It appears that the latter depends strongly on the star formation algorithm used in the simulations and on the cosmological parameters that determine the baryon fraction and time of formation of spiral galaxies. 18 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Soon after the initial observational characterizations of the Tully-Fisher relation, Aaronson et al. (1982a) used the infrared version to derive distances to 300 nearby spiral galaxies and combined that information with measured recession velocities to map the velocity ﬁeld of the Local Supercluster and the infall into the Virgo Cluster. The application of the Tully-Fisher relation to the study of local and large-scale galaxian velocity ﬁeld has been one of its main uses over the past two decades.

As panoramic detectors were developed for astronomical use in the optical bandpasses during the late 1980s, and in the infrared during the early 1990s, it became possible to obtain more reliable galaxian magnitudes and axis ratios through surface photometry techniques. This were pioneered by Bothun & Mould (1987) and Pierce & Tully (1988). During the 1990s, the Tully-Fisher relation was extensively applied to samples of hundreds and thousands of ﬁeld and cluster spiral galaxies (Willick 1991; Mould et al. 1991; Courteau 1992; Han 1992; Mould et al. 1993; Mathewson & Ford 1994; Giovanelli et al. 1997a; Haynes et al. 1999a; Dale et al. 1999; Ekholm et al. 1999) to study galaxy ﬂows in and beyond the Local Supercluster, as well as other cosmological questions of interest. In the near future, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS) will provide near-infrared magnitudes for nearly one million galaxies, including several thousands that are suitable for studies based on the Tully-Fisher relation.

The ﬁrst attempt at the absolute calibration of the near-infrared luminosity– linewidth relation was carried out by Aaronson, Huchra & Mould (1979) in their original derivation of the relation at these wavelengths. They had obtained H-band circular aperture (hereafter, H 0.5) magnitudes for eleven galaxies in the Virgo − cluster and eighteen objects in the Ursa Major cluster, which were coupled with six “local calibrators” (M31, M81, NGC 2403, NGC 5204, NGC 5585 and Holmberg IV). Soon thereafter, Aaronson, Mould & Huchra (1980) improved upon their previous work by extending the calibrator sample to thirteen objects located in the Local, Sculptor, M81, and M101 groups. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 19

In the early 1980s, the two competing distance scales (deVaucouleurs and

Sandage-Tammann) resulted in alternate calibrations of the H 0.5 luminosity– − linewidth relation (Aaronson & Mould 1983) that diﬀered by 0.65 mag in their zeropoints, but whose scatter was basically the same (0.36 mag vs. 0.42 mag, respectively). The dichotomy stood for some time, until Freedman (1990) applied her Cepheid distances for ﬁve galaxies (M31, M33, M81, NGC 300 and NGC 2403), based on multiwavelength CCD photometry, to the problem. She found a zeropoint for the relation that was half-way between the deVaucouleurs and Sandage-Tammann values, and a very small scatter (0.15 mag) which today is recognized as an artifact of small-number statistics.

A few years later, the Hubble Space Telescope ushered in a new era of precision Cepheid distances for galaxies located as far as D 20 Mpc, increasing four-fold ∼ the number of suitable calibrators. It then became crucial to obtain accurate magnitudes for these galaxies, measured in a consistent manner to avoid introducing systematic errors in the determination of the Hubble constant. Chapter 5 of this Thesis presents observations of the calibrator galaxies at optical and near-infrared wavelengths, using large-format CCD and InSb arrays.

The combination of accurate Cepheid distances and galaxian magnitudes allowed Sakai et al. (2000) to derive a new calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation in the BV RI bands and in the H 0.5 system, based on 21 objects. They − found discrepant values of H0 based on their absolute calibration of the I and H 0.5 − relations, which they ascribed to diﬀerences in the I H 0.5 color of the calibrator − − and “distant cluster” samples. Chapter 6 of this Thesis presents a new calibration of the H and K relations, based on total extrapolated magnitudes, which may solve the aforementioned discrepancy. 20 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri Chapter 2

A Cepheid distance to M33

Abstract

This chapter presents the ﬁrst large-scale CCD-based search for variables in M33, based on 95 nights of observations at the F. L. Whipple Observatory 1.2 m telescope and 36 nights on the Michigan-Dartmouth-MIT 1.3 m telescope. The data was processed using the DAOPHOT/ALLSTAR package and analyzed using a suite of programs specially developed for this project.

We present a catalog of 56950 stellar objects detected in these ﬁelds, and a catalog of 910 variable objects, including 537 Cepheids and 49 eclipsing binaries. Based on a subsample of 61 Cepheids with periods between 15 and 60 days, accurate V and I photometry, and with no signs of blending, we determine an extinction-corrected distance modulus to M33 of 24.65 0.12 mag, which ± corresponds to a distance of 850 50 Mpc. This distance is based on an assumed ± LMC distance modulus of µ0 = 18.50 0.10 mag (D = 50 2.5 kpc) and a ± ± metallicity dependence of the Cepheid P-L relation of γVI = 0.2 0.2 mag/dex. − ±

Contains material from: i) The Astronomical Journal, volume 121, pages 861-869, “The DIRECT Project: Catalogs of Stellar Objects in Nearby Galaxies. I. The Central Part of M33”, by L.M. Macri, K.Z. Stanek, D.D Sasselov, M. Krockenberger & J. Kaluzny; ii) The Astronomical Journal, volume 121, pages 870-890, “DIRECT Distances to Nearby Galaxies Using Detached Eclipsing Binaries and Cepheids. VI. Variables in the Central Part of M33”, by L.M. Macri, K.Z. Stanek, D.D. Sasselov, M. Krockenberger & J. Kaluzny.

21 22 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

2.1 Introduction

The DIRECT project (as in “direct distances”) started in 1996 with the long-term goal of obtaining distances to two important galaxies in the cosmological distance ladder – M31 and M33 – using detached eclipsing binaries (DEBs) and Cepheids. These two nearby galaxies are the stepping stones in most of the current eﬀort to understand the evolving universe at large scales. Not only are they essential to the calibration of the extragalactic distance scale, but they also constrain population synthesis models for early galaxy formation and evolution. However, accurate distances are essential to make these calibrations free from large systematic uncertainties.

Detached eclipsing binaries have the potential to establish distances to M31 and M33 with an unprecedented accuracy of better than 5% and possibly to better than 1%. Current uncertainties in the distances to these galaxies are in the order of 10 to 15%, as there are discrepancies of 0.2-0.3 mag between various distance indicators. Detached eclipsing binaries (Andersen 1991; Paczy´nski1997) oﬀer a single-step distance determination to nearby galaxies and may therefore provide an accurate zeropoint calibration for other distance indicators, including Cepheids.

Messier 33 (NGC 598) is one of the members of the Local Group of galaxies. It is classified as a SA(s)cd galaxy in the Third Reference Catalog of Galaxies de Vaucouleurs et al. (1991) and as a Sc(s)II-III in the Revised Shapley-Ames Catalog Sandage & Tammann (1981). It is located at a R.A. of 1h34m and a Declination m of 30◦40 (J2000.0), and it has major and minor B25 isophotal diameters of 710 and 420, respectively. It has been extensively studied, appearing in more than 1000 publications. One of first was that of Hubble (1926), who stated in the abstract of his paper that “... [i]ts great angular diameter and high degree of resolution, suggesting that it is one of the nearest objects of its kind, offer exceptional opportunities for detailed investigation.”

This work represents the ﬁrst large-scale CCD-based search for variables in M33, and the ﬁrst Cepheid-based determination of the distance to M33 in a decade, The Extragalactic Distance Scale 23

since the publication of Freedman et al. (1991). We ﬁrst discuss in 2.2 the details § of data acquisition, reduction and calibration. We describe the multiple steps involved in PSF photometry in 2.3, and the process of variable star detection and § classiﬁcation in 2.4. Next, we present in 2.5 the analysis of the Cepheid variable § § stars and the determination of a distance to M33 based on a subset of these objects. Our conclusions appear in 2.6, where we also discuss future prospects for § improvements in the absolute calibration of the Cepheid Distance Scale using our sample of variables.

2.2 Observations and data reduction

The observations of the central region of M33 were primarily carried out at the Fred L. Whipple Observatory (hereafter FLWO) 1.2-m telescope. We used “AndyCam” (Szentgyorgyi et al. 2001), a thinned, back-illuminated, AR-coated Loral 20482

pixel CCD camera with a plate scale of 0.31700/pixel, or an effective field of view of 10prime.8. The filters used during our program were standard Johnson B and V and Cousins I. Additional I band data were collected at the Michigan-Dartmouth-MIT Observatory 1.3-m McGraw-Hill telescope. We used “Wilbur” (Metzger et al. 1993), a thick, front-illuminated Loral 20482 pixel CCD camera. The plate scale and field of view were almost identical to that of “AndyCam.”

We observed three fields located north, south and south-west of the center of M33, which we labeled M33A, B and C. The J2000.0 center coordinates of the h m h m fields are: M33A, R.A. = 01 34 0500.1, Dec.= 30◦4304300; M33B, R.A. = 01 33 5500.9, h m Dec.= 30◦3400400; M33C, R.A. = 01 33 1600.0, Dec.= 30◦3501500. Figure 2.1 shows the boundaries of these fields overlaid on a digitized image of the galaxy from the POSS-I survey1, while Figure 2.2 shows a mosaic of the survey fields, created with our CCD data. At FLWO, we obtained V and I data on 42 nights and B data on

1 The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAGW-2166. The National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Atlas (POSS-I) was made by the California Institute of Technology with grants from the National Geographic Society. 24 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.1.— Location of DIRECT M33 fields, overlaid on top of a POSS image of the galaxy. Note the significant overlap between the fields. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 25

Fig. 2.2.— Mosaic of DIRECT M33 ﬁelds, created from our CCD frames. 26 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

13 nights. At MDM, we obtained I data on 10 nights. Exposure times were 1200s in B, 900s in V and 600s in I. Fields were observed repeatedly on each night in V and I, so the actual number of exposures per field in those filters is around 110 and 60, respectively. Standard star fields from Landolt (1992) were observed on two photometric nights.

The CCD frames were processed with the standard CCDPROC routines under IRAF2, using bias frames and dome ﬂats obtained on every night of observations. Bad pixel masks were created to suppress small cosmetic defects found throughout the detectors and a small region in the top-left corner of Andycam that does not receive illumination.

2.3 Photometry

The photometric reduction of our data was carried out with a highly automated Tcl/Tk-based pipeline, which used the standard DAOPHOT and ALLSTAR programs (Stetson 1987, 1992), the MRJ suite of programs (Alard 2000), and a suite of programs developed by the DIRECT team. We describe the diﬀerent stages of this pipeline below.

2.3.1 Initial Processing

The first stage of the pipeline consisted of an initial photometric processing using DAOPHOT and ALLSTAR with the aim of obtaining rough values for the FWHM of the point-spread function and the sky level of each frame. Once this processing was completed, we selected a subset of high-quality images (i.e., low sky value and small sized, low-ellipticity PSF) of each field in each filter ( 22 in V, 17 in I ∼ ∼ and 8 in B). ∼ 2IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Associations of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the NSF. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 27

These high-quality images of each field and filter were combined by the MRJ program of Alard (2000) to create template images for use in subsequent stages of the pipeline. There are several reasons for using combined template images over a single, “best-seeing” frame; since each input frame has a slightly different center and rotation, the combination of many frames (suitably referenced to a common system) eliminates cosmetic defects and bleeding features and reduces the amplitudes of fringes in the I band data, effects that would otherwise result in the non-detection of some objects; additionally, the signal-to-noise ratio increases as the square root of the number of frames that are combined, resulting in a 3-5 fold improvement of the S/N and a higher sensitivity to faint objects.

2.3.2 Photometry of template images

Once the template images were created, they were analyzed using DAOPHOT and ALLSTAR. First, objects were detected using a 4σ threshold, taking into account the changes in gain and readout noise stemming from the combination of multiple frames. Aperture photometry was carried out at radii of 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 pixels, with a sky annulus extending from 30 to 40 pixels. Next, bright and isolated stars were selected for the determination of the PSF using the “PICK” routine of DAOPHOT. The initial list was thinned through repeated iterations by rejecting any star whose residual was three times larger than the mean. We solved for a PSF without positional variation, since the inspection of the residuals did not show any signiﬁcant correlations.

After the rejection of outliers, the average number of stars used for the determination of the PSF in each template image was 70, with a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 99. The FWHMs of the PSFs were 000.9 in the I band, 100.1 in the V band, and 100.3 in the B band. Next, PSF photometry was carried out on the template images with ALLSTAR, using the lists of aperture photometry as input. The number of objects that were successfully ﬁt with the determined PSFs were 112, 000, 137, 000 and 90, 000 in the V, I and B template images, ∼ ∼ ∼ respectively. 28 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

2.3.3 Photometry of individual frames

The PSF of each individual frame was determined with DAOPHOT, using as input the list of PSF stars from the appropriate template image. Figure 2.3 shows histograms of the seeing for the three ﬁlters; median FWHM values were 1.500 for I and 1.800 for B and V. Next, PSF photometry of the individual frames was carried out in “ﬁxed-position” mode, using the star list of the appropriate template image as input (suitably transformed to the coordinate system of the individual frame).

Once the PSF photometry of an individual frame had been carried out, the magnitudes of all objects present in both the master image and that frame were matched and used to derive the mean magnitude offset between the two. These offsets were recorded in a log file for future use (see below). The typical uncertainty in the determination of this offset was 0.02 mag. ± Once the PSF photometry of all individual frames pertaining to a particular field and filter had been completed, the measurements were transformed to the magnitude system of the relevant template image (using the previously determined offsets) and merged into a database. In this fashion, nine final photometry databases were created (3 fields 3 filters), containing a total of 1.6 107 × × measurements.

2.3.4 Determination of aperture correction coeﬃcients

The transformation of PSF magnitudes into aperture magnitudes requires the determination of “aperture correction” coefficients. These coefficients are intended to compensate for the inability of the best-fit PSF to exactly model the actual PSF. The coefficients are usually obtained by performing aperture photometry of bright, isolated stars present in the program frames, using the outermost radius employed in the photometry of standard stars). This aperture photometry is carried out on program frames obtained on the same night that standard stars are observed. The resulting aperture magnitudes are compared with those obtained through PSF The Extragalactic Distance Scale 29

Fig. 2.3.— Histogram of FWHM values of the PSFs from our individual frames.

The median values are 100.5 for the I band and 100.8 for the B and V bands. 30 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

fitting, and the correction coefficients are obtained. Contamination by other stars must be avoided, so usually all other objects are removed from the frame prior to these measurements. A more refined approach (Stetson 1990) involves the determination of “growth curves”, and requires that aperture photometry be carried out at a variety of radii, extending out enough to ensure that the aperture magnitudes converge to an asymptotic value.

Unfortunately, the extreme crowding present in our ﬁelds, coupled with the marginal quality of the PSF on those nights that were photometric, made either approach impossible to implement. Even after removing all other objects in the object frames, the residual contamination in the apertures was large enough to impede the convergence of the growth curves. On the other hand, the growth curves derived from standard stars showed satisfactory convergence. After some experimentation, we found that the best approach to obtain a satisfactory correction from PSF to large-aperture magnitudes was to divide the process into two parts: i) the determination of an “aperture correction” coeﬃcient based on a 10-pixel radius aperture, followed by ii) a “growth curve correction” from 10 to 30 pixels based on the standard star growth curves. Because the 10-pixel aperture is comparable in size with the FWHM of the PSF (5 to 7 pixels), the “growth curve correction” had a moderate dependence on seeing. Figure 2.4a shows the growth curves obtained from the standard stars, and Figures 2.4b-d show the correlation between the total growth in magnitude and the FWHM of the PSF for the I, V and B bands, respectively. We estimate the total uncertainty associated with this two-step correction process to be about 0.04 mag. ±

2.3.5 Standard star observations and photometric solutions

Seven standard star ﬁelds from Landolt (1992) were observed on two photometric nights: 1997 September 5 and 1997 October 9. A total of 150 frames were obtained, spanning a range of airmass between 1.1 and 2.2. As described in the previous sub-section, aperture photometry was carried out at a variety of radii; only the outermost one (30 pixels, or 900.5) was considered for the determination of the The Extragalactic Distance Scale 31

Fig. 2.4.— (a) (top left) Growth curves of aperture magnitudes for objects located in the standard star ﬁelds. Note the large growth in magnitude between 10 and 20 pixels, and the convergence to asymptotic values after 25 pixels. (b) (top right)

Correlation between growth curve correction (∆m(10 30)) and FWHM of the PSF − for the I band. (c) (bottom left) same as (b) but for the V band. (d) (bottom right) same as (b) but for the B band. 32 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

photometric solution. We used the IRAF PHOTCAL routines to solve for equations of the form

Mstd,i = mobs,i + χi k0X + ξij(Mstd,i Mstd,j) (2.1) − i − where Mstd,i and Mstd,j are the magnitudes of a star in the standard system in the i and J filters, while mobs,i is the instrumental magnitudes of the same star in the i filter. χi is the magnitude zeropoint at X = 0, ki0 is the airmass coefficient for the i filter, and ξij is the color term. The V-band solution was calculated using both B–V and V–I for the color term; the latter one was used by default in the calibration process, unless only B and V data were available for a particular object. The B-band solution was calculated using B–V for the color term, while the I-band solution was calculated using V–I for the color term. The values and uncertainties of the coefficients of each term are presented in Table 2.1; based on those numbers, we estimate a total uncertainty of 0.02 mag in our solutions. ± Based on the uncertainties associated with PSF magnitude offsets ( 0.02 mag, ± 2.3.3), aperture correction coefficients ( 0.04 mag, 2.3.4) and photometric § ± § solutions ( 0.02 mag, previous paragraph), we estimate a total random uncertainty ± in our zeropoint calibration of 0.05 mag. ±

2.3.6 Photometric comparisons

We used bright stars present in the overlap regions between the survey ﬁelds to check our photometric calibration procedures. A comparison of the mean magnitudes of 75 objects brighter than 19.0, 18.5 and 18.0 mag in B, V, and I, ∼ respectively is shown in Figure 2.5. The oﬀsets are < 0.01 mag for V and I and 0.02 mag for B, indicating that the constant PSF used for the photometry was an ∼ appropriate choice, and that the aperture and growth curve corrections described in the previous sub-section were properly determined. Table 2.2 summarizes the results of the comparisons. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 33

Table 2.1. Photometric solutions

Filter χ k0 ξ rms

1997 October 9 B (B-V) 22.953 0.025 0.212 0.017 0.033 0.011 0.030 − ± ± − ± V (B-V) 22.714 0.014 0.123 0.009 0.035 0.006 0.016 − ± ± ± V (V-I) 22.720 0.013 0.127 0.009 0.032 0.005 0.016 − ± ± ± I (V-I) 22.719 0.016 0.064 0.010 0.051 0.007 0.021 − ± ± − ± 1997 September 4 B (B-V) 22.942 0.020 0.302 0.013 0.021 0.009 0.018 − ± ± − ± V (B-V) 22.695 0.018 0.177 0.009 0.054 0.009 0.016 − ± ± ± V (V-I) 22.700 0.013 0.181 0.011 0.044 0.007 0.017 − ± ± ± I (V-I) 22.692 0.016 0.105 0.010 0.039 0.006 0.010 − ± ± − ±

Table 2.2. Photometry comparisons

Band ∆ mag mlim N

Internal – overlap regions V 0.005 0.003 18.5 64 − ± I +0.009 0.002 18.0 83 ± B 0.022 0.004 19.0 75 − ± Bersier et al. (2001) V 0.057 0.045 18.0 15 − ± B 0.042 0.048 18.5 20 − ± 34 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.5.— Test of the internal consistency of our photometry. Each of the three panels shows the difference in the measured magnitude of stars present in the overlapping regions between field B and fields A/C, as a function of magnitude. The mean value of the offset at bright (m < 18) magnitudes is < 0.01 mag. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 35

We performed an external test of our photometric calibration by matching objects in common between our Field A and one of the fields of Bersier et al. (2001). We compared the mean B and V magnitudes of stars brighter than 18.5 and 18.0 mag, respectively (about 20 stars/filter) and found offsets of the order of 0.05 mag (brighter DIRECT magnitudes). The comparisons are plotted in − Figure 2.6 and summarized in Table 2.2.

2.3.7 Artiﬁcial star tests

The differences between our photometry and the Bersier et al. (2001) photometry in B and V are small but consistent. Furthermore, Bersier et al. (2001) used a larger telescope (the 3.5-m WIYN) under significantly better seeing conditions than us. Therefore, we decided to undertake artificial star tests to quantify the level of photometric bias in our magnitudes that could arise due to the poorer spatial resolution of our images.

We used DAOPHOT to inject 2,500 artiﬁcial stars into the nine master frames, using the PSFs previously derived by our automated reduction pipeline and taking into account photon noise and other detector characteristics. We analyzed the frames using the same procedures as in the automated pipeline. The results were quite similar for the three frames pertaining to each band, and thus the data ﬁles were merged to improve the statistics. Our results are presented in Table 2.3 and in Figure 2.7.

Bright stars (15 < m < 18) are affected by crowding at the 0.01 0.04 mag − level. The bias becomes stronger for fainter objects (m > 18), reaching 0.05 0.08 mag. At a given magnitude, the bias increases from B to V to I. In all − cases, the offset induced by crowding is in the same direction as the offset found between our data and other catalogs. 36 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.6.— Test of the external consistency of our photometry. Each of the two panels shows ∆ mag as a function of magnitude for objects in common between our Field A and one of the ﬁelds of Bersier et al. (2001), for the B and V bands, respectively. The mean value of the oﬀsets at bright (m < 18.5) magnitudes is 0.05 mag. − The Extragalactic Distance Scale 37

Fig. 2.7.— Results of the artiﬁcial star tests. The bias in recovered magnitude is plotted against input magnitude. Averages over 0.5 mag bins are plotted using solid circles and tabulated in Table 2.3. 38 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.3. Artiﬁcial star test results

Band Mag. ∆ mag (meas-input) median mean σ

V 15.5 -0.004 -0.007 0.019 16.5 -0.009 -0.016 0.025 17.5 -0.016 -0.026 0.040 18.5 -0.028 -0.034 0.053 19.5 -0.041 -0.052 0.092 20.5 -0.062 -0.081 0.158 I 15.5 -0.014 -0.020 0.025 16.5 -0.025 -0.032 0.040 17.5 -0.039 -0.050 0.066 18.5 -0.063 -0.076 0.084 19.5 -0.076 -0.089 0.146 20.5 -0.081 -0.128 0.248 B 16.5 -0.006 -0.012 0.021 17.5 -0.013 -0.020 0.034 18.5 -0.019 -0.030 0.048 19.5 -0.029 -0.039 0.076 20.5 -0.039 -0.055 0.132 21.5 -0.046 -0.068 0.225 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 39

2.4 The star catalog

Once the zeropoint calibration was determined, we merged the BVI databases of each ﬁeld into a single database and applied the photometric transformations. Objects were included in the catalog only if they had been detected in the V band and in either of the B or I bands. As described above, the transformation for the V band was carried out favoring the V–I color term formulation over the B-V one if all three bands were available. We also re-determined the magnitude uncertainties for each object following the precepts established by Kaluzny et al. (1998), since the magnitude uncertainties reported by DAOPHOT/ALLSTAR are under-estimated for bright stars and over-estimated for faint ones. Lastly, we used our time-series data to calculate mean BVI magnitudes and V-band JS variability indices (Stetson 1996).

As Figure 2.1 shows, there is –by design– a significant overlap between fields A and B, and between fields C and B. We matched the three field databases and found 4, 800 objects in common; only one entry from each object was kept in the ∼ common database, to avoid duplication. We saved the matched entries to test the internal consistency of our photometric calibration (as described in 2.3.6). Once § the matching process was completed, we obtained a single database containing 56950 objects; 40005 with two-color photometry, and 16945 with three-color photometry.

Next, we transformed the (x,y) coordinates of the objects into the FK5 system using stars from the USNO-A2.0 catalog (Monet et al. 1998). We solved for a cubic-order transformation using the IMWCS program (Mink 1999). The solution used 17 stars and had rms values of 0.300 in both R.A. And Dec.

Figure 2.8 shows the cumulative luminosity functions of the objects in our catalog. The turnovers in these luminosity functions indicate incompleteness below 22 mag for B and V, and 20 mag for I. Figure 2.9 shows color-magnitude ∼ ∼ diagrams of our catalog stars. A plume of foreground stars from our Galaxy can be seen in the region 0.4 < B V < 1.2, V < 20. The feature is substantially − 40 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.8.— Cumulative luminosity functions of the stars detected in our frames with two- or three-band photometry. Based on these histograms, we estimate completeness limits of I 20 mag, V 22 mag, and B 22 mag. ∼ ∼ ∼ The Extragalactic Distance Scale 41

Fig. 2.9.— Color-magnitude diagram of 56950 stars in M33. Note the plume of foreground Galactic stars at 0.4

diminished relative to the one seen in the CMD of M31 in Kaluzny et al. (1998)

due to the diﬀerence in galactic latitude between these two objects (l 22◦ ∼ − for M31 and l 31◦ for M33).The displacement induced by an extinction of ∼ − AV = 1 mag is indicated by an arrow.

2.5 Variable search and classiﬁcation

We calculated the JS variability index (Stetson 1996) for all 56950 objects in our database, using the V band data since it has the best sampling. We ﬂagged 1226

objects with JS,V 0.75 as candidate variables. Periods were determined using the ≥ V band data only, employing a variant of the Laﬂer-Kinman technique proposed by Stetson (1996). We searched for periods between 0.25 and 400 days, which corresponds to the time span of the observations. Figure 2.10 shows our phase coverage as a function of period. The ten most likely periods of each object were saved for the next step in the analysis procedure, involving the classiﬁcation of variables.

We classified variables into three categories: Cepheids, eclipsing binaries, and miscellaneous. The classification process started with an automated procedure that employed Cepheid and eclipsing binary template light curves, followed by visual examinations of every phased light curve to confirm the classification.

2 A variable star was classified as a Cepheid if the χν of a fit of its time series 2 to a template Cepheid light curve (from Stetson 1996) was smaller than the χν 2 of a fit to a template EB light curve and 3 times smaller than the χν of a fit to a straight line. We further required that the V-band amplitude be equal to or larger than 0.1 mag. 341 objects were classified as Cepheids.

2 A variable star was classified as an eclipsing binary (EB) if the χν of a fit of 2 its time series to a EB light curve was smaller than the χν of a fit to a template 2 Cepheid light curve and 1.75 times smaller than the χν of a fit to a straight line. The EB light curve was modeled using nine parameters: the period (P ), the zero

point of the phase (T0), the eccentricity (e), the longitude of periastron (ω), the The Extragalactic Distance Scale 43

Fig. 2.10.— Phase coverage as a function of period, calculated from the mid- exposure dates of our V band images. The vertical axis shows the size of the largest gap in phase as a function of period. 44 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

radii of the two stars relative to the binary separation (r1 and r2), the inclination angle (i), and the magnitudes of the primary and of the uneclipsed system. We further required that the larger stellar radius be less than 90% of the binary separation and that the light of the brighter star be less than 90% of the total light. Lastly, we rejected periods within 0.025d of 1 and 2 days, to avoid spurious classiﬁcations due to aliasing of long-period variables. 49 objects were classiﬁed as EBs.

In other cases, the classiﬁcation routine could not obtain a satisfactory match to a Cepheid or EB template, but the V-band JS index of the object being analyzed was equal or greater than 1.2, implying a well-established variability. These 292 objects were classiﬁed as “miscellaneous”. An additional 544 objects, which did

not match the Cepheid or EB templates and which had a V-band JS < 1.2, were discarded.

There could be additional variables in our fields with data in one band only. This situation could arise in regions of high extinction, where only the I band flux would be detected. Additionally, some objects could have been detected in the V band and missed in the I band due to close proximity to a bright red object. Therefore, we decided to repeat our variable search and classification for single-band objects in our V- and I-band databases.

We searched the V-band database for objects with no counterparts in other

bands and with JS 0.75. We found 203 such objects and analyzed them in ≥ manner described above. 17 were classified as Cepheids, 5 were classified as EBs, 27 were classified as “miscellaneous”, and 154 were rejected.

We searched the I-band database for objects with no counterparts in other

bands and with JS 0.75. We were aware that our observing strategy had not ≥ included obtaining back-to-back images in this band, a fact that aﬀects the meaning

of the JS statistic. Therefore, a substantially larger number of objects (2173) passed the selection criterion. We decided to only retain the variables that ﬁtted a Cepheid or EB template and reject the rest. Since EBs are blue objects, it is not surprising that none were found. However, 179 objects were classiﬁed as Cepheids. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 45

In summary, our classiﬁcation of candidate variables resulted in the selection of 910 objects, of which 537 were classiﬁed as Cepheids, 54 as eclipsing binaries, and 319 as miscellaneous variables. These numbers include 17 Cepheids, 5 EBs and 27 miscellaneous variables detected only in the V band and 179 Cepheids detected only in the I band. Figures 2.11-2.13 contain representative light curves of each class of variables.

Tables 2.4-2.6 list the properties of the Cepheids, EBs and miscellaneous variables, respectively, discovered in our search. We list their designations (based

on their J2000.0 coordinates), periods (or JS values for miscellaneous variables), V, I, and B magnitudes, and their errors. In the case of Cepheids, the magnitudes were determined through numerical integration of the best fit templates; in the case of EBs, they represent the mean magnitude out of eclipse; in the case of miscellaneous variables, they are the mean magnitudes. Regarding the errors in magnitude, they represent the r.m.s. deviation of the data from the best-fit templates (for Cepheids and EBs) or from the mean magnitude (for miscellaneous variables). Additionally, we list the V-band (or I-band if its the only one available) amplitudes of the Cepheids, and the best-fit inclinations and primary and secondary radii of the EBs.

Figure 2.14 shows color-magnitude diagrams of the variables which have data in more than one band. EBs are represented by ﬁlled circles; Cepheids are plotted using open circles; and miscellaneous variables are indicated with starred symbols.

The displacement induced by an extinction of AV = 1 mag is indicated by an arrow.

The segregation of EBs in the blue part of the diagram, and of Cepheids in the instability strip, is quite clear in both panels. Variables labeled as “miscellaneous” seem to fall into two well-deﬁned categories: i) luminous blue variables (V < 18,V I < 1.5) and ii) AGB stars (V < 20.5,V I > 2), while other − − miscellaneous variables populate the lower regions of the CMD (V > 21,V I 2). − ∼ Lastly, Figure 2.15 shows the correlation between periods and I-band magnitudes for the objects listed in Table 2.4. Variables detected in both the V and I bands are plotted using open symbols, while objects found only in the I band 46 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.11.— Light curves for 6 of the 537 Cepheid variables. BVI data are represented by starred, ﬁlled and open symbols, respectively. The best-ﬁt model light curves are overplotted using solid lines. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 47

Fig. 2.12.— Light curves for 4 of the 54 eclipsing binaries. BVI data are represented by starred, ﬁlled and open symbols, respectively. The best-ﬁt model light curves are overplotted using solid lines. 48 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.13.— Light Curves for 8 of the 319 miscellaneous variables. BVI data are represented by starred, ﬁlled and open symbols, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 49

Table 2.4. Cepheids

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013420.14+303401.0 3.22 21.00 21.04 21.14 0.10 0.17 0.10 0.23 D33J013356.69+304110.6 3.62 21.06 21.58 0.11 0.10 0.22 D33J013334.18+303058.6 3.72 21.18 20.80··· 21.50 0.12 0.26··· 0.11 0.30 D33J013329.43+303614.3 3.76 21.17 21.93 0.10 0.24 0.22 D33J013341.17+302856.9 3.97 21.42 20.48··· 21.93 0.13 0.14··· 0.14 0.26 D33J013310.09+303355.1 4.02 21.15 20.20 21.87 0.11 0.08 0.15 0.32 D33J013413.03+304210.3 4.11 21.15 20.76 21.75 0.12 0.17 0.10 0.30 D33J013305.37+303433.9 4.18 21.47 20.88 22.10 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.30 D33J013327.20+303747.3 4.25 20.91 21.42 0.09 0.07 0.22 D33J013337.02+303741.5 4.34 20.89 19.92··· 0.10 0.09··· 0.17 D33J013336.80+303710.0 4.36 20.95 19.59 21.66··· 0.12 0.09 0.13··· 0.25 D33J013330.33+303019.9 4.41 21.55 20.74 0.13 0.12 0.38 D33J013319.13+303419.4 4.43 21.30 20.67 22.00··· 0.12 0.10 0.16··· 0.41 D33J013305.84+303040.7 4.47 21.59 21.46 21.91 0.18 0.43 0.10 0.47 D33J013402.60+303945.2 4.47 21.22 22.27 0.11 0.11 0.33 D33J013303.16+303631.3 4.50 21.40 20.80··· 21.91 0.12 0.09··· 0.20 0.42 D33J013355.88+304720.3 4.54 21.89 21.92 21.98 0.33 0.32 0.11 0.66 D33J013255.35+303753.4 4.56 21.29 21.07 21.74 0.11 0.17 0.17 0.33 D33J013336.87+303020.5 4.57 19.19 19.26 0.04 0.06 0.13 D33J013322.04+303731.9 4.59 21.03 20.14··· 21.69 0.07 0.08··· 0.05 0.14 D33J013254.46+303944.0 4.60 21.09 20.50 21.78 0.09 0.12 0.10 0.20 D33J013309.36+303933.6 4.60 21.13 20.46 21.64 0.08 0.15 0.05 0.22 D33J013326.43+303959.6 4.61 19.79 18.93 20.29 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.10 D33J013327.28+304024.7 4.74 21.70 22.40 0.16 0.26 0.40 D33J013409.67+304350.1 4.77 21.07 20.60··· 21.70 0.13 0.13··· 0.09 0.32 D33J013359.36+304213.8 4.78 21.72 20.89 0.22 0.28 0.45 D33J013356.19+303228.1 4.79 21.41 19.75 22.09··· 0.16 0.08 0.27··· 0.26 D33J013256.15+303850.2 4.80 20.98 20.36 21.52 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.22 D33J013315.35+303004.3 4.80 21.43 20.52 22.34 0.14 0.18 0.18 0.32 D33J013339.02+303714.1 4.83 21.32 21.11 22.24 0.13 0.27 0.12 0.36 D33J013347.62+304626.5 4.85 20.80 20.41 21.36 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.18 D33J013305.08+303648.4 4.92 22.10 21.06 22.66 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.33 D33J013336.31+303438.6 4.98 21.52 20.46 0.16 0.12 0.37 D33J013331.55+303408.2 5.01 21.43 19.52 ··· 0.13 0.12 ··· 0.23 D33J013359.36+304337.9 5.03 21.26 21.98··· 0.14 0.11··· 0.39 D33J013421.40+303959.8 5.03 21.58 20.79··· 22.13 0.13 0.19··· 0.07 0.31 D33J013341.35+304736.6 5.19 22.04 21.09 0.26 0.30 0.55 D33J013358.12+302958.7 5.24 21.11 19.90 ··· 0.11 0.08 ··· 0.24 D33J013321.75+303235.1 5.28 21.34 22.02··· 0.10 0.08··· 0.32 D33J013405.95+303454.0 5.28 20.61 ··· 20.92 0.08 ··· 0.07 0.23 D33J013342.58+303330.1 5.31 20.51 19.96··· 21.08 0.05 0.05··· 0.08 0.15 D33J013408.59+303754.8 5.32 21.10 21.96 0.11 0.16 0.32 D33J013340.76+303434.9 5.34 21.12 20.50··· 0.15 0.14··· 0.40 D33J013421.47+304415.6 5.36 20.76 19.54 21.75··· 0.08 0.06 0.11··· 0.16 50 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013321.87+303249.9 5.41 21.49 20.72 21.96 0.23 0.16 0.24 0.59 D33J013359.46+303846.9 5.45 21.23 0.19 0.42 D33J013258.67+303505.2 5.48 21.27 20.65······ 21.79 0.11 0.12······ 0.17 0.34 D33J013307.02+303224.6 5.49 21.31 20.72 0.13 0.12 0.38 D33J013355.27+304637.7 5.49 20.89 20.16 21.76··· 0.13 0.11 0.16··· 0.27 D33J013357.00+303117.7 5.55 20.58 19.60 21.23 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.14 D33J013343.94+304557.2 5.56 20.74 20.08 21.09 0.08 0.11 0.05 0.19 D33J013351.17+303001.3 5.60 20.46 19.82 21.18 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.15 D33J013330.69+303449.8 5.61 21.92 21.38 22.23 0.25 0.35 0.18 0.73 D33J013428.97+303836.0 5.62 21.15 20.26 21.70 0.17 0.15 0.19 0.37 D33J013401.29+304325.8 5.67 20.78 20.02 21.31 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.30 D33J013420.52+304243.8 5.70 21.30 20.44 21.92 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.35 D33J013350.48+304733.9 5.74 21.60 20.72 0.14 0.14 0.33 D33J013312.23+303053.0 5.75 20.63 19.67 21.21··· 0.06 0.05 0.05··· 0.17 D33J013311.23+303115.4 5.76 21.26 20.60 21.86 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.30 D33J013332.10+303002.7 5.79 21.34 22.38 0.18 0.30 0.53 D33J013420.04+304502.8 5.85 20.38 19.24··· 21.16 0.06 0.05··· 0.07 0.14 D33J013413.51+304210.1 5.87 19.95 19.47 20.39 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.11 D33J013325.23+303158.0 5.88 21.72 20.22 22.45 0.19 0.07 0.18 0.42 D33J013350.93+303156.7 5.89 20.59 20.09 21.14 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.27 D33J013404.96+303557.8 5.89 21.19 20.50 21.76 0.11 0.13 0.25 0.35 D33J013407.31+303048.7 5.90 21.79 20.89 22.42 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.42 D33J013407.88+303831.7 5.90 20.28 20.94 0.09 0.08 0.20 D33J013343.80+304512.9 5.91 20.04 ··· 0.06 ··· 0.15 D33J013424.70+304430.9 5.91 21.26 20.18······ 22.19 0.09 0.09······ 0.14 0.25 D33J013303.59+303620.4 5.94 21.55 22.33 0.18 0.16 0.39 D33J013352.30+304602.7 5.96 21.42 20.39··· 22.13 0.12 0.12··· 0.14 0.33 D33J013341.79+303452.7 5.97 21.12 21.67 0.15 0.10 0.31 D33J013359.85+303800.1 5.99 21.23 20.41··· 22.24 0.17 0.14··· 0.15 0.45 D33J013346.78+304333.6 6.00 20.90 21.36 0.10 0.11 0.30 D33J013408.40+304430.2 6.00 21.54 20.73··· 21.97 0.13 0.16··· 0.10 0.29 D33J013349.52+304743.8 6.01 21.74 20.45 22.66 0.15 0.13 0.30 0.30 D33J013403.10+304331.6 6.07 20.89 0.10 0.24 D33J013416.99+302923.2 6.11 21.20 20.63······ 21.75 0.16 0.13······ 0.25 0.55 D33J013325.59+303510.9 6.12 21.07 20.14 21.90 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.33 D33J013356.65+304837.8 6.12 20.80 21.27 0.11 0.09 0.35 D33J013405.53+304120.2 6.12 21.60 20.35··· 22.21 0.19 0.13··· 0.25 0.41 D33J013324.85+303708.1 6.13 21.08 19.84 21.64 0.08 0.11 0.10 0.22 D33J013302.88+303636.4 6.18 21.32 20.56 21.94 0.13 0.13 0.10 0.46 D33J013403.63+304528.0 6.19 20.90 20.20 21.38 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.36 D33J013310.30+304011.6 6.20 21.24 20.50 21.99 0.10 0.18 0.14 0.30 D33J013416.96+303415.6 6.25 20.96 0.13 0.26 D33J013349.57+304401.0 6.28 21.53 20.83······ 0.18 0.17······ 0.38 D33J013349.26+304701.0 6.34 21.27 22.07··· 0.14 0.23··· 0.39 ··· ··· The Extragalactic Distance Scale 51

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013427.70+304131.7 6.37 20.66 20.02 21.13 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.13 D33J013310.45+303817.7 6.48 21.32 20.66 22.10 0.17 0.16 0.21 0.53 D33J013329.20+303136.2 6.53 21.24 22.40 0.13 0.20 0.34 D33J013315.68+303319.3 6.55 20.19··· 0.10··· D33J013424.82+304129.2 6.55 21.29··· 20.34 21.98······ 0.14 0.12 0.17······ 0.48 D33J013304.63+303148.9 6.61 21.11 0.13 0.39 D33J013325.95+303742.5 6.64 20.84 ······21.52 0.10 ······0.14 0.41 D33J013301.99+303519.6 6.75 21.95 20.87··· 22.72 0.20 0.27··· 0.21 0.52 D33J013349.33+303009.7 6.78 20.94 20.43 21.53 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.37 D33J013352.00+304702.0 6.87 20.62 20.11 21.35 0.09 0.16 0.07 0.25 D33J013355.70+304416.0 6.88 21.26 20.83 21.86 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.45 D33J013406.40+304003.5 6.93 20.58 19.42 20.92 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.28 D33J013428.19+303900.4 6.99 21.15 20.32 21.72 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.32 D33J013332.38+303409.8 7.06 21.18 20.64 0.21 0.28 0.55 D33J013333.69+303428.6 7.06 20.71 19.80 21.67··· 0.10 0.13 0.26··· 0.23 D33J013402.95+304727.3 7.09 21.00 20.34 21.67 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.27 D33J013404.04+304328.8 7.09 20.53 19.08 0.10 0.11 0.25 D33J013410.27+303934.7 7.10 21.56 21.08 21.84··· 0.17 0.18 0.09··· 0.41 D33J013324.90+303854.7 7.13 20.53 19.71 21.23 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.21 D33J013429.03+304015.4 7.14 21.31 20.56 21.86 0.16 0.18 0.15 0.53 D33J013330.90+303051.4 7.18 21.27 20.29 21.93 0.12 0.09 0.13 0.30 D33J013331.55+302905.5 7.21 19.96 19.63 0.06 0.10 0.16 D33J013356.42+304643.5 7.30 20.74 19.92 ··· 0.08 0.09 ··· 0.17 D33J013413.52+303027.7 7.30 21.23 20.38 21.97··· 0.11 0.08 0.11··· 0.26 D33J013402.15+303741.9 7.32 20.85 20.78 0.13 0.23 0.36 D33J013340.54+304542.4 7.38 21.70 20.80 22.38··· 0.17 0.24 0.06··· 0.47 D33J013343.02+304501.6 7.38 20.06 19.73 20.44 0.05 0.09 0.02 0.14 D33J013327.02+303959.9 7.51 21.97 20.89 22.61 0.25 0.19 0.19 0.69 D33J013251.40+303615.5 7.59 21.33 20.48 21.98 0.11 0.11 0.15 0.30 D33J013336.47+303053.9 7.59 21.12 20.73 0.18 0.18 0.70 D33J013347.87+302943.9 7.62 21.20 19.93 22.22··· 0.13 0.11 0.11··· 0.26 D33J013422.38+304408.0 7.66 21.27 20.24 22.10 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.25 D33J013424.20+304738.9 7.68 20.49 19.74 21.27 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.28 D33J013308.75+303057.9 7.72 20.86 20.14 21.41 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.24 D33J013402.20+304242.5 7.84 20.92 20.32 21.49 0.09 0.15 0.08 0.40 D33J013417.27+303211.7 7.96 21.00 20.13 21.67 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.43 D33J013332.37+303144.1 7.97 21.13 20.28 0.11 0.16 0.26 D33J013348.81+303416.2 7.97 20.26 19.34 20.89··· 0.08 0.10 0.07··· 0.24 D33J013429.40+304137.8 7.98 20.04 0.10 D33J013314.70+303907.1 8.01 20.43··· 19.82 21.01······ 0.09 0.08 0.07······ 0.31 D33J013341.64+304311.7 8.06 21.40 20.48 22.34 0.12 0.27 0.09 0.40 D33J013329.80+303453.1 8.10 20.76 20.10 21.48 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.28 D33J013417.63+304507.7 8.14 20.20 19.17 20.89 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.25 D33J013336.24+303244.4 8.18 21.28 20.68 22.45 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.27 52 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013348.74+303045.3 8.18 21.13 20.26 22.09 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.28 D33J013412.55+304126.3 8.32 20.96 19.95 21.91 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.17 D33J013320.16+303519.5 8.34 20.63 19.67 21.30 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.29 D33J013328.78+303829.4 8.37 20.96 22.10 0.11 0.14 0.26 D33J013339.74+303413.0 8.37 20.95 20.21··· 21.54 0.19 0.17··· 0.30 0.47 D33J013318.37+303916.6 8.54 20.69 19.76 21.47 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.42 D33J013413.26+304306.9 8.55 21.36 20.61 21.89 0.14 0.13 0.10 0.37 D33J013406.55+303816.9 8.58 20.31 0.07 0.23 D33J013356.24+303909.2 8.59 20.50 19.24······ 0.15 0.11······ 0.22 D33J013328.73+303131.9 8.69 21.69 20.67 22.38··· 0.14 0.18 0.23··· 0.50 D33J013409.24+304238.2 8.71 20.89 19.67 21.82 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.23 D33J013322.94+303040.2 8.74 20.47 19.65 21.04 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.30 D33J013423.87+304858.8 8.83 20.76 19.74 0.09 0.10 0.18 D33J013328.74+303440.5 8.90 20.69 19.80 21.26··· 0.09 0.06 0.19··· 0.35 D33J013331.19+303355.8 8.92 20.65 21.76 0.10 0.19 0.13 D33J013337.49+303305.8 8.98 20.93 20.13··· 21.67 0.11 0.11··· 0.14 0.28 D33J013337.87+303355.4 8.98 21.16 20.07 21.76 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.28 D33J013333.43+303321.3 9.00 19.87 19.45 19.96 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.18 D33J013336.75+303435.1 9.06 20.31 19.65 21.04 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.26 D33J013343.49+303121.9 9.08 20.91 19.94 21.48 0.11 0.10 0.16 0.17 D33J013413.83+303212.5 9.09 20.74 20.05 21.20 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.24 D33J013346.21+302909.2 9.12 20.65 20.00 20.95 0.10 0.11 0.06 0.27 D33J013338.93+303414.2 9.13 20.76 20.97 0.13 0.04 0.27 D33J013413.40+304334.2 9.13 20.62 20.19··· 20.96 0.10 0.11··· 0.05 0.28 D33J013409.32+302956.8 9.16 20.68 19.92 21.46 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.19 D33J013352.73+303416.5 9.22 21.04 21.62 0.15 0.06 0.32 D33J013426.74+304003.1 9.26 20.55 19.68··· 21.15 0.07 0.08··· 0.12 0.24 D33J013351.88+302856.1 9.32 21.01 20.38 21.59 0.10 0.19 0.12 0.26 D33J013347.74+303814.0 9.38 20.03 19.21 20.70 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.16 D33J013419.13+303430.5 9.39 21.04 20.16 0.11 0.08 0.24 D33J013349.48+304500.4 9.58 21.11 20.28 ··· 0.19 0.16 ··· 0.29 D33J013325.77+303158.5 9.59 20.95 ··· 0.11 ··· 0.35 D33J013343.11+303649.4 9.59 20.60 19.61······ 0.08 0.07······ 0.21 D33J013353.08+304834.2 9.59 19.88 ··· 0.06 ··· 0.19 D33J013350.65+304714.6 9.72 20.72 20.08······ 21.26 0.11 0.11······ 0.06 0.34 D33J013341.01+304340.1 9.84 20.78 21.71 0.10 0.16 0.16 D33J013420.99+304415.1 9.98 20.54 19.86··· 21.13 0.08 0.08··· 0.06 0.34 D33J013333.10+303345.4 10.09 20.67 20.01 0.12 0.14 0.33 D33J013354.97+303537.3 10.12 20.52 19.64 21.05··· 0.10 0.10 0.12··· 0.36 D33J013408.79+303946.3 10.12 20.59 19.43 21.15 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.26 D33J013325.47+303102.6 10.27 21.83 20.84 0.27 0.18 0.58 D33J013258.14+303858.1 10.30 20.64 19.94 21.16··· 0.06 0.07 0.05··· 0.19 D33J013416.43+303728.9 10.33 20.57 19.70 0.11 0.09 0.34 D33J013332.54+303116.2 10.36 22.45 ··· 0.28 ··· 0.45 ······ ······ The Extragalactic Distance Scale 53

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013342.06+303211.3 10.38 20.88 0.15 0.36 D33J013356.09+303903.0 10.42 20.55 ······ 0.11 ······ 0.33 D33J013410.15+304450.1 10.45 20.60 19.77······ 21.34 0.08 0.06······ 0.05 0.34 D33J013416.91+304639.8 10.56 20.67 19.43 21.57 0.12 0.07 0.07 0.26 D33J013338.80+303423.4 10.57 19.81 0.10 D33J013341.85+302952.2 10.59 20.96··· 19.96 21.91······ 0.12 0.11 0.16······ 0.35 D33J013338.79+303423.3 10.60 20.50 19.59 0.09 0.08 0.32 D33J013413.79+304418.3 10.61 21.60 20.38 22.42··· 0.20 0.16 0.16··· 0.55 D33J013335.51+303650.0 10.70 20.85 20.41 21.80 0.13 0.15 0.24 0.49 D33J013333.14+303327.4 10.95 21.11 0.13 0.28 D33J013302.17+303455.1 10.99 20.98 19.95······ 21.79 0.10 0.09······ 0.11 0.22 D33J013419.65+303419.1 11.03 21.47 0.22 0.60 D33J013323.01+303216.6 11.13 20.83 20.04······ 21.55 0.08 0.08······ 0.08 0.22 D33J013352.79+303836.6 11.15 20.37 0.11 0.28 D33J013358.50+304359.6 11.15 20.44 19.58······ 21.24 0.07 0.08······ 0.08 0.29 D33J013313.79+303208.4 11.20 20.49 19.65 21.08 0.10 0.07 0.17 0.42 D33J013327.29+303551.5 11.20 20.53 19.66 21.32 0.08 0.08 0.17 0.29 D33J013412.45+303839.4 11.23 20.18 19.01 0.10 0.09 0.25 D33J013412.44+303839.7 11.25 20.09 18.98 ··· 0.08 0.06 ··· 0.21 D33J013306.38+303142.9 11.26 20.43 19.48 21.21··· 0.09 0.06 0.11··· 0.36 D33J013415.39+303727.8 11.28 20.84 19.98 0.12 0.10 0.28 D33J013257.84+303240.4 11.37 20.55 19.46 21.28··· 0.09 0.10 0.13··· 0.23 D33J013355.90+304231.0 11.37 20.58 19.70 20.78 0.13 0.12 0.09 0.27 D33J013338.31+303639.5 11.41 19.89 18.99 21.04 0.12 0.16 0.10 0.30 D33J013341.89+304728.6 11.44 18.38 18.13 0.05 0.07 0.09 D33J013411.34+303535.4 11.45 20.39 19.68 20.94··· 0.08 0.08 0.06··· 0.25 D33J013325.53+303427.4 11.46 20.08 19.43 20.86 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.28 D33J013326.68+303112.9 11.49 20.65 19.80 21.42 0.09 0.07 0.13 0.48 D33J013340.13+304740.6 11.50 20.91 19.85 22.08 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.28 D33J013353.40+303308.8 11.50 21.31 20.75 21.73 0.17 0.17 0.22 0.52 D33J013335.47+303331.0 11.52 20.61 19.68 21.57 0.12 0.08 0.09 0.44 D33J013413.39+303318.0 11.52 21.15 19.98 21.57 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.36 D33J013357.33+304113.6 11.61 20.29 19.25 20.93 0.08 0.11 0.10 0.26 D33J013414.69+304609.7 11.77 21.73 19.79 0.20 0.08 0.34 D33J013336.22+303731.5 11.79 20.99 19.77 22.14··· 0.12 0.11 0.08··· 0.26 D33J013337.65+303219.8 11.88 20.84 19.85 0.11 0.10 0.32 D33J013420.17+304351.5 11.97 20.23 19.48 20.97··· 0.09 0.08 0.07··· 0.38 D33J013356.12+304342.5 11.98 20.75 19.63 21.47 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.42 D33J013317.57+303154.5 12.07 20.71 19.92 21.44 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.32 D33J013318.41+303534.1 12.09 20.08 19.50 20.50 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.28 D33J013341.18+304755.0 12.12 20.26 19.14 21.21 0.07 0.08 0.14 0.33 D33J013255.91+303438.2 12.33 19.63 0.08 D33J013351.02+304359.9 12.35 21.16··· 20.24 21.93······ 0.30 0.21 0.27······ 0.66 D33J013357.56+303805.5 12.35 20.41 19.77 21.02 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.51 54 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013346.49+304820.6 12.37 20.06 18.38 21.26 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.15 D33J013336.44+303651.0 12.38 21.06 19.39 0.13 0.08 0.39 D33J013411.19+304754.7 12.41 20.15 19.37 20.76··· 0.09 0.07 0.11··· 0.35 D33J013308.58+303122.3 12.53 20.16 19.35 20.94 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.36 D33J013322.14+303258.5 12.62 20.75 19.78 21.57 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.45 D33J013354.94+304642.3 12.88 20.02 19.32 20.61 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.14 D33J013345.93+304231.5 12.92 20.28 19.17 20.95 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.47 D33J013349.78+303758.9 12.92 20.22 19.71 0.17 0.11 0.46 D33J013349.97+303015.2 12.98 20.60 19.39 21.40··· 0.07 0.06 0.08··· 0.35 D33J013402.76+304145.4 13.04 20.01 18.87 20.69 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.37 D33J013312.49+303020.9 13.08 19.49 19.21 19.63 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 D33J013345.79+304420.8 13.13 20.49 21.33 0.08 0.09 0.45 D33J013331.59+303931.7 13.17 20.09 19.35··· 20.77 0.08 0.08··· 0.10 0.50 D33J013359.94+303910.4 13.25 20.59 19.57 0.14 0.18 0.39 D33J013356.42+304631.4 13.29 22.31 20.76 ··· 0.29 0.23 ··· 1.00 D33J013408.11+303931.8 13.29 20.19 19.94 ··· 0.14 0.15 ··· 0.28 D33J013411.86+302947.7 13.30 20.43 19.54 21.24··· 0.09 0.09 0.08··· 0.51 D33J013329.56+303109.0 13.33 20.63 19.54 21.59 0.11 0.05 0.12 0.45 D33J013351.95+304848.6 13.33 20.42 19.51 21.22 0.11 0.10 0.16 0.60 D33J013415.05+304435.0 13.35 20.59 19.34 21.32 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.25 D33J013411.94+303519.3 13.37 20.72 19.48 21.62 0.14 0.06 0.10 0.51 D33J013305.51+303824.8 13.53 20.60 19.69 21.54 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.48 D33J013408.71+304543.0 13.53 20.71 19.71 21.53 0.07 0.07 0.13 0.54 D33J013351.23+303758.4 13.57 19.89 19.14 20.78 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.40 D33J013336.58+303154.8 13.64 19.91 0.06 0.16 D33J013402.53+303628.2 13.65 20.37 19.45······ 20.95 0.10 0.10······ 0.11 0.32 D33J013331.51+303705.3 13.76 21.23 20.05 0.24 0.20 0.47 D33J013338.75+303751.7 13.77 21.21 20.12 22.30··· 0.18 0.15 0.11··· 0.52 D33J013311.78+303709.8 13.88 20.54 18.99 21.47 0.06 0.05 0.14 0.29 D33J013336.45+302934.2 13.94 21.47 19.99 0.20 0.12 0.52 D33J013408.35+303817.3 14.34 20.18 20.66··· 0.06 0.09··· 0.40 D33J013405.87+303928.6 14.59 19.89 19.11··· 20.38 0.06 0.06··· 0.07 0.38 D33J013404.89+304022.4 14.61 20.17 18.67 21.03 0.11 0.08 0.16 0.52 D33J013409.05+303629.8 14.62 19.44 19.01 0.04 0.04 0.12 D33J013348.18+304319.0 14.63 20.56 19.39 21.44··· 0.11 0.06 0.11··· 0.30 D33J013429.12+304338.7 14.77 20.14 19.35 20.81 0.07 0.08 0.15 0.56 D33J013401.32+304026.7 14.86 20.09 19.39 20.37 0.11 0.16 0.12 0.43 D33J013427.81+304101.0 14.89 20.52 19.55 0.08 0.08 0.53 D33J013342.22+303747.6 14.90 19.78 18.89 ··· 0.11 0.10 ··· 0.35 D33J013415.00+304452.9 14.91 20.41 19.40 21.18··· 0.06 0.06 0.06··· 0.29 D33J013347.58+303634.5 14.92 20.60 19.81 21.46 0.10 0.10 0.03 0.45 D33J013332.10+303946.0 14.97 20.41 19.38 21.23 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.42 D33J013334.89+303337.4 15.07 20.16 19.33 20.88 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.54 D33J013346.20+303744.5 15.07 20.36 18.80 0.24 0.09 0.49 ··· ··· The Extragalactic Distance Scale 55

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013348.16+303800.4 15.10 19.88 19.28 0.13 0.12 0.42 D33J013338.31+303603.3 15.13 21.21 20.07 ··· 0.30 0.16 ··· 0.62 D33J013400.96+304340.9 15.65 19.92 19.11 ··· 0.04 0.06 ··· 0.20 D33J013334.89+302912.9 15.66 22.80 20.86 ··· 0.34 0.31 ··· 0.41 D33J013315.30+303212.5 15.69 19.04 ··· 0.04 ··· D33J013334.20+303501.2 15.69 20.50··· 19.51 21.70······ 0.18 0.12 0.14······ 0.48 D33J013328.01+303213.8 15.75 21.18 20.01 22.10 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.37 D33J013401.60+303103.4 15.79 20.35 19.38 21.28 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.42 D33J013334.33+303531.0 15.83 19.85 18.86 20.36 0.05 0.09 0.04 0.20 D33J013420.35+304101.0 15.95 20.21 19.18 21.04 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.43 D33J013329.26+303100.7 15.96 21.09 19.84 22.30 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.46 D33J013356.09+304205.0 15.97 20.40 20.14 20.73 0.09 0.15 0.04 0.11 D33J013342.65+303300.5 16.04 19.90 19.13 0.07 0.10 0.47 D33J013403.99+304709.4 16.06 20.90 19.68 21.91··· 0.11 0.09 0.08··· 0.46 D33J013403.95+303616.0 16.27 20.35 19.23 21.32 0.11 0.10 0.07 0.42 D33J013417.74+303707.7 16.28 21.21 20.00 0.19 0.10 0.55 D33J013412.12+303636.4 16.41 20.29 19.35 ··· 0.06 0.06 ··· 0.34 D33J013417.85+303558.1 16.51 20.16 19.18 20.66··· 0.07 0.07 0.04··· 0.31 D33J013400.54+304027.5 16.67 19.88 20.58 0.04 0.06 0.17 D33J013336.32+302856.5 16.81 20.68 19.50··· 21.85 0.10 0.07··· 0.11 0.47 D33J013353.41+303535.6 17.47 19.70 19.08 20.29 0.07 0.07 0.12 0.51 D33J013344.98+303952.3 17.53 19.91 18.81 20.66 0.16 0.14 0.14 0.50 D33J013330.78+303111.6 17.54 20.56 19.59 21.48 0.06 0.08 0.17 0.48 D33J013331.23+302947.7 17.55 20.33 19.45 0.12 0.11 0.64 D33J013421.20+304536.8 17.83 19.85 18.93 20.74··· 0.04 0.06 0.07··· 0.42 D33J013330.07+303638.4 17.97 19.74 18.77 20.52 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.52 D33J013316.39+303658.0 18.57 20.08 19.08 21.01 0.06 0.07 0.15 0.50 D33J013414.56+304413.4 18.61 20.09 19.01 20.99 0.08 0.11 0.09 0.63 D33J013346.51+304645.0 18.81 19.74 18.93 20.74 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.53 D33J013406.74+303940.0 18.89 19.82 18.95 20.65 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.49 D33J013408.74+302857.7 19.14 20.45 19.01 21.44 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.39 D33J013410.21+303408.0 19.36 20.51 19.45 21.70 0.08 0.07 0.14 0.45 D33J013321.14+303116.4 19.61 20.68 19.57 21.62 0.07 0.05 0.10 0.36 D33J013326.07+303320.2 19.98 20.15 19.19 21.09 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.50 D33J013330.10+303804.4 19.98 19.88 19.13 20.45 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.37 D33J013341.29+303213.2 20.13 18.05 17.92 18.12 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.09 D33J013331.39+303352.1 20.18 19.19 17.47 0.06 0.06 0.26 D33J013343.29+304355.8 20.19 19.40 18.87 19.72··· 0.06 0.08 0.07··· 0.26 D33J013418.86+304441.1 20.21 20.17 18.84 21.33 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.43 D33J013324.59+303518.0 20.49 19.97 18.79 20.99 0.08 0.06 0.13 0.55 D33J013255.13+303514.0 21.08 19.06 0.06 D33J013331.65+302958.6 21.48 19.84··· ······0.07 ······0.41 D33J013304.05+303534.3 21.60 19.92······ 0.11······ D33J013401.74+303923.0 21.65 19.95··· 18.81 20.83······ 0.07 0.16 0.08······ 0.50 56 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013351.44+303830.8 21.81 20.14 18.91 0.17 0.20 0.55 D33J013420.43+304543.4 21.82 19.35 18.52 20.13··· 0.04 0.06 0.06··· 0.44 D33J013424.01+303953.1 21.90 19.77 18.74 20.63 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.52 D33J013330.35+303555.7 22.12 19.37 20.18 0.05 0.12 0.56 D33J013344.51+304313.6 22.41 19.71 18.69··· 20.59 0.06 0.06··· 0.06 0.33 D33J013253.04+303003.7 22.52 22.20 20.22 0.19 0.23 0.35 D33J013259.16+303957.6 22.63 20.02 ··· 0.12 ··· D33J013333.21+303747.8 22.66 20.61··· 19.31 ······0.07 0.10 ······0.42 D33J013322.59+303455.0 23.00 19.12 ··· 0.06 ··· D33J013350.71+303544.6 23.30 19.94··· 18.94 20.97······ 0.09 0.05 0.08······ 0.57 D33J013417.51+303819.8 23.31 20.28 19.18 21.49 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.42 D33J013358.81+303719.9 24.55 19.99 18.83 21.13 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.51 D33J013339.24+303033.6 24.62 21.94 21.75 0.26 0.31 0.69 D33J013401.17+303113.9 24.89 19.19 18.28 19.75··· 0.04 0.05 0.04··· 0.39 D33J013409.52+304535.6 25.26 20.06 18.95 21.21 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.40 D33J013355.20+304343.0 26.38 19.94 18.98 21.00 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.37 D33J013350.47+304753.7 26.48 19.92 18.68 21.14 0.05 0.06 0.11 0.29 D33J013347.15+303536.6 26.51 19.89 18.87 20.70 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.50 D33J013411.21+304155.9 26.56 19.33 18.24 20.12 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.37 D33J013357.57+303844.7 26.69 18.48 18.00 18.82 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.25 D33J013331.34+303017.2 27.02 20.37 19.18 0.09 0.06 0.54 D33J013423.44+304204.2 27.27 19.33 18.52 20.21··· 0.07 0.08 0.11··· 0.56 D33J013354.25+304110.9 27.93 19.19 18.09 19.92 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.42 D33J013332.86+303549.3 30.30 19.53 18.54 20.52 0.05 0.07 0.03 0.49 D33J013400.99+304309.8 30.47 19.51 18.61 20.58 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.47 D33J013301.95+303633.9 30.54 19.48 18.58 20.39 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.59 D33J013329.41+303557.6 30.58 19.61 18.62 20.57 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.51 D33J013415.84+304612.3 31.27 19.93 18.62 20.91 0.09 0.07 0.24 0.64 D33J013358.07+304556.8 31.53 19.82 18.70 20.63 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.26 D33J013354.74+304106.3 33.91 19.24 18.15 20.14 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.48 D33J013354.80+304531.8 35.60 18.98 18.13 0.07 0.05 0.49 D33J013412.15+304640.9 35.87 19.25 18.21 20.13··· 0.08 0.06 0.08··· 0.55 D33J013352.42+303844.3 35.90 19.18 18.13 19.74 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.59 D33J013341.16+303550.5 36.09 19.89 18.64 0.07 0.06 0.73 D33J013415.77+303618.0 36.35 19.61 18.45 20.79··· 0.04 0.04 0.02··· 0.26 D33J013327.40+303707.9 37.04 18.16 0.06 D33J013341.54+303609.7 37.35 19.35··· 18.32 20.52······ 0.04 0.05 0.06······ 0.61 D33J013350.85+303336.5 37.57 20.55 19.09 21.71 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.38 D33J013252.15+303714.6 37.58 19.16 18.23 20.03 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.51 D33J013353.61+304850.4 38.74 20.39 0.22 D33J013329.18+303745.0 45.88 19.17··· 18.03 20.33······ 0.04 0.04 0.10······ 0.56 D33J013328.28+303815.8 46.10 19.17 0.07 D33J013257.15+303935.8 46.74 20.88··· 19.71 21.99······ 0.07 0.09 0.13······ 0.31 D33J013405.37+303632.5 48.12 19.37 19.13 19.66 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.16 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 57

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013359.42+303227.0 50.21 19.83 18.47 20.83 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.37 D33J013339.91+303508.4 51.11 18.25 0.03 0.23 D33J013420.65+303942.6 52.83 18.01 17.85······ 18.18 0.03 0.07······ 0.06 0.14 D33J013338.75+303505.9 53.14 20.55 0.26 D33J013345.18+304419.5 53.34 ··· 17.99 ······ 0.05 ······ D33J013339.18+303414.5 55.19 ··· 20.55 ······ 0.30 ······ D33J013331.04+303143.9 55.39 19.25··· 18.08 20.41······ 0.04 0.04 0.04······ 0.29 D33J013412.59+303644.6 55.87 20.00 18.93 20.63 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.55 D33J013347.40+304422.6 55.91 19.60 18.31 20.79 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.29 D33J013422.92+304847.6 55.92 21.02 18.97 22.67 0.09 0.07 0.19 0.43 D33J013408.36+303414.2 56.43 20.24 0.13 D33J013254.27+303804.9 56.57 19.30··· 18.53 19.95······ 0.07 0.06 0.05······ 0.35 D33J013405.11+303851.3 56.69 18.99 17.83 20.12 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.25 D33J013403.81+303911.0 57.40 19.63 18.24 0.05 0.07 0.36 D33J013337.43+303139.2 57.48 19.20 18.06 ··· 0.04 0.04 ··· 0.41 D33J013335.15+303407.0 57.97 20.91 ··· 0.29 ··· D33J013351.33+303901.1 61.80 17.56··· 18.33······ 0.05 0.05······ 0.18 D33J013337.68+303830.8 61.89 20.03··· 0.16··· D33J013349.53+303109.9 61.94 ··· 19.88 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013419.15+304510.7 62.11 ··· 20.16 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013403.82+303921.7 62.36 ··· 19.88 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013342.05+304314.9 62.55 ··· 20.91 ······ 0.31 ······ D33J013407.13+304236.7 62.92 ··· 20.70 ······ 0.35 ······ D33J013346.64+304219.3 62.98 ··· 20.11 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013409.66+303625.6 63.00 ··· 20.31 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013351.33+303847.1 63.26 ··· 20.08 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013410.62+304111.3 63.29 ··· 19.89 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013401.08+304702.6 63.34 ··· 20.02 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013341.07+303914.7 63.43 ··· 20.57 ······ 0.45 ······ D33J013428.18+304115.9 63.50 ··· 20.90 ······ 0.29 ······ D33J013346.55+304418.4 63.78 ··· 20.16 ······ 0.17 ······ D33J013346.98+304129.6 63.84 ··· 20.38 ······ 0.16 ······ D33J013303.58+303018.5 63.93 ··· 21.21 ······ 0.25 ······ D33J013325.72+303837.0 64.41 ··· 20.58 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013413.73+303544.1 64.68 ··· 21.15 ······ 0.35 ······ D33J013339.18+303740.1 65.06 ··· 21.06 ······ 0.32 ······ D33J013402.22+304347.8 65.21 ··· 20.47 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013338.45+303447.5 65.23 ··· 20.83 ······ 0.25 ······ D33J013333.39+303157.4 65.46 ··· 20.48 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013413.21+304355.0 65.58 ··· 20.71 ······ 0.30 ······ D33J013408.48+304748.8 66.13 ··· 20.26 ······ 0.22 ······ D33J013351.81+303951.0 67.05 18.38··· 17.39 19.27······ 0.07 0.09 0.14······ 0.35 D33J013422.73+304328.4 67.49 20.01 0.14 D33J013359.94+304831.6 68.46 ··· 19.71 ······ 0.10 ······ ··· ······ ······ 58 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013400.09+303525.6 69.84 20.16 0.18 D33J013354.56+303659.8 70.18 ··· 20.62 ······ 0.18 ······ D33J013356.75+304256.5 71.89 ··· 20.95 ······ 0.34 ······ D33J013402.15+303414.3 73.78 ··· 20.36 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013343.85+303245.6 73.94 18.57··· 17.43 19.56······ 0.06 0.04 0.04······ 0.33 D33J013420.32+303117.7 74.35 20.13 0.17 D33J013345.19+303547.7 74.69 ··· 21.33 ······ 0.35 ······ D33J013328.59+303052.9 75.21 ··· 20.14 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013343.30+303641.0 75.49 ··· 20.47 ······ 0.22 ······ D33J013404.32+304424.5 75.87 ··· 19.78 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013415.81+303429.8 76.09 ··· 20.62 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013308.07+303238.5 76.62 ··· 20.40 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013412.72+303914.6 76.91 20.36··· 18.16 ······0.21 0.06 ······0.34 D33J013321.91+303114.2 77.17 19.94 18.31 21.44··· 0.04 0.04 0.06··· 0.15 D33J013338.88+303653.3 77.26 20.63 0.18 D33J013317.74+303326.5 77.64 ··· 21.29 ······ 0.33 ······ D33J013401.69+304159.2 77.83 ··· 20.92 ······ 0.29 ······ D33J013352.98+304254.5 79.10 ··· 19.68 ······ 0.08 ······ D33J013423.38+304731.4 79.72 ··· 19.99 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013400.12+304435.3 79.84 ··· 20.01 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013427.46+304334.5 80.43 ··· 20.76 ······ 0.32 ······ D33J013427.42+303951.0 80.62 ··· 20.90 ······ 0.33 ······ D33J013256.32+303910.9 83.02 ··· 18.45 ······ 0.06 ······ D33J013316.35+303110.5 83.68 20.49··· 19.73 21.11······ 0.06 0.06 0.05······ 0.27 D33J013335.11+303400.3 83.75 18.85 0.05 D33J013422.31+304116.1 84.16 ··· 19.38 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013318.47+303923.9 84.18 ··· 20.23 ······ 0.20 ······ D33J013422.90+304733.5 84.34 ··· 18.32 ······ 0.09 ······ D33J013332.70+303427.6 84.47 ··· 19.68 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013335.90+303717.7 84.54 ··· 20.34 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013403.57+304305.6 84.76 ··· 20.75 ······ 0.35 ······ D33J013338.65+303029.1 84.80 ··· 21.41 ······ 0.43 ······ D33J013302.64+303051.5 84.87 ··· 20.11 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013307.95+303209.9 84.91 ··· 19.59 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013259.49+303328.6 84.93 ··· 19.20 ······ 0.04 ······ D33J013357.19+303631.6 84.93 ··· 19.74 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013427.08+303952.4 85.00 ··· 19.67 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013352.82+304817.8 85.08 ··· 20.06 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013412.40+304606.7 85.18 ··· 19.23 ······ 0.08 ······ D33J013413.29+303938.9 85.41 ··· 20.20 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013412.90+303639.4 85.55 ··· 19.62 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013414.51+304311.0 85.57 ··· 20.00 ······ 0.18 ······ D33J013320.76+303312.5 85.58 ··· 20.24 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013356.49+303649.9 85.61 ··· 19.30 ······ 0.11 ······ ··· ······ ······ The Extragalactic Distance Scale 59

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013309.20+303238.9 85.71 20.06 0.17 D33J013354.73+303815.1 85.84 ··· 20.17 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013337.09+303337.9 85.88 ··· 20.68 ······ 0.28 ······ D33J013259.45+303358.9 85.93 ··· 19.63 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013336.42+303112.7 85.97 ··· 19.26 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013310.34+303922.0 86.02 ··· 20.60 ······ 0.22 ······ D33J013336.47+303112.7 86.05 ··· 19.21 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013334.74+303426.3 86.08 ··· 19.67 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013405.86+303249.1 86.12 ··· 19.73 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013351.60+303134.5 86.15 ··· 20.29 ······ 0.16 ······ D33J013403.29+303708.5 86.31 ··· 20.21 ······ 0.27 ······ D33J013403.15+304505.4 86.33 ··· 19.88 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013409.66+303959.7 86.33 ··· 20.12 ······ 0.20 ······ D33J013357.45+304656.1 86.44 ··· 20.19 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013421.03+304515.2 86.49 ··· 20.35 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013334.71+303836.3 86.56 ··· 19.56 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013412.37+303124.6 86.66 ··· 20.13 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013426.89+304230.9 86.68 ··· 20.21 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013253.25+303243.7 86.69 ··· 20.57 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013302.88+303545.2 86.70 ··· 20.22 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013400.11+304231.7 86.81 ··· 19.78 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013319.96+303152.4 86.82 ··· 20.57 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013427.50+303941.6 87.05 ··· 20.16 ······ 0.17 ······ D33J013419.06+304347.6 87.13 ··· 21.00 ······ 0.30 ······ D33J013306.72+303250.3 87.16 ··· 19.95 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013422.93+304616.4 87.23 ··· 19.98 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013425.25+304811.2 87.39 ··· 20.39 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013402.88+303028.8 87.45 ··· 19.12 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013357.00+304645.6 87.46 ··· 19.18 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013350.03+304620.3 87.56 ··· 19.75 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013344.10+304503.6 87.63 ··· 20.19 ······ 0.18 ······ D33J013421.12+304624.5 88.12 ··· 20.49 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013410.57+303751.0 88.60 20.66··· 20.14 21.05······ 0.09 0.17 0.09······ 0.24 D33J013354.20+303149.8 88.70 19.83 0.19 D33J013410.26+303035.1 89.15 ··· 20.45 ······ 0.20 ······ D33J013318.30+303248.3 89.27 ··· 19.07 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013321.01+303849.3 89.61 ··· 20.74 ······ 0.25 ······ D33J013426.22+304647.7 89.80 ··· 20.49 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013352.66+304801.6 90.36 ··· 21.06 ······ 0.22 ······ D33J013258.97+303652.7 90.44 ··· 20.23 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013302.56+303201.2 91.05 ··· 20.60 ······ 0.18 ······ D33J013351.99+303147.5 91.43 ··· 19.96 ······ 0.17 ······ D33J013401.15+304226.9 91.87 ··· 19.27 ······ 0.08 ······ D33J013407.57+304109.8 91.88 ··· 19.46 ······ 0.07 ······ ··· ······ ······ 60 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013313.33+303228.4 92.05 20.51 0.15 D33J013325.14+303545.3 92.05 ··· 19.75 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013358.11+304352.2 92.20 ··· 20.33 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013410.87+304758.0 92.30 ··· 18.75 ······ 0.09 ······ D33J013411.34+303931.0 92.33 ··· 20.55 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013339.99+304600.0 92.34 ··· 20.58 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013324.66+303726.3 92.43 ··· 20.86 ······ 0.31 ······ D33J013334.66+303724.8 92.48 ··· 19.92 ······ 0.16 ······ D33J013409.70+302936.0 92.55 ··· 20.41 ······ 0.19 ······ D33J013322.57+303327.1 92.62 ··· 19.74 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013347.64+304302.4 92.67 ··· 19.56 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013402.73+303409.2 92.76 ··· 20.03 ······ 0.16 ······ D33J013324.12+303759.6 92.79 ··· 19.74 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013412.52+304309.4 92.83 ··· 20.09 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013304.37+303058.9 93.11 ··· 21.39 ······ 0.33 ······ D33J013315.76+303816.1 93.12 ··· 20.24 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013334.08+303613.6 93.25 ··· 20.40 ······ 0.26 ······ D33J013358.34+304200.0 93.50 ··· 20.56 ······ 0.29 ······ D33J013342.85+303409.7 93.59 ··· 19.54 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013353.95+304048.0 93.70 ··· 20.56 ······ 0.31 ······ D33J013308.79+304025.3 93.92 ··· 20.57 ······ 0.21 ······ D33J013410.27+303709.9 93.97 ··· 19.78 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013343.34+303606.7 94.04 ··· 20.68 ······ 0.20 ······ D33J013348.87+304338.3 94.04 ··· 19.57 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013351.57+304300.0 94.07 ··· 20.38 ······ 0.31 ······ D33J013336.58+303034.2 94.33 ··· 20.73 ······ 0.28 ······ D33J013343.31+303558.2 94.37 ··· 20.31 ······ 0.24 ······ D33J013327.51+303209.5 94.43 ··· 20.01 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013343.44+303909.7 94.45 ··· 19.39 ······ 0.11 ······ D33J013410.44+304155.1 94.49 ··· 21.00 ······ 0.27 ······ D33J013326.88+303241.3 94.53 ··· 20.26 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013305.46+303819.3 94.63 ··· 19.95 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013319.90+303846.7 94.76 ··· 19.63 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013354.48+304446.5 94.90 ··· 20.37 ······ 0.24 ······ D33J013408.21+303420.9 94.92 ··· 20.29 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013411.27+303126.9 95.01 ··· 20.56 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013310.45+303154.4 95.67 ··· 20.14 ······ 0.17 ······ D33J013334.63+303109.1 95.77 ··· 19.83 ······ 0.10 ······ D33J013321.64+303234.9 96.40 ··· 19.53 ······ 0.08 ······ D33J013414.14+304408.0 96.50 ··· 20.60 ······ 0.33 ······ D33J013401.93+303908.5 96.87 ··· 20.30 ······ 0.36 ······ D33J013415.19+304241.7 97.07 ··· 20.47 ······ 0.18 ······ D33J013418.75+304441.2 97.43 ··· 18.82 ······ 0.07 ······ D33J013333.76+302917.1 97.82 ··· 19.30 ······ 0.13 ······ ··· ······ ······ The Extragalactic Distance Scale 61

Table 2.4—Continued

Designation P (d) V I B σV σI σB Amp.

D33J013419.91+304613.3 98.08 19.80 0.11 D33J013416.22+303843.0 98.61 ··· 20.17 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013333.81+303438.0 98.97 ··· 20.09 ······ 0.17 ······ D33J013325.43+303127.9 99.32 ··· 19.43 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013338.37+303823.3 99.52 ··· 20.08 ······ 0.12 ······ D33J013349.22+303851.9 100.17 ··· 19.71 ······ 0.15 ······ D33J013417.84+304144.7 100.37 ··· 20.99 ······ 0.29 ······ D33J013418.60+302941.8 101.45 ··· 20.08 ······ 0.13 ······ D33J013356.78+304640.5 103.00 ··· 20.12 ······ 0.15 ······ ··· ······ ······ 62 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri 2 r 1 r ) ◦ ( 69.6 0.54 0.36 71.849.7 0.47 0.46 0.6681.0 0.34 0.61 0.38 i B ··· σ 0.04 80.2 0.51 0.30 0.05 87.7 0.37 0.31 0.04 74.1 0.51 0.49 0.06 80.2 0.46 0.35 0.100.06 85.2 76.1 0.45 0.36 0.45 0.31 I σ ··· ······ ······ ······ ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· V σ 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.07 0.07 ··· 19.66 0.08 20.99 0.11 18.88 0.03 20.75 0.09 20.7119.45 0.15 0.08 ··· ······ ··· ··· ········· ······ ··· ··· Table 2.5. Eclipsing Binaries Designation P (d) V I B D33J013337.83+303935.3 1.0392D33J013421.93+304710.1 19.73 1.0530D33J013331.89+303839.8 19.71 19.22 1.6692 19.87 19.68 20.00 0.05 19.70 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.03 61.3 63.1 0.54 0.30 0.66 0.33 D33J013417.99+303806.7 1.8717D33J013414.97+303431.7 19.79 1.8774D33J013347.42+303249.4 19.77 1.8970D33J013337.52+303803.7 20.49 19.56 1.9021 20.98 20.17 19.79 0.05 20.46 0.09 0.06 0.14 0.06 0.06 57.9 81.2 0.61 0.31 0.41 0.30 D33J013343.07+303845.4 2.8872D33J013307.81+303242.2 18.62 2.9453 20.87 19.04 D33J013315.92+303523.5 3.0205D33J013337.84+303121.4 20.53 3.0677D33J013346.40+303408.1 19.62 20.11 3.1535D33J013351.92+304311.8 19.52 19.86 20.67 3.6488D33J013419.68+303344.5 0.08 20.07 20.00 19.55 3.6954D33J013355.43+303742.2 0.05 20.38 19.59 19.35 3.7850 0.13 0.04 20.96 20.12 20.00 0.10 0.05 0.06 19.70 0.12 0.03 83.3 0.06 0.20 0.03 70.3 0.40 0.09 0.03 76.2 0.34 0.49 0.05 71.4 0.44 0.55 65.9 0.37 0.56 0.44 0.62 0.38 D33J013253.23+303640.0 1.9388D33J013350.23+303318.2 20.02 2.0971D33J013309.79+303253.6 20.14 20.22 2.1397D33J013345.39+304242.3 20.67 20.04 20.02 2.1459D33J013310.35+303901.7 0.06 21.09 19.52 20.15 2.2908D33J013319.79+303629.8 0.06 20.43 20.64 19.66 2.3030D33J013319.42+303004.8 0.15 0.08 20.01 20.84 19.48 2.3067D33J013356.24+303358.9 0.10 0.04 0.06 20.98 20.36 20.50 2.3371D33J013419.29+303321.8 0.18 0.05 77.1 0.09 18.96 22.09 19.95 2.5021D33J013402.21+304409.1 0.11 0.03 87.5 0.50 0.04 20.35 20.75 2.6625D33J013354.29+304030.4 0.15 0.04 78.2 0.32 0.39 0.12 19.48 20.59 2.7079 0.11 0.08 72.8 0.28 0.41 18.97 20.17 20.35 0.33 0.04 75.6 0.26 0.51 0.06 19.36D33J013351.94+303905.1 0.05 61.0 0.41 0.37 0.04 2.9680 0.12 89.4 0.30 0.59 19.14 0.11 0.04 0.34 0.44 0.03 88.4 0.34 64.7 0.61 0.38 0.46 0.43 D33J013349.24+304037.1 3.8462 19.38 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 63 2 r 1 r ) ◦ ( 75.5 0.49 0.37 61.9 0.62 0.38 i B σ 0.03 77.8 0.56 0.43 I σ ······ ······ ··· V σ 0.04 0.07 19.63 0.05 ··· ······ ······ Table 2.5—Continued Designation P (d) V I B D33J013400.90+303545.3D33J013304.49+303406.9 3.9134D33J013407.19+304635.0 19.88 3.9635D33J013347.83+304301.1 19.45 20.02 4.4240 19.69 19.96 20.59 4.4329 0.07 19.62 20.35 20.03 0.06 19.60 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.14 0.05 69.5 0.02 80.3 0.44 73.7 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.62 0.35 D33J013334.78+303212.2D33J013335.27+304024.6 6.8289D33J013415.97+303337.8 18.69 6.8521D33J013404.84+304317.9 19.38 18.57 7.1002D33J013302.77+303055.7 18.25 19.44 18.75 7.3173D33J013354.03+303304.9 0.03 18.53 20.19 19.43 7.9023D33J013354.79+303249.2 0.04 19.18 18.22 20.18 8.7744 0.05D33J013420.35+304431.2 0.04 18.77 19.53 20.17 9.7958 0.08 0.04 10.2534D33J013358.56+303422.4 0.08 18.19 18.49 19.21 0.04 0.02 49.4 19.73 10.3819D33J013321.57+303503.1 0.05 18.44 18.92 0.11 0.04 78.6 0.61 19.04 20.36 23.1091D33J013306.50+303213.8 0.06 18.15 0.07 0.08 54.4 0.37 0.45 20.32 19.59 27.0444D33J013344.76+304432.6 0.02 0.08 0.05 75.8 0.39 0.49 0.05 19.39 20.10 27.8209D33J013251.35+303737.8 0.03 0.03 78.8 0.32 0.62 19.22 17.99 20.49 34.6944 0.11 0.03 76.8 0.38 0.42 0.07 19.84 19.54 17.64 0.02 44.8 0.32 0.43 0.06 19.35 18.24 0.10 87.0 0.43 0.68 0.04 20.18 0.08 0.05 0.10 0.32 0.06 0.08 0.06 71.4 0.06 0.07 0.07 87.9 0.64 0.06 66.2 0.35 0.59 86.3 0.41 0.46 0.37 0.64 0.35 D33J013314.47+303717.9D33J013346.05+304439.2 4.6517D33J013355.07+302957.6 20.14 4.8938D33J013338.50+303124.8 19.38 20.29 5.0948D33J013307.32+303723.0 20.03 19.68 20.10 5.5420D33J013336.97+303033.4 0.05 18.86 20.70 19.33 5.8247D33J013426.52+304334.4 0.05 19.51 19.16 19.91 6.1613 0.08D33J013257.18+303157.3 0.06 19.71 19.66 18.79 6.2122 0.12 0.04D33J013340.97+304500.9 0.03 19.64 19.54 19.92 6.6250 0.16 0.05 70.9 0.03 18.16 20.02 19.58 6.8165 0.07 0.04 85.3 0.45 0.05 19.51 18.31 19.57 0.05 0.03 89.8 0.30 0.23 0.03 18.20 0.10 0.02 57.9 0.19 0.35 0.05 0.07 0.04 50.7 0.30 0.61 0.06 0.02 88.8 0.39 0.65 0.04 62.9 0.35 0.24 89.8 0.16 0.66 0.34 0.55 0.44 64 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.6. Miscellaneous variables

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013251.16+303639.7 1.85 21.86 19.82 0.59 0.16 D33J013251.35+303737.8 1.45 20.13 20.14 19.98··· 0.10 0.11 0.08··· D33J013251.93+303506.6 1.62 19.76 20.00 19.71 0.08 0.10 0.08 D33J013253.68+303208.5 1.70 19.19 16.74 20.96 0.08 0.05 0.03 D33J013253.77+303524.8 3.00 17.77 16.45 19.30 0.11 0.07 0.11 D33J013256.40+303844.5 1.41 16.88 16.72 17.11 0.03 0.02 0.01 D33J013256.57+303146.0 1.59 19.02 17.01 20.51 0.11 0.06 0.08 D33J013256.65+303903.3 2.57 18.77 16.53 0.12 0.05 D33J013256.93+303530.1 2.00 19.08 16.83 20.59··· 0.09 0.04 0.06··· D33J013257.70+303216.9 1.24 21.66 19.95 22.50 0.39 0.20 0.07 D33J013257.81+303554.6 2.33 18.93 16.61 21.00 0.09 0.06 0.06 D33J013258.13+303606.0 2.44 18.56 15.93 20.31 0.06 0.08 0.02 D33J013259.29+303504.7 2.19 17.49 17.02 17.89 0.04 0.04 0.02 D33J013259.66+303136.9 2.21 19.27 16.83 21.36 0.10 0.05 0.05 D33J013300.98+303500.4 2.27 18.80 16.96 19.83 0.09 0.04 0.02 D33J013301.21+303051.2 1.24 18.09 18.39 0.08 0.05 D33J013301.68+303050.5 1.27 21.25 21.83··· 21.18 0.38 0.29··· 0.08 D33J013301.71+303954.0 2.11 18.96 16.51 20.94 0.07 0.05 0.05 D33J013302.97+303550.8 1.55 20.65 20.95 20.71 0.12 0.24 0.03 D33J013303.06+303101.6 2.20 16.92 16.76 0.06 0.05 D33J013303.37+303051.1 2.96 17.45 16.65 18.28··· 0.07 0.04 0.02··· D33J013303.50+303201.0 7.65 18.32 15.60 20.98 0.37 0.19 0.21 D33J013303.52+303139.0 1.27 19.61 17.01 21.49 0.06 0.04 0.05 D33J013303.85+303041.1 2.57 19.16 16.68 20.60 0.11 0.07 0.06 D33J013303.99+303215.1 1.41 19.31 16.59 0.09 0.05 D33J013304.48+303234.9 4.20 19.17 16.89 20.68··· 0.13 0.07 0.12··· D33J013304.52+303043.2 1.58 19.80 0.13 D33J013305.00+303706.8 1.96 20.87 18.58······ 22.22 0.20 0.08······ 0.10 D33J013305.45+303138.5 3.54 18.63 15.63 20.32 0.11 0.04 0.05 D33J013305.72+303719.8 2.77 18.06 16.93 19.29 0.07 0.05 0.05 D33J013305.93+303014.5 1.47 18.76 16.64 20.53 0.06 0.04 0.05 D33J013305.95+303944.9 1.80 22.12 21.16 22.93 0.53 0.47 0.32 D33J013306.55+304029.8 1.31 22.75 0.53 D33J013306.80+303039.4 1.37 19.57 17.50······ 20.52 0.06 0.05······ 0.02 D33J013306.91+303506.0 1.98 19.01 16.32 20.92 0.10 0.06 0.06 D33J013307.57+303116.8 1.38 19.02 17.38 19.72 0.06 0.10 0.05 D33J013307.66+303105.3 1.31 21.18 21.19 20.97 0.20 0.30 0.10 D33J013308.05+303040.5 1.22 19.96 19.99 0.08 0.01 D33J013308.11+303551.2 1.30 22.25 ··· 23.21 0.41 ··· 0.29 D33J013308.36+303315.7 1.95 20.39 17.63··· 22.43 0.15 0.07··· 0.10 D33J013308.66+303409.2 1.87 19.25 16.79 21.24 0.11 0.06 0.10 D33J013309.36+303429.4 1.56 16.97 17.01 17.08 0.03 0.04 0.02 D33J013310.06+303330.7 1.40 19.69 17.82 21.37 0.07 0.04 0.05 D33J013310.17+303314.4 4.22 19.79 16.70 21.24 0.24 0.06 0.06 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 65

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013310.23+303211.4 5.64 20.41 18.78 21.80 0.45 0.13 0.14 D33J013310.36+303849.2 1.20 17.48 17.26 17.68 0.03 0.04 0.01 D33J013310.95+302957.2 1.88 20.03 19.24 0.25 0.17 D33J013311.12+303421.8 2.39 16.28 16.06 ··· 0.04 0.04 ··· D33J013311.75+303420.3 1.29 21.84 20.13 ··· 0.35 0.19 ··· D33J013312.33+303034.0 2.11 18.41 15.86 ··· 0.09 0.06 ··· D33J013312.56+303252.6 3.31 18.90 16.45 20.39··· 0.13 0.08 0.10··· D33J013312.68+303946.0 5.08 20.61 17.15 0.84 0.20 D33J013312.79+303012.6 3.35 17.84 17.77 17.73··· 0.13 0.15 0.12··· D33J013312.93+303905.3 3.04 19.29 16.70 21.02 0.12 0.06 0.06 D33J013313.39+303654.7 1.53 22.32 19.48 0.57 0.23 D33J013313.79+303018.1 3.96 19.89 17.28 22.08··· 0.32 0.16 0.12··· D33J013315.25+303011.3 1.49 19.20 16.95 20.75 0.07 0.04 0.05 D33J013315.64+303550.8 1.49 20.70 20.60 20.89 0.13 0.16 0.04 D33J013315.70+303821.6 4.44 17.51 16.82 18.21 0.07 0.07 0.04 D33J013315.84+303952.0 1.48 20.10 19.22 20.41 0.09 0.10 0.05 D33J013316.48+303212.3 1.54 16.75 16.42 17.05 0.03 0.04 0.01 D33J013316.55+303052.1 2.65 19.47 16.43 21.50 0.13 0.09 0.07 D33J013316.80+303807.1 1.20 20.83 21.12 20.82 0.13 0.24 0.04 D33J013317.00+303116.4 1.30 19.70 17.33 21.14 0.07 0.04 0.04 D33J013317.22+303313.9 3.08 19.31 16.95 20.99 0.11 0.04 0.04 D33J013317.36+303210.9 6.25 17.97 15.76 20.73 0.56 0.25 0.28 D33J013318.08+303704.0 1.26 21.14 17.77 0.54 0.88 D33J013318.17+303134.3 4.45 17.02 18.61··· 0.12 0.11··· D33J013318.26+303209.5 1.21 20.89 ··· 22.00 0.14 ··· 0.06 D33J013319.07+303642.5 5.45 18.72 15.93··· 21.07 0.30 0.15··· 0.17 D33J013319.08+303032.2 3.15 21.95 19.24 0.60 0.30 D33J013320.72+303205.0 3.03 19.71 16.80 ··· 0.27 0.08 ··· D33J013322.15+303050.3 1.69 21.63 19.72 ··· 0.68 0.25 ··· D33J013322.83+303012.7 1.23 21.82 19.95 ··· 0.44 0.23 ··· D33J013324.67+303423.9 5.45 20.39 17.01 ··· 0.36 0.19 ··· D33J013325.20+303758.1 1.84 19.78 17.16 ··· 0.15 0.09 ··· D33J013325.35+303417.7 1.32 20.98 18.92 22.12··· 0.16 0.12 0.07··· D33J013325.46+303849.9 1.42 21.42 0.39 D33J013325.67+303258.6 2.20 22.38 20.20······ 22.98 0.71 0.17······ 0.37 D33J013326.89+303058.7 1.81 21.29 21.83 0.30 0.08 D33J013327.06+303917.7 1.69 21.34 17.06··· 22.18 0.52 0.56··· 0.12 D33J013327.14+303311.9 1.94 21.73 19.33 0.51 0.59 D33J013327.38+303029.7 2.03 17.45 16.77 ··· 0.07 0.05 ··· D33J013328.87+303058.3 1.38 20.45 16.92 22.12··· 0.16 0.08 0.10··· D33J013331.01+303503.4 1.44 20.04 16.81 0.12 0.16 D33J013331.41+303256.1 2.13 20.95 20.88 ··· 0.28 0.46 ··· D33J013333.08+303506.6 1.56 17.42 17.30 17.53··· 0.04 0.04 0.03··· D33J013333.28+303147.6 1.97 20.55 17.05 0.21 0.07 ··· ··· 66 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013333.33+303351.6 6.27 18.90 16.25 21.84 0.43 0.24 0.36 D33J013333.45+303150.0 1.74 19.63 16.94 0.12 0.09 D33J013333.78+303403.4 2.59 19.37 16.85 21.15··· 0.20 0.08 0.07··· D33J013334.65+303912.7 2.66 21.85 19.68 0.67 0.96 D33J013334.83+303355.0 1.43 17.24 15.38 ··· 0.12 0.08 ··· D33J013335.09+303600.7 10.56 16.18 15.93 16.87··· 0.27 0.29 0.17··· D33J013335.19+303041.3 1.59 19.39 16.76 21.09 0.11 0.05 0.03 D33J013335.42+303835.5 1.60 17.18 17.14 17.33 0.04 0.03 0.05 D33J013335.80+303912.4 1.24 22.27 18.93 0.69 0.11 D33J013335.86+303344.8 8.19 19.68 16.39 ··· 0.56 0.23 ··· D33J013336.39+303531.4 1.40 18.00 18.00··· 0.07 0.01··· D33J013336.59+303532.6 2.32 18.16 ··· 20.08 0.09 ··· 0.02 D33J013337.23+304005.4 1.38 18.73 17.12··· 20.21 0.06 0.03··· 0.04 D33J013337.99+303236.3 1.82 20.46 17.31 22.02 0.15 0.05 0.17 D33J013338.61+303109.3 1.89 19.96 16.94 0.15 0.07 D33J013338.92+303506.3 5.17 19.54 16.80 20.30··· 0.27 0.15 0.10··· D33J013338.92+303829.5 13.35 18.82 15.89 0.43 0.41 D33J013339.01+302944.6 3.90 20.53 18.38 22.39··· 0.72 0.16 0.18··· D33J013339.24+303119.3 5.67 17.13 18.50 0.20 0.16 D33J013339.25+303050.0 3.51 19.36 ··· 20.16 0.23 ··· 0.03 D33J013340.02+302846.3 1.35 15.96 ··· 0.04 ··· D33J013340.34+303131.7 1.44 20.92 17.12······ 0.23 0.13······ D33J013340.44+304256.8 1.74 16.37 16.17 ··· 0.04 0.06 ··· D33J013340.48+303159.1 1.20 17.95 18.07 17.99··· 0.04 0.04 0.02··· D33J013340.58+304206.1 1.26 20.54 0.23 D33J013340.75+303236.7 1.40 20.04 17.27······ 0.11 0.06······ D33J013341.60+303220.9 4.19 16.31 17.11··· 0.06 0.03··· D33J013341.80+304021.1 1.37 20.75 17.26··· 0.36 0.48··· D33J013342.30+303608.5 2.15 19.75 16.82 21.48··· 0.13 0.06 0.08··· D33J013342.34+303911.2 1.24 20.44 19.67 0.20 0.15 D33J013342.40+303631.5 1.60 19.40 17.27 21.23··· 0.08 0.04 0.09··· D33J013342.57+303534.9 2.88 20.11 16.85 21.27 0.19 0.14 0.01 D33J013342.72+303256.6 1.26 17.94 17.80 18.00 0.04 0.05 0.02 D33J013342.84+303235.0 2.39 19.15 16.75 19.66 0.09 0.06 0.01 D33J013343.04+303904.8 1.89 18.09 16.62 0.10 0.06 D33J013343.42+302938.7 3.60 20.27 17.38 21.91··· 0.20 0.07 0.07··· D33J013343.65+304450.8 7.67 19.67 21.67 0.80 0.07 D33J013343.79+304848.4 1.36 22.20 ··· 0.69 ··· D33J013343.91+303916.3 1.82 20.24 ······ 0.33 ······ D33J013344.09+303206.1 2.50 17.11 16.21······ 17.79 0.05 0.04······ 0.07 D33J013344.28+303636.2 1.27 18.99 16.69 19.08 0.06 0.11 0.02 D33J013344.38+303228.3 2.50 19.37 17.08 20.71 0.11 0.03 0.04 D33J013344.96+303008.6 1.77 21.23 19.16 0.36 0.15 D33J013344.97+304714.3 1.37 21.21 19.29 ··· 0.27 0.11 ··· ··· ··· The Extragalactic Distance Scale 67

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013345.10+303620.2 2.10 16.57 16.03 16.97 0.05 0.05 0.02 D33J013345.11+303606.8 1.66 20.48 17.41 0.18 0.07 D33J013345.16+303138.7 3.92 18.14 15.90 20.08··· 0.17 0.13 0.13··· D33J013345.67+303609.8 1.72 19.16 16.40 0.15 0.05 D33J013345.76+304311.9 1.49 20.43 19.66 20.75··· 0.13 0.08 0.05··· D33J013346.09+303653.8 1.55 15.97 15.56 16.27 0.03 0.04 0.01 D33J013346.56+304125.6 4.69 18.78 16.11 21.20 0.30 0.12 0.15 D33J013346.66+304210.2 1.97 20.27 0.28 D33J013346.96+303950.7 1.23 20.42 ······ 0.23 ······ D33J013347.38+304630.1 3.12 19.91 17.03······ 21.90 0.35 0.10······ 0.16 D33J013347.46+304155.2 1.92 19.66 0.12 D33J013348.12+304809.2 1.73 21.86 19.95······ 0.55 0.26······ D33J013348.32+304242.3 1.47 16.70 16.31 17.11··· 0.03 0.04 0.01··· D33J013348.58+304658.1 1.30 21.25 21.63 0.26 0.05 D33J013348.71+304211.7 1.96 19.61 ··· 20.27 0.14 ··· 0.05 D33J013348.82+303709.5 1.75 20.25 17.48··· 21.62 0.15 0.09··· 0.07 D33J013348.82+304821.9 1.44 20.85 18.94 0.20 0.13 D33J013348.83+303842.4 1.23 19.71 ··· 0.13 ··· D33J013348.85+304423.5 1.65 21.26 ······21.85 0.75 ······0.19 D33J013349.09+304148.2 1.28 21.41 19.64··· 0.38 0.19··· D33J013349.63+304045.3 1.48 21.16 ··· 0.33 ··· D33J013349.68+303913.1 1.22 20.08 ······ 0.25 ······ D33J013349.71+304500.0 1.70 20.07 17.00······ 0.18 0.09······ D33J013349.75+304257.0 2.51 19.30 16.88 ··· 0.15 0.13 ··· D33J013349.77+303225.0 3.19 19.25 16.77 20.70··· 0.12 0.09 0.05··· D33J013349.80+303246.4 1.43 16.02 16.89 0.02 0.01 D33J013349.83+303836.0 1.22 19.05 ··· 19.13 0.26 ··· 0.03 D33J013349.89+302929.1 2.74 18.32 16.06··· 19.01 0.09 0.12··· 0.01 D33J013349.96+304314.3 3.05 19.68 21.54 0.15 0.12 D33J013350.00+304610.5 1.46 22.37 20.17··· 0.51 0.29··· D33J013350.35+303914.1 1.38 20.34 ··· 0.32 ··· D33J013350.50+303225.7 1.54 19.77 ······21.64 0.11 ······0.09 D33J013350.56+303230.6 4.03 18.03 ··· 19.41 0.16 ··· 0.06 D33J013350.57+303836.3 1.33 19.16 ··· 0.14 ··· D33J013350.61+303617.4 1.36 19.72 16.84······ 21.32 0.10 0.06······ 0.08 D33J013350.95+303819.1 3.89 16.52 16.45 0.09 0.08 D33J013351.42+303640.3 2.01 19.66 16.22 ··· 0.22 0.15 ··· D33J013351.60+303226.2 3.18 16.69 16.12 17.21··· 0.04 0.03 0.01··· D33J013351.60+303454.9 2.06 16.98 16.92 17.06 0.03 0.04 0.02 D33J013351.79+303827.7 2.67 16.43 15.80 17.18 0.04 0.03 0.01 D33J013352.11+303902.5 1.21 20.66 16.53 0.29 0.07 D33J013352.26+302908.0 1.53 21.24 19.68 ··· 0.32 0.22 ··· D33J013352.37+303736.6 1.22 20.20 17.01 ··· 0.12 0.15 ··· D33J013352.37+303909.9 3.43 16.36 15.92 ··· 0.06 0.05 ··· ··· ··· 68 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013352.51+303816.2 6.13 16.91 16.01 17.52 0.10 0.06 0.01 D33J013352.57+304403.5 1.68 21.56 20.19 0.86 0.42 D33J013353.47+303816.5 1.59 20.77 18.21 ··· 0.32 0.19 ··· D33J013353.53+303520.2 1.80 19.46 17.03 20.17··· 0.11 0.09 0.04··· D33J013353.60+304005.5 1.25 19.96 17.48 0.15 0.15 D33J013353.68+303916.3 1.45 20.29 ··· 0.43 ··· D33J013353.73+303028.2 1.80 22.24 19.54······ 0.78 0.37······ D33J013353.96+304059.7 1.40 21.61 18.99 23.24··· 0.42 0.11 0.25··· D33J013354.80+303223.1 2.18 18.28 18.15 18.39 0.07 0.06 0.06 D33J013355.13+304035.8 1.25 21.09 21.87 0.50 0.22 D33J013355.53+304121.1 1.80 20.50 16.60··· 0.29 0.11··· D33J013355.62+304153.4 1.30 21.89 19.16 ··· 0.50 0.13 ··· D33J013356.04+303834.8 1.87 19.67 17.56 19.99··· 0.15 0.16 0.02··· D33J013356.21+303259.1 1.37 19.37 17.32 0.12 0.06 D33J013356.58+303316.7 1.88 17.01 17.14 ··· 0.03 0.03 ··· D33J013356.93+303703.2 1.47 20.81 21.40··· 0.26 0.11··· D33J013356.98+303517.2 1.67 19.99 17.45··· 0.15 0.08··· D33J013357.02+303818.1 6.48 19.83 16.56 20.79··· 0.38 0.22 0.02··· D33J013357.03+303355.6 2.62 19.44 16.85 21.24 0.14 0.09 0.04 D33J013357.43+303821.7 2.96 17.23 16.32 18.29 0.10 0.06 0.03 D33J013357.43+304810.1 2.19 21.46 19.53 0.65 0.32 D33J013357.66+304824.1 2.68 16.79 16.07 17.77··· 0.06 0.06 0.08··· D33J013357.80+303718.0 2.28 19.41 16.85 21.31 0.25 0.07 0.17 D33J013358.02+304539.9 3.31 16.01 16.98 0.04 0.06 D33J013358.09+304337.2 1.21 21.06 18.87··· 0.25 0.08··· D33J013358.11+303321.0 1.70 16.60 16.50 16.67··· 0.03 0.04 0.02··· D33J013358.49+303420.1 3.40 17.32 0.17 D33J013358.52+303812.9 1.97 19.82 ······ 0.14 ······ D33J013358.53+303251.9 1.37 20.46 21.02······ 20.25 0.14 0.37······ 0.02 D33J013358.92+304139.6 4.84 16.75 16.06 17.82 0.09 0.04 0.07 D33J013359.02+303756.5 1.29 21.22 20.47 0.38 0.25 D33J013359.05+304354.8 2.52 20.03 17.28 22.39··· 0.24 0.08 0.20··· D33J013359.14+303212.5 2.53 19.65 16.41 22.09 0.26 0.15 0.23 D33J013359.19+303742.1 1.24 21.82 19.16 0.37 0.12 D33J013359.44+303734.1 2.20 19.72 17.09 21.10··· 0.15 0.08 0.10··· D33J013359.83+303355.1 1.36 17.75 0.09 D33J013359.87+304703.4 1.56 19.46 16.79······ 21.25 0.08 0.06······ 0.06 D33J013359.93+304453.3 1.97 21.02 0.30 D33J013400.00+304622.2 1.28 19.70 17.83······ 0.09 0.30······ D33J013400.09+304831.6 1.51 20.56 17.54 ··· 0.14 0.11 ··· D33J013400.34+303338.3 1.21 19.55 17.47 ··· 0.07 0.05 ··· D33J013400.50+302951.6 2.76 19.75 17.62 21.16··· 0.17 0.13 0.09··· D33J013400.78+304149.6 1.25 21.51 19.97 22.21 0.36 0.23 0.18 D33J013400.86+303415.1 4.33 17.53 15.61 19.39 0.11 0.07 0.07 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 69

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013401.04+303432.4 3.75 19.44 16.53 0.28 0.09 D33J013401.60+303129.1 3.50 20.79 17.02 ··· 0.34 0.15 ··· D33J013401.83+303858.3 2.65 16.72 17.91··· 0.06 0.04··· D33J013402.02+303133.0 1.44 22.09 19.87··· 0.59 0.25··· D33J013402.02+304117.2 1.22 17.69 17.56 17.86··· 0.03 0.03 0.01··· D33J013402.08+304257.7 1.93 17.06 16.96 17.22 0.03 0.04 0.02 D33J013402.27+303828.4 1.58 18.73 16.21 20.26 0.06 0.06 0.04 D33J013402.45+303513.4 1.24 21.13 20.03 0.26 0.30 D33J013402.50+304107.8 1.77 19.35 16.63 21.25··· 0.10 0.06 0.06··· D33J013402.74+304836.5 3.64 18.20 19.76 0.10 0.05 D33J013403.15+304645.8 1.84 21.33 19.28··· 0.40 0.13··· D33J013403.56+303143.2 2.77 19.64 16.70 21.39··· 0.12 0.04 0.07··· D33J013403.70+304202.5 3.08 19.49 16.20 21.52 0.24 0.15 0.10 D33J013403.82+303753.1 2.75 19.82 16.40 0.90 0.41 D33J013404.00+303817.3 1.49 21.11 19.30 ··· 0.61 0.34 ··· D33J013404.22+304115.3 1.35 21.54 21.70··· 0.43 0.42··· D33J013404.29+303018.6 1.23 21.62 20.30··· 0.42 0.20··· D33J013404.48+303257.3 1.70 21.83 19.54 ··· 0.66 0.75 ··· D33J013404.54+303315.6 1.89 20.55 17.58 22.54··· 0.47 0.16 0.07··· D33J013405.41+303719.3 1.61 18.80 17.24 20.10 0.07 0.04 0.05 D33J013405.46+303443.4 6.04 19.80 18.49 21.30 0.36 0.20 0.15 D33J013405.50+303419.2 1.56 20.45 19.25 20.91 0.13 0.07 0.04 D33J013405.53+303905.7 2.16 20.45 0.25 D33J013405.65+303906.2 1.21 20.84 ······ 0.20 ······ D33J013406.15+304632.3 1.98 19.57 16.87······ 0.17 0.08······ D33J013406.55+304250.2 1.21 22.11 20.12 ··· 0.58 0.20 ··· D33J013406.60+304147.8 2.74 16.04 15.74 16.23··· 0.04 0.04 0.03··· D33J013406.83+304623.3 1.31 21.04 22.25 0.28 0.10 D33J013407.07+303918.8 1.91 19.17 16.61··· 0.14 0.16··· D33J013407.29+304732.3 1.46 18.29 17.57 18.80··· 0.05 0.05 0.03··· D33J013407.67+304628.4 3.60 19.43 16.54 20.79 0.16 0.08 0.03 D33J013408.21+304548.3 1.25 19.78 17.56 21.33 0.07 0.05 0.07 D33J013408.47+304555.2 1.30 22.34 0.66 D33J013409.13+303846.9 1.28 20.47 16.85······ 0.18 0.08······ D33J013409.18+303423.4 7.22 17.67 16.80 18.80··· 0.22 0.23 0.02··· D33J013409.32+304526.8 1.51 20.32 17.18 22.01 0.12 0.04 0.06 D33J013409.42+303706.2 2.94 21.18 19.01 0.42 0.13 D33J013409.54+303621.7 1.51 20.57 19.72 20.90··· 0.21 0.14 0.11··· D33J013409.58+303907.9 5.72 19.84 0.46 D33J013409.76+304643.2 2.27 19.50 17.05······ 21.09 0.14 0.08······ 0.07 D33J013409.83+303814.5 2.15 20.63 18.42 21.31 0.23 0.24 0.09 D33J013409.86+304738.0 1.48 21.82 19.91 0.47 0.30 D33J013410.17+304728.1 1.27 19.50 17.29 20.85··· 0.09 0.04 0.04··· D33J013410.46+304650.9 2.86 17.75 17.51 17.94 0.05 0.04 0.02 70 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013410.79+304708.1 1.97 20.99 21.13 0.30 0.08 D33J013410.89+303437.7 6.18 15.98 ··· 0.08 ··· D33J013411.03+303954.7 1.50 17.73 17.77······ 17.82 0.03 0.04······ 0.01 D33J013411.50+303312.8 4.84 18.83 20.37 0.20 0.09 D33J013411.68+304003.2 1.65 19.77 17.22··· 0.13 0.11··· D33J013411.69+303343.5 1.52 22.28 19.89 ··· 0.55 0.39 ··· D33J013412.15+303241.9 1.21 21.48 19.61 ··· 0.45 0.11 ··· D33J013412.21+303320.8 1.97 19.38 16.85 21.22··· 0.10 0.04 0.06··· D33J013412.62+304208.0 1.44 21.68 19.67 22.68 0.34 0.19 0.12 D33J013412.63+303828.5 1.47 21.77 19.38 22.48 0.49 0.41 0.20 D33J013412.84+303310.1 1.52 19.87 17.05 0.10 0.06 D33J013412.92+303104.8 1.36 21.72 ··· 0.42 ··· D33J013413.42+304402.1 1.25 22.25 19.14······ 22.77 0.43 0.24······ 0.17 D33J013413.65+304026.7 1.23 21.50 19.82 0.25 0.14 D33J013413.94+304837.3 1.46 21.17 20.41 21.45··· 0.45 0.18 0.27··· D33J013414.24+304254.2 1.34 19.55 17.10 21.14 0.07 0.05 0.03 D33J013414.45+303511.7 3.35 19.81 16.38 21.02 0.21 0.14 0.06 D33J013414.50+303557.9 2.50 19.47 16.71 21.16 0.10 0.06 0.07 D33J013414.84+303401.4 1.54 19.18 16.82 0.15 0.07 D33J013415.26+304850.3 1.28 22.30 20.00 ··· 0.49 0.32 ··· D33J013415.71+304526.5 1.63 21.72 20.13 22.11··· 0.39 0.18 0.09··· D33J013415.80+303732.2 2.13 19.13 16.87 0.10 0.06 D33J013415.82+302919.4 1.63 22.36 ··· 0.55 ··· D33J013415.90+304115.0 4.57 20.11 16.51······ 21.30 0.25 0.18······ 0.09 D33J013416.24+303801.7 1.94 20.33 17.64 0.17 0.07 D33J013416.25+303353.7 5.42 18.55 16.22 20.29··· 0.23 0.14 0.09··· D33J013416.29+303158.8 1.23 19.49 17.29 21.08 0.06 0.04 0.04 D33J013416.40+303121.1 1.83 17.12 17.09 17.06 0.04 0.06 0.03 D33J013416.44+304750.5 1.33 19.49 17.29 21.15 0.08 0.06 0.05 D33J013416.72+304518.4 2.39 20.26 17.19 21.82 0.17 0.12 0.12 D33J013417.17+304826.4 1.20 20.91 17.03 0.16 0.09 D33J013417.54+304155.3 1.30 19.16 18.73 19.42··· 0.06 0.04 0.02··· D33J013417.79+303356.2 2.77 19.24 16.18 21.00 0.13 0.05 0.07 D33J013418.09+304147.5 1.37 20.79 20.82 0.14 0.03 D33J013418.40+304108.2 1.71 21.78 19.78··· 22.93 0.47 0.14··· 0.27 D33J013418.67+304338.0 3.18 21.66 19.55 0.48 0.20 D33J013418.74+303942.6 1.33 21.68 22.50··· 0.31 0.18··· D33J013419.07+304226.0 2.04 21.70 ··· 22.67 0.40 ··· 0.12 D33J013419.58+303303.5 1.78 20.89 17.50··· 0.20 0.10··· D33J013419.65+303700.3 1.46 19.49 17.10 21.28··· 0.09 0.06 0.07··· D33J013419.95+304436.6 1.48 19.94 17.16 21.51 0.13 0.07 0.07 D33J013420.23+304848.6 3.14 20.04 17.32 21.58 0.17 0.09 0.11 D33J013420.31+304545.5 1.45 17.16 16.05 18.41 0.03 0.05 0.05 D33J013420.76+304407.0 1.59 20.44 17.82 22.05 0.16 0.06 0.07 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 71

Table 2.6—Continued

Designation JS VIB σV σI σB

D33J013422.21+304629.1 1.40 21.96 19.78 0.48 0.20 D33J013425.24+303940.2 1.53 21.21 19.51 ··· 0.34 0.23 ··· D33J013425.49+304415.7 1.78 21.25 19.55 22.62··· 0.39 0.18 0.09··· D33J013425.84+304615.0 1.33 19.70 17.56 21.52 0.07 0.05 0.07 D33J013426.31+304844.8 1.86 22.02 19.96 22.95 0.48 0.33 0.19 D33J013426.43+304754.2 1.82 21.75 19.52 23.59 0.48 0.24 0.23 D33J013427.12+304407.0 1.55 21.14 20.08 21.81 0.32 0.20 0.04 D33J013427.65+304355.9 1.57 21.48 19.99 21.93 0.29 0.25 0.12 D33J013428.62+304820.6 2.13 21.70 20.77 22.05 0.40 0.24 0.28 D33J013428.72+304223.1 1.36 21.81 19.75 0.34 0.20 D33J013428.72+304752.2 1.37 21.88 22.37··· 0.43 0.07··· ··· ··· 72 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.14.— Color-magnitude diagram of 682 variables in M33 with two- or three- color data. EBs, Cepheids and miscellaneous variables are plotted using ﬁlled, open and starred symbols, respectively. An additional 177 variables with data in a single band could not be plotted. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 73

Fig. 2.15.— Observed I-band P-L relation for all Cepheids listed in Table 2.4. Most of the objects detected in the I band only (ﬁlled symbols) appear to be Population II Cepheids. 74 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri are indicated with ﬁlled symbols. Most of the latter appear to be Population II Cepheids; this sample represents the largest extragalactic ensemble of such variables ever observed.

2.5.1 Previously-known variables in M33

The search for variables in M33 has a long and venerable history. Duncan (1922) (hereafter, Du22) discovered three variables in this galaxy while searching for novae. The ﬁrst two of these are irregular variables, while the third one turned out to be a 42-day Cepheid. Hubble (1926) (hereafter Hu26) undertook an extensive observational program which resulted in the discovery of 41 variables, including 35 Cepheids and one eclipsing variable. Later, Hubble & Sandage (1953) (hereafter, HS53) discovered an additional three bright irregular variables. After a long hiatus, van den Bergh, Herbst & Kowal (1975) (hereafter VHK75) discovered 36 new variables but were unable to determine periods and classiﬁcations for them, due to the rather poor quality of their magnitudes. Lastly, Sandage & Carlson (1983) (hereafter, SC83) discovered an additional 12 Cepheids.

Table 2.7 lists the properties of all these “classical” variables, and their DIRECT counterparts, where available. Coordinates are from our catalog, if the variable was present in it. Otherwise, they were obtained from the original publication or from a digitized POSS image of M33. We hope this table, which to our knowledge is the ﬁrst compilation of all M33 classical variables, will serve as reference for future work.

In general, there is good agreement between the classical and the DIRECT periods and classification of these variables. In two cases (Hu26-V04 and VHK75-76), it seems that the original finding charts may be erroneously indicating a nearby star as the variable instead of the actual object. Apparently, van den Bergh, Herbst & Kowal (1975) did not notice the mis-identification of V04 by Hubble (1926), and designated it VHK75-49, thinking it was a new variable. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 75

Some classical variables which had been not been classified as Cepheids were found to be so by our automated template fitting program. Such was the case for Hu26-V15 (re-classified as a 50-day Cepheid), Hu26-V21 (re-classified as a 67-day Cepheid) and Hu26-V45 (re-classified as a 74-day Cepheid). One classical Cepheid (Hu26-V19) is present in our star catalog, but it did not meet the criteria to be classified as a variable. Indeed, the amplitude of its pulsation seems to have decreased from 1 mag at the beginning of the century to a few hundredths of a ∼ magnitude at present. See Macri et al. (2001) for details.

The only modern search for variables in M33 was undertaken by Kinman, Mould & Wood (1987) (hereafter, KMW87). The observations were carried out using plates, but these were digitized using a PDS machine, and the search for variables was performed using automated routines. They discovered 65 Cepheids, 44 long-period variables, 6 periodic variables and 224 miscellaneous variables over a large area of the disk of M33. We were able to retrieve 35/36 Cepheids, 1/1 W Vir variable, 14/27 long-period variables, and 63/103 unclassiﬁed variables present in our ﬁelds.

2.6 A Cepheid Distance to M33

As described in the previous section, numerous searches for Cepheids in M33 have been conducted over the past 75 years. Most of these have also determined a distance to the galaxy based on the variables that were discovered. Given the ﬂuid nature of the absolute calibration of the Distance Scale during the twentieth century, these distance estimates cannot be compared directly.

Our determination of the distance to M33 will be based on a subset of the Cepheids presented in Table 2.4, with periods longer than 15 days and no evidence of blends, individually corrected for extinction. Our analysis will make use of ﬁducial Period-Luminosity Relations, based on Cepheids located in the Large Magellanic Cloud. We will describe these points in reverse order. 76 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.7. M33 Classical variables

Designation R.A. Dec. Type Per (d) Classical DIRECT (J2000.0) Cl. DI. Cl. DI.

Du22-V01 D33J013409.83+303814.5 01:34:09.83 30:38:14.5 V V Du22-V02 D33J013418.35+303837.0 01:34:18.35 30:38:37.0 V N ······ Hu26-V03 01:33:25.9 30:48:34 C O 41.68······ Hu26-V04 D33J013423.44+304204.2··· 01:34:23.44 30:42:04.2 C C 27.37 27.27··· [1] Hu26-V05 D33J013404.89+304022.4 01:34:04.89 30:40:22.4 C C 14.60 14.61 Hu26-V06 01:34:45.1 30:49:25 V O Hu26-V07 D33J013411.21+304155.9··· 01:34:11.21 30:41:55.9 C C 26.56······ 26.56 Hu26-V08 D33J013355.07+302957.6 01:33:55.07 30:29:57.6 E E 5.095 Hu26-V09 D33J013406.74+303940.0 01:34:06.74 30:39:40.0 C C 18.90··· 18.89 Hu26-V10 D33J013405.11+303851.3 01:34:05.11 30:38:51.3 C C 69.50 56.69 Hu26-V11 D33J013402.76+304145.4 01:34:02.76 30:41:45.4 C C 23.43 13.04 Hu26-V12 D33J013401.74+303923.0 01:34:01.74 30:39:23.0 C C 21.68 21.65 Hu26-V13 D33J013359.73+303937.1 01:33:59.73 30:39:37.1 V N Hu26-V14 D33J013331.04+303143.9 01:33:31.04 30:31:43.9 V C ······55.39 Hu26-V15 D33J013359.42+303227.0 01:33:59.42 30:32:27.0 V C ··· 50.21 Hu26-V16 D33J013353.41+303535.6 01:33:53.41 30:35:35.6 C C 17.50··· 17.47 Hu26-V17 D33J013350.71+303544.6 01:33:50.71 30:35:44.6 C C 23.30 23.30 Hu26-V18 D33J013354.74+304106.3 01:33:54.74 30:41:06.3 C C 34.00 33.91 Hu26-V19 D33J013357.04+304511.8 01:33:57.04 30:45:11.8 C N 54.71 Hu26-V20 D33J013352.42+303844.3 01:33:52.42 30:38:44.3 C C 35.95 35.90··· Hu26-V21 D33J013351.81+303951.0 01:33:51.82 30:39:50.9 V C 67.05 Hu26-V22 D33J013351.44+303830.8 01:33:51.44 30:38:30.8 C C 21.82··· 21.81 Hu26-V23 D33J013351.23+303758.4 01:33:51.23 30:37:58.4 C C 13.56 13.57 Hu26-V24 D33J013349.78+303758.9 01:33:49.78 30:37:58.9 C C 12.89 12.92 Hu26-V25 D33J013358.81+303719.9 01:33:58.81 30:37:19.9 C C 13.44 24.55 Hu26-V26 01:34:37.9 30:41:26 C O 23.26 Hu26-V27 D33J013344.51+304313.6··· 01:33:44.51 30:43:13.6 C C 22.45 22.41··· Hu26-V28 D33J013414.56+304413.4 01:34:14.56 30:44:13.4 C C 18.58 18.61 Hu26-V29 D33J013341.54+303609.7 01:33:41.54 30:36:09.7 C C 36.31 37.35 Hu26-V30 D33J013329.18+303745.0 01:33:29.18 30:37:45.0 C C 46.03 45.88 Hu26-V31 D33J013327.40+303707.9 01:33:27.40 30:37:07.9 C C 37.33 37.04 Hu26-V32 D33J013326.07+303320.2 01:33:26.07 30:33:20.2 V C 19.98 Hu26-V33 D33J013324.59+303518.0 01:33:24.59 30:35:18.0 C C 20.50··· 20.49 Hu26-V34 01:33:22.4 30:48:48 C O 22.16 Hu26-V35 D33J013301.95+303633.9··· 01:33:01.95 30:36:33.9 C C 30.51 30.54··· Hu26-V36 D33J013412.15+304640.9 01:34:12.15 30:46:40.9 C C 35.80 35.87 Hu26-V37 D33J013344.98+303952.3 01:33:44.98 30:39:52.3 C C 17.60 17.53 Hu26-V38 D33J013401.17+303113.9 01:34:01.17 30:31:13.9 C C 25.04 24.89 Hu26-V39 01:34:13.9 30:50:35 C O 16.17 Hu26-V40 D33J013345.93+304231.5··· 01:33:45.93 30:42:31.5 C C 12.92 12.92··· Hu26-V41 D33J013330.07+303638.4 01:33:30.07 30:36:38.4 C C 17.98 17.97 Hu26-V42 D33J013332.86+303549.3 01:33:32.86 30:35:49.3 C C 30.34 30.30 Hu26-V43 D33J013331.39+303352.1 01:33:31.39 30:33:52.1 C C 20.17 20.18 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 77

Table 2.7—Continued

Designation R.A. Dec. Type Per (d) Classical DIRECT (J2000.0) Cl. DI. Cl. DI.

Hu26-V44 D33J013329.41+303557.6 01:33:29.41 30:35:57.6 C C 30.12 30.58 Hu26-V45 D33J013343.85+303245.6 01:33:43.85 30:32:45.6 V C 73.94 HS53-A 01:32:33.0 30:30:25 V O ··· HS53-B D33J013349.18+303809.5··· 01:33:49.18 30:38:09.5 V ······ [2] HS53-C D33J013335.09+303600.7 01:33:35.09 30:36:00.7 V········· V VHK75-46 D33J013408.98+303300.6 01:34:08.98 30:33:00.6 V N ······ VHK75-47 01:34:23.2 30:56:53 V O ······ VHK75-48 ··· 01:33:07.2 30:45:43 V O ······ VHK75-49 D33J013423.44+304204.2··· 01:34:23.44 30:42:04.2 V C ······27.27 [3] VHK75-50 01:34:21.4 30:55:39 V O ··· VHK75-51 ··· 01:33:00.2 30:46:46 V O ······ VHK75-52 ··· 01:34:25.3 30:54:37 V O ······ VHK75-53 ··· 01:35:01.4 30:32:05 V O ······ VHK75-54 D33J013410.77+303317.0··· 01:34:10.77 30:33:17.0 V N ······ VHK75-55 01:32:45.4 30:35:19 V O ······ VHK75-56 ··· 01:34:34.3 30:26:28 V O ······ VHK75-57 ··· 01:33:24.8 30:17:54 V O ······ VHK75-58 D33J013317.36+303210.9··· 01:33:17.36 30:32:10.9 V V ······ VHK75-59 D33J013403.07+304221.1 01:34:03.07 30:42:21.1 V F ······ VHK75-60 D33J013336.59+303532.6 01:33:36.59 30:35:32.6 V V ······ VHK75-61 D33J013411.50+303312.8 01:34:11.50 30:33:12.8 V V ······ VHK75-62 D33J013345.16+303138.7 01:33:45.16 30:31:38.7 V V ······ VHK75-63 01:33:39.4 30:21:11 V O ······ VHK75-64 ··· 01:33:29.4 30:18:49 V O ······ VHK75-65 ··· 01:34:54.2 30:41:10 V O ······ VHK75-66 D33J013319.07+303642.5··· 01:33:19.07 30:36:42.5 V V ······ VHK75-67 D33J013257.18+303157.3 01:32:57.18 30:31:57.3 V E ······6.62 VHK75-68 D33J013357.51+304214.7 01:33:57.51 30:42:14.7 V F ··· VHK75-69 01:33:31.8 30:19:54 V O ······ VHK75-70 ··· 01:34:30.7 30:32:17 V O ······ VHK75-71 ··· 01:34:12.1 30:53:13 V O ······ VHK75-72 D33J013415.90+304115.0··· 01:34:15.90 30:41:15.0 V V ······ VHK75-73 01:33:49.1 30:52:21 V O ······ VHK75-74 ··· 01:33:28.8 31:00:40 V O ······ VHK75-75 ··· 01:34:14.0 30:52:47 V O ······ VHK75-76 D33J013416.25+303353.7··· 01:34:16.25 30:33:53.7 V V ······ [4] VHK75-77 01:33:55.7 30:27:25 V O ······ VHK75-78 ··· 01:33:09.3 30:25:58 V O ······ VHK75-79 D33J013329.18+303745.0··· 01:33:29.18 30:37:45.0 V C ······45.88 [5] VHK75-80 01:33:53.8 30:26:42 V O ··· VHK75-81 ··· 01:34:55.5 30:43:49 V O ······ VHK75-82 ··· 01:33:49.1 30:51:35 V O ······ VHK75-83 D33J013410.89+303437.7··· 01:34:10.89 30:34:37.7 V V ······ ······ 78 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 2.7—Continued

Designation R.A. Dec. Type Per (d) Classical DIRECT (J2000.0) Cl. DI. Cl. DI.

SC83-A01 D33J013318.37+303916.6 01:33:18.37 30:39:16.6 C C 8.54 8.54 SC83-B01 D33J013252.15+303714.6 01:32:52.15 30:37:14.6 C C 37.62 37.58 SC83-B08 D33J013253.12+303810.5 01:32:53.12 30:38:10.5 C F 3.23 SC83-D54 D33J013322.94+303040.2 01:33:22.94 30:30:40.2 C C 8.74 8.74··· SC83-E14 D33J013255.91+303438.2 01:32:55.91 30:34:38.2 C C 12.82 12.33 SC83-F08 01:32:32.3 30:31:08 C O 21.28 SC83-F09 ··· 01:32:36.3 30:31:42 C O 18.10 ··· SC83-F12 ··· 01:32:34.7 30:36:52 C O 18.48 ··· SC83-G01 D33J013331.23+302947.7··· 01:33:31.23 30:29:47.7 C C 17.56 17.55··· SC83-G04 01:33:20.3 30:29:05 C O 13.00 SC83-G05 ··· 01:33:20.3 30:28:54 C O 8.78 ··· SC83-G06 ··· 01:33:18.9 30:27:09 C O 26.32 ··· ··· ···

References. — Du22: Duncan (1922); Hu26: Hubble (1926); HS53: Hubble & Sandage (1953); VHK75: van den Bergh, Herbst & Kowal (1975); SC83: Sandage & Carlson (1983)

Note. — Key to types: C: Cepheid; E: Eclipsing binary; V: miscellaneous variable; N: does not display variability in the DIRECT database; F: faint and/or fuzzy object present in our template frame, but below our detection threshold; O: outside the boundaries of our catalog. [1]: possibly mis-identified with nearby star in original finding chart; [2]: saturated in DIRECT images; [3]: same object as Hu26-V04; [4]: possibly mis-identified with nearby star in original finding chart; [5]: same object as Hu26-V30. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 79

2.6.1 The P-L relation of LMC Cepheids

All modern determinations of distances based on Cepheids use the Period- Luminosity Relations of these variables in the Large Magellanic Cloud as ﬁducial relations to determine relative distances and extinction corrections. The choice of the LMC is motivated by several factors: it is relatively close ( 50 kpc) to the ∼ Milky Way, hence its Cepheids are bright and well separated from other objects; the amount of intervening dust and gas along the line of sight is relatively low; it has a young stellar content, hence Cepheids are plentiful.

Cepheids in the Large Magellanic Cloud have been heavily studied over the past century, and many P-L relations have stemmed from those studies. The first self-consistent, multi-wavelength and modern (i.e., photoelectric or CCD based) relations were derived by Madore & Freedman (1991). They consisted of 32 (25) Cepheids with data in the BVRI(JHK) bands, with periods ranging from 4 to 60 days. They were corrected for extinction using a fixed value of EB V =0.10 mag − derived by Bessell (1991) (see 2.6.2 for a definition of EB V ). § − During the past decade, surveys for microlensing events towards the Magellanic Clouds have resulted in the discovery of thousands of variables, including many hundreds of Cepheids. In particular, the OGLE project Udalski et al. (1997) observes in the standard BVI bands, so their Cepheid data can be readily used for extragalactic work. Udalski et al. (1999) determined VI P-L relations using

650 Cepheids, individually corrected for extinction using values of EB V ∼ − determined towards 84 diﬀerent lines of sight, based on the mean magnitudes of red clump giants. We used the published OGLE B-band extinction-corrected mean magnitudes for 300 of these objects to determine the P-L relation in that band ∼ as well. The relations are plotted in Figure 2.16 and listed below:

mB,0 = 2.39 ( 0.05) [log P 1] + 14.91 ( 0.07), (2.2) − ± − ± mV,0 = 2.76 ( 0.02) [log P 1] + 14.28 ( 0.02), (2.3) − ± − ± mI,0 = 2.96 ( 0.02) [log P 1] + 13.60 ( 0.01). (2.4) − ± − ± 80 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.16.— Period-Luminosity Relations of Cepheids located in the Large Magel- lanic Cloud, in the B (top), V (center) and I (bottom) bands. The data was obtained by the OGLE microlensing experiment Udalski et al. (1997). The Extragalactic Distance Scale 81

These equations can be combined to form period-color relations:

(B V )0 = 0.37 ( 0.05) [log P 1] + 0.63 ( 0.07), (2.5) − ± − ± (V I)0 = 0.20 ( 0.03) [log P 1] + 0.68 ( 0.02). (2.6) − ± − ±

These relations are distance-independent and can be used to determine the extinction towards Cepheids in other galaxies (see 2.6.2). The most significant § difference between Madore & Freedman (1991) and Udalski et al. (1999) was a change of 0.2 mag/dex in the slope of the I-band P-L relation. This affected − the V–I period-color relation and resulted in an increase in the mean extinction of extragalactic Cepheids and a corresponding decrease in the distances to their host galaxies.

The P-L relations of LMC Cepheids are well characterized, and thus form an excellent primary distance indicator that can yield relative distances with internal errors of a few percent, provided that a fair number of Cepheids are discovered in a target galaxy. The limiting factors in the accuracy of Cepheid distances are related to external sources of error, such as extinction, blending, metallicity eﬀects, and the absolute distance to the LMC. We describe these below.

2.6.2 Extinction corrections

Observations of extragalactic Cepheids are always affected by the scatter and absorption of a fraction of the incoming flux by dust located along the line of sight, both in our Galaxy and in a target galaxy. This absorption is commonly referred to as “extinction” and denoted by Ai, where i is replaced by the symbol of a particular bandpass or a specific wavelength. Dust is more efficient at scattering blue light than red light, so obscured objects will not only appear fainter, but also redder than they actually are. The wavelength dependence of extinction is commonly referred to as “reddening” and denoted by Ei j Ai Aj. The most − ≡ − common reddening index is the ratio of extinction between the B and V bands, represented by EB V . − 82 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The wavelength dependence of extinction in the interstellar medium of our Galaxy was characterized in detail by Cardelli et al. (1989). Figure 2.17 shows extinction curves, based on their model, for the wavelength range corresponding to the ultraviolet, optical and near-infrared bandpasses. These curves are

parameterized by only two quantities: the total extinction in the V band (AV ), and the ratio of EB V to AV , denoted by V . Determinations of V towards diﬀerent − R R lines of sight in our Galaxy yield a mean value of 3.1, with extrema as low as 2.6 and as high as 5.6 (both shown as dotted lines in Figure 2.17).

Given a set of period-color relations of Cepheids such as those presented in Equations 2.5 and 2.6, and the characterization of the extinction law by Cardelli et al. (1989), one can calculate the change in any observed color (i.e., V–I) as a function of AV and V for a Cepheid of a particular period. Then, standard R minimization techniques can be used to determine the best-ﬁt value of AV and V R for any given set of observed colors. The application of this technique is shown in Figure 2.18. Once the best-ﬁt extinction curve is found, it can be applied to correct the observed magnitudes. Then, the P-L relations of LMC Cepheids can be applied to the corrected magnitudes to determine the relative distance modulus between the LMC and the target galaxy. This is the method used in 2.7 to determine the § distance to M33.

An additional advantage of using two or more period-color relations for the

determination of EB V is that this technique can be used to reject Cepheids that − are contaminated by blends (see 2.6.3). Figure 2.19 shows two examples of this § type of contamination: one by a red star, and one by a blue star. In these cases,

the value of EB V derived from the B–V data is markedly diﬀerent than the value − derived from the V–I data. Such contaminated Cepheids can then be rejected from further consideration; however, the technique has limited power because it cannot detect the blend of a Cepheid with another star of similar spectral type.

Most searches for Cepheids (including our own) are conducted using a limited number of bandpasses in the optical portion of the spectrum. Given such a small

coverage in wavelength, it is not possible to solve for the value of V , so this R The Extragalactic Distance Scale 83

Fig. 2.17.— Interstellar extinction curves for diﬀerent values of V , based on the R formulation of Cardelli et al. (1989).

Fig. 2.18.— Determination of the extinction towards a particular Cepheid in our

sample (D33J013316.39+303658.0), based on the ﬁt of a standard ( V = 3.1) in- R terstellar extinction curve to the crowding-corrected B, V and I magnitudes. The best-ﬁt value of EB V is 0.18 0.01 mag. − ± 84 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.19.— Eﬀect of blends on Cepheid colors and the derived values of

EB V . The top and bottom panels show the best-ﬁt values of E(B-V) for − D33J013358.07+304556.8, a 31-day Cepheid blended with a blue companion, and D33J013325.53+303427.4, an 11-day Cepheid blended with a red companion, respectively. The solid line represents the best-ﬁt solution using all three bands, while the dotted and dashed lines show the solutions based on the B&V and V&I data, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 85

parameter is kept ﬁxed at 3.1. The practice of ﬁxing the value of V raises the issue R of a possible systematic bias in the determination of distances, since there is no a priori reason why the extinction law of the interstellar medium of other galaxies should be the same as the one observed in the Milky Way. Chapter 4 of this Thesis presents an observational investigation into the validity of this assumption.

An alternative method to simultaneously determine the distance to a galaxy and correct for extinction is to fit the extinction-corrected LMC P-L relations to the observed P-L relation of Cepheids in the target galaxy. Given the wavelength dependence of extinction, the resulting distance moduli will be affected by different amounts. For example, in the case where only V and I data are available,

µV = µ0 + AV , (2.7)

µI = µ0 + AI . (2.8)

The extinction law of Cardelli et al. (1989) speciﬁes that AI = 0.59AV , for the

mean Galactic value V = 3.1. Thus, we can combined the measured values of µV R and µI to determine AV as follows:

µV AV = µI AI (2.9) − − AV AI = µV µI (2.10) − − 0.41AV = µV µI (2.11) − AV = 2.45(µV µI ). (2.12) −

Lastly, we can replace AV in Equation 2.7 by its equivalent formulation in Equation 2.12 to arrive at:

µ0 = µV AV (2.13) − µ0 = µV 2.45(µV µI ). (2.14) − −

This is the methodology that is used in HST-based Cepheid distance determinations, such as the one presented in Chapter 3 of this Thesis. A 86 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri similar formulation by Madore (1982) combines the V-band P-L relation (Equation 2.3) with the V–I period-color relation (Equation 2.6) to arrive at the extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus for an individual Cepheid:

µ0 = V 2.45(V I) + 3.26( 0.01) [log P 1] + 24.40( 0.01). (2.15) − − ± − ±

2.6.3 Blending bias

Cepheids are young stars and therefore are preferentially found in regions of active star formation, such as the arms of spiral galaxies. Given this fact, and the limited angular resolution provided by any telescope and detector combination, one might expect that in some cases, a nearby star will fall within the same resolution element as a Cepheid. If the separation between the Cepheid and the other star is small compared to the size of the resolution element, the PSF of the combined object will be indistinguishable from that of an isolated star. We denote such a close association as “blending”, and note that the bias that results from this process is diﬀerent from the bias due to “crowding” (described in 2.3.7), which is akin to § confusion noise and impacts one’s ability to determine a reliable value of the sky background.

The size of our resolution element is given by the FWHM of the stellar PSF in our images, 1 1.500. This translates to 4-6 pc for an assumed distance to M33 of ∼ − 840 kpc. Thus, blends can be expected to arise both from physically related (i.e., binary companions) and unrelated objects (i.e., field stars). If one could improve the FWHM by a factor of 10, the physical size of a resolution element would decrease to 0.4-0.6 pc and then only binary companions would elude detection. Such an increase in resolution is provided by archival HST/WFPC2 images of the disk of M33, obtained over the past five years for a variety of scientific goals. Mochejska et al. (2001) have analyzed such images for 91 Cepheids present in our sample (56 with P < 15 d and 35 with P 15 d). The data listed in Table 1 of ≥ that paper is reproduced in Figure 2.20. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 87

Fig. 2.20.— Blending data for 91 Cepheids in our sample, from Table 1 of Mochejska et al. (2001). The level of blending is parameterized by the ratio of the fluxes of the contaminating star(s) and the affected Cepheid. B, V and I data is plotted using starred, filled, and open symbols, respectively. 88 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

We are interested in the statistics of the long-period (P > 15 d) subset, since these are the Cepheids typically used for distance determinations. Approximately half of them (55% in V, 40% in I, 50% in B) show no companions in the HST data. However, the other half of the sample (45% in V, 57% in I, 42% in B) has companions whose median (mean) V, I and B fluxes are 11% (17%), 17% (20%) and 22% (25%), respectively, of the flux of the Cepheid they contaminate. In compiling these statistics, we rejected from consideration a few objects with companions that contribute more than 60% of the flux of the Cepheid, since these are very obvious blends that would be identified under any analysis due to their strong impact on the amplitudes and/or colors of the Cepheids. Given these statistics, one would expect that a determination of the distance to M33 based on all Cepheids with P > 15 d would be biased by about 6% in V, 9% in I, and 11% in B. One can lower this bias even in the absence of HST images, by applying cuts based on several properties, provided one has good sampling of the light curves in the different bands. We followed such a procedure, described below, and compared the resulting distance modulus with the one obtained from the Cepheids that are known to have no companions.

1. Require P 15 d and the existence of both V and I data. This was motivated ≥ by the observation that short-period Cepheids suﬀer from more blending than long-period ones, and the necessity of color information for extinction correction. Out of 537 variables, 99 passed these criteria.

2. Require that ∆µI (M33 LMC) 9.5 mag. This was motivated by the need − ≤ to reject Population II Cepheids from the sample. 90 Cepheids passed this criterion.

3. Require that the r.m.s. deviation of the phased data points about the best-ﬁt template light curves in the V and I bands be less than or equal to 0.12 mag. 80 Cepheids passed this criterion.

4. Require that the I-band to V-band amplitude of the light curves be within 0.6 0.125. This was motivated by the observation that Cepheids suﬀering ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 89

from a red (blue) blend will display a light curve in the I (V) band with diminished amplitude. The value of 0.6 was obtained from the analysis of OGLE Cepheids in the LMC. 65 Cepheids passed this criterion.

5. Require that the value of EB V derived from the V–I period-color relation − be greater than or equal to zero, and less than or equal to 0.5 mag. This criterion is similar (but not identical) to the requirement that the observed V–I color be within 1 0.5 mag. These criteria help reject blue blends (which ± would display negative values of EB V ) and red blends or highly reddened − Cepheids (which would display very large values of EB V ). 61 Cepheids − passed this criterion.

Figure 2.21 shows the observed V and I band P-L relations of the 61 Cepheids that passed all five cuts. These criteria are similar in spirit to those applied by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Freedman et al. 2001) in their determination of Cepheid distances. Thus, it is of interest to compare the distance moduli determined with their techniques to the distance modulus derived by our technique. The solid lines in Figure 2.21 show the best fit of Equations 2.3 and 2.4 to the data, while the dashed lines show the r.m.s. uncertainty of the fits. This

method yields LMC-relative observed distance moduli of ∆µV = 6.73 0.05 mag ± and ∆µI = 6.47 0.04 mag. The application of Equations 2.12 and 2.14 (the ± earlier method employed by the Key Project) yields a mean value of extinction of

EB V = 0.20 mag and an extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus of − ∆µ0 = 6.09 0.04 mag. The application of Equation 2.15 (the current method ± employed by the Key Project) results in ∆µ0 = 6.09 0.03 mag. Our approach, ± based on the ﬁtting of the standard extinction curve of Cardelli et al. (1989) to the V and I data of each variable, is shown in Figure 2.22; it yields a mean extinction

of EB V = 0.20 0.11 mag and a mean extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance − ± modulus of ∆µ0 = 6.12 0.03 mag. For comparison, Freedman et al. (2001) ± determined EB V = 0.21 0.05 mag and ∆µ0 = 6.06 0.08 mag, based on 11 − ± ± variables. 90 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.21.— V and I P-L relations of 61 Cepheids in M33 that passed five selection criteria aimed at rejecting blended variables. The solid lines indicate the best fit of Equations 2.3 and 2.4 to the data, while the dashed lines indicate the r.m.s uncertainty of the fits. The best-fit values are µV = 6.73 0.05 mag and µI = ± 6.47 0.04 mag. ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 91

Fig. 2.22.— Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. P for 61 Cepheids with V & I data. Each Cepheid was individually corrected for extinction as described in 2.6.2. The mean § extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus is 6.12 0.03 mag. ± 92 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The addition of data in our third bandpass (B) may increase our sensitivity to reject blended Cepheids and yield better estimates of the individual values of

EB V . However, we are limited by the sparse nature of our B band coverage, which − results in light curves with large phase gaps and hence uncertain amplitudes and mean magnitudes. 50 of the selected 61 Cepheids have B band data with r.m.s. deviations of the data points about the best-ﬁt light curve of less than 0.15 mag. 33 variables have a ratio of B-band to V-band amplitudes that is within the values seen in LMC OGLE Cepheids (1.48 0.25). After applying these cuts, we can be ± conﬁdent that we have accurate B band magnitudes. In the absence of blends, the

values of EB V derived from the V–I and the B–V period-color relations should − track each other fairly well, while red or blue blends will introduce asymmetries such as the ones previously shown in Figure 2.19. We found that 20 variables had

values of EB V determined from the two period-color relations that were within − 0.125 mag of each other. The distribution of ∆µ0 vs. P for these Cepheids is ± shown in Figure 2.23. A comparison with Figure 2.22 shows a modest decrease in

the r.m.s. scatter from 0.24 mag to 0.17 mag, while the mean value ∆µ0 remains constant within the errors (6.12 0.03 mag vs. 6.11 0.04 mag). ± ± Lastly, there are four Cepheids from the catalog of Mochejska et al. (2001) which are known to have no companions in either of the three bands, and that are present in both our subsets (61 variables selected through their V & I properties, and 20 Cepheids selected through their B, V & I properties). These four unblended

Cepheids yield a mean value of ∆µ0 = 6.09 0.11 mag. ± In conclusion, our selection criteria seem to help in the rejection of blended Cepheids, and the addition of a third band decreases the r.m.s. scatter of the distribution of individual distance moduli. Given the good agreement between the mean distance moduli of four unblended Cepheids and our selected subsample, we are fairly conﬁdent that our extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus

of ∆µ0 = 6.12 0.03 based on 61 Cepheids with V & I data is not substantially ± aﬀected by blending. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 93

Fig. 2.23.— Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. P for 20 Cepheids with B, V & I data. Each Cepheid was individually corrected for extinction as described in 2.6.2. The mean § extinction-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus is 6.11 0.04 mag. The y-axis ± is identical to that of Figure 2.22; note the absence of most Cepheids seen in the

previous Figure with P < 30 d and µ0 < 5.8 mag. 94 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

2.6.4 The metallicity dependence of the P-L relation

The period-luminosity and period-color relations used in the previous sub-section to determine extinction corrections and distance moduli galaxy are based on Cepheids located in the Large Magellanic Cloud. This galaxy is a low-metallicity system, with [O/H]LMC = 0.4 dex (Kennicutt et al. 1998). However, most spiral galaxies − where Cepheids have been discovered (including M33) are systems with metallicities closer to solar (i.e.,[O/H] 0 dex). This difference in metal content could increase ≡ the opacity of the photosphere, thus altering the observed flux and colors of the variables. The first investigations into the possibility of this effect were based on observations of Galactic and Magellanic Cloud Cepheids (Payne-Gaposchkin 1974; Martin, Warren & Feast 1979; Caldwell & Coulson 1985).

The change in observed distance modulus for a sample of Cepheids due to the metallicity eﬀect is commonly denoted by the symbol γλ, where λ represents the band(s) of interest. Most current extragalactic Cepheid distances are based on

V and I data, so it is of special interest to determine an accurate value for γVI .

Recent theoretical models of Cepheids predict γVI = 0.2 mag/dex (Baraffe & − Alibert 2001) to γVI = 0.06 mag/dex (Caputo, Marconi & Musella 2000). − The first observational attempt to quantify the metallicity effect in other spiral galaxies was undertaken by Freedman & Madore (1990), who compared the distance moduli of Cepheids located in three regions of M31 with different galactocentric distances. They found a null result that is not surprising, given the shallow metallicity gradient of M31. More recently, three studies appeared within a short period of time addressing this issue from different observational perspectives. Kochanek (1997) performed a global analysis of Cepheids located in a dozen galaxies, observed in the V and I bands as part of HST-based efforts to determine the Hubble Constant. He found a change in the zeropoints for those bands of 0.14 0.14 mag/dex, as well as a change in color, amounting to − ± 0.13 0.04 mag/dex, which had the larger impact on derived distances. Sasselov et ± al. (1997) performed a differential analysis using Cepheids located in the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds; the latter is even more metal-poor than the former, with +0.2 [O/H]SMC = 0.7 mag/dex. They found an effect of γVI = 0.44 0.1 mag/dex. − − − The Extragalactic Distance Scale 95

Lastly, Kennicutt et al. (1998) performed another diﬀerential analysis using Cepheids located in the central (metal-rich) and in the outer (metal-poor) regions

of M101 and found a smaller eﬀect of γVI = 0.24 0.17 mag/dex. − ± The ﬁnal paper of the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale

Freedman et al. (2001) adopted a correction of γVI = 0.2 0.2 mag/dex. Such a − ± large error bar associated with this parameter introduces a non-negligible source of uncertainty in the derived distances of the most metal-rich galaxies, making a more precise determination of this eﬀect highly desirable.

The abundance gradient of M33 has been extensively studied over the past twenty ﬁve years through observations of H II regions (Smith 1975; Kwitter & Aller 1981; McCall 1982; Vilchez et al. 1988; Garnett et al. 1992; Zaritsky et al. 1989) and supernova remnants (Dopita et al. 1980; Blair & Kirshner, 1985; Smith et al. 1993). More recently, spectra of individual supergiants in this galaxy have been used to derive the abundance gradient (McCarthy et al. 1995; Monteverde et al. 1997; Monteverde & Herrero 1998; Monteverde et al. 2000). Henry & Howard (1995) performed a combined analysis of all the H II region data and derived

[O/H] = 0.20 0.55ρ dex, where ρ = r/r0 and r0 = 12.02 is the eﬀective radius − of the galaxy. They also found a possible steepening of the gradient inside 8.03 to [O/H] = 0.28 0.68ρ dex, although the latter ﬁt is dominated by a single region at − a very small galactocentric distance. Nevertheless, the total change in abundance is quite impressive, and is one of the largest among spiral galaxies in the Local Supercluster. This makes M33 ideally suited for a precise determination of the metallicity dependence of the Cepheid P-L relation.

A plot of the correlation between ∆µ0 and galactocentric radius for the selected 20 Cepheids with B, V & I data can be found in Figure 2.24. No signiﬁcant correlation is seen, due to the limited range in galactocentric distance and photometric uncertainties of our sample. However, we expect to have higher quality data with increased wavelength coverage for these and other Cepheids located at larger galactocentric distances. That data set ought to yield a determination of the metallicity eﬀect that is competitive with, and hopefully more precise than, 96 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 2.24.— Distribution of ∆µ0 vs. galactocentric radius for the 20 selected Cepheids with B, V & I data. No signiﬁcant correlation is seen. The expected trends for metallicity dependences of γVI = 0.2, –0.4 and 0 mag/dex (based on − the gradient of Henry & Howard 1995) are overplotted using solid, dashed and dotted lines, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 97

previous ﬁndings.

Based on the abundance gradient of Henry & Howard (1995) and the median

galactocentric distance of our variables (¯r = 90), the median abundance of our sample is [O/H] 0.2 dex, or 0.2 dex greater than that of the LMC. This ∼ − corresponds to a correction to the derived distance modulus of 0.04 to 0.08 mag (for

γVI = 0.2 mag/dex to 0.4 mag/dex). We shall adopt the smaller correction, − − in order to keep M33 in the distance scale of Freedman et al. (2001), as are the other Tully-Fisher calibrator spirals to be used in Chapter 6. This implies a

metallicity-corrected LMC-relative distance modulus for M33 of ∆µ0,z = 6.15 0.06 ± mag. The quoted uncertainty includes the statistical error determined previously and the external uncertainty related to the metallicity correction.

2.6.5 The distance to the LMC

The determination of an absolute distance to M33 requires the use of a distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud. This is a topic of considerable debate among the community (for a recent review, see Gibson 2000), since there is a considerable range in the estimates that come out of diﬀerent distance indicators.

Detached eclipsing binaries oﬀer great promise in this endeavor, and two systems have been studied in detail thus far (HV2274 and HV 982). The group

at Villanova University has obtained µLMC = 18.30 0.07 mag based on the ± former system (Guinan et al. 1998) and µLMC = 18.31 0.10 mag based on ± the latter one (Fitzpatrick et al. 2000). However, other studies of HV 2274 by

Nelson et al. (2000); Groenewegen & Salaris (2001) yield lower values of EB V and − corresponding larger distance moduli for the LMC, of µLMC = 18.40 0.07 and ± 18.42 0.07 mag, respectively. Near-infrared observations of these systems will ± likely resolve this relatively small discrepancy in the near future.

Another method used to determine the distance to the LMC relies on the absolute magnitude of intermediate-age, degenerate helium core-burning stars. They occupy a well-deﬁned, narrow region of the color-magnitude diagram, 98 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri commonly referred to as the “red clump” (Paczy´nski& Stanek 1998). These stars are plentiful in the solar neighborhood, and the Hipparcos mission obtained accurate

(σπ/π < 10%) parallaxes for many hundreds of these stars. Udalski (2000) used 284 of these objects which also had high-quality spectra (and hence, well known metallicities) to obtain an absolute calibration of MI,0(RC) = 0.26 0.02 mag − ± for [Fe/H]= -0.25 dex, and a metallicity dependence of 0.13 0.07 mag/dex. Based ± upon this calibration, he obtained µLMC = 18.24 0.08 mag. ± The luminosity function of red giant branch stars is another distance indicator that can be applied to the Large Magellanic Cloud. This method is commonly referred to as “tip of the red giant branch” and is based on the detection of a discontinuity in the first or second derivative of the stellar luminosity function, related to the maximum magnitude of the core helium flash of first-ascent red giant branch stars. Two recent determinations by Sakai, Zaritsky & Kennicutt (2000) and Cioni et al. (2000) yield µLMC = 18.59 0.24 and 18.55 0.09 mag. ± ± Galactic RR Lyraes, Cepheids and Miras can also be calibrated using Hipparcos parallaxes, but these calibrations are less certain. In the case of RR Lyraes, one must first determine the distances to the Galactic globular clusters where these objects reside, using the “subdwarf fitting technique.” Two different applications of this technique yield widely different values of MV (RR), and hence of the distance to the LMC: µLMC = 18.64 0.12 mag (Carretta et al. 2000) ± and µLMC = 18.24 0.14 mag (Gould & Popowski, 1998). Cepheids and Miras ± are present directly in the Hipparcos catalog, but the typically low S/N of their parallax measurements yield poorly constrained distances. Cepheids (Groenewegen

& Oudmaijer 2000) yield values of µLMC between 18.45 0.18 and 18.86 0.12 mag, ± ± depending on the choice of bandpass, slope of the P-L relation, and metallicity correction. The K-band P-L relation of Mira variables (Whitelock & Feast 2000) yields µLMC = 18.64 0.14 mag. More accurate parallaxes to be obtained by the ± FAME mission will result in competitive determinations of the distance to the LMC based on these methods.

In summary, the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud is still poorly known, The Extragalactic Distance Scale 99

with estimates ranging from 18.24 mag to 18.86 mag. Thus, the adoption of a

ﬁducial LMC distance modulus of µLMC = 18.50 0.10 mag, as proposed by ± Freedman et al. (2001), seems warranted until new measurements settle the issue.

2.6.6 An absolute distance to M33

In conclusion, we ﬁnd an absolute distance modulus to M33 of µM33 =

24.65 0.12 mag, which corresponds to an absolute distance of DM33 = 850 50 kpc. ± ± Our determination is based on V & I photometry of 61 Cepheids with periods between 15 and 80 days and no evidence of blending. We have assumed a distance to Large Magellanic Cloud of µLMC = 18.50 0.10 mag; if µLMC = 18.30 0.10 mag, ± ± as suggested by both DEBs and red clump stars, then the distance modulus to

M33 would be µM33 = 24.45 0.12 mag, corresponding to DM33 = 780 40 kpc. ± ± The full uncertainty in our distance modulus reflects several sources of error, as follows: i) a statistical uncertainty of 0.03 mag ( 2.6.3); ii) a photometric ± § calibration uncertainty of 0.05 mag ( 2.3.6); iii) a metallicity correction ± § uncertainty of 0.04 mag ( 2.6.4); and iv) an uncertainty in the distance to the ± § LMC of 0.10 mag ( 2.6.5). Note that the first three sources of error add up to an ± § uncertainty of only 0.07 mag. An accurate determination of the distance to the ± LMC is required before we achieve a significant reduction in the overall uncertainty of the extragalactic distance scale. 100 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri Chapter 3

A Cepheid distance to NGC 2841

Abstract

This chapter presents the discovery of Cepheids in the spiral galaxy NGC 2841, based on observations made with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope. NGC 2841 was observed over 12 epochs using the F555W ﬁlter, and over 5 epochs using the F814W ﬁlter. Photometry was performed using the DAOPHOT/ALLFRAME package.

We discovered a total of 29 variables, including 18 high-quality Cepheids with periods ranging from 15 to 40 days. Period-luminosity relations in the V and I bands, based on the high-quality Cepheids, yield an extinction-corrected distance modulus of 30.74 0.23 mag, which corresponds to a distance of ± 14.1 1.5 Mpc. Our distance is based on an assumed LMC distance modulus of ± µ0 = 18.50 0.10 mag (D = 50 2.5 kpc) and a metallicity dependence of the ± ± Cepheid P-L relation of γVI = 0.2 0.2 mag/dex. − ±

Contains material from The Astrophysical Journal, volume 559, pages 243-259, “The Discovery of Cepheids and a New Distance to NGC 2841 Using the Hubble Space Telescope”, by L.M. Macri, P.B. Stetson, G.D. Bothun, W.L. Freedman, P.M. Garnavich, S. Jha, B.F. Madore & M.W. Richmond.

101 102 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the discovery of 26 Cepheids and a distance determination to NGC 2841. NGC 2841 is an isolated, ﬂocculent spiral galaxy, classiﬁed as Sb(r): I (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991) or Sb I (Sandage & Tammann 1981), and located h m s at α = 9 22 03 , δ = +50◦ 580 3600 (J2000.0). It exhibits a heliocentric redshift of +683 km/s, and has a major axis diameter of 8.03. Tully (1988) places it in the northwestern-most association of the Leo Spur (Group 15+10).

The inclination angle of NGC 2841 is 64◦ (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991), making it a suitable calibrator of the Tully-Fisher relation. Furthermore, the large observed 21-cm line-width of NGC 2841 (614 4 km/s, Rothberg et al. 2000) signiﬁcantly ± extends the range in rotation velocity over which the Tully-Fisher relation has been calibrated using Cepheid distances.

NGC 2841 has been the host of four supernovae in the last century: SN 1912A, SN 1957A, SN 1972R and SN 1999by. The last one is a well-observed type Ia SN which has been classiﬁed as a fast decliner (hence sub-luminous). Thus, it is of special importance for the calibration of the type Ia SNe distance indicator.

3.2 describes the observations and preliminary reductions of the images. 3.3 § § contains the details of photometry and calibration of the instrumental magnitudes. 3.4 presents the sample of variables and their properties. 3.5 describes the § § ﬁducial Cepheid Period-Luminosity relations used in our analysis, derives a distance modulus, and lists the sources of uncertainty. 3.6 discusses some implications of § our distance measurement, and 3.7 presents our conclusions. §

3.2 Observations and Data Reduction

NGC 2841 was observed by the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) (Biretta et al. 2000) on board HST on twelve epochs between 2000 February 29 and April 19. The observations were performed using the F555W (approximately Johnson V) and the F814W (approximately Kron-Cousins I) filters. All twelve The Extragalactic Distance Scale 103 epochs contained a pair of CR-split images in the F555W band, while five epochs contained an additional pair of CR-split images in the F814W. Each individual image had an exposure time of 1100s. All observations were made with the telescope guiding in fine lock with a stability of approximately 3 mas. The gain and readout noise were 7 e−/DN and 7 e−, respectively. The CCD was operated at a temperature of –88◦ C for all observations. A log of the observations is presented in Table 3.1. The sampling strategy followed in these observations was similar to the one employed by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Freedman et al. 2001), It followed a power-law distribution in time, which provides an optimum sampling of the light curves of Cepheids in the period range between 10 and 50 days.

The images were calibrated using the pipeline processing at the Space Telescope Institute (STScI). The full reduction procedure (Holtzman et al. 1995a) consisted of: a correction for A/D conversion errors, the subtraction of a bias level for each chip, the subtraction of a superbias frame, the subtraction of a dark frame, a correction for shutter shading, and a division by a flat field. Furthermore, the images were corrected for vignetting and geometrical distortions in the WFPC2 optics (the latter correction was done using files kindly provided by J. Holtzman). Lastly, the images were multiplied by four and converted to two-byte integers, to reduce disk usage and allow image compression. This conversion led to an effective readout noise of 4 DN and a gain of 1.75e−/DN.

Figure 3.1 displays a ground-based image of NGC 2841, obtained at the Whipple Observatory 1.2-m telescope, with a super-imposed mosaic of the WFPC2 ﬁeld of view. The mosaic is shown in greater detail in Figure 3.2.

3.3 Photometry and Calibration

Photometry of NGC 2841 was performed using the DAOPHOT/ALLFRAME package. Stetson (1994); Stetson et al. (1998) contain comprehensive overviews of the package and the reduction strategy, which we brieﬂy summarize here. 104 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.1. HST Observations of NGC 2841

Date JD Exp. time Filter

2000 Feb 29 2451603.35 2 1100s F555W × 2451603.41 2 1100s F814W × 2000 Mar 02 2451605.29 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Mar 04 2451607.24 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Mar 06 2451609.66 2 1100s F555W × 2451609.72 2 1100s F814W × 2000 Mar 09 2451612.54 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Mar 12 2451615.49 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Mar 16 2451619.38 2 1100s F555W × 2451619.44 2 1100s F814W × 2000 Mar 20 2451623.60 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Mar 26 2451629.30 2 1100s F555W × 2451629.36 2 1100s F814W × 2000 Apr 02 2451636.27 2 1100s F555W × 2000 Apr 09 2451643.24 2 1100s F555W × 2451643.31 2 1100s F814W × 2000 Apr 19 2451653.56 2 1100s F555W × The Extragalactic Distance Scale 105

Fig. 3.1.— Ground-based image of NGC 2841, obtained at the FLWO 1.2-m telescope, with a super-imposed mosaic of the WFPC2 ﬁeld of view (see Figure 3.2). North is up and east is to the left. 106 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.2.— Mosaic of the WFPC2 ﬁeld of view of NGC 2841. Individual images of each chip, showing the location of the variables, can be found in Figure 3.3 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 107

As in the case of previous ALLFRAME reductions of WFPC2 data, we used external point-spread functions (PSFs), determined by P.B.S. for each chip and filter combination from high S/N, uncrowded observations of Galactic globular cluster fields. These external PSFs take into account the variation in the PSF across the field of view of each WFPC2 chip.

The photometric reduction started with a preliminary detection of sources in each individual image. DAOMATCH and DAOMASTER were used to derive offsets and rotations between frames, relative to the first F555W frame. In the case of these observations, the shifts were < 1 pixel for 31 frames, and 2 pixels ∼ for the other two. Once the transformations were established, MONTAGE was used to create a medianed image, free of cosmic rays and chip defects. The FIND routine in DAOPHOT was used to detect the sources present in that image, and their positions were refined by running ALLSTAR. The resulting list of objects was used by ALLFRAME to perform the photometry of each object in every frame.

The conversion from PSF to standard (Holtzman et al. 1995b) 0.500-radius aperture magnitudes involved the determination of growth curves. First, we selected bright and isolated stars (hereafter, “secondary standards”) that were located in areas with low and slowly-varying backgrounds. Next, all other objects were removed from the frames and aperture photometry was carried out at a variety of radii. DAOGROW (Stetson 1990) was used to derive growth curves and to obtain 0.500-radius aperture magnitudes for the secondary standards in each frame. Lastly, we used COLLECT to calculate the “aperture correction” coeﬃcient for each frame from the diﬀerence between PSF and aperture magnitudes of the secondary standards.

The conversion from F 555W and F 814W magnitudes to Johnson V and Kron-Cousins I bandpasses followed the precepts of Holtzman et al. (1995b):

2 V = F 555W 0.052(V I) + 0.027(V I) + Zi,F 555W (3.1) − − − 2 I = F 814W 0.062(V I) + 0.025(V I) + Zi,F 814W (3.2) − − − 108 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.2. WFPC2 Zeropoints

Chip Zeropoints F555W F814W

PC1 0.9510 0.0028 1.9201 0.0017 ± ± WF2 0.9584 0.0016 1.8478 0.0011 ± ± WF3 0.9513 0.0014 1.8724 0.0010 ± ± WF4 0.9697 0.0015 1.9007 0.0010 ± ±

1 where F 555W and F 814W equal 2.5 log(DN s− ). The color terms come from − Table 7 of Holtzman et al. (1995b), while the zeropoint terms (Zi) are listed in Table 3.2 and were determined by P.B.S. and reflect evolution in the understanding of the WFPC2 calibration since the publication of Stetson (1998) (cf. Table 5 of that paper). For those epochs without F814W data, the transformation of the F 555W magnitudes into the standard V bandpass was carried out using the mean V I color of each object. Lastly, the magnitudes of each object were corrected − for the effects of charge transfer inefficiency following the prescription of Stetson (1998).

In order to facilitate the comparison of our magnitude system with future studies, we list in Table 3.3 the mean V and I magnitudes of bright, isolated stars present in each of the CCDs. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 109

Table 3.3. Secondary standard stars in NGC 2841

ID Chip x y R.A. (J2000.0) Dec. V (mag) I (mag)

S01 1 132.2 467.7 09:22:10.649 50:56:12.66 25.40 0.02 24.55 0.04 S02 1 141.4 530.3 09:22:10.725 50:56:09.88 25.26 ± 0.02 25.17 ± 0.07 S03 1 238.3 600.8 09:22:11.223 50:56:07.16 26.47 ± 0.04 24.00 ± 0.02 S04 1 540.2 144.5 09:22:12.433 50:56:29.20 25.18 ± 0.02 25.14 ± 0.10 S05 1 508.3 685.9 09:22:12.556 50:56:04.64 25.22 ± 0.02 25.23 ± 0.07 S06 1 591.2 687.4 09:22:12.952 50:56:04.99 25.84 ± 0.04 24.29 ± 0.03 S07 1 659.5 98.5 09:22:12.976 50:56:31.81 25.27 ± 0.02 25.30 ± 0.07 S08 1 715.8 262.0 09:22:13.329 50:56:24.75 24.76 ± 0.01 24.54 ± 0.06 S09 2 117.0 744.0 09:22:02.603 50:56:16.07 24.92 ± 0.02 23.20 ± 0.02 S10 2 390.5 543.7 09:22:05.010 50:55:51.50 25.28 ± 0.02 23.26 ± 0.01 S11 2 272.8 410.5 09:22:06.260 50:56:04.66 24.65 ± 0.01 23.92 ± 0.02 S12 2 193.1 396.0 09:22:06.315 50:56:12.69 24.22 ± 0.01 24.06 ± 0.02 S13 2 68.9 371.7 09:22:06.418 50:56:25.17 24.78 ± 0.01 24.07 ± 0.03 S14 2 464.0 355.9 09:22:07.063 50:55:46.39 24.52 ± 0.01 24.66 ± 0.03 S15 2 349.2 308.1 09:22:07.424 50:55:58.29 24.65 ± 0.01 24.66 ± 0.05 S16 2 189.2 271.2 09:22:07.615 50:56:14.49 24.86 ± 0.01 24.30 ± 0.03 S17 2 208.3 181.5 09:22:08.574 50:56:13.62 24.86 ± 0.02 24.20 ± 0.04 S18 2 225.7 160.3 09:22:08.816 50:56:12.14 24.50 ± 0.01 23.69 ± 0.02 S19 2 332.0 64.2 09:22:09.944 50:56:02.75 24.69 ± 0.02 24.14 ± 0.03 S20 3 730.9 495.3 09:22:02.202 50:57:07.63 24.47 ± 0.01 24.31 ± 0.04 S21 3 723.7 457.7 09:22:02.319 50:57:04.01 26.69 ± 0.06 24.08 ± 0.03 S22 3 705.2 400.4 09:22:02.576 50:56:58.57 25.38 ± 0.03 25.10 ± 0.09 S23 3 716.0 214.2 09:22:02.682 50:56:40.13 25.19 ± 0.02 24.92 ± 0.07 S24 3 689.1 373.8 09:22:02.774 50:56:56.12 26.39 ± 0.07 24.26 ± 0.04 S25 3 702.8 156.2 09:22:02.888 50:56:34.59 26.83 ± 0.07 24.14 ± 0.03 S26 3 631.8 364.0 09:22:03.382 50:56:55.77 23.78 ± 0.01 22.80 ± 0.02 S27 3 634.1 284.6 09:22:03.450 50:56:47.92 24.44 ± 0.01 24.11 ± 0.03 S28 3 607.5 139.7 09:22:03.897 50:56:33.96 25.09 ± 0.01 22.40 ± 0.02 S29 3 509.6 207.4 09:22:04.840 50:56:41.64 26.46 ± 0.06 24.30 ± 0.03 S30 3 473.9 177.8 09:22:05.247 50:56:39.12 23.22 ± 0.01 22.34 ± 0.01 S31 3 462.7 101.3 09:22:05.452 50:56:31.73 24.77 ± 0.02 24.83 ± 0.06 S32 3 434.2 248.7 09:22:05.580 50:56:46.53 27.02 ± 0.07 23.91 ± 0.02 S33 3 425.0 225.3 09:22:05.704 50:56:44.32 26.31 ± 0.04 24.42 ± 0.04 S34 3 385.3 100.9 09:22:06.261 50:56:32.52 24.48 ± 0.01 24.24 ± 0.03 S35 3 360.1 82.5 09:22:06.545 50:56:31.00 26.07 ± 0.03 23.60 ± 0.02 S36 3 282.6 110.9 09:22:07.322 50:56:34.63 26.55 ± 0.06 23.91 ± 0.02 ± ± 110 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.3—Continued

ID Chip x y R.A. (J2000.0) Dec. V (mag) I (mag)

S37 3 280.5 93.6 09:22:07.363 50:56:32.96 25.19 0.02 24.77 0.05 S38 3 249.9 78.8 09:22:07.698 50:56:31.85 25.15 ± 0.02 24.64 ± 0.05 S39 3 220.4 141.7 09:22:07.936 50:56:38.34 24.75 ± 0.01 24.45 ± 0.04 S40 3 163.9 162.4 09:22:08.500 50:56:41.01 24.85 ± 0.02 24.32 ± 0.03 S41 4 85.5 262.1 09:22:12.214 50:56:37.22 23.26 ± 0.01 22.95 ± 0.02 S42 4 588.9 323.0 09:22:12.322 50:57:27.53 24.52 ± 0.01 24.49 ± 0.03 S43 4 296.7 300.6 09:22:12.392 50:56:58.40 23.90 ± 0.01 23.80 ± 0.01 S44 4 132.5 309.9 09:22:12.663 50:56:42.30 25.08 ± 0.02 24.58 ± 0.04 S45 4 202.5 371.4 09:22:13.233 50:56:49.80 24.41 ± 0.01 23.06 ± 0.01 S46 4 502.3 421.4 09:22:13.443 50:57:19.95 23.95 ± 0.01 23.58 ± 0.02 S47 4 154.1 389.7 09:22:13.476 50:56:45.21 24.79 ± 0.01 24.72 ± 0.03 S48 4 257.2 420.9 09:22:13.695 50:56:55.69 22.80 ± 0.01 21.97 ± 0.01 S49 4 229.0 439.2 09:22:13.916 50:56:53.09 24.83 ± 0.02 24.37 ± 0.03 S50 4 684.1 510.6 09:22:14.185 50:57:38.74 24.76 ± 0.01 24.65 ± 0.03 S51 4 738.3 543.7 09:22:14.473 50:57:44.37 24.76 ± 0.01 24.31 ± 0.03 S52 4 595.7 535.8 09:22:14.543 50:57:30.30 26.11 ± 0.05 23.25 ± 0.01 S53 4 507.6 545.1 09:22:14.733 50:57:21.69 24.94 ± 0.02 24.06 ± 0.05 S54 4 595.3 562.4 09:22:14.821 50:57:30.52 24.66 ± 0.01 24.06 ± 0.02 S55 4 722.2 577.1 09:22:14.838 50:57:43.11 24.57 ± 0.01 23.54 ± 0.02 S56 4 752.0 587.9 09:22:14.919 50:57:46.12 24.44 ± 0.01 24.10 ± 0.02 S57 4 157.4 539.7 09:22:15.042 50:56:47.04 23.71 ± 0.01 23.39 ± 0.02 S58 4 131.8 652.5 09:22:16.243 50:56:45.68 25.90 ± 0.03 23.45 ± 0.01 S59 4 662.6 737.1 09:22:16.565 50:57:38.77 23.54 ± 0.01 22.82 ± 0.01 S60 4 481.2 718.5 09:22:16.569 50:57:20.77 24.85 ± 0.01 23.93 ± 0.02 S61 4 459.2 747.9 09:22:16.897 50:57:18.89 23.49 ± 0.01 22.94 ± 0.01 ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 111

3.4 The Cepheids found in NGC 2841

The initial search for variables was carried out using TRIAL, a program that calculated the value of the J statistic for each star, based on the V-band data. The J statistic is a robust index of variability developed by Stetson (1996), and it is designed so that objects with constant magnitudes yield values near zero. The mean value and r.m.s. deviation of this index for all stars present in our database was 0.01 0.29. We ﬂagged 79 objects with J > 0.8 as possible variables and ± extracted their individual light curves from the photometry database for further analysis, using programs developed by the DIRECT team (Kaluzny et al. 1998).

We calculated periods for the candidate variables using a modified version of the Lafler-Kinman technique (Stetson 1996); we restricted the range of possible periods to the range between 10 and 50 days. Next, template Cepheid light curves (derived by Stetson 1996) were simultaneously fitted to the phased V- and I-band photometry of each candidate. The use of templates allows a robust classification of a candidate variable as a Cepheid, refines the period of the variable, and yields reliable mean magnitudes through numerical integration of the best-fit template. If the candidate object was classified as a Cepheid, an iterative 3σ rejection algorithm was applied to the data to reject anomalous photometric measurements, most of them associated with cosmic-ray hits, and the light curve was analyzed again. About 5% of the individual data points were rejected in this manner.

The automated classification software rejected 50 candidates and classified 26 objects as Cepheids. An additional 3 objects are clearly variables, and most likely Cepheids, but their periods are longer that our observing window and we cannot obtain accurate values for their mean magnitudes. Table 3.4 lists the following properties of the 29 variables which passed the analysis: identification number (C01-C26 in order of descending period, for the Cepheids, and V01-V03 in order of increasing R.A., for the other variables); chip where the object is located; (J2000.0) coordinates; best-fit period and uncertainty (Cepheids only); V and I mean magnitudes, derived from the best-fit template light curves; and a selection flag (see 3.5.2 for details). § 112 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.4. Variables discovered in NGC 2841

ID Chip R.A. (J2000.0) Dec. P (d) V (mag) I (mag)

C01 4 09:22:13.556 +50:56:35.13 13.9 0.6 26.61 0.05 25.64 0.11 C02 3 09:22:07.430 +50:56:43.10 16.1 ± 0.5 25.96 ± 0.03 25.05 ± 0.06 C03 4 09:22:10.055 +50:57:32.45 16.5 ± 0.2 26.30 ± 0.04 25.06 ± 0.07 C04 4 09:22:12.669 +50:56:57.42 18.5 ± 0.5 26.35 ± 0.04 25.19 ± 0.05 C05 3 09:22:09.441 +50:57:01.23 18.9 ± 0.6 24.84 ± 0.02 23.95 ± 0.05 C06 2 09:22:09.112 +50:56:23.87 20.0 ± 0.3 25.67 ± 0.04 24.92 ± 0.04 * C07 3 09:22:05.636 +50:56:38.26 21.0 ± 0.4 25.96 ± 0.03 24.59 ± 0.11 C08 2 09:22:09.298 +50:56:22.28 21.1 ± 1.1 25.39 ± 0.03 24.38 ± 0.04 C09 4 09:22:12.416 +50:57:06.63 21.5 ± 0.5 25.96 ± 0.03 24.73 ± 0.09 C10 3 09:22:01.632 +50:57:29.27 21.7 ± 1.0 26.06 ± 0.06 25.15 ± 0.05 * C11 3 09:22:02.530 +50:57:29.84 21.8 ± 0.7 26.09 ± 0.05 24.96 ± 0.14 * C12 4 09:22:12.161 +50:57:12.21 22.5 ± 0.3 25.71 ± 0.02 24.77 ± 0.03 * C13 1 09:22:11.681 +50:56:28.38 23.0 ± 0.8 26.79 ± 0.05 25.43 ± 0.08 * C14 4 09:22:12.536 +50:56:34.94 23.2 ± 0.4 26.42 ± 0.03 25.32 ± 0.05 * C15 4 09:22:12.363 +50:56:53.81 23.2 ± 0.3 25.94 ± 0.03 24.89 ± 0.08 * C16 3 09:22:02.836 +50:57:11.58 26.5 ± 0.8 25.88 ± 0.05 24.89 ± 0.06 * C17 4 09:22:12.449 +50:57:31.34 27.3 ± 1.0 25.96 ± 0.04 24.97 ± 0.05 * C18 3 09:22:06.896 +50:56:29.77 27.8 ± 0.6 25.73 ± 0.05 24.70 ± 0.05 * C19 4 09:22:09.914 +50:56:59.89 29.0 ± 0.9 25.99 ± 0.03 24.93 ± 0.05 * C20 2 09:22:09.735 +50:56:10.33 30.2 ± 0.5 25.88 ± 0.05 24.90 ± 0.05 * C21 4 09:22:10.985 +50:57:22.56 32.2 ± 0.7 25.04 ± 0.01 24.01 ± 0.03 * C22 1 09:22:13.295 +50:56:16.80 33.2 ± 0.8 25.38 ± 0.03 24.24 ± 0.02 * C23 3 09:22:05.051 +50:56:43.88 34.6 ± 1.4 25.17 ± 0.03 24.31 ± 0.04 * C24 4 09:22:12.412 +50:56:37.74 36.6 ± 1.8 25.84 ± 0.04 24.66 ± 0.03 * C25 2 09:22:09.587 +50:56:06.44 39.5 ± 0.8 25.31 ± 0.02 24.26 ± 0.05 * C26 4 09:22:12.264 +50:57:21.81 40.9 ± 0.5 25.15 ± 0.02 24.06 ± 0.05 * V01 2 09:22:06.469 +50:56:10.35 ...± 24.75 ± 0.04 23.62 ± 0.04 V02 3 09:22:06.573 +50:56:38.48 ... 24.80 ± 0.05 23.49 ± 0.04 V03 1 09:22:12.073 +50:56:26.84 ... 25.24 ± 0.04 24.02 ± 0.05 ± ±

Note. — (*): Variable was used to construct the P-L relations shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 113

Figure 3.3 contains chip-wide images of each of the WFPC2 CCDs, indicating the locations of the variables. Finding charts for each of the stars are displayed in Figure 3.4; the charts encompass a 50 by 50 pixel area around each variable (i.e.,

200.15 200.15 for the PC and 500 500 for the WF). The individual V and I band × × photometric measurements are listed in Tables 3.5 and 3.6, respectively, and shown as phase-magnitude plots (for the Cepheids) and as time series (for the other variables) in Figure 3.5. That ﬁgure also shows the V and I best-ﬁt template light curves for each Cepheid, which were used to determine their mean magnitudes.

Figure 3.6 shows a color-magnitude diagram of the 9000 stars detected in ∼ our images. As expected, the Cepheids occupy a region of the diagram that is consistent with the location of the instability strip. Figure 3.7 shows the observed diﬀerential luminosity functions for the V and I data, which indicate that our completeness limits are V 26.5 mag and I 25.5 mag. Additionally, the I band ∼ ∼ luminosity function does not exhibit the signature associated with the Tip of the Red Giant Branch (c.f. Figure 2 of Sakai, Zaritsky & Kennicutt 2000), yielding a lower limit for the distance to NGC 2841 of 29.5 mag or 8 Mpc. ∼ ∼

3.5 Period-Luminosity Relations and Distance Moduli

3.5.1 Methodology

The method used to derive V- and I-band apparent distance moduli is the one adopted by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale, which is described in detail by Freedman et al. (2001). It relies on ﬁducial Period-Luminosity relations of LMC Cepheids, corrected for reddening and scaled based on an assumed true distance modulus of µ0,LMC = 18.50 0.10 mag. The P-L ± relations used are those from (Udalski et al. 1999), based on a sample of 650 ∼ OGLE Cepheids with periods ranging from 2.5 to 28 days: 114 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.3a.— Medianed images of the four WFPC2 chips. The circles indicate the position of each of the variables, labeled as in Table 3.4. Each of the images is oriented such that the bottom left corner has the pixel coordinates (0,0) in each image. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 115

Fig. 3.3b.— continued. 116 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.3c.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 117

Fig. 3.3d.— continued. 118 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.4.— Individual ﬁnding charts for the variables. The position of each object is

shown by the circle. The charts are 50 pixels on a side, i.e., 200.15 200.15 for objects × in the PC chip and 500 500 for objects in the the WF chips. × The Extragalactic Distance Scale 119

Fig. 3.5a.— V and I light curves for the variables, plotted as magnitude vs. phase for the Cepheids and as magnitude vs. date for the other variables. In the case of the Cepheids, two complete cycles are plotted to facilitate ease of interpretation. Filled and open symbols are used to represent the V and I magnitudes listed in Tables 3.5-3.6, respectively. The uncertainties associated with each measurement, also listed in that Table, are plotted using error bars. The solid and dashed lines overplotted on each panel indicate the best-ﬁt V and I band template light curves, respectively. 120 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.5b.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 121

Fig. 3.5c.— continued. 122 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.5d.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 123

Fig. 3.5e.— continued. 124 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.6.— Color- magnitude diagram of the 9000 stars detected in our images ∼ of NGC 2841. Filled and open circles are used to plot the Cepheids and the other variables, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 125

Fig. 3.7.— Observed diﬀerential luminosity functions for the stars detected in our images of NGC 2841. Solid and dashed lines are used to plot the V and I histograms, respectively. Based on these distributions, we determine completeness limits of V 26.5 mag and I 25.5 mag. ∼ ∼ 126 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.5. Individual V band photometric measurements

MJD

C01 C02 C03 C04 C05 603.36 26.28 0.16 25.48 0.21 25.74 0.12 26.33 0.13 24.55 0.04 603.38 26.50 ± 0.28 25.53 ± 0.14 25.66 ± 0.16 26.09 ± 0.16 24.60 ± 0.06 605.30 26.91 ± 0.34 25.69 ± 0.14 26.06 ± 0.20 26.59 ± 0.38 24.66 ± 0.13 605.32 26.98 ± 0.23 25.64 ± 0.16 26.07 ± 0.17 26.63 ± 0.21 24.60 ± 0.09 607.25 ...± 26.13 ± 0.20 26.25 ± 0.18 26.60 ± 0.24 24.67 ± 0.05 607.26 27.21 0.28 26.02 ± 0.25 26.40 ± 0.24 26.74 ± 0.24 24.79 ± 0.08 609.67 27.21 ± 0.36 26.20 ± 0.20 26.78 ± 0.22 26.43 ± 0.22 24.95 ± 0.06 609.68 27.88 ± 0.68 25.85 ± 0.18 26.90 ± 0.52 27.11 ± 0.30 24.93 ± 0.13 612.55 26.61 ± 0.24 ...± 26.80 ± 0.27 ...± 24.92 ± 0.06 612.56 26.95 ± 0.27 26.16 0.22 27.18 ± 0.55 26.84 0.19 24.85 ± 0.11 615.50 26.00 ± 0.16 26.34 ± 0.26 26.73 ± 0.22 26.27 ± 0.23 25.18 ± 0.09 615.51 26.01 ± 0.19 ...± 27.16 ± 0.46 26.16 ± 0.24 25.06 ± 0.15 619.39 26.64 ± 0.22 25.57 0.14 25.57 ± 0.11 26.27 ± 0.25 24.94 ± 0.06 619.40 26.78 ± 0.24 25.63 ± 0.08 25.77 ± 0.19 25.98 ± 0.12 25.10 ± 0.13 623.61 27.49 ± 0.38 25.97 ± 0.15 26.36 ± 0.16 26.25 ± 0.15 24.55 ± 0.05 623.62 26.76 ± 0.24 26.14 ± 0.15 26.48 ± 0.31 26.45 ± 0.25 24.77 ± 0.06 629.31 26.18 ± 0.22 ...± 26.49 ± 0.31 26.54 ± 0.26 24.74 ± 0.08 629.32 26.14 ± 0.19 26.14 0.23 26.93 ± 0.30 26.93 ± 0.31 24.96 ± 0.09 636.28 27.21 ± 0.37 25.69 ± 0.13 25.79 ± 0.17 26.16 ± 0.18 24.87 ± 0.09 636.29 27.78 ± 0.84 ...± 25.77 ± 0.15 25.95 ± 0.15 25.00 ± 0.08 643.25 26.27 ± 0.13 26.16 0.17 27.08 ± 0.35 26.32 ± 0.26 24.68 ± 0.10 643.27 26.03 ± 0.12 25.92 ± 0.22 27.14 ± 0.36 27.04 ± 0.41 24.65 ± 0.11 653.57 27.16 ± 0.52 25.75 ± 0.17 25.86 ± 0.11 26.09 ± 0.19 25.01 ± 0.12 653.59 27.23 ± 0.66 25.62 ± 0.23 25.76 ± 0.20 25.77 ± 0.10 25.09 ± 0.17 C06± C07± C08± C09± C10± 603.36 26.27 0.22 25.81 0.15 25.32 0.10 ... 27.21 0.52 603.38 26.19 ± 0.17 25.48 ± 0.12 25.19 ± 0.14 26.14 0.17 27.24 ± 0.39 605.30 26.44 ± 0.35 25.64 ± 0.10 25.39 ± 0.14 26.42 ± 0.23 26.30 ± 0.23 605.32 26.29 ± 0.16 25.53 ± 0.11 25.28 ± 0.07 26.16 ± 0.15 26.34 ± 0.43 607.25 25.18 ± 0.10 25.82 ± 0.09 25.33 ± 0.12 26.57 ± 0.22 25.65 ± 0.16 607.26 25.20 ± 0.11 25.81 ± 0.15 25.37 ± 0.07 26.64 ± 0.20 25.50 ± 0.20 609.67 25.25 ± 0.06 26.02 ± 0.24 25.31 ± 0.16 26.34 ± 0.13 25.86 ± 0.15 609.68 25.24 ± 0.10 25.98 ± 0.15 ...± 26.18 ± 0.17 26.09 ± 0.32 612.55 25.36 ± 0.11 26.12 ± 0.25 25.43 0.12 25.86 ± 0.13 25.74 ± 0.21 612.56 25.39 ± 0.11 26.33 ± 0.24 25.46 ± 0.07 26.12 ± 0.12 26.08 ± 0.35 ± ± ± ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 127

Table 3.5—Continued

MJD

615.50 25.82 0.14 26.39 0.26 25.77 0.16 25.38 0.09 26.07 0.17 615.51 25.89 ± 0.15 26.32 ± 0.23 25.65 ± 0.27 25.59 ± 0.11 26.12 ± 0.28 619.39 25.76 ± 0.13 26.49 ± 0.25 25.42 ± 0.11 25.83 ± 0.12 26.73 ± 0.46 619.40 26.00 ± 0.17 26.64 ± 0.24 25.83 ± 0.13 25.98 ± 0.10 26.88 ± 0.47 623.61 26.18 ± 0.21 25.71 ± 0.10 24.95 ± 0.19 26.01 ± 0.12 26.53 ± 0.24 623.62 25.91 ± 0.15 25.84 ± 0.14 24.95 ± 0.12 26.00 ± 0.14 26.94 ± 0.33 629.31 25.27 ± 0.09 25.55 ± 0.12 25.53 ± 0.16 26.46 ± 0.25 25.55 ± 0.18 629.32 25.40 ± 0.13 25.72 ± 0.16 25.62 ± 0.15 26.44 ± 0.18 25.44 ± 0.18 636.28 25.58 ± 0.13 26.27 ± 0.20 25.69 ± 0.20 25.40 ± 0.10 25.79 ± 0.14 636.29 25.80 ± 0.10 26.00 ± 0.13 25.69 ± 0.23 25.38 ± 0.08 25.77 ± 0.13 643.25 26.13 ± 0.20 26.09 ± 0.20 25.08 ± 0.07 25.86 ± 0.16 26.32 ± 0.23 643.27 26.07 ± 0.12 26.40 ± 0.58 25.06 ± 0.12 25.84 ± 0.14 26.30 ± 0.23 653.57 25.52 ± 0.18 25.96 ± 0.13 25.45 ± 0.15 26.65 ± 0.36 26.00 ± 0.17 653.59 ...± 26.23 ± 0.20 ...± 26.43 ± 0.23 ...± C11 C12± C13 C14± C15 603.36 ... 25.87 0.15 26.15 0.18 25.95 0.13 26.19 0.19 603.38 26.72 0.39 26.07 ± 0.20 26.10 ± 0.12 25.92 ± 0.10 26.44 ± 0.21 605.30 26.36 ± 0.26 25.90 ± 0.12 26.59 ± 0.26 26.17 ± 0.21 25.40 ± 0.15 605.32 ...± 25.65 ± 0.14 26.40 ± 0.17 26.05 ± 0.18 25.42 ± 0.16 607.25 25.33 0.11 25.34 ± 0.08 26.43 ± 0.22 26.50 ± 0.20 25.30 ± 0.08 607.26 25.48 ± 0.20 25.38 ± 0.07 26.61 ± 0.19 26.44 ± 0.26 25.30 ± 0.08 609.67 25.68 ± 0.16 25.39 ± 0.08 26.71 ± 0.26 26.54 ± 0.22 25.56 ± 0.10 609.68 25.85 ± 0.28 25.32 ± 0.08 26.97 ± 0.37 26.64 ± 0.25 25.64 ± 0.15 612.55 25.93 ± 0.14 25.70 ± 0.11 27.12 ± 0.23 26.90 ± 0.29 25.95 ± 0.13 612.56 26.25 ± 0.27 25.55 ± 0.13 27.20 ± 0.34 26.66 ± 0.20 25.94 ± 0.15 615.50 26.33 ± 0.23 25.64 ± 0.20 27.08 ± 0.45 ...± 25.87 ± 0.16 615.51 ...± 25.65 ± 0.14 26.83 ± 0.26 27.34 0.35 26.20 ± 0.16 619.39 26.60 0.31 25.82 ± 0.13 ...± 26.91 ± 0.20 ...± 619.40 ...± 25.72 ± 0.41 ...... ± 26.15 0.17 623.61 26.95 0.34 26.04 ± 0.12 26.70 0.24 25.97 0.19 26.80 ± 0.34 623.62 26.77 ± 0.38 26.11 ± 0.14 27.26 ± 0.48 25.65 ± 0.15 26.33 ± 0.12 629.31 25.23 ± 0.13 25.47 ± 0.07 26.30 ± 0.23 26.22 ± 0.12 25.42 ± 0.14 629.32 25.57 ± 0.14 25.60 ± 0.19 26.61 ± 0.27 26.24 ± 0.14 25.41 ± 0.06 636.28 25.89 ± 0.19 25.77 ± 0.09 27.49 ± 0.40 27.19 ± 0.50 25.55 ± 0.22 636.29 26.48 ± 0.35 25.71 ± 0.12 27.05 ± 0.44 27.17 ± 0.29 25.94 ± 0.12 643.25 26.75 ± 0.27 26.08 ± 0.17 27.40 ± 0.46 27.16 ± 0.51 26.30 ± 0.22 ± ± ± ± ± 128 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.5—Continued

MJD

643.27 26.22 0.27 25.80 0.12 27.22 0.34 26.84 0.22 26.53 0.22 653.57 25.66 ± 0.28 25.23 ± 0.10 26.34 ± 0.24 26.15 ± 0.19 25.31 ± 0.10 653.59 25.77 ± 0.18 25.36 ± 0.09 26.82 ± 0.23 26.25 ± 0.17 25.51 ± 0.11 C16± C17± C18± C19± C20± 603.36 26.22 0.16 26.14 0.23 25.68 0.38 25.58 0.12 25.84 0.15 603.38 26.05 ± 0.23 26.37 ± 0.29 25.63 ± 0.14 25.76 ± 0.19 25.78 ± 0.11 605.30 26.67 ± 0.35 26.25 ± 0.28 26.19 ± 0.17 25.66 ± 0.14 26.00 ± 0.10 605.32 26.28 ± 0.32 26.22 ± 0.15 26.05 ± 0.31 25.74 ± 0.18 26.05 ± 0.20 607.25 26.30 ± 0.19 26.39 ± 0.30 26.36 ± 0.23 25.60 ± 0.06 26.40 ± 0.18 607.26 26.91 ± 0.39 26.34 ± 0.29 25.95 ± 0.25 25.98 ± 0.16 25.99 ± 0.11 609.67 26.43 ± 0.27 26.46 ± 0.18 26.36 ± 0.16 ...± 26.06 ± 0.25 609.68 25.96 ± 0.15 26.58 ± 0.23 26.46 ± 0.23 26.05 0.35 26.05 ± 0.18 612.55 25.47 ± 0.10 26.04 ± 0.11 26.27 ± 0.13 26.12 ± 0.34 26.59 ± 0.22 612.56 25.50 ± 0.18 26.02 ± 0.16 26.67 ± 0.34 26.09 ± 0.14 26.17 ± 0.10 615.50 25.52 ± 0.13 ...± 25.77 ± 0.24 ...± 26.72 ± 0.23 615.51 25.48 ± 0.15 26.31 0.27 25.78 ± 0.15 26.46 0.39 26.09 ± 0.14 619.39 25.70 ± 0.20 25.28 ± 0.18 25.00 ± 0.07 26.59 ± 0.30 26.53 ± 0.23 619.40 25.62 ± 0.09 25.52 ± 0.11 25.16 ± 0.12 26.48 ± 0.21 26.84 ± 0.28 623.61 25.79 ± 0.17 25.88 ± 0.10 25.55 ± 0.14 26.62 ± 0.21 25.46 ± 0.07 623.62 26.00 ± 0.15 ...± 25.52 ± 0.09 26.58 ± 0.29 25.50 ± 0.12 629.31 26.68 ± 0.32 26.24 0.22 26.09 ± 0.18 25.50 ± 0.12 25.45 ± 0.11 629.32 26.91 ± 0.47 26.19 ± 0.32 25.80 ± 0.21 25.57 ± 0.11 ...± 636.28 26.20 ± 0.15 26.43 ± 0.27 26.80 ± 0.41 ...± 25.86 0.11 636.29 26.13 ± 0.18 26.49 ± 0.27 26.11 ± 0.13 25.88 0.10 26.29 ± 0.19 643.25 ...± 25.77 ± 0.15 26.65 ± 0.45 26.49 ± 0.17 26.45 ± 0.22 643.27 ... 26.00 ± 0.25 26.10 ± 0.18 26.08 ± 0.16 26.18 ± 0.21 653.57 26.22 0.17 26.07 ± 0.18 25.61 ± 0.13 26.30 ± 0.25 25.45 ± 0.14 653.59 26.57 ± 0.26 26.43 ± 0.42 ...± 26.65 ± 0.34 ...± C21± C22± C23 C24± C25 603.36 25.29 0.09 25.02 0.07 24.62 0.09 25.82 0.16 25.65 0.12 603.38 25.29 ± 0.15 24.71 ± 0.09 24.48 ± 0.22 25.61 ± 0.17 25.36 ± 0.14 605.30 25.19 ± 0.10 24.74 ± 0.34 24.76 ± 0.07 25.94 ± 0.13 25.69 ± 0.09 605.32 25.02 ± 0.12 25.13 ± 0.09 ...± 25.89 ± 0.14 25.87 ± 0.22 607.25 24.97 ± 0.08 25.10 ± 0.09 25.15 0.08 26.01 ± 0.17 25.83 ± 0.18 607.26 24.70 ± 0.11 25.14 ± 0.09 24.73 ± 0.08 25.82 ± 0.19 25.74 ± 0.13 609.67 24.72 ± 0.06 25.32 ± 0.08 25.13 ± 0.08 26.28 ± 0.13 ...± ± ± ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 129

Table 3.5—Continued

MJD

609.68 24.69 0.08 25.32 0.10 ... 25.82 0.19 25.66 0.13 612.55 24.81 ± 0.07 25.26 ± 0.09 25.05 0.09 26.00 ± 0.13 25.72 ± 0.12 612.56 24.75 ± 0.06 25.18 ± 0.08 25.03 ± 0.11 25.83 ± 0.11 25.58 ± 0.13 615.50 24.81 ± 0.08 25.79 ± 0.14 25.22 ± 0.09 26.01 ± 0.16 25.32 ± 0.13 615.51 24.88 ± 0.11 25.85 ± 0.22 25.39 ± 0.12 26.48 ± 0.24 25.32 ± 0.10 619.39 ...... ± ± 25.74 ± 0.17 26.31 ± 0.12 24.89 ± 0.07 619.40 25.00 0.07 26.01 0.19 25.58 ± 0.13 26.00 ± 0.19 24.78 ± 0.11 623.61 25.10 ± 0.07 25.97 ± 0.16 25.54 ± 0.09 26.40 ± 0.15 25.03 ± 0.09 623.62 25.17 ± 0.10 25.60 ± 0.13 25.30 ± 0.06 26.50 ± 0.25 24.95 ± 0.08 629.31 25.39 ± 0.15 ...± 25.78 ± 0.22 25.39 ± 0.09 25.19 ± 0.10 629.32 25.34 ± 0.12 25.66 0.14 25.75 ± 0.18 25.29 ± 0.11 25.13 ± 0.09 636.28 25.31 ± 0.15 24.81 ± 0.10 24.66 ± 0.08 25.51 ± 0.11 25.55 ± 0.08 636.29 25.25 ± 0.10 24.83 ± 0.08 ...± 25.70 ± 0.17 25.42 ± 0.09 643.25 24.75 ± 0.09 25.30 ± 0.10 25.05 0.13 25.96 ± 0.14 25.62 ± 0.11 643.27 24.68 ± 0.07 25.29 ± 0.09 24.91 ± 0.07 25.98 ± 0.14 25.46 ± 0.17 653.57 25.07 ± 0.10 25.76 ± 0.14 ...± 26.60 ± 0.34 25.61 ± 0.12 653.59 ...± 25.73 ± 0.13 25.45 0.12 26.13 ± 0.21 ...± C26 V01± V02± V03± 603.36 25.73 0.09 24.87 0.08 24.84 0.05 25.49 0.09 603.38 ...± 24.86 ± 0.06 24.77 ± 0.11 25.41 ± 0.13 605.30 25.51 0.10 24.87 ± 0.05 24.70 ± 0.04 25.34 ± 0.11 605.32 25.67 ± 0.10 24.87 ± 0.05 24.68 ± 0.07 25.38 ± 0.12 607.25 ...... ± ± 24.50 ± 0.06 25.45 ± 0.13 607.26 25.60 0.14 24.86 0.07 24.56 ± 0.07 25.40 ± 0.13 609.67 25.48 ± 0.09 24.93 ± 0.10 24.58 ± 0.07 25.35 ± 0.11 609.68 25.42 ± 0.09 24.89 ± 0.08 24.59 ± 0.07 25.39 ± 0.08 612.55 24.80 ± 0.05 24.92 ± 0.05 24.51 ± 0.05 25.44 ± 0.09 612.56 24.94 ± 0.05 ...± 24.58 ± 0.06 25.28 ± 0.10 615.50 24.61 ± 0.08 24.98 0.08 24.62 ± 0.06 25.40 ± 0.16 615.51 24.71 ± 0.04 25.01 ± 0.10 24.55 ± 0.09 25.36 ± 0.10 619.39 24.75 ± 0.04 24.85 ± 0.06 24.71 ± 0.10 ...± 619.40 24.88 ± 0.05 24.92 ± 0.07 24.80 ± 0.10 25.15 0.10 623.61 25.00 ± 0.07 24.78 ± 0.05 24.84 ± 0.09 24.98 ± 0.10 623.62 25.03 ± 0.06 24.82 ± 0.07 24.86 ± 0.12 ...± 629.31 25.23 ± 0.12 24.69 ± 0.04 24.84 ± 0.06 24.83 0.09 629.32 25.07 ± 0.08 24.74 ± 0.10 ...± 24.87 ± 0.09 ± ± ± 130 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.5—Continued

MJD

636.28 25.48 0.06 24.55 0.06 25.06 0.07 25.08 0.07 636.29 25.39 ± 0.07 24.44 ± 0.04 25.02 ± 0.08 24.98 ± 0.10 643.25 25.70 ± 0.18 24.43 ± 0.05 25.23 ± 0.10 24.79 ± 0.17 643.27 25.55 ± 0.05 24.34 ± 0.06 24.93 ± 0.08 25.21 ± 0.10 653.57 24.86 ± 0.06 24.41 ± 0.09 25.36 ± 0.08 25.38 ± 0.11 653.59 ...... ± ± 25.20 ± 0.06 25.32 ± 0.11 ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 131

Table 3.6. Individual I band photometric measurements

MJD

C01 C02 C03 C04 C05 603.42 25.91 0.35 24.90 0.19 24.97 0.34 25.35 0.23 23.88 0.13 603.43 25.82 ± 0.27 24.73 ± 0.12 25.11 ± 0.31 25.39 ± 0.20 23.87 ± 0.14 609.73 25.54 ± 0.25 24.95 ± 0.31 25.14 ± 0.21 25.50 ± 0.26 23.86 ± 0.09 609.74 26.00 ± 0.60 25.04 ± 0.21 25.04 ± 0.19 25.51 ± 0.22 24.07 ± 0.14 619.45 26.16 ± 0.48 24.80 ± 0.46 24.84 ± 0.22 25.12 ± 0.17 24.35 ± 0.14 619.47 ...... ± ± 24.69 ± 0.16 25.00 ± 0.14 24.07 ± 0.16 629.37 25.54 0.31 25.61 0.43 25.31 ± 0.29 25.27 ± 0.16 23.96 ± 0.13 629.39 25.10 ± 0.14 25.52 ± 0.28 ...± 25.32 ± 0.30 24.16 ± 0.15 643.32 25.50 ± 0.24 25.13 ± 0.36 25.02 0.16 25.09 ± 0.12 23.61 ± 0.09 643.33 25.38 ± 0.20 25.43 ± 0.34 25.44 ± 0.41 25.19 ± 0.21 23.75 ± 0.10 C06± C07± C08± C09± C10± 603.42 25.41 0.24 24.59 0.15 24.29 0.38 25.34 0.26 25.58 0.26 603.43 25.09 ± 0.24 ...± 24.39 ± 0.16 24.89 ± 0.16 25.49 ± 0.37 609.73 24.59 ± 0.12 24.73 0.28 24.22 ± 0.15 24.95 ± 0.18 25.13 ± 0.31 609.74 24.69 ± 0.17 24.45 ± 0.12 24.35 ± 0.12 24.78 ± 0.08 24.97 ± 0.19 619.45 25.08 ± 0.21 25.21 ± 0.36 24.50 ± 0.22 24.75 ± 0.15 25.23 ± 0.25 619.47 25.22 ± 0.34 24.66 ± 0.15 24.64 ± 0.19 24.77 ± 0.14 25.13 ± 0.28 629.37 24.57 ± 0.09 24.32 ± 0.14 24.28 ± 0.11 24.94 ± 1.04 24.85 ± 0.18 629.39 24.64 ± 0.15 24.83 ± 0.15 24.56 ± 0.24 25.57 ± 0.49 24.99 ± 0.22 643.32 25.42 ± 0.23 24.55 ± 0.12 24.23 ± 0.14 25.05 ± 0.19 25.23 ± 0.21 643.33 25.32 ± 0.23 24.06 ± 0.47 24.23 ± 0.16 24.59 ± 0.09 ...± C11± C12± C13± C14± C15 603.42 ... 24.99 0.15 25.13 0.20 24.87 0.18 25.52 0.28 603.43 ... 24.91 ± 0.15 25.23 ± 0.22 25.03 ± 0.13 25.50 ± 0.40 609.73 25.12 0.37 ...± 25.05 ± 0.18 25.30 ± 0.20 24.64 ± 0.15 609.74 24.81 ± 0.23 24.80 0.19 25.54 ± 0.24 25.12 ± 0.18 24.78 ± 0.16 619.45 ...± 25.00 ± 0.16 ...... ± ± 24.90 ± 0.18 619.47 ... 24.83 ± 0.12 ...... 25.55 ± 0.28 629.37 24.57 0.19 24.60 ± 0.11 25.26 0.24 ... 24.43 ± 0.10 629.39 24.72 ± 0.12 24.72 ± 0.14 ...± 25.27 0.18 24.70 ± 0.12 643.32 24.73 ± 0.27 25.02 ± 0.30 ... 25.80 ± 0.35 25.54 ± 0.25 643.33 25.21 ± 0.25 24.83 ± 0.13 ...... ± 25.18 ± 0.21 C16± C17± C18 C19 C20± 603.42 25.25 0.48 25.21 0.24 24.87 0.21 24.78 0.10 24.56 0.15 603.43 25.34 ± 0.31 25.13 ± 0.27 24.58 ± 0.13 24.66 ± 0.15 24.67 ± 0.16 ± ± ± ± ± 132 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 3.6—Continued

MJD

609.73 25.54 0.39 25.44 0.21 25.17 0.41 24.68 0.24 25.26 0.16 609.74 25.27 ± 0.43 25.33 ± 0.33 24.98 ± 0.18 24.58 ± 0.17 25.23 ± 0.13 619.45 24.95 ± 0.21 24.67 ± 0.12 24.70 ± 0.15 25.13 ± 0.33 25.15 ± 0.21 619.47 24.72 ± 0.17 24.99 ± 0.28 24.28 ± 0.10 25.52 ± 0.29 ...± 629.37 ...± 25.02 ± 0.21 24.84 ± 0.16 24.52 ± 0.14 24.72 0.20 629.39 24.99 0.19 24.76 ± 0.17 24.67 ± 0.10 24.80 ± 0.14 24.60 ± 0.10 643.32 24.60 ± 0.19 25.05 ± 0.34 24.79 ± 0.21 24.93 ± 0.14 ...± 643.33 24.53 ± 0.17 24.76 ± 0.22 24.78 ± 0.16 25.11 ± 0.26 25.09 0.17 C21± C22± C23± C24± C25± 603.42 ... 24.05 0.10 24.08 0.10 24.47 0.14 ... 603.43 24.18 0.10 23.94 ± 0.12 24.10 ± 0.10 24.55 ± 0.20 24.54 0.17 609.73 23.72 ± 0.07 24.05 ± 0.08 24.20 ± 0.21 24.57 ± 0.12 24.66 ± 0.16 609.74 23.75 ± 0.06 24.11 ± 0.12 24.26 ± 0.10 24.73 ± 0.21 24.59 ± 0.12 619.45 24.00 ± 0.11 24.34 ± 0.11 24.59 ± 0.17 24.87 ± 0.20 24.02 ± 0.07 619.47 24.07 ± 0.09 24.29 ± 0.11 24.59 ± 0.19 25.04 ± 0.21 23.99 ± 0.10 629.37 24.19 ± 0.11 24.48 ± 0.15 24.64 ± 0.19 24.68 ± 0.14 24.12 ± 0.10 629.39 24.34 ± 0.18 24.56 ± 0.14 24.72 ± 0.15 24.37 ± 0.11 23.98 ± 0.08 643.32 23.91 ± 0.07 ...± 23.97 ± 0.07 24.78 ± 0.14 24.77 ± 0.20 643.33 23.87 ± 0.09 24.01 0.08 24.15 ± 0.14 24.60 ± 0.14 24.66 ± 0.18 C26± V01± V02± V03± ± 603.42 24.50 0.16 23.60 0.06 23.43 0.06 24.19 0.14 603.43 24.78 ± 0.21 23.73 ± 0.09 23.49 ± 0.04 24.03 ± 0.09 609.73 24.12 ± 0.08 23.75 ± 0.27 23.29 ± 0.23 24.14 ± 0.13 609.74 24.35 ± 0.18 23.77 ± 0.05 23.42 ± 0.08 24.03 ± 0.13 619.45 23.89 ± 0.09 23.72 ± 0.06 23.37 ± 0.04 24.16 ± 0.09 619.47 23.88 ± 0.10 23.70 ± 0.09 23.48 ± 0.06 24.15 ± 0.11 629.37 24.01 ± 0.10 23.56 ± 0.06 23.53 ± 0.07 23.77 ± 0.09 629.39 23.92 ± 0.09 23.48 ± 0.06 23.58 ± 0.08 23.83 ± 0.08 643.32 24.26 ± 0.11 23.49 ± 0.04 23.69 ± 0.07 ...± 643.33 24.43 ± 0.11 23.44 ± 0.09 23.65 ± 0.06 23.84 0.09 ± ± ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 133

MV = 2.76( 0.03) [log P 1] 4.22( 0.02), (3.3) − ± − − ± MI = 2.96( 0.02) [log P 1] 4.90( 0.01), (3.4) − ± − − ± (3.5)

These relations can be combined to obtain an equation for the reddening- corrected distance modulus of a Cepheid (Freedman et al. 2001):

µ0 = W + 3.26( 0.01) [log P 1] + 5.90( 0.01), (3.6) ± − ± where W = V 2.45(V I) is the reddening-free Wesenheit magnitude (Madore − − 1982).

3.5.2 Distance moduli

Before determining distance moduli from Equations 3.3-3.5, we must impose a cut in period at the short end to avoid an incompleteness bias (see Appendix A of Freedman et al. 2001). The completeness limits determined at the end of 3.4 § imply that this cut must be applied around P = 20 d, resulting in the rejection of Cepheids C01-C05. We also rejected Cepheids C07-C09 due to their rather poor quality I band light curves. Thus, the ﬁnal sample of Cepheids used for distance determination consists of 18 variables, identiﬁed with an asterisk in the last column of Table 3.4.

Figures 3.8 and 3.9 show the V and I band P-L relations of the ﬁnal sample of Cepheids. By ﬁtting the P-L relations described in Equations 3.3-3.4, we obtain apparent V and I band distance moduli of µV = 31.23 0.08 mag ± and µI = 30.96 0.06 mag (internal errors only), and a mean color excess of ± EV I = 0.27 0.03 mag. The application of Equation 3.5 results in an extinction- − ± corrected distance modulus of µ0 = 30.58 0.06 mag (random uncertainty ± only). 134 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 3.8.— V-band Period-Luminosity relation for the selected Cepheids in our sample (see Table 3.4 and 3.5.2). The solid line is the best fit to the fiducial § LMC P-L relation listed in Equation 3.3 and the dotted lines correspond to the r.m.s. dispersion of the fit. The apparent distance modulus obtained from the fit is 31.23 0.08 mag. ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 135

Fig. 3.9.— I-band Period-Luminosity relation for the selected Cepheids in our sample (see Table 3.4 and 3.5.2). The solid line is the best fit to the fiducial § LMC P-L relation listed in Equation 3.4 and the dotted lines correspond to the r.m.s. dispersion of the fit. The apparent distance modulus obtained from the fit is 30.96 0.06 mag. ± 136 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

3.5.3 Metallicity correction

The measured value of µ0 must be corrected for the metallicity dependence of the Cepheid P-L relation, using the following equation:

δµZ = γVI ([O/H]N2841 [O/H]LMC ), (3.7) −

where γVI is the metallicity dependence index for the V and I ﬁlters, and

[O/H]gal = log(O/H)gal/ log(O/H) . We adopt γVI = 0.2 0.2 mag/dex, for − ± consistency with Freedman et al. (2001), although that value is lower than most recent determinations of the effect (Kochanek 1997; Sasselov et al. 1997; Kennicutt et al. 1998). The [O/H] value for the LMC is 0.4 dex (Kennicutt et al. 1998). − The [O/H] value for our field in NGC 2841 can be calculated using the ([O II] λλ 3727)/Hβ and [O III] λλ 4959,5007)/Hβ line flux ratios listed in Table 3 of Bresolin et al. (1999) for four HII regions located at galactocentric radii similar to those spanned by our Cepheids. The sum of these two line flux ratios (known as

R23) can be turned into a value of [O/H] by using the appropriate equation from

Zaritsky et al. (1994). We ﬁnd [O/H]N2841 = 0.4 0.15 dex, which reﬂects the ± scatter in the abundances of the four HII regions ( 0.07) and the uncertainty in ± the calibration of the metallicity-R23 relation for high abundances.

In conclusion, Equation 3.6 results in an overall correction of δµZ =

+0.16 0.15 mag to our distance modulus, making it µ0,Z = 30.74 0.23 mag. ± ± This uncertainty includes several sources of error, which we list in the following sub-section.

3.5.4 Error Budget

The error budget for our distance determination is listed in Table 3.7, and explained in greater detail here. The internal error due to the dispersion in individual values

of µ0 is a small contribution to the total error, which is heavily dominated by external sources of error. These are, in decreasing order of importance: the The Extragalactic Distance Scale 137

Table 3.7. Error Budget for the Cepheid Distance to NGC 2841

Item Value (mag)

Dispersion in µ0 0.06 ± Metallicity correction 0.15 ± LMC distance 0.10 ± WFPC2 calibration 0.07 ± Blending +0.10 Total +0.23, 0.20 −

metallicity dependence of the Cepheid P-L relation, the distance to the LMC, the absolute calibration of WFPC2, contamination of the Cepheid magnitudes due to unresolved blends, and the uncertainty in the reddening law of NGC 2841. i. Metallicity correction: As stated in 3.5.3, the uncertainty in the adopted value § of the metallicity correction index γVI is 0.2 mag/dex, and the uncertainty in ± the difference in abundances between the LMC and NGC 2841 is 0.15 dex. The ± combination of these two uncertainties results in a contribution to the error budget of 0.15 mag. ± ii. LMC Distance: The uncertainty in the distance to the LMC has been recently summarized by Freedman et al. (2001). We have adopted µ0(LMC) = 18.50 0.10 mag in order to maintain consistency with the Cepheid distances ± presented in that paper. However, different distance indicators yield widely different (and non-overlapping) estimates of the LMC distance modulus, ranging from 18.3 to 18.65 mag (see Table 13 of Freedman et al. 2001). iii. Blending: An additional source of uncertainty is the possible contamination of our Cepheid magnitudes by nearby stars, physically unrelated to the variables, but located at distances smaller than the resolution provided by the telescope and detector. Mochejska et al. (2001) have studied this contamination by comparing 138 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri ground-based and HST images of long-period (P > 10d) Cepheids in M33. They conclude that the median value of this effect on HST data for galaxies at 10–15 Mpc is 7% in V and 12% in I. If these numbers were to apply to our Cepheids, our ∼ ∼ W magnitudes would be biased by 5%, or 0.1 mag. We take this value to represent a 1σ uncertainty due to the possible effects of blending. iv. WFPC2 calibration: Freedman et al. (2001) have estimated the size of the uncertainty related to the absolute photometric calibration of WFPC2 to be 0.07 mag; this includes the uncertainties in the characterization of the zeropoints, ± the color transformations, the camera gain ratios, and the effects of CTE. v. Reddening law: The reddening-free Wesenheit magnitudes used in Equation (5) were calculated using an assumed value of total-to-selective extinction

R AV /EB V = 3.1 AV /EV I = 2.45. If the interstellar medium of NGC 2841 ≡ − ≡ − were to follow a diﬀerent extinction law than the ISM of the Milky Way, the adoption of the standard value of R would introduce an additional systematic error to our distance estimate. This issue is addressed in Chapter 4, where NICMOS H band observations of extragalactic Cepheids in a dozen galaxies are used to show that extinction corrections determined from either V and I data or from V and H data, using the standard extinction law, are consistent with each other. Thus, the assumption of a standard reddening law is a valid one, and does not introduce a signiﬁcant source of error.

The aforementioned sources of error (i-iv) can be combined in quadrature to arrive at a total external uncertainty in our metallicity-corrected true distance modulus of +0.22, 0.19 mag. The addition of the internal error term ( 0.06 mag) − ± increases the total uncertainty to +0.23, 0.20 mag, which we simplify as − 0.23 mag. ±

3.6 Discussion

NGC 2841 is one of eight galaxies with Cepheid distances associated with the Leo Cloud & Spur, out of a total of 65 members listed in Tully (1988). Table 3.8 lists The Extragalactic Distance Scale 139

Table 3.8. Galaxies with Cepheid Distances in the Leo Cloud & Spur

Name Cepheid R.A. Dec. Helioc. Super-galactic coord. distance (J2000.0) cz XYZ (Mpc) (km/s) (Mpc)

NGC 2541 11.2 08:14:40.2 +49:03:42 559 1 7.8 6.7 -4.4 ± NGC 2841 14.1 09:22:02.7 +50:58:36 638 3 8.7 10.3 -3.9 ± NGC 3198 13.8 10:19:54.9 +45:32:59 663 4 6.6 11.7 -3.2 ± NGC 3319 13.3 10:39:08.8 +41:41:16 739 1 5.3 11.8 -2.9 ± NGC 3351 10.0 10:43:57.8 +11:42:14 778 4 -0.6 8.9 -4.6 ± NGC 3368 10.5 10:46:45.7 +11:49:12 897 4 -0.7 9.4 -4.7 ± NGC 3621 6.6 11:18:16.0 32:48:42 727 5 -4.8 3.3 -3.2 − ± NGC 3627 10.1 11:20;15.0 +12:59:30 727 3 -1.1 9.5 -3.2 ±

some properties of those eight galaxies. All distances (except for the one derived in this paper) are from Freedman et al. (2001). The mean velocity and dispersion of the previously observed galaxies is 727 96 km/s, while the average distance ± (excluding the nearby NGC 3621) is 11.5 0.6 Mpc. The small velocity dispersion ± for this relatively spread out structure is somewhat surprising, but consistent with bulk motion of the Leo Cloud. Kinematically, at a redshift of 638 3 km/s, ± NGC 2841 is clearly a member of the Leo Spur, and our derived distance of 14.1 1.5 Mpc places it on the far side of this structure. Figure 3.10 shows the ± location in super-galactic coordinates of NGC 2841 and other galaxies in the Leo Cloud & Spur.

Given the Cepheid distance of 14.1 1.5 Mpc derived in the previous ± section, and the surface brightness proﬁles shown in Figure 5.1, we determine a

B = 25 mag/ 00 isophotal radius of 40 kpc. Thus, NGC 2841 is an impressively ut ∼ large disk galaxy, with a disk scale length about twice as large as that of M31, a galaxy which shares many other properties. Furthermore, the values of 140 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri extinction-corrected eﬀective radius, ri 6 kpc, and extinction-corrected eﬀective e ∼ i surface brightness, µ 19.5 I mag/ 00, place NGC 2841 in a relatively unique h ie ∼ ut position in the surface brightness – radius plane (see Figure 2 of de Jong & Lacey 2000).

3.7 Conclusions

We have discovered a total of 26 Cepheids and 3 other variables in the Sb spiral galaxy NGC 2841, a member of the Leo Spur. We have applied ﬁducial OGLE LMC V- and I-band Cepheid Period-Luminosity relations to a sub-sample of

18 Cepheids. We adopted an LMC distance of µ0(LMC)= 18.50 0.10 mag, ± and a metallicity dependence of γVI = 0.2 0.2 mag/dex. Based on these − ± assumptions, we obtain a distance modulus of 30.74 0.23 mag, corresponding to a ± distance of 14.1 1.5 Mpc. Our distance estimate is consistent with an association ± of this galaxy to the Leo Spur. The mean reddening of the Cepheid sample is

EV I = 0.27 0.03 mag. − ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 141

Fig. 3.10.— Distribution of Leo Cloud & Spur galaxies in super-galactic coordinates, after Figure 5 of Tully & Fisher (1987). The star indicates the location of NGC 2841, while ﬁlled symbols indicate the location of other galaxies with Cepheid distances. Open circles indicate the location of other members of this structure, using data from Tully (1988) suitably rescaled to agree with the Cepheid distances. 142 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri Chapter 4

Infrared observations of extragalactic Cepheids

Abstract

This chapter presents near-infrared observations of extragalactic Cepheids obtained with the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer on board the Hubble Space Telescope. The variables are located in the galaxies IC 1613, IC 4182, M31, M81, M101, NGC 925, NGC 1365, NGC 2090, NGC 3198, NGC 3621, NGC 4496A and NGC 4536. All ﬁelds were observed in the F160W bandpass; additional images were obtained in the F110W and F205W ﬁlters. Photometry was performed using the DAOPHOT/ALLSTAR package.

Self-consistent distance moduli and color excesses were obtained by ﬁtting Period-Luminosity relations in the H, I and V bands. Our results support the assumption of a standard reddening law adopted by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale.

Contains material from The Astrophysical Journal, volume 549, pages 721-744, “NICMOS Observations of Extragalactic Cepheids. I. Photometry Database and a Test of the Standard Extinction Law”, by L.M. Macri, D. Calzetti, W.L. Freedman, B.K. Gibson, J.A. Graham, J.P. Huchra, S.M.G. Hughes, B.F. Madore, J.R. Mould, S.E. Persson & P.B. Stetson.

143 144 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

4.1 Introduction

One of the most important legacies of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) will undoubtedly be its revolutionary increase in the number of Cepheid-based distances to nearby galaxies. Two major projects, the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Freedman et al. 2001) and the HST SN Ia Calibration Project (Saha et al. 1999), as well as smaller collaborations have resulted in the discovery of over 700 Cepheid variables and the determination of distances to 27 galaxies. This number will continue to grow as the community continues to take advantage of HST’s unparalleled ability to deliver high-resolution images of the crowded spiral arms where Cepheids are located. The next generation of instruments to be installed on board HST will increase its sensitivity and resolution and will extend these observations to larger distances.

Most HST Cepheid observations have concentrated on obtaining data in the V band (typically in eight to thirteen non-aliasing epochs) with some additional I-band data, usually four to eight epochs. Although sparsely sampled, the I-band light curves are important for several reasons. First, they provide conﬁrmation of the variables as Cepheids, since the V and I light curves should track each other, with the latter displaying an amplitude of about half of that of the former. Second, the V I colors should be consistent with those of Cepheids in the instability strip. − Third, and most important, the I-band data provide the only means of correcting the observed distance modulus µV for extinction through the relation

µ0 = µV V I EV I (4.1) − R − −

where V I = 2.45 is the adopted ratio of total-to-selective extinction for the R − V -band (Cardelli et al. 1989) and EV I is the mean color excess of the Cepheid − sample ( 4.6 contains a calculation of the value of V I ). This approach makes the § R − true distance modulus quite sensitive to both V I and EV I . A better procedure R − − (Freedman & Madore 1990) involves ﬁtting a standard extinction curve through observed distance moduli at several wavelengths (usually B, V , R and I) and The Extragalactic Distance Scale 145

1 extrapolating the ﬁt to λ− = 0. This approach is less susceptible to uncertainties in the individual observed distance moduli, and can also be used to test the assumed reddening law.

As the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale started its ﬁnal cycle of observations, a subset of the team joined forces with colleagues outside the group to extend the work further into the infrared. Our aim was to perform random-phase near-IR photometry of a sample of Cepheids in fourteen galaxies and to combine the new and existing observed distance moduli. Such a data set would allow us to improve the derivation of true distance moduli, check the assumptions behind Equation 4.1, and perhaps explore the eﬀects of metallicity on the Cepheid distance scale.

This chapter is organized as follows: 4.2 describes the observations and § the data reduction pipeline; 4.3 delineates the steps followed to obtain accurate § and precise photometry in our fields; 4.4 presents the Cepheid sample, period- § luminosity relations, and observed distance moduli; 4.5 discusses the possible § effects of blending in an inner field of M101; and 4.6 studies the correlation § between color excesses and its relation to the extinction law.

4.2 Observations and Data Reduction

4.2.1 Observations

The HST Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrograph (NICMOS) instrument (Thompson 1993), with its high spatial resolution and low thermal background, was uniquely suited to carry out the observations required by our program. NICMOS contains three cameras (named 1, 2 and 3) which illuminate Rockwell 256 256 HgCdTe arrays. The cameras have different pixel scales × (000.043, 000.076 and 000.2, respectively), resulting in fields-of-view of 1100, 1900 and 5100, respectively. Since Cepheids are scattered throughout the spiral arms of the target galaxies, we chose Camera 2 (hereafter NIC2) as it provided the best trade-off 146 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri between resolution and coverage.

The fourteen galaxies selected for this study are listed in Table 4.1. The selection of specific fields within each galaxy was based on known positions and periods of Cepheids, in order to maximize the number of variables and our coverage of the Period-Luminosity plane. We observed two fields in M101, matching those observed by Stetson et al. (1998) and Kelson et al. (1996). These will be hereafter referred to as “M101-Inner” and “M101-Outer.”

The observations followed the standard SPIRAL-DITH pattern, with two to four pointings depending on the field and filter used. Exposure times for each pointing ranged from 16s for M31 to 640s for the most distant galaxies. Some of the latter fields were imaged multiple times in order to increase measurement precision.

4.2.2 Data reduction

Once NICMOS had been installed on board HST, several instrument characteristics were discovered. One is a variable additive bias (called “pedestal”) introduced during array reset, which has a different amplitude in each of the four quadrants that make up the array. Because HgCdTe arrays do not have overscan regions, it is impossible to automatically remove this effect in the STScI pipeline. Therefore, the bias offset is modulated by the flat field and appears as an inverse flat-field pattern in the final image. A second characteristic of the detectors is a noiseless signal gradient (called “shading”), which is a temperature- and pixel- dependent bias that changes in the direction of pixel clocking during read-out. This presented a problem because the original implementation of the STScI processing pipeline did not use temperature-dependent darks. The combination of “pedestal” and “shading,” resulted in images with prominent spurious features. The level of photometric precision required by our program made it necessary to remove these instrumental effects. We did so by retrieving the raw frames from the STScI Archive and reprocessing them as described below. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 147

Table 4.1. Log of observations

Galaxy Number Filter Exp. time name of ﬁelds /ﬁeld (s)

IC1613 6 F110W 32 F160W 128 IC4182 4 F160W 1152 M31 18 F110W 46 F160W 89 F205W 285 M81 2 F160W 1280 M101 8 F110W 512 F160W 2048 N0925 2 F160W 2560 N1365 2 F160W 5120 N2090 2 F160W 2560 N2403 2 F160W 1280 N3198 2 F160W 2560 N3621 1 F160W 5120 N4496A 1 F160W 10240 N4536 1 F160W 10240 N5253 5 F160W 973 148 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The reprocessing of the data was performed using the NICMOS pipeline present in IRAF/STSDAS with some modifications. First, temperature-dependent dark frames were generated and used when running the first part of the pipeline (a program called calnicA). This removed the “shading” effect.

The “pedestal” effect was corrected using a program outside of the standard pipeline, courtesy of R. van der Marel (STScI). The program read in an image created by calnicA, removed the flat-fielding imposed by it, and executed a loop to identify the pedestal. The pedestal is in fact measured by exploiting the property that a flat-fielded bias imparts fluctuations on the background of the final image. The fluctuations reach a minimum when the pedestal is removed completely. Once a robust minimum was found in each of the quadrants, the best-fit pedestals were removed. Lastly, the image was flat-fielded and written to disk.

Having obtained images with proper zero, dark and flat-field corrections, the second part of the pipeline (calnicB) was run to combine the dithered pointings of each target field and produce a final mosaic. In addition, we used the dither package to produce higher-resolution mosaics of the M101 fields in the F160W band. This was possible thanks to the existence of four pointings per field in that galaxy.

4.3 Photometry

4.3.1 Technique

The mosaics were analyzed with the DAOPHOT II/ ALLSTAR software package (Stetson 1994). Objects were detected with the FIND routine set to a threshold of 3σ above sky, and aperture photometry was carried out with the PHOT routine, using different apertures and sky annuli for each filter (see below for details). Point-spread functions were determined by the PSF routine for each field using bright, isolated stars present in the frame. After an initial ALLSTAR run, the star-subtracted frame was put through the FIND algorithm once more to pick up The Extragalactic Distance Scale 149

any additional 3σ objects. Object lists were merged and ALLSTAR was run one last time on the original image.

PSF magnitudes were brought onto a consistent aperture magnitude system using DAOGROW (see Stetson 1990 for details; only a short summary is presented here). Aperture photometry was obtained for PSF stars in each ﬁeld ( 450 in ∼ total) using a monotonically increasing set of radii. DAOGROW then solved for a function representing the “growth curve”, i.e., the change in aperture magnitude as a function of radius. The cumulative growth curves for the F110W, F160W and F205W bands are shown in Figure 4.1. Other programs in the DAOPHOT suite used this information to transform PSF magnitudes to aperture magnitudes for objects of interest in each frame.

4.3.2 Absolute photometric calibrations

The NICMOS primary standards are G191-B2B, a white dwarf, and P330-E, a solar analog. These two stars provide absolute calibration in the white dwarf and solar analog scales, respectively. Since Cepheids have colors similar to those of solar analog stars, we used P330-E for the determination of magnitude zeropoints. We used NICMOS observations of G191-B2B, P330-E, and P117-D (another solar analog standard) for the determination of color terms. Ground-based JHK photometry for NICMOS standards comes from Persson et al. (1998).

Magnitude zeropoints

Our deﬁnition of J, H and K zeropoints is based on diﬀerent apertures and sky annuli for each band, to match the noticeable increase in FWHM as a function of wavelength. Table 4.2 lists our choices of aperture radius and inner and outer sky annuli for each of the three bandpasses. In the case of the drizzled M101 F160W images, which have twice the spatial resolution, all radii were increased by a factor of two in pixel units so they would subtend the same angular size.

Marcia Rieke kindly provided us with synthetic (TinyTim) stellar images as 150 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.1.— Cumulative growth curves for the F110W, F160W and F205W bands derived by DAOGROW. Aperture and inner and outer sky radii are listed in each panel and in Table 4.2. One pixel equals 000.075.

Table 4.2. Photometry apertures

Filter Aperture Sky annulus Magnitude

pix 00 pix 00 zeropoint

F110W 7 0.53 14–20 1.05–1.50 22.141 (008) F160W 10 0.75 20–30 1.50–2.25 21.617 (006) F205W 14 1.05 30–40 2.25–3.00 21.831 (008) The Extragalactic Distance Scale 151

well as NICMOS observations of P330-E, which we used to derive the magnitude zeropoints for our choices of aperture and sky annuli. First, we computed the ratio of TinyTim counts to observed NICMOS count rates for P330-E as a function of aperture radius. We found this ratio to be constant, at the 0.05%, 0.03%, and 1.77% levels for F110W, F160W and F205W, respectively, over a large range in radius (5–25 pixels). This conﬁrmed that the TinyTim image was a good representation of the actual system PSF.

We then re-scaled the TinyTim image (in arbitrary units) to match the actual mean observed count rate of P330-E; this produced a synthetic image of P330-E that could be used to perform aperture measurements on a “perfect” image free of defects, cosmic rays, or any other source of scatter found in real images. Next, we ran DAOPHOT’s PHOT routine on the synthetic P330-E images using the same aperture and sky annuli as for the Cepheid photometry. DAOPHOT quoted measurement errors of 0.004 mag for these magnitudes. Lastly, we combined the Persson et al. (1998) standard magnitudes and the DAOPHOT NICMOS instrumental magnitudes for P330-E to arrive at our magnitude zeropoints, listed in Table 4.2.

Color terms

Since the NICMOS filters are not exact matches to the standard filters, color term corrections had to be determined. Synthetic spectra of the NICMOS standards were created based on Kurucz’ latest solar-abundance models. These model spectra were convolved with two sets of transmission curves: one contained the NICMOS filter responses plus the quantum efficiency of camera 2, while the other was based on standard filter responses plus an atmospheric transmission curve. This allowed us to predict F110W, F160W, F205W, J, H and K magnitudes for the NICMOS standards. We then compared our results with published values (Persson et al. 1998) and found negligible offsets of 0.002 0.003 mag for J and H and a small ± offset of 0.022 0.001 mag for K. ± We used the same model atmospheres and transmission curves described 152 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

above to generate synthetic spectra for a variety of spectral types (F, G and K) and luminosity classes (I and V). We compared the values of F 110W J h − i and F 160W H as a function of F 110W F 160W as well as the values of h − i h − i F 205W K as a function of F 160W F 205W . We found h − i h − i

F 110W J = 0.013( 0.006) + 0.315( 0.011) F 110W F 160W (4.2) h − i ± ± h − i F 160W H = 0.003( 0.002) + 0.071( 0.005) F 110W F 160W (4.3) h − i ± ± h − i F 205W K = 0.053( 0.008) 0.556( 0.085) F 160W F 205W (4.4) h − i ± − ± h − i where F 110W F 160W and F 160W F 205W are the mean instrumental h − i h − i colors of the star to be corrected. These formulae are suitable for correcting our data since our F110W, F160W and F205W observations were taken within minutes of each other.

The mean values of the corrections were 0.23 0.11 mag for F 110W J , ± h − i 0.05 0.02 mag for F 160W H and 0.04 0.08 mag for F 205W K . Note ± h − i − ± h − i that an exact correction for F 160W H was only applied to the stars in the h − i IC 1613, M31, M101-Inner and M101-Outer ﬁelds. The other ﬁelds were observed only in F160W and therefore only an average H-band correction of 0.03 mag could be applied, based on a mean Cepheid F 110W F 160W color of 0.46 mag. h − i

4.3.3 Photometric recovery tests

The dense nature of most of our fields makes it difficult to obtain accurate values of the local sky around each object and to perform unbiased magnitude measurements. This effect is commonly referred to as “crowding”. In order to characterize its impact on our measurements, we injected artificial stars into each field and compared their input magnitudes with the recovered values. We used the point-spread functions derived for each field to generate the artificial stars, which were placed randomly across each field. The objects spanned a magnitude range including that encompassed by the variables. In the case of the M101 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 153

fields, we injected artificial stars into the original-resolution mosaics as well as the higher-resolution ones created by drizzling. We re-ran our photometry programs on the new images and searched the new star lists to locate the artificial stars.

The results of the tests are presented in Figure 4.2 and summarized in Table 4.3. Figure 4.2a contains plots of the difference between input and recovered magnitudes as a function of magnitude for each field. The bottom panel of Figure 4.2b shows the strong correlation that exists between the crowding bias and the stellar density of each field. The effect ranges from 0.01 mag for the least crowded fields to 0.09 mag for the denser ones. All magnitudes were corrected for this effect.

In addition to these “crowding” tests, we also undertook simulations to estimate the contamination of Cepheid magnitudes by unresolved nearby stars. These “blending” tests are presented in 4.5. §

4.3.4 Photometry checks

We performed several internal and external photometry checks to ensure the accuracy and precision of our magnitudes. We tested our aperture correction technique by comparing our corrected magnitudes against “standard” aperture magnitudes for stars in the IC 1613 fields. We found no significant difference (< 0.01 mag) between the two sets. We also tested the repeatability of our PSF photometry by comparing magnitudes of objects that appeared twice in our data set, due to some overlap between different fields in M81 and M101. We found that the magnitude differences were consistent with the reported uncertainties.

We also performed an external photometry check by comparing HST and ground-based photometry of bright, isolated stars in our IC 1613 ﬁelds. The ground-based photometry was obtained at the Las Campanas 2.5-m du Pont telescope using its infrared camera (Persson et al. 1992) over fourteen nights between November 1993 and November 1996. Photometry was conducted using DAOPHOT II/ALLSTAR and DAOGROW (as described in 4.3.1) on 19 stars § 154 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.2a.— Results of the photometric recovery tests described in 4.3.3. Each § panel represents one of the field/filter combinations which yielded useful data. In- put magnitudes are plotted on the ordinate, while the abscissa shows differences between the input and the recovered magnitudes. Averages over 0.25 mag are plotted using filled circles. The dashed vertical lines mark the faint end of the Cepheid distribution. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 155

Fig. 4.2b.— Results of the photometric recovery tests described in 4.3.3. Corre- § lation between stellar density and crowding bias; ﬁlled circles represent the data found in Table 4.3. The solid line is derived from a linear least-squares ﬁt to the data. 156 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 4.3. Results of the photometric recovery tests

Field Oﬀset Log (N/ (mag) sq pix)

IC 1613 0.007 0.005 -2.93 ± IC 4182 0.013 0.006 -2.28 ± M31 0.009 0.007 -2.19 ± M81 0.085 0.043 -1.49 ± M101-Inner (o) 0.069 0.033 -1.55 ± M101-Inner (d) 0.030 0.033 -2.16 ± M101-Outer (o) 0.026 0.019 -2.37 ± M101-Outer (d) 0.022 0.028 -2.97 ± NGC 925 0.084 0.032 -1.54 ± NGC 1365 0.093 0.043 -1.49 ± NGC 2090 0.024 0.029 -2.05 ± NGC 3198 0.073 0.017 -1.56 ± NGC 3621 0.111 0.034 -1.55 ± NGC 4496A 0.077 0.039 -1.60 ± NGC 4536 0.083 0.031 -1.57 ± Note:(d): drizzled; (o): original The Extragalactic Distance Scale 157 common to our ground-based and HST images. Table 4.4 lists their magnitudes and Figure 4.3 shows a comparison of the two systems; the mean oﬀset is 0.011 0.061 mag, in the sense that the HST magnitudes are marginally brighter. ± Unfortunately, there was no published J- or K-band photometry available for stars in any of our ﬁelds, so we were unable to check our transformation of NICMOS F110W and F205W magnitudes.

4.4 The Cepheid sample

4.4.1 Sample selection and identiﬁcation

As described in 4.2.1, we targeted specific fields within each galaxy in order to § maximize the number of variables and our coverage of the Period-Luminosity plane. We selected the variables in each galaxy based on published catalogs, applying the following selection criteria: i) existence of both V and I photometry; ii) range in color of 0.5 < V I < 1.75; iii) periods between 10 days and the width of − the observing window (applicable to Cepheids discovered with HST). Our fields contained 93 variables that met these criteria.

Cepheids in M31 and IC1613 were identified by visual inspection, using finding charts created from ground-based images. These fields are sparse enough that identifications did not present a problem, and twelve variables were located. In the case of the other galaxies, identifications followed a more rigorous process. First, the FITS header coordinates for the center of the mosaic were used to obtain a rough alignment and rotation relative to an optical image (from WFPC2 in most cases). Next, bright stars present in both the optical and the near-IR images were identified and used as input to the IRAF task geomap to determine the geometric transformations between the images. Lastly, the task geoxytran was used to predict the coordinates of 81 variables.

The DAOPHOT star lists generated in 4.3.1 were used to locate the object § nearest to the predicted position of the variables. In general, counterparts were 158 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 4.4. Secondary standards in the IC 1613 ﬁeld

Star R.A. Dec. HST LCO (2000.0) J H H

01 01:04:43.101 +02:05:18.31 18.43 0.14 17.67 0.02 17.67 0.06 ± ± ± 02 01:04:43.775 +02:05:21.84 19.82 0.19 19.14 0.08 19.23 0.07 ± ± ± 03 01:04:43.898 +02:05:25.48 18.85 0.05 18.84 0.03 ··· ± ± 04 01:04:43.997 +02:05:23.95 18.05 0.05 17.23 0.02 17.31 0.10 ± ± ± 05 01:04:44.095 +02:05:25.68 19.21 0.08 19.23 0.06 ··· ± ± 06 01:04:44.330 +02:05:33.52 18.97 0.05 18.92 0.04 ··· ± ± 07 01:04:44.492 +02:05:25.27 18.78 0.04 18.71 0.05 ··· ± ± 08 01:04:44.599 +02:05:18.94 18.91 0.10 19.00 0.08 ··· ± ± 19 01:04:47.897 +02:05:09.59 19.35 0.17 18.55 0.08 18.56 0.04 ± ± ± 10 01:04:48.192 +02:05:08.14 19.27 0.17 18.53 0.04 18.62 0.01 ± ± ± 11 01:04:48.273 +02:05:06.92 18.29 0.10 17.46 0.02 17.38 0.03 ± ± ± 12 01:04:50.808 +02:04:41.49 19.91 0.11 19.98 0.03 ··· ± ± 13 01:04:51.006 +02:04:47.48 20.41 0.32 19.64 0.10 19.59 0.01 ± ± ± 14 01:04:51.142 +02:05:28.80 19.90 0.23 19.37 0.07 19.36 0.08 ± ± ± 15 01:04:51.368 +02:05:29.27 19.74 0.07 19.78 0.07 ··· ± ± 16 01:04:51.478 +02:05:32.47 19.75 0.23 19.01 0.05 18.99 0.16 ± ± ± 17 01:04:51.553 +02:05:19.08 19.01 0.07 18.98 0.08 ··· ± ± 18 01:04:51.728 +02:05:36.74 19.83 0.25 19.11 0.06 19.05 0.09 ± ± ± 19 01:04:51.732 +02:05:21.78 19.45 0.06 19.55 0.07 ··· ± ± Mean ∆H (LCO-HST): +0.011 0.061 ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 159

Fig. 4.3.— Comparison of ground-based and HST H-band photometry for bright, isolated stars in the IC 1613 ﬁeld listed in Table 4.4. A mean oﬀset of 0.011 ± 0.061 mag is indicated by solid and dashed lines. 160 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

found within one pixel of their predicted location. Figure 4.4 shows the distribution of diﬀerences between the predicted and actual positions. Based on this ﬁgure,

we decided to reject any candidate located more than 1.5 pixels (000.11) away from its predicted position. This process resulted in the rejection of 11 possible counterparts.

In order to further discriminate between real counterparts and field contaminants, we plotted V H vs. V I colors for all remaining candidates. − − Cepheids follow a vector that is a combination of two closely degenerate quantities: the reddening trajectory and the color-color relation for these bands. Several objects deviate significantly from the rest of the sample; we suspect these are variables which are blended with unresolved red or blue companions. We performed a least-squares fit to the sample, using a fixed slope of V H/V I= 1.71 (the − − average of the reddening and color-color slopes). The color-color diagram is shown in Figure 4.5a; the solid line indicates the fixed-slope color-color relation fitted to the points, and the dashed lines correspond to twice the r.m.s. deviation, or 0.46 mag. We rejected twelve possible counterparts that fell outside of the dashed boundaries.

Figure 4.5b shows a histogram of the deviations from the best-ﬁt line. The asymmetric distribution of the outliers is to be expected, since we are more likely to detect a Cepheid that is blended with a red (i.e., IR-bright) ﬁeld star than with a blue (i.e., IR-faint) one. Note that this color-color rejection process is insensitive to blends of Cepheids with stars of similar colors, a point to which we will return later.

In conclusion, our final sample consists of 70 variables (93 original candidates – 11 astrometric rejections – 12 color-color rejections). Finding charts for fields containing at least one variable are shown in Figures 4.6a-4.6f, while Figures 4.7a- 4.7b contain close-up views of each object. Table 4.5 presents periods and magnitudes for the final Cepheid sample. We include in this Table the previously- published optical magnitudes of the variables. There are minor variations in the V and I zeropoints used in the different sources of optical photometry, reflecting the The Extragalactic Distance Scale 161

Fig. 4.4.— Histogram of radial distances between predicted positions of our variables and the location of the nearest object in the frame. We rejected 11 candidates whose distance between these two positions was larger than 1.5 pixels. 162 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.5a.— Color-color diagram for the 82 candidates which passed the astrometry test. Filled and open symbols indicate the candidates that passed and failed this test, respectively. The solid line is a least-squares ﬁt to a color/color relation with a slope of 1.71 (see text for details). The Extragalactic Distance Scale 163

Fig. 4.5b.— Histogram of the deviations from the best-ﬁt line of Figure 4.5a. We rejected 12 candidates with deviations larger than twice the rms. 164 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.6a.— Images of all ﬁelds that contain at least one variable. The images are full-frame F160W mosaics, spanning 2400. The galaxy name and the STScI- assigned mosaic identiﬁcation are displayed∼ in each image. Small circles indicate the location of the Cepheids used in this work. The variable names match those of Table 4.5. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 165

Fig. 4.6b.— continued. 166 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.6c.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 167

Fig. 4.6d.— continued. 168 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.6e.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 169

Fig. 4.6f.— continued. 170 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.7a.— Individual ﬁnding charts for all Cepheids used in this work. Each box is

38 pixels or 300 on a side. Cepheids are marked by a small circle. The designation ∼ of each star is shown in the upper-left corner of each box. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 171

Fig. 4.7b.— continued. 172 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 4.5. Cepheid magnitudes

Field Var. P H J K V I

IC 1613 V01 5.6 19.66 (11) 20.25 (24) 20.79 20.14 [1] V14 5.1 19.49 (07) 19.81 (19) ··· 20.89 20.12 [1] V34 8.5 19.01 (06) 19.54 (14) ··· 20.74 20.03 [1] V37 12.4 18.60 (04) 18.88 (08) ··· 20.27 19.42 [1] IC 4182 C3V12 36.3 20.51 (05) ··· 22.36 21.57 [2] C4V11 42.0 20.44 (11) ······ 22.33 21.40 [2] M31-F1 H17 18.8 18.01 (06) 19.19······ (09) 17.89 (04) 19.80 (10) 19.00 (10) [3] V120 44.9 16.83 (05) 17.13 (06) 16.75 (03) 19.50 (10) 18.20 (10) [3] -F3 H29 19.5 17.93 (05) 18.29 (08) 17.87 (03) 20.60 (10) 19.45 (10) [3] V404 17.4 18.13 (07) 18.63 (12) 18.11 (06) 20.80 (10) 19.60 (10) [3] V427 11.3 18.88 (06) 19.18 (11) 18.81 (04) 21.00 (10) 20.05 (10) [3] V423 14.4 17.90 (07) 18.74 (12) 17.82 (04) 21.00 (10) 19.65 (10) [3] -F4 V08 9.6 18.82 (05) 19.24 (07) 18.80 (06) 20.40 (10) 19.70 (10) [3] V09 8.5 19.42 (08) 20.19 (22) 19.33 (06) 20.60 (10) 20.00 (10) [3] M81 C06 40.8 20.33 (08) 22.26 21.36 [4] C07 27.2 20.77 (09) ······ 22.60 21.69 [4] C10 12.8 21.69 (08) ······ 22.91 22.29 [4] C11 47.2 20.05 (10) ······ 22.46 21.30 [4] C13 18.6 21.73 (08) ······ 23.56 22.75 [4] C15 11.2 21.99 (12) ······ 23.84 22.96 [4] M101- C051 13.0 22.78 (15) 23.39······ (32) 24.89 (03) 23.96 (05) [5] Inner C161 23.9 21.78 (05) 22.49 (20) ··· 24.36 (02) 23.33 (03) [5] C172 15.4 22.93 (09) 23.46 (42) ··· 24.92 (02) 23.84 (04) [5] C186 27.8 21.87 (05) 22.55 (22) ··· 25.14 (03) 23.55 (04) [5] C192 73.8 20.89 (03) 21.19 (12) ··· 23.00 (02) 21.89 (02) [5] C194 44.8 21.47 (04) 22.27 (16) ··· 24.26 (02) 22.93 (03) [5] C205 26.1 22.02 (05) 22.33 (24) ··· 23.56 (01) 22.80 (03) [5] C212 29.4 21.91 (05) 22.18 (19) ··· 24.09 (01) 23.04 (01) [5] M101- C01 58.5 21.14 (04) 21.55 (09) ··· 23.83 (07) 22.42 (09) [6] Outer C06 45.8 21.37 (06) 21.81 (13) ··· 23.47 (07) 22.62 (13) [6] C07 43.0 22.04 (07) 22.42 (18) ··· 23.75 (08) 22.84 (08) [6] C08 41.0 21.69 (07) 22.45 (41) ··· 23.88 (08) 23.00 (09) [6] C10 37.6 22.18 (05) 22.65 (12) ··· 24.01 (08) 22.94 (16) [6] C20 42.5 21.91 (06) 22.61 (16) ··· 24.11 (07) 22.93 (08) [6] C24 23.5 22.46 (09) 22.72 (15) ··· 24.25 (09) 23.55 (09) [6] C26 17.7 23.03 (19) 23.33 (18) ··· 24.66 (09) 23.82 (09) [6] NGC 925 C06 43.2 22.48 (09) ··· 24.55 (10) 23.47 (10) [7] C08 37.3 22.23 (07) ······ 24.65 (10) 23.63 (10) [7] C09 35.1 22.36 (09) ······ 24.79 (10) 23.74 (10) [7] C13 30.4 22.60 (15) ······ 24.64 (10) 23.55 (10) [7] C17 28.5 23.14 (10) ······ 25.14 (10) 23.94 (10) [7] C24 25.3 22.52 (09) ······ 25.11 (10) 23.94 (10) [7] C26 23.7 22.83 (10) ······ 25.02 (10) 23.98 (10) [7] C33 21.5 22.86 (11) ······ 24.54 (10) 23.92 (10) [7] ······ The Extragalactic Distance Scale 173

Table 4.5—Continued

Field Var. P H J K V I

C41 18.3 23.47 (26) 25.55 (10) 24.59 (10) [7] C50 16.4 23.45 (14) ······ 25.01 (10) 24.41 (10) [7] NGC 1365 C01 60.0 23.40 (24) ······ 25.66 (07) 24.40 (07) [8] C04 55.0 22.77 (11) ······ 25.52 (06) 24.29 (06) [8] C06 47.0 23.84 (31) ······ 26.08 (09) 25.19 (09) [8] NGC 2090 C03 48.8 23.25 (16) ······ 25.07 24.07 [9] C18 23.7 23.70 (21) ······ 25.61 24.69 [9] C21 18.5 23.81 (20) ······ 25.60 24.78 [9] C23 17.3 23.82 (22) ······ 25.51 24.84 [9] NGC 3198 C03 26.4 23.03 (12) ······ 25.32 (12) 24.44 (09) [10] C06 18.7 23.71 (22) ······ 25.82 (09) 25.05 (12) [10] C10 45.1 22.68 (10) ······ 24.97 (10) 23.98 (11) [10] NGC 3621 C16 31.2 21.99 (12) ······ 24.50 (03) 23.28 (04) [11] C17 28.3 21.86 (07) ······ 23.89 (03) 22.84 (04) [11] C32 23.5 22.00 (14) ······ 24.11 (04) 23.26 (08) [11] C35 22.8 22.78 (10) ······ 24.77 (03) 23.60 (05) [11] C66 11.9 22.87 (10) ······ 25.57 (06) 24.23 (08) [11] NGC 4496A C44 36.1 23.89 (15) ······ 25.65 (03) 24.61 (05) [12] C46 25.1 24.36 (31) ······ 25.72 (02) 24.97 (05) [12] C47 38.5 23.54 (11) ······ 25.50 (02) 24.67 (05) [12] C50 46.2 23.13 (07) ······ 25.41 (02) 24.28 (03) [12] C59 22.2 24.20 (19) ······ 25.98 (03) 24.95 (08) [12] C60 33.8 23.56 (16) ······ 25.04 (02) 24.37 (04) [12] C67 39.3 23.68 (12) ······ 26.02 (03) 24.82 (05) [12] NGC 4536 C2-V4 28.7 24.18 (18) ······ 25.81 (18) 25.06 (15) [13] C2-V9 58.0 23.50 (11) ······ 25.39 (12) 24.45 (11) [13] ······

References. — [1]: Freedman (1988); [2]: Saha et al. (1994); [3]: Madore (priv. comm.); [4]: Freedman et al. (1994) [5]: Stetson et al. (1998); [6]: Kelson et al. (1996); [7]: Silbermann et al. (1996); [8]: Silbermann et al. (1999); [9]: Phelps et al. (1998); [10]: Kelson et al. (1999); [11]: Rawson et al. (1997); [12]: Gibson et al. (2000); [13]: Saha et al. (1996) 174 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

evolution in our knowledge of the HST calibration from 1994 to the present (see Mould et al. 2000 for details). For our target galaxies, the mean diﬀerence between the various calibrations used in the published papers and the current calibration (Stetson 1998) amounts to 0.03 0.03 mag in V, 0.05 0.04 mag in I and − ± − ± +0.02 0.02 mag in V I. ± −

4.4.2 Period-Luminosity relations

The method used to derive observed distance moduli is the same as that used by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (see Freedman et al. 2001, for details). It is based on the Period-Luminosity relations of individually de-reddened LMC Cepheids from Udalski et al. (1999) (V and I) and Persson et

al. (2001) (J, H and K), scaled to an assumed true distance modulus of µ0,LMC = 18.50 0.10 mag (total uncertainty). The relations are: ±

MV = 2.76( 0.03) [log P 1] 4.22( 0.02), (4.5) − ± − − ± MI = 2.96( 0.02) [log P 1] 4.90( 0.01), (4.6) − ± − − ± MH = 3.23( 0.04) [log P 1] 5.66( 0.05), (4.7) − ± − − ± MJ = 3.15( 0.05) [log P 1] 5.32( 0.06), (4.8) − ± − − ± MK = 3.26( 0.04) [log P 1] 5.73( 0.05). (4.9) − ± − − ±

In fitting the data from each field and filter, we fix the slope to the one given in the corresponding equation and obtain a magnitude shift by minimizing the unweighted rms dispersion. The resulting magnitude shifts are converted to observed distance moduli by subtracting the relevant magnitude zeropoint.

4.4.3 Observed distance moduli

Period-Luminosity relations were constructed for each field and filter using the data listed in Table 4.5 and fitted using Equations 4.5-4.9. Figures 4.8a-4.8f show The Extragalactic Distance Scale 175

our near-IR P-L relations, while Figures 4.9a-4.9e present the optical ones. In each panel, the solid line represents the results of the ﬁtting process described in 4.4.2 while the dashed lines indicate the rms uncertainty of the ﬁt. Fit results are § displayed in each panel and listed in Tables 4.6 and 4.7.

We also tabulate in Table 4.6 the published distance moduli for these galaxies (mostly from Table 4 of Freedman et al. 2001), determined from substantially larger samples of variables and using the Stetson (1998) zeropoints. The optical distance moduli determined from our smaller samples should not take precedence over the above values.

4.5 Blending eﬀects in M101 Inner

As mentioned in the introduction, one of the motivations of this project was to further study the metallicity dependence of the Cepheid Period-Luminosity relation. Our data can contribute to these studies on two ways: first, a global test of the metallicity dependence can be performed by analyzing the apparent distance moduli of all galaxies; second, a differential test of the effect can be performed by analyzing the distance moduli to two regions of the same galaxy, provided they differ significantly in abundance. The first approach was undertaken by Kochanek (1997), while the second one was followed by Freedman & Madore (1990) in M31 and by Kennicutt et al. (1998) in M101. The differential test is a challenging one, because the Inner field of M101 deviates substantially from other Key Project fields in terms of surface brightness and stellar density.

Our near-infrared distance moduli to the inner and outer fields in M101 exhibit large differences: ∆µH = 0.46 0.12 mag and ∆µJ = 0.37 0.12 mag. If ± ± taken at face value, they imply a very large metallicity dependence, of the order of 0.6 mag/dex. However, other observational effects could be contributing to the observed differences in distance moduli. One of them is “blending”, or the contamination of Cepheid fluxes by nearby stars, not physically associated with the variables, that fall within the NICMOS seeing disk and cannot be resolved. This 176 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.8a.— Near-infrared Period-Luminosity relations for all field/filter combinations. Field name, observed distance modulus and its uncertainty appear in the top-left corner of each panel. Solid lines indicate fitting results while dashed ones indicate the rms uncertainties. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 177

Fig. 4.8b.— continued. 178 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.8c.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 179

Fig. 4.8d.— continued. 180 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.8e.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 181

Fig. 4.8f.— continued. 182 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.9a.— Optical Period-Luminosity relations for all field/filter combinations. Field name, observed distance modulus and its uncertainty appear in the top-left corner of each panel. Solid lines indicate fitting results while dashed ones indicate the rms uncertainties. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 183

Fig. 4.9b.— continued. 184 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.9c.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 185

Fig. 4.9d.— continued. 186 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.9e.— continued. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 187 Ref. N V µ I distance moduli N µ V and I V , µ H I µ Table 4.6. Observed H µ References. — [1]:Freedman (1988); [2]:Freedman et al. (2001); [3]:Stetson et al. (1998). FieldIC 1613IC 4182 24.43M31 (08) 24.44 (13) 28.05M81 (07) This 24.53 work (13) 28.14 (01)M101-Inner 4 28.20 24.54 (07) 29.04 (08) (08)M101-Outer 24.39 24.94 (09) 2 29.37 29.45 (09) 27.91 (10) (08) (08)NGC 24.50 0925 25.23 (09) 28.33 29.71 29.58 (17) 28.02 (06) (18) (09) (13) 9NGC 28.37 1365 9 29.77 28.15 (07) 29.84 8 (09) (17) (08) 27 24.76 [1] NGC 30.08 29.31 2090 (05) 8 6 (05) 31.36 (06) (27) [2] 25.01 30.30 29.49 29.33 (07) 28.03NGC (10) 31.69 (08) (05) 3198 (07) (21) 30.57 (20) 37 10 61 29.46 28.22 31.99 (07) (09)NGC (11) 30.66 3621 (13) 30.25 30.12 [2] (12) (03) [3] 25 17 3 30.75NGC (18) 30.72 30.33 Published 4496A (07) (04) 29.09 [2] [2] (15) 31.49 (04) 4 31.12 30.83 72 (07)NGC (09) 29.38 4536 (10) 31.69 (05) 30.54 31.12 [2] (04) 3 (09) 29.75 (16) 47 31.47 30.71 31.29 (15) (05) 30.89 (14) (04) 5 [2] 31.46 30 (15) 31.04 7 (05) 29.61 (05) 31.51 [2] (21) 31.00 36 (03) 29.97 (07) 2 31.14 [2] (03) 59 31.06 94 (04) [2] 31.24 [2] (04) 35 [2] 188 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 4.7. Observed J and K distance moduli

Field Filter µ N

IC 1613 J 24.53 (12) 4 M31 J 24.77 (13) 9 M31 K 24.55 (08) 9 M101-Inner J 29.19 (08) 8 M101-Outer J 29.53 (03) 8

Fig. 4.10.— Simulated M101 Inner fields, based on our observations of M31 (right) and M81 (left) fields. These were used to study the effects of blending in our M101 Inner Cepheids. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 189 effect has been the subject of a recent investigation in the optical by Mochejska et al. (2000).

One way to characterize the effect of blending on our distance determination to M101-Inner is to move nearby, well-resolved fields to the distance of M101, re-observe Cepheids in these fields, and compare the resulting magnitudes with the ones obtained from the original images. Our program contains observations of two suitable galaxies: M31 and M81. The fields observed in these galaxies show similar stellar densities and mean nearest-neighbor distances between Cepheids when compared to our M101-Inner fields. We used our two M81 fields as well as fourteen of our M31 fields, which were located in Fields I and III of Baade & Swope (1965).

We started by collecting the positions and magnitudes reported by ALLSTAR for all objects in our input fields. The separation between stars were reduced by the ratio of distances between the input galaxies and the M101-Outer field (D(M101/M31) = 10.1 and D(M101/M81) = 2.2). The input magnitudes were corrected for the exposure time of the original frames and distance to the input galaxies, and then modified to reflect the distance of M101 and the exposure time of the M101 frames. The stars were added to blank frames using the ADDSTAR routine found in DAOPHOT, which takes into account the properties of the detector and the PSF, as well as photon statistics. The artificial fields are shown in Figure 4.10 and compare favorably with the actual M101-Inner images shown in Figures 4.6c and 4.6d.

Once the artificial fields had been generated, they were photometered in exactly the same way as our real data. To identify the variables in our artificial frames, we used the input positions as the equivalent of the astrometric information available for the real data, and searched for the objects nearest to those positions, subject to the same 1.5-pixel rejection criterion from 4.4.1. All Cepheids that were § recovered were located at distances smaller than the rejection limit.

Figure 4.11 shows the P-L relations obtained from the simulation, compared with the original input data. Seven long period Cepheids (P > 20 d) exhibit changes in magnitude of order 0.1-0.2 mag, most of them being in the expected 190 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 4.11.— Period-Luminosity relations of our simulated M101 Inner fields shown in Figure 4.10. Filled triangles indicate the input magnitudes of the Cepheids (as observed in our original M31 and M81 fields). Circles represent the recovered magnitudes for the same variables. Filled and open circles are used to indicate whether the recovered Cepheids would have passed or failed the color-color test of 4.4.1. § Dashed and solid lines denote the P-L fits of the input and recovered magnitudes, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 191

direction (i.e., towards brighter magnitudes). In the case of the eight Cepheids with short periods (P < 20 d), one was not recovered, four exhibited large variations (which would have resulted in their rejection based on color-color criteria), and three had very modest changes in magnitude.

The resulting distance moduli are smaller than the input ones by 0-0.2 mag, depending on the period cutoff applied to these small samples. The rms scatter of the relations do not increase significantly, once the short-period outliers are removed from the fits. We therefore conclude that a substantial fraction of the difference in distance moduli between M101-Inner and M101-Outer could be due to blending, preventing us from performing a differential determination of the metallicity effect.

4.6 Consistency of reddening determinations

Another goal of this project is to test whether the mean V I color excess, EV I , − − is an appropriate indicator of total extinction and whether it can be used to obtain true distance moduli. One could claim that the range in wavelength between these 1 two bands is too small to allow a good extrapolation to λ− = 0. There is also no

guarantee that a “standard” value of V I is applicable to other galaxies. If EV I R − − is indeed a good indicator of reddening, and if a standard reddening law (Cardelli et al. 1989) applies to other galaxies, then one would expect EV I and EV H to − − be strongly correlated and to follow the slope predicted by the standard reddening law.

4.6.1 Predicted relation between E(V–I) and E(V–H)

The mean V I and V H color excesses of a Cepheid sample are related by − −

V I EV H = R − EV I . (4.10) − V H − R − 192 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Furthermore, the value of V λ (λ denotes the bandpass of interest) can be R − calculated using the following relation:

1 A = 1 λ , (4.11) V λ − AV R −

where the ratio Aλ/AV is deﬁned in Equation (1) of Cardelli et al. (1989) as

Aλ/AV = a(x) + b(x)/RV . (4.12)

In turn, a(x) and b(x) can be calculated using Equation (2) of Cardelli et al. (1989); x is the inverse of the central wavelength of the band of choice. The value

of RV AV /EB V suitable for Cepheids and stars of similar colors is 3.3. Lastly, ≡ − Figure 3 of Cardelli et al. (1989) can be used to estimate the size of the uncertainty

in Aλ/AV .

In our case, we want to calculate the values of V I and V H . The Cousins R − R − 1 I ﬁlter has x = 1.23µm− , so a(x) = 0.77 and b(x) = 0.59 (Kelson et al. 1996). − 1 Thus, AI = 0.59 0.03 and V I = 2.45 0.10. The H ﬁlter has x = 0.63µm− , ± R − ± so a(x) = 0.27 and b(x) = 0.25 (Cardelli et al. 1989). Thus, AH = 0.19 0.03 − ± and V H = 1.24 0.20. Therefore, the predicted ratio of EV H to EV I is R − ± − −

2.45 0.10 EV H = ± EV I − 1.24 0.20 − ± = 1.98 0.16 EV I . (4.13) ± −

4.6.2 Observed relation

Mean V I and V H color excesses were calculated following the methodology of − − the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Freedman et al. 2001). We used Period-Color relations based on the Period-Luminosity relations from Equations 4.5-4.7: The Extragalactic Distance Scale 193

V I = 0.20( 0.04) [log P 1] + 0.68( 0.02), (4.14) − − ± − ± V H = 0.47( 0.05) [log P 1] + 1.44( 0.05). (4.15) − − ± − ±

The mean color excess of a field was calculated by averaging over the individual color excesses of the variables in that field. The total scatter about the average value of the color excess in each field was used to determine the quoted uncertainty on the mean. The values of EV I for IC 4182, M101 (Inner & Outer), NGC 925, − NGC 1365, NGC 2090, NGC 3621, NGC 4496A and NGC 4536 were corrected by +0.02 mag to bring them into the Stetson (1998) photometric system (the other galaxies have ground-based or WF/PC V and I values and need not be corrected).

The mean values of EV I and EV H are listed in Table 4.8 and plotted in − − Figure 4.12. A least-squares ﬁt to the data yields

EV H = 2.02 0.22EV I 0.05 0.05. (4.16) − ± − − ±

The agreement between the predicted and observed ratio of EV H to EV I , − − and the fact that the ﬁt to the data goes through (0, 0) within the errors, supports the assumption of a standard reddening law in the ﬁelds we have studied.

One data point, corresponding to NGC 3198 and plotted with an open circle, was excluded from the fit because it lies 4σ away from the relation defined by all other points. This field contains only three Cepheids, two of which barely passed the color-color rejection test and are probably contaminated by red companions, therefore yielding an abnormally high value of EV H . − It is interesting to note that the Cepheids present in the M101-Inner field exhibit the same correlation between EV I and EV H as the other fields. This − − could imply that, on average, the contamination due to “blending” in that field has not introduced a significant change in the color of the Cepheids. Mochejska et al. (2001) have found a similar effect among Cepheids in the inner regions of M33. 194 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 4.8. Mean color excesses

Field EV I EV H − −

IC 1613 0.09 (03) 0.10 (09) IC 4182 0.06 (05) 0.15 (00) M31 0.29 (08) 0.69 (20) M81 0.13 (05) 0.24 (11) M101-Inner 0.36 (08) 0.67 (17) M101-Outer 0.21 (07) 0.31 (10) NGC 0925 0.24 (06) 0.47 (09) NGC 1365 0.32 (09) 0.63 (13) NGC 2090 0.11 (05) 0.18 (04)

NGC 3198† 0.13 (03) 0.58 (03) NGC 3621 0.40 (08) 0.66 (15) NGC 4496A 0.19 (07) 0.17 (12) NGC 4536 0.06 (05) 0.03 (04) Mean ratio: 2.02 0.22 ± Zeropoint: -0.05 0.05 ±

Note. — : 4σ outlier, rejected from ﬁt. † The Extragalactic Distance Scale 195

Fig. 4.12.— The correlation between EV H and EV I for our fields. Filled circles − − represent the crowding-corrected color excesses for our fields. The open circle corresponds to NGC 3198, which was rejected from the fit. The solid line is a least-squares fit to the data, while the dashed lines indicate the rms uncertainty of the fit. 196 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

4.7 Summary

We have obtained near-infrared photometry for a sample of 70 extragalactic Cepheid variables located in thirteen galaxies ranging in distance from the Local Group to the Virgo and Fornax Clusters. We have combined our magnitudes with existing optical data to derive self-consistent Period-Luminosity relations.

Cepheids in the inner field of M101 appear to be severely contaminated by unresolved blends with nearby stars, thereby affecting our ability to perform a differential test of the dependence on metallicity of the Cepheid Period-Luminosity relation.

An analysis of mean color excesses of our sample supports the assumption of a standard reddening law by the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale in their derivation of true distance moduli. Chapter 5

Optical and infrared observations of Tully-Fisher calibrators

Abstract

This chapter presents BVRIHK observations, surface photometry measurements, and the derivation of total magnitudes for a sample of spiral galaxies suitable for the absolute calibration of the Tully-Fisher relation. It also contains new derivations of 20% and 50% 21-cm linewidths for most of these galaxies, based on previously existing proﬁles.

Special care has been taken to perform these measurements in a manner that is consistent with the analysis of “distant” samples of Tully-Fisher galaxies by other teams. The motivation for this approach is the desire to minimize the eﬀects of any systematic error in the photometry that would induce corresponding errors in the determination of the Hubble Constant.

Contains material from The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, volume 128, pages 461-468, “A database of Tully-Fisher calibrator galaxies”, by L.M. Macri, J.P. Huchra, S. Sakai, J.R. Mould & S.M.G. Hughes.

197 198 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents optical and near-infrared observations, the resulting surface photometry measurements, and the derivation of total magnitudes for a sample of nearby (D < 20 Mpc) spiral galaxies suitable for the absolute calibration of the ∼ Tully-Fisher relation. Additionally, it includes re-derivations of the 20% and 50% 21-cm linewidths for these objects, based on pre-existing observations.

In the early to mid-1990s, as observations with the Hubble Space Telescope started to yield accurate Cepheids distances to galaxies in the Local Supercluster, large-format (1024 1024 or greater) CCD cameras were becoming common in 1- × to 2-m class ground-based telescopes. These instruments provided ﬁelds of view of about 100 on a side, allowing complete views of most nearby galaxies. The initial motivation for this project was to obtain a complete set of BVRI images of every galaxy targeted for an HST-based Cepheid search that could be used for the absolute calibration of the Tully-Fisher relation. In the late 1990s, as panoramic infrared detectors became available, the project was expanded to include the HK bands.

The optical magnitudes and linewidth measurements presented here became the main source of data used by Sakai et al. (2000) to obtain the absolute calibration of the Tully-Fisher relation in the BVRI bands. The infrared magnitudes also contained in this work will be used in Chapter 6 of this Thesis to derive the absolute calibration of the Tully-Fisher relation in the HK bands.

This chapter is organized as follows: 5.2 presents the details of data § acquisition, reduction and calibration for our optical images, while 5.3 describes § the corresponding steps for the infrared data; 5.4 describes the common § methodology of our optical and infrared surface photometry measurements, the derivation of total magnitudes, and a comparison with other observations of some of our objects; 5.5 presents the derivation of 20% and 50% linewidths; and 5.6 § § summarizes our results. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 199

5.2 Optical observations and data reduction

The optical observations were obtained at three sites. The Fred L. Whipple Observatory 1.2-m telescope was used to observe most of the objects. The Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring Observatories 1-m telescope provided images of the southernmost objects as well as some equatorial objects to provide an overlap with the northern observations. The Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory 1.5-m telescope also provided a few images of southern objects as well as data on galaxies from the Giovanelli et al. (1997a) sample, to check the consistency between diﬀerent surface photometry procedures.

The observing runs took place between 1994 March and 1999 August. Furthermore, S. Jha kindly provided images of NGC 2841 obtained at the FLWO 1.2-m telescope between 1999 May and 2000 February. The large time span of the observations and the multiple sources of data resulted in the use of seven diﬀerent optical cameras, whose properties are listed in Table 5.1.

The typical night in an optical observing run started with the acquisition of bias frames and dome and twilight flats. Standard star fields were observed several times during each night at a large range of airmasses. Most standard star fields were from Landolt (1992), although the E-regions (Graham 1982) were sometimes observed from the south. At FLWO, galaxies were typically observed for 600 seconds in B, V , R and I. At MSSSO, exposure times ranged between 160 and 320 seconds, and the filters of choice were V and I. At CTIO, exposure times were 300 seconds in B, V , R and I.

The reduction of the optical images was performed in the standard way, using the IRAF CCDRED package. Mean bias and dome flat frames were created by median-combining the calibration frames obtained each night. The data images went through the steps of overscan fitting, trimming, bias subtraction, and division by the flat field frame. Dark current was negligible in all CCDs, so that step of the processing was omitted. 200 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 5.1. Cameras used in the observations

Camera Chip Size Pixel Gain Readout

scale (00) (e−/DN) noise (e−)

Optical cameras MSSSO Tek 20482 0.61 1.0 10 CCD#1 thick (binned) MSSSO EEV 2186 0.58 1.0 6 × CCD#6 thick 1152 MSSSO Tek 20482 0.60 1.0 9 CCD#12 thin FLWO Loral 20482 0.66 2.3 15 CCD thick (binned) FLWO Loral 20482 0.63 2.5 9.5 Andycam thin (binned) FLWO Loral 4 (20482) 0.67 2.0 7 × 4-shooter thin (binned) CTIO Tek (20482) 0.48 2.7 5 T2K6 thin (binned)

Infrared cameras FLWO SBRC 2 (2562) 1.21 9.5 60 × SIRCAM InSb MSSSO SBRC 2562 0.49 9.5 60 CASPIR InSb The Extragalactic Distance Scale 201

The photometric calibration of the frames was based on aperture magnitude measurements of standard stars using the IRAF wphot task. The aperture radius

was set to 1000 and the sky annulus extended from 10 to 1500. The photometric solutions for each band were calculated by solving simultaneously for a magnitude zeropoint and an extinction coeﬃcient for each night, and a color term for each run. Typically, our photometric solutions had rms values of 0.02-0.05 mag.

The internal consistency of the photometric solutions was checked via secondary standard stars located in every galaxy field. Typically, aperture magnitudes were obtained for 6–12 stars around each object and transformed into the standard system using the derived photometric solutions. The resulting magnitudes were compared across different runs in which the same field had been observed. Run-to-run offsets were usually less than 0.05 mag.

5.3 Infrared observations and data reduction

Infrared observations were carried out between 1997 December and 2000 April, mostly at the FLWO 1.2-m telescope, with one additional run at the MSSSO 2.3-m telescope. Table 5.1 summarizes the properties of the infrared cameras used in the project. They are based on the same type of detector, but the FLWO camera has dual beams which allow simultaneous observations in a “blue” (i.e. H) and a “red” (i.e. K) band.

The typical night of an infrared run started with the acquisition of dark frames for each combination of number of coadds and exposure time to be used during the night. Dome ﬂats were not acquired, since the pattern that must be followed during infrared observations provides a plentiful amount of sky ﬂats. Standard stars from Hawarden et al. (2001) and Persson et al. (1998) were observed frequently and at a large range of airmasses.

At both FLWO and MSSSO, the fundamental unit of observing time was 60 seconds (6 coadds of 10 seconds for SIRCAM and 5 coadds of 12 seconds for CASPIR). Unlike the case of the optical observations, the ﬁeld of view of the 202 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

infrared cameras ( 50 for SIRCAM and 20 for CASPIR) was smaller than the ∼ ∼ target galaxies, and therefore the objects were observed following a mosaic pattern, with overlaps between neighboring positions of 10% of the array size. Following ∼ standard practice for infrared observations, each “on-source” position was followed by a “sky” position typically offset by 10 200. Mosaic sizes ranged in every − combination between a single pointing (for standard star fields and small galaxies such as NGC 4639) to a 3 3 pointing for NGC 2403. In order to build up S/N, × the mosaic pattern was repeated several times (typically between 3 and 9) with a small offset ( 1000) in the starting position. ∼ The dark-current and linearization corrections of the SIRCAM data were carried out under IDL, using procedures developed by the author, while the CASPIR data were corrected using the IRAF package of the same name, developed by the camera team. Master dark frames for each sequence of coadds and exposure time were created by median-combining the calibration frames obtained each night. Science frames had this mean dark frame subtracted first, after which a linearization matrix was applied to correct small non-linearities present in each camera. The “on-source” images of each observation sequence were flatfielded under IDL using their own sky flat, created by median-combining the “sky” frames of that observation sequence, once they had been brought to the same mean value.

Repeated observations of the same area of a target object within a sequence were combined into a single image as follows. First, the pointing information found in the FITS headers of the frames was used to derive the approximate offset between them. The frames were shifted by an integer number of pixels, flatfielded, brought to the same mean level, and median combined. An IDL version of the FIND routine of DAOPHOT was used to detect stars present in the median image, which were then located in the individual frames. The stellar positions provided a refined determination of the offsets between frames, which were used to obtain an improved median image. This procedure was iterated until convergence. Typically, five iterations were required until all individual frames were properly shifted. Lastly, aperture photometry was carried out on the stars detected in the median image, using an IDL version of the PHOT routine of DAOPHOT. Aperture radii The Extragalactic Distance Scale 203

were set to 10 pixels ( 1200 in SIRCAM and 500 in CASPIR), with inner and ∼ ∼ outer sky annuli of 15 and 25 pixels ( 18 3000 in SIRCAM and 7.5 12.500 in ∼ − ∼ − CASPIR). These values were motivated by typical stellar FWHM values of 1 2 − pixels.

The plate solution for each median image was obtained using IMWCS (Mink 1999) by combining the previously-determined star list with the 2 Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) Working Point Source Catalog (v2.0). Accurate values of the pixel scale and rotation angle of the instruments for each observing run were obtained from the plate solutions of fields with large numbers of stars; these quantities were held fixed when determining the plate solution of sparsely populated fields. This step was required in order to be able to assemble the different portions of a galaxy mosaic into a properly registered image. At the time of assembly, the different portions of the mosaic were brought to the same background value in order to deliver a seamless montage.

Analysis of the aperture photometry of infrared standard stars revealed very stable ( 0.05 mag) H and K magnitude zeropoints for FLWO+SIRCAM over the ± three years during which the observations were carried out. No significant extinction coefficient nor color term could be determined from the data. Additionally, we matched the aperture photometry measurements of all stars present in the standard fields with their corresponding entries in the 2MASS Working Point Source Catalog (v2.0) and found magnitude zeropoints that were entirely consistent ( 0.02 mag) ± with the previously-determined ones. Based on this satisfactory agreement, we decided to use those stars present in the field of each galaxy to determine the magnitude zeropoint of each image. 204 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

5.4 Galaxy photometry

5.4.1 Surface photometry measurements

The surface photometry measurements were carried out using the SFOTO program of Han (1991), which operates under Figaro (Shortridge et al. 1995). Several steps must be carried out to obtain a total extrapolated magnitude for a galaxy. First, foreground stars and array defects are removed by interpolation. Second, certain parameters pertaining to each frame are calculated, such as the sky value, the position of the galaxy nucleus, and the maximum possible radius out to which ellipses can be fitted. Third, ellipses are fitted to the galaxy profile. These steps can be repeated several times, for example, to increase or decrease the maximum fitting radius, until satisfactory results are obtained. Fourth, the ellipse-fitting results are used to perform the surface photometry of the galaxy, and lastly, these measurements are used to determine the total magnitudes of the object.

The first step in the process, interpolating over foreground stars and array defects, was carried out using SFOTO’s “image repair mode”. The position and size of the interpolated areas were recorded in a “mask” file for later use by the ellipse-fitting program. The second step, the characterization of the image properties, was also carried out using SFOTO. The sky value was determined from blank areas in the frame. The position of the galaxy center was determined by computing the intensity-weighted centroid of a box of 6 pixels on a side, centered by eye on the galaxy nucleus. The maximum semi-major axis ellipse to be fitted was estimated based on the location of the nucleus within the frame, the extent of the galaxy and its position angle. These parameters were written to disk for later use by the ellipse-fitting program.

The third step, the actual ﬁtting of the ellipses, was carried out using the Figaro EFIT routine. That program uses an iterative procedure described by Kent (1983) to solve for the eccentricity and position angle of, and mean intensity within, ellipses of increasing radii. The resulting ellipses were visually inspected using SFOTO, and –if necessary– any leftover point sources enclosed by the outermost The Extragalactic Distance Scale 205 ellipses were removed to ensure convergence of the eccentricity and position angle of the outermost ellipses. In some cases, the radius of the outermost ellipse was revised upward when galaxian ﬂux could be seen to extend further out than our original estimate, or downward when the original estimate had been too optimistic.

The ellipse-ﬁtting results for all images of a given galaxy were combined to obtain robust estimates of the mean optical, infrared, and band-by-band eccentricity and position angle of its outer disk. Table 5.3 lists the inclination angles derived from the mean eccentricities. There is excellent agreement between our mean inclinations (determined from all optical data) and the values listed in de Vaucouleurs et al. (1991). The mean eccentricity and position angle of each galaxy in the optical and infrared were used to generate “self-similar” ellipses for use during the corresponding surface photometry measurements.

The fourth step, the surface photometry measurement, was carried out using SFOTO’s “surface photometry mode.” The program used the previously-generated ellipses to add the signal within each annulus, and applied the appropriate photometric solution to obtain the mean mag/ 00 value inside each annulus, and ut the cumulative magnitude out to that radius.

The author developed software to interactively ﬁt an exponential disk to the outer parts of the surface brightness proﬁle. The derived disk scale length and central surface brightness were used to extrapolate the total magnitude of the galaxy, following the prescriptions of Han (1992).

Figure 5.1 shows representative B, V , R and I profiles for each of the galaxies observed in the optical, while Figure 5.2 shows the mean H and K profiles for those galaxies observed in the infrared. Figures 5.3 through 5.5 show some overall properties of the data set, through histograms of: the number of disk scale lengths covered by the profiles, the magnitude extrapolations required to obtain total magnitudes, and the sky surface brightness of the images, respectively. As these figures show, most of the data is of high quality, i.e., the profiles extend more than 4 disk scale lengths, the magnitude extrapolations are small (< 0.15 mag), and the sky surface brightness was low. 206 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 5.3. Inclination data

Galaxy Band Mean RC3 (NGC) B V R I H K opt.

0925 57 (1) 55 (1) 57 (1) 57 (1) 55 (4) 54 (6) 56 (1) 57 (1) 1365 57 (2) 55 (1) 56 (1) 55 (2) 47 (2) 55 (2) 57 (1) ··· 1425 64 (1) 64 (1) 64 (1) 62 (1) 63 (1) 63 (1) 64 (2) ··· 2090 66 (3) 65 (2) 67 (2) 65 (3) 68 (1) 67 (1) 65 (3) 62 (2) 2403 57 (1) 55 (2) 57 (1) ············ ··· 2541 63 (1) 62 (1) 63 (1) 62 (1) 62 (2) 66 (4) 62 (1) 62 (2) 2841 66 (1) 65 (1) 65 (1) 65 (1) 66 (1) 66 (1) 66 (1) 65 (1) 3198 71 (4) 72 (2) 71 (3) 71 (3) 74 (1) 74 (2) 71 (3) 70 (1) 3319 58 (1) 58 (1) 58 (1) 57 (1) 75 (1) 74 (3) 58 (1) 58 (1) 3351 45 (1) 46 (1) 45 (1) 45 (1) 40 (3) 41 (3) 45 (1) 47 (2) 3368 49 (1) 49 (1) 49 (1) 49 (1) 48 (2) 49 (2) 49 (1) 46 (2) 3521 49 (1) 48 (1) 64 (1) ············ ··· 3621 66 (1) 66 (1) 66 (1) 66 (1) 65 (2) 65 (2) 66 (1) 56 (1) 3627 64 (1) 65 (1) 65 (1) 65 (1) 64 (1) 65 (1) 65 (1) 63 (1) 4414 47 (1) 47 (1) 46 (1) 46 (1) 45 (2) 44 (3) 46 (1) 57 (2) 4535 51 (1) 51 (1) 50 (1) 51 (1) 47 (4) 41 (3) 51 (1) 46 (2) 4536 69 (1) 68 (1) 69 (1) 69 (1) 75 (1) 72 (1) 69 (1) 67 (1) 4548 39 (1) 39 (1) 39 (1) 38 (1) 38 (4) 39 (4) 39 (1) 37 (3) 4565 90 (0) 90 (0) 87 (4) ············ ··· 4603 51 (1) 52 (1) 51 (1) 51 (1) 51 (1) 44 (5) ······ 4639 55 (1) 49 (1) 47 (1) 44 (2) 53 (1) 51 (1) 48 (3) 48 (3) 4651 55 (2) 53 (1) 53 (2) 52 (2) 48 (1) 53 (2) 53 (2) 50 (2) 4654 58 (1) 58 (1) 58 (1) 58 (1) 57 (1) 56 (1) 58 (1) 56 (1) 4725 62 (1) 61 (1) 62 (1) 61 (1) 54 (3) 51 (1) 62 (1) 45 (2) 7331 70 (2) 69 (2) 68 (2) 68 (1) 70 (1) 70 (1) 69 (2) 70 (1) The Extragalactic Distance Scale 207

Fig. 5.1.— Representative surface brightness proﬁles for those galaxies with optical data (BVRI, bottom to top). 208 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 5.2.— Mean surface brightness proﬁles for those galaxies with infrared data. Open and ﬁlled circles are K- and H-band measurements, respectively. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 209

Fig. 5.3.— Histograms of disk scale lengths reached by the surface brightness pro- ﬁles. 210 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 5.4.— Histograms of extrapolation values from the last isophote to total magnitudes. Mean values are 0.09 mag for B and V , and 0.07 mag for R, I, H and K. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 211

Fig. 5.5.— Histograms of sky surface brightness levels in the images. 212 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

5.4.2 Photometry results and external comparisons

Tables 5.4 and 5.5 present the optical and infrared photometry data, respectively. The magnitudes listed are the observed values, uncorrected for galactic or internal extinction. Table 5.4 lists total extrapolated BV RI magnitudes and major-axis

diameters at the B = 25 and I = 23.5 mag/ 00 isophotes. Table 5.5 lists total ut extrapolated and isophotal HK magnitudes at the 21 mag/ 00 level, as well as the ut major-axis diameters at that isophote.

Several external comparisons were carried out to ensure the photometric quality of the data. First, the surface photometry techniques used in this work were tested against those of Giovanelli et al. (1997a), whose data on distant clusters and

groups is used by Sakai et al. (2000) for the determination of H0. A comparison of derived properties for twenty-six galaxies in the MDL cluster 59 (Maia, da Costa & Latham 1989) showed mean offsets of 0.03 0.12 mag for I-band magnitudes and ± 2 5 degrees for galaxy inclinations. ± A comparison of BRI magnitudes for 18 galaxies in common with Tully & Pierce (2000) revealed offsets (this work - their work) of: = +0.07 ± 0.14 mag, 0.08 0.08 mag, and 0.02 0.09 mag in B, R and I, respectively. − ± − ± The B and R offsets are dominated by four objects with large (> 0.15 mag) disagreements: NGC 925, NGC 2090, NGC 2541 and NGC 3198, for the B band; and NGC 925, NGC 1425, NGC 3627 and NGC 4535, for the R band. A direct comparison of those profiles and the magnitudes of local standards should resolve these discrepancies.

A comparison of H = 21mag/ 00 isophotal diameters and integrated ut magnitudes for eleven galaxies in common with Watanabe et al. (2001) revealed excellent agreement for seven objects, with an oﬀset (this work - their work)

of 0.03 0.06 mag and a ratio of D21 values (this work / their work) of − ± 1.02 0.07. However, there was signiﬁcant discrepancy in the derived isophotal ± diameters for four objects: NGC 925, NGC 2541, NGC 4639, and NGC 4725, and the corresponding integrated magnitudes. These discrepancies might be due the diﬀerent procedures followed for the surface brightness measurements. The The Extragalactic Distance Scale 213

Table 5.4. Photometric data

Galaxy BT VT RT IT DB=25 DI=23.5

0925 10.59 (13) 10.15 (09) 9.80 (11) 9.39 (17) 531 461 1365 10.11 (10) 9.50 (06) 9.05 (04) 8.24 (04) 672 603 1425 11.47 (14) 10.91 (02) 10.43 (03) 9.73 (02) 337 347 2090 11.20 (03) 10.76 (08) 10.25 (08) 9.45 (07) 449 396 2541 12.10 (03) 11.65 (04) 11.37 (03) 10.86 (10) 294 263 2841 10.09 (02) 9.30 (02) 8.73 (03) 8.14 (04) 552 458 3198 11.09 (05) 10.55 (02) 10.14 (02) 9.59 (05) 415 388 3319 11.77 (10) 11.35 (18) 11.07 (11) 10.63 (11) 360 312 3351 10.45 (09) 9.75 (15) 9.18 (02) 8.53 (06) 424 453 3368 10.08 (08) 9.25 (05) 8.73 (03) 8.12 (03) 491 509 3621 10.07 (12) 9.52 (07) 9.00 (08) 8.50 (08) 494 554 3627 9.57 (04) 8.87 (04) 8.38 (03) 7.78 (04) 625 651 4414 10.85 (05) 10.14 (04) 9.66 (03) 9.01 (04) 281 292 4535 10.67 (06) 10.01 (02) 9.73 (09) 9.04 (04) 427 424 4536 11.08 (05) 10.45 (02) 9.95 (07) 9.38 (05) 460 459 4548 10.83 (12) 10.13 (04) 9.66 (06) 8.92 (12) 338 357 4603 12.29 (08) 11.49 (10) 10.90 (05) 10.18 (09) 235 250 4639 12.21 (08) 11.52 (06) 11.07 (03) 10.45 (04) 171 171 4651 11.66 (09) 10.93 (06) 10.43 (04) 9.64 (07) 239 300 4654 11.12 (07) 9.54 (04) 9.53 (06) 11.11 (03) 324 318 4725 9.98 (11) 9.23 (01) 8.77 (10) 8.17 (06) 656 651 7331 10.25 (02) 9.40 (04) 8.81 (05) 8.08 (01) 583 641 214 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 5.5. Photometric data

Galaxy H21 K21 HT KT DH=21 DK=21

0925 8.34 (04) 7.85 (10) 7.95 (15) 7.47 (15) 303 341 1365 6.71 (07) 6.65 (18) 406 ······ ··· 1425 8.57 (13) 8.48 (15) 218 ······ ··· 2090 8.24 (00) 8.22 (01) 8.02 (10) 8.01 (10) 195 211 2403 6.46 (13) 6.36 (17) 6.07 (12) 5.97 (16) 529 609 2541 10.00 (04) 9.29 (05) 184 ······ ··· 2841 6.35 (13) 6.32 (16) 6.13 (15) 6.10 (17) 463 477 3198 8.10 (06) 7.98 (07) 7.81 (01) 7.66 (01) 334 357 3319 10.04 (07) 9.55 (20) 234 ······ ··· 3351 6.97 (02) 6.90 (02) 6.69 (02) 6.60 (02) 328 345 3368 6.52 (04) 6.45 (06) 6.25 (06) 6.20 (11) 363 390 3521 5.98 (06) 5.94 (06) 5.71 (08) 5.69 (09) 436 457 3621 6.96 (04) 6.91 (04) 6.69 (03) 6.66 (03) 399 452 3627 6.05 (09) 6.02 (09) 5.95 (00) 5.92 (01) 512 502 4414 7.19 (01) 7.07 (01) 6.77 (03) 6.73 (03) 227 298 4535 7.47 (04) 7.31 (04) 7.17 (08) 7.01 (12) 336 365 4536 7.83 (04) 7.63 (05) 7.47 (03) 7.32 (06) 384 408 4548 7.41 (04) 7.27 (07) 7.12 (01) 7.01 (02) 294 315 4565 6.28 (08) 6.25 (08) 5.90 (08) 5.88 (08) 781 834 4639 9.01 (06) 8.83 (07) 8.59 (01) 8.49 (05) 140 193 4651 8.05 (06) 7.95 (07) 7.90 (03) 7.82 (04) 213 233 4654 8.09 (10) 7.98 (10) 7.67 (03) 7.59 (03) 234 254 4725 6.74 (03) 6.65 (11) 6.41 (04) 6.33 (08) 434 430 7331 6.30 (02) 6.23 (01) 5.96 (04) 5.90 (05) 512 551 The Extragalactic Distance Scale 215 procedure used in this work, i.e., the use of self-similar ellipses and the determination of a mean isophotal level inside each ellipse, should be more robust than the direct measurements performed on the images by Watanabe et al. (2001) (c.f. their Figure 1), especially given the low S/N at that isophotal level.

These comparisons show that our measurements are in fairly good agreement with previous studies. Given additional telescope time, it would be desirable to re-observe galaxies with data from only one observing run, with inadequate scale length coverage, or with large discrepancies with other published work.

5.5 21-cm linewidths

Having obtained a consistent set of galaxian magnitudes, we undertook a similar approach for 21-cm data and decided to re-measure 20% and 50% widths in a consistent way for as many objects as possible.

Linewidths were determined following three different methodologies: i) Aaronson et al. (1982b), where linewidths are measured at the 20% level of the mean of the two-horned flux maxima; ii) Pierce & Tully (1992), where linewidths are measured at the 20% level of the flux maximum; iii) Giovanelli et al. (1997a), where linewidths are measured at the 50% level of each of the two-horned flux maxima. In this latter methodology, the 50% level is defined separately for each horn as the interpolated value between the 15% and the 85% levels. In all methodologies, the determination of the locations of these various intensity levels is done by searching from the mid-point of the profile to the extreme velocities for the 15% and 20% levels, and in the opposite way for the 85% levels. In all cases, the measured linewidths were corrected for instrumental broadening using the prescription of Bottinelli et al. (1990). The slight difference in methodology between the Aaronson et al. (1982b) and the Pierce & Tully (1992) 20% linewidth measurement has no discernible effect, and therefore only one set of 20% linewidths is quoted below. Some representative 21-cm profiles are shown in Figure 5.6, indicating the different flux levels involved in the linewidth measurement. 216 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

21-cm profiles for most objects were kindly provided by Martha Haynes from the Giovanelli & Haynes’ digital archive (Haynes, private communication). Several objects were not present in that archive, so scanned profiles from published data were kindly provided by Barry Madore, from an upcoming addition to the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED). One profile was kindly provided by the HIPASS team before their survey was complete. Some objects had no profiles in either the G&H or the NED archive, so we used linewidth measurements from the literature. In a few cases, either the 20% or the 50% level linewidths were available in the literature, so we transformed the available linewidth by using a mean 50%-to-20% ratio of 0.91 (based on 80 profiles). Linewidth errors were ∼ calculated from the data when we had access to the profiles; in all other cases, the errors come from the literature.

Table 5.6 lists the raw 20% and 50% linewidth measurements, their uncertainties and their sources. A comparison between previously published linewidth determinations and our re-measurements reveals agreement to better than 2% rms. Furthermore, when proﬁles of the same galaxy were available from both the Giovanelli & Haynes’ digital archive and the NED database, linewidths measured from one set agreed with the other to better than 3% rms.

5.6 Conclusions

Total galaxian magnitudes in the BVRIHK bands and 20% and 50% 21-cm linewidth measurements have been determined for most of the calibrators of the Tully-Fisher relation. The surface photometry and linewidth measurements were performed in a consistent way for all objects, following the prescriptions used in the reduction of “distant” T-F samples. There is good agreement between the present and previous determinations of total galaxian magnitudes and 21-cm linewidths.

The infrared data is used in Chapter 6 to obtain the absolute calibration of the Tully-Fisher relations in the HK bands, while the optical data was used by Sakai et al. (2000) for the corresponding calibration in the BVRI bands. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 217

Fig. 5.6.— Typical 21-cm profiles, showing the different flux levels used in the determination of 20% and 50% linewidths. 218 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 5.6. Linewidth data

Galaxy W20 W50 Galaxy W20 W50 NGC meas. ref. meas. ref. NGC meas. ref. meas. ref.

0925 220 (1) [1] 203 (7) [1] 1365 398 (1) [2] 376 (2) [2] 1425 375 (7) [1] 360 (10) [1] 2090 293 (2) [1] 282 (2) [1] 2541 209 (1) [1] 197 (1) [1] 3198 317 (1) [1] 305 (1) [1] 3319 216 (2) [1] 201 (3) [1] 3351 276 (1) [1] 268 (1) [1] 3368 358 (3) [1] 336 (9) [1] 3621 296 (2) [3] 245 (3) [3] 3627 383 (14) [1] 337 (15) [1] 4414 404 (10) [1] 358 (8) [1] 4535 300 (9) [4] 278 (9) [5] 4536 341 (7) [6] 323 (7) [6] 4548 261 (8) [7] 237 (8) [5] 4603 406 (13) [8] 370 (13) [9] 4639 313 (20) [10] 284 (20) [5] 4651 392 (1) [8] 357 (1) [11] 4654 315 (3) [12] 291 (4) [12] 4725 414 (3) [1] 390 (2) [1] 7331 521 (2) [1] 500 (2) [1] 224 543 (5) [13] 495 (5) [5] 598 204 (5) [13] 186 (5) [5] 2403 262 (2) [14] 243 (2) [14] 3031 434 (10) [14] 382 (10) [14]

Note. — [1]: measured from Giovanelli & Haynes’ digital archive (Haynes, priv. comm.). [2]: measured from scanned NED proﬁle from Bureau et al. (1996). [3]: Measured from HIPASS proﬁle.

[4]: as published in Aaronson et al. (1982b). [5]: computed from matching W20. [6]: measured from scanned NED profile from Dickel & Rood (1978). [7]: as published in Pierce & Tully (1988). [8]: computed from matching W50. [9]: as published in Giovanelli et al. (1997a). [10]: as published in Fisher & Tully (1981). [11]: as published in Haynes et al. (1999b). [12]: measured from scanned NED profile from Shostak (1975). [13]: as published in Pierce & Tully (1992). [14]: measured from scanned NED profile from Rots (1980). Chapter 6

The absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation

Abstract

This chapter presents the absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation, commonly referred to as the Tully–Fisher relation, in the near-infrared H and K bands as well as in the optical R and I bands.

The absolute calibration is performed using Cepheid distances such as those derived in Chapters 2 and 3 of this Thesis, and it is based on the surface photometry and linewidth measurements of spiral galaxies presented in Chapter 5 of this Thesis.

Relations are derived for both total extrapolated magnitudes and isophotal magnitudes, using 20% linewidths. All relations exhibit linear slopes and a scatter of 0.2 mag. Shallower isophotal magnitude relations in the H and K bands, ∼ based on 2MASS data, yield distance moduli that are consistent with those determined from total-magnitude I-band relations.

219 220 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

6.1 Introduction

The recent determination of Cepheid-based distances to spiral galaxies in the Local Supercluster, made possible by the angular resolution of the Hubble Space Telescope, has ushered a new era for the absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation. As part of the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale, Sakai et al. (2000) used distances to twenty-one galaxies to derive a new calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation in the BV RI bands, as well as in the H 0.5 − system. The scatter of the relation in the latter was 0.36 mag. Sakai et al.

(2000) found discrepant values of H0 as determined from the I-band and the H 0.5 − relations, which were ascribed to diﬀerences in the I H 0.5 color of the calibrator − − and “distant cluster” samples.

At the same time, a calibration of the BRIK relations was undertaken by Tully & Pierce (2000). They used twenty-four calibrators for the optical bands, but only had K data for four galaxies (M81, NGC 3198, NGC 3627 and NGC 4258). In their analysis, they used slopes derived from template relations based on galaxies located in several nearby clusters, and reported a scatter of 0.24 mag in the R and I bands, and a larger scatter of 0.44 mag for the K band template relation.

Recently, Watanabe et al. (2001) performed a calibration of the H-band relation, using surface photometry measurements for twelve galaxies. They reported a “break” in the slope of the relation, at log W c 2.45, although the evidence 20 ∼ is rather meager, based on only two objects (NGC 2541 and NGC 3319). Their c relation, based on nine objects with log W20 > 2.45, had a scatter of 0.28 mag. Watanabe et al. (2001) confirmed the finding of Sakai et al. (2000) regarding a I H color difference between the calibrators and cluster samples. − Lastly, Verheijen (2001) derived a K-band relation based on a volume-limited complete sample of all suitable spiral galaxies that are members of the Ursa Major cluster. The sample contains forty-nine objects, all with detailed radio synthesis data that allow a better determination of the rotational velocity of the galaxy. The scatter of his relation was 0.32 mag. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 221

This Chapter presents the absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation in the RIHK bands, based on a sample of nineteen galaxies. 6.2 § presents the calibrator sample, and lists the corrections required to obtain absolute magnitudes from the original data; 6.3 derives the absolute calibration of the § relations; and 6.4 discusses the application of 2MASS data to the determination § of H0.

6.2 The calibrator sample

The calibrator sample used in this work consists of nineteen galaxies with Cepheid-based distances that were measured in a consistent manner. The Cepheids were discovered by several teams, most notably the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale and the Type Ia Supernovae Distance Scale teams, between 1996 and 1999. At the time of the observations, distances were determined using LMC Period-Luminosity relations derived in the early 1990s (Madore & Freedman 1991). However, during this period new insight was gained into the V I Cepheid Period-Color Relation of LMC Cepheids (Udalski et al. 1999), − and the community grew more aware of the possible metallicity dependence of the Cepheid Period-Luminosity Relation (Kochanek 1997; Sasselov et al. 1997; Kennicutt et al. 1998). This prompted a re-evaluation of the original distances by Freedman et al. (2001), which is the source of all but one of our distance moduli. The exception is NGC 2841, whose distance moduli was determined following the updated methodology in Chapter 3 of this Thesis.

The galaxian magnitudes (both total extrapolated and isophotal), as well as their linewidth measurements, come from Chapter 5 of this Thesis. This work will only calibrate the RIHK relations, since the BV ones are of little use for current extragalactic work. Magnitudes were corrected for Galactic extinction using the reddening map of Schlegel, Finkbeiner & Davis (1998) and the extinction law of

Cardelli et al. (1989), for an assumed value of V = 3.1. Linewidth measurements R were corrected for inclination using the standard 1/ sin i factor. Inclinations and 222 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri axis ratios were taken from Tully & Pierce (2000). Additionally, galaxian surface brightness proﬁles and integrated magnitudes were corrected for internal extinction following the precepts of Tully et al. (1998):

i Aλ = γλ log(a/b), (6.1)

i γλ = c1 + c2(log W 2.5), (6.2) R − where a/b is the major-to-minor axis ratio. The values of (c1, c2) for RIK come from Tully et al. (1998), while the values for H were calculated through extrapolation of the published values; they were found to be (0.46, 0.80).

Table 6.1 lists the designation, distance modulus, Galactic extinction, corrected linewidth measurements, and absolute magnitudes of the galaxies in the calibrator sample. It lists both extrapolated magnitudes and isophotal magnitudes, at the

R = 24, I = 23.5, H = 21 and K = 21 mag/ 00 isophotes. ut

6.3 Analysis

The near-infrared luminosity–linewidth relations are shown on four panels in Figure 6.1. The top and bottom left panels show the H and K-band total magnitude relations, respectively, while the corresponding right panels show the isophotal (21 mag/ 00) magnitude relations. Figure 6.2 shows similar relations ut for the R and I bands. In both ﬁgures, solid, dashed and dotted lines indicate the result of bivariate, direct and inverse least-squares ﬁts, respectively, to the functional form

M = a + b (log W c 2.5) (6.3) 20 −

Table 6.2 lists the results of the ﬁts. In all cases, the data point corresponding c to NGC 2841, located at log W20 = 2.827, was excluded from the ﬁt, since it is a clear outlier. This galaxy has an extremely large rotational velocity, and no similar objects are present in the sample used by Tully et al. (1998) to derive the internal The Extragalactic Distance Scale 223 5 . c 23 I units. 3 − c 24 R -22.64 (07) -23.25-21.70 (06) (06) -22.31 (05) -19.11 (05) -19.48 (09) -19.65 (09) -19.98 (10) ··· ··· ··· ··· c 21 K are expressed in 10 c 20 W c 21 H mag; errors in log c T 2 I − c T R -22.60 (07) -23.33 (06) -24.71 (09) -21.76 (06) -22.36 (05) -23.35-19.29 (14) (06) -19.70 (11) -20.51 (06) -19.82 (15) -20.20 (14) -20.76 (12) ··· ··· ··· ··· c T K Table 6.1. Calibrator data c T H mag; all magnitude errors are expressed in 10 3 − c 20 W log , listed in 10 E V − B E 0 µ Note. — E is NGC 0925 29.811365 (04) 76 31.27 (05) 2.458 (15) 20 -22.08 2.736 (11) (15) -22.40 -24.76 (16) (19) -20.38 (11) -20.69 (17) -21.65 (05) -21.95 (16) -20.22 (09) -20.49 (14) 1425 31.702090 (05) 13 30.352541 (04) 2.617 (15) 40 30.252841 (05) -23.42 2.497 (16) (09) 50 30.743198 (06) -22.33 2.370 (04) (10) 16 30.703319 (08) -22.44 -21.10 2.827 (11) (07) (10) 12 30.623351 (09) -20.64 -24.68 2.534 (09) (17) (07) 15 30.003368 (09) -21.32 -24.77 -22.91 (08) 2.411 (19) (10) (14) 28 30.113621 (06) -22.31 -22.66 -23.13 (04) -21.18 2.570 (07) (08) (22) (15) 25 29.113627 (06) -22.43 -23.13 -21.04 (11) -23.20 (07) 2.676 (08) (09) (17) 80 30.014414 -20.55 (08) -24.65 -21.49 (09) -23.45 (14) -23.78 (09) 2.521 (09) (08) (11) 32 31.244535 -21.18 (05) -24.75 -22.81 (08) -21.10 (16) -23.97 (10) -22.40 2.675 (09) (12) (07) (27) 19 30.994536 -22.65 (05) -23.00 -21.68 (07) -21.69 (08) -22.55 -24.14 (11) 2.683 (07) (07) (12) (21) 19 30.874548 -23.10 -21.00 (04) -23.14 (08) -22.24 (08) -20.66 -24.16 (09) -24.33 (07) 2.643 (10) (08) (05) (29) 18 31.054639 -21.44 (05) -23.36 -23.72 (09) -21.03 -22.02 (09) -24.59 (07) -23.77 (10) 2.566 (09) (06) (06) (15) 38 31.714725 -21.04 (08) -23.92 -22.35 -22.54 (09) -22.00 (09) -24.02 (07) -23.44 (09) 2.627 (06) (13) (07) (33) 26 30.467331 -21.63 -21.65 (06) -22.52 -24.11 (10) -22.57 (07) -21.49 (07) -23.65 (12) -23.86 (06) 2.588 (10) (07) (09) (39) 12 30.84 -22.20 -20.64 (09) -24.14 -24.23 (07) -22.13 (09) -21.44 (08) -24.08 (05) -23.01 (06) 2.663 (08) (05) (10) (11) 91 -21.00 -22.01 -24.54 -23.62 (09) -21.90 (09) -21.62 (06) -23.29 (06) -24.01 (06) 2.753 (08) (09) (13) (08) -22.53 -21.97 -23.87 -23.29 (09) -22.30 (05) -20.98 (10) -24.22 (06) -24.91 (13) (08) (10) (09) -22.54 -21.41 -23.52 -23.73 (05) -21.53 (10) -22.19 (05) -25.09 (06) (09) (12) (10) -22.05 -21.41 -23.98 -22.84 (06) -22.70 (07) -22.83 (05) (10) (09) (10) -21.87 -21.53 -23.19 -23.94 (06) -23.38 (05) (08) (07) (09) -22.19 -20.93 -24.16 -24.86 (08) (08) (07) (09) -21.46 -22.15 -25.05 (09) (12) (10) -22.66 -22.81 (09) (10) -23.36 (09) 224 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 6.1.— Luminosity–linewidth relations for galaxies with Cepheid distances. The top and bottom left panels show the H and K-band total magnitude relations, respectively, while the corresponding right panels show the isophotal (21 mag/ 00) ut magnitude relations. Solid, dashed and dotted lines indicate the result of bivariate, direct and inverse least-squares ﬁts. The open symbol indicates the location of NGC 2841, which was excluded from the ﬁts. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 225

Fig. 6.2.— Luminosity–linewidth relations for galaxies with Cepheid distances. The top and bottom left panels show the R and I-band total magnitude relations, respec-

tively, while the corresponding right panels show the isophotal (24 and 23.5 mag/ 00, ut respectively) magnitude relations. Solid, dashed and dotted lines indicate the result of bivariate, direct and inverse least-squares ﬁts. The open symbol indicates the location of NGC 2841, which was excluded from the ﬁts. 226 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Table 6.2. Fit results

Mag. Type a b σ N

HT dir. 22.40 0.02 10.0 0.2 0.19 18 − ± − ± inv. 22.38 0.04 10.2 0.3 0.19 − ± − ± biv. 22.39 0.05 10.0 0.3 0.19 − ± − ± H21 dir. 22.19 0.02 11.0 0.2 0.22 − ± − ± inv. 22.15 0.04 11.3 0.3 0.22 − ± − ± biv. 22.16 0.05 11.1 0.3 0.22 − ± − ± KT dir. 22.66 0.04 9.9 0.3 0.22 14 − ± − ± inv. 22.61 0.06 10.1 0.4 0.22 − ± − ± biv. 22.65 0.07 9.7 0.5 0.21 − ± − ± K21 dir. 22.59 0.04 9.8 0.3 0.20 − ± − ± inv. 22.50 0.06 10.3 0.4 0.19 − ± − ± biv. 22.53 0.07 10.0 0.5 0.19 − ± − ± RT dir. 20.54 0.03 8.5 0.2 0.20 18 − ± − ± inv. 20.59 0.04 9.0 0.2 0.22 − ± − ± biv. 20.58 0.04 8.7 0.3 0.20 − ± − ± R24 dir. 20.44 0.02 8.9 0.2 0.20 − ± − ± inv. 20.50 0.04 9.4 0.2 0.23 − ± − ± biv. 20.49 0.04 9.2 0.4 0.21 − ± − ± IT dir. 21.10 0.03 8.7 0.2 0.20 18 − ± − ± inv. 21.06 0.04 9.5 0.2 0.22 − ± − ± biv. 21.09 0.05 9.1 0.3 0.21 − ± − ± I23.5 dir. 20.97 0.03 9.2 0.2 0.21 − ± − ± inv. 20.95 0.04 10.0 0.3 0.22 − ± − ± biv. 20.96 0.05 9.7 0.3 0.21 − ± − ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 227

extinction corrections used in this work. The HST/WFPC2 image of this galaxy (Figure 3.2) shows prominent dust lanes embedded in its disk, which introduce additional internal extinction that may not be compensated for in the formulation of Tully et al. (1998). The Cepheid distance to NGC 2841 is not likely to blame for the oﬀset, since that distance provided an absolute calibration for the type Ia supernova 1998by Garnavich et al. (2001) that is in excellent agreement with the existing calibration for the type Ia SNe distance indicator.

The scatter in all the relations, σ = 0.19 0.22 mag, is comparable to − those of the R and I-band calibrator samples of Tully & Pierce (2000) and the K-band Ursa Major cluster sample of Verheijen (2001). Figure 6.3 shows the RIK relations for this cluster, along with ﬁts to the bivariate results presented in Table 6.2. The resulting distance moduli are 31.32 0.08 mag, 31.35 0.08 mag, ± ± and 31.36 0.08 mag, respectively (internal errors only). ±

6.4 An application to 2MASS data

The Two-Micron All Sky Survey will soon release a catalog of JHK photometry for 106 galaxies across the sky. The combination of these magnitudes with ∼ the output of ongoing redshift and 21-cm surveys will result in an unprecedented database for Tully-Fisher studies. The short integration times of 2MASS (7.6s) results in shallower isophotal magnitudes, measured at the HK = 20 mag/ 00 ut level. Recent studies by Bouch´e& Schneider (2000) and Pahre, Kochanek & Falco (2001) have determined template relations for this isophote at K.

In order to provide an absolute calibration for 2MASS Tully-Fisher studies, the calibrator data presented in Chapter 5 was used to determine magnitudes at the quoted isophotal level. The luminosity–linewidth relations, shown in Figure 6.4, are best ﬁt (using a bivariate weighting scheme) by:

c H20 = 22.01 0.02 10.5 0.4(log W ) (6.4) − ± − ± 20 c K20 = 22.34 0.07 10.4 0.5(log W ) (6.5) − ± − ± 20 228 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

Fig. 6.3.— Luminosity–linewidth relations in the RIK bands for galaxies in the Ursa Major cluster. Photometry and linewidth data are from Tully & Pierce (2000). The solid lines represent the best ﬁts to the relations listed in Table 6.2, yielding distance moduli of 31.32 0.08 mag, 31.35 0.08 mag, and 31.36 0.08 mag, respectively. ± ± ± The Extragalactic Distance Scale 229

Fig. 6.4.— Luminosity–linewidth relations for galaxies with Cepheid distances. The left and right panels show the H and K-band 20 mag/ 00 isophotal magnitude ut relations, respectively. Solid lines indicate the result of bivariate least-squares ﬁts. The open symbol indicates the location of NGC 2841, while the starred symbols (in the H relation) indicate the location of NGC 2541 and NGC 3319; all were excluded from the ﬁts. 230 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The r.m.s. scatter of these relations is 0.24 mag and 0.22 mag, similar to the deeper isophotal and the total magnitude relations. However, two low linewidth galaxies (NGC 2541 and NGC 3319) were rejected from the ﬁt to the H-band data. Their location in the diagram could be interpreted as a “break” in the slope of the relation; however, it would be preferable to characterize such a change using a template relation based on a much larger sample of cluster galaxies.

The 2MASS-based relations were tested against the I-band total magnitude relation using a sample of 25 galaxies from the Coma cluster and 14 galaxies in the Abell 1367 cluster. Linewidth, inclinations, and total I band magnitudes were obtained from Tully & Pierce (2000), while 2MASS magnitudes were provided by J. Huchra. The relations are shown in Figure 6.5; as before, solid lines indicate best-ﬁt results based on a bivariate error weighting scheme.

The best-ﬁt distance moduli are as follows: Coma, µI = 34.81 0.07 mag, ± µH = 34.85 0.08 mag, µK = 34.85 0.08 mag, for a mean value of ± ± µ = 34.83 0.03 mag; Abell 1367, µI = 34.79 0.09 mag, µH = 34.85 0.09 mag, ± ± ± µK = 34.88 0.10 mag, for a mean value of µ = 34.84 0.04 mag. All quoted errors ± ± are internal only. This limited analysis seems to indicate that the HK 20 mag/ 00 ut relations can provide distance estimates with a precision similar to the total I-band relations.

The mean distance moduli derived above imply distances to these clusters of DComa = 92.6 1.1 Mpc and DA1367 = 92.8 1.9 Mpc. When combined ± ± with mean recession velocities (in the CMB frame) of VComa = 7185 km/s and

VA1367 = 6735 km/s Tully & Pierce (2000), they yield a mean value of the Hubble 1 1 constant of 75 4 km is− Mpc− (internal errors only). The external error for the ± 1 1 Cepheid distance scale, as derived by Freedman et al. (2001), is 7 km s− Mpc− . ±

6.5 Conclusion

This Chapter has presented the absolute calibration of the luminosity–linewidth relation in the RIHK bands, based on the photometry data presented in Chapter 5. The Extragalactic Distance Scale 231

Fig. 6.5.— Luminosity–linewidth relations for galaxies in the Coma and Abell 1367 clusters. The left panels show the relations based on total I-band magnitudes from Tully & Pierce (2000). The center and right panels show H and K-band relations based on 2MASS isophotal magnitudes (deﬁned at the 20 mag/ 00 isophotes). ut Linewidth and inclination data were obtained from Tully & Pierce (2000). The solid lines represent bivariate ﬁts to relations determined from the calibrator sample (Table 6.2 Equations 6.4-6.5). The average distance modulus for each cluster is listed on top of its panels. 232 Lucas Mat´ıasMacri

The total magnitude and deep isophotal magnitude relations exhibit linear slopes and have a scatter of 0.2 mag. Relations based on shallower H and K isophotal ∼ magnitudes, such as those to be provided by 2MASS, yield distances that are comparable to those obtained with total I-band magnitudes. As an example, 2MASS data for galaxies in the Coma and Abell 1367 clusters were used to derive 1 1 a value of the Hubble constant of H0 = 75 4i 7e km s− Mpc− . ± ± Bibliography

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