The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology

Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology

Understanding Movements

135 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill The Long Shadow of Alan Tippett 137 Articles 137 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions Leonard N. Bartlotti Do you see what I see?

155 Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern Africa: What Does the Data Say? Ben Naja An intriguing new picture is emerging.

161 Roles of “Alongsiders” in Insider Movements: Contemporary Examples and Biblical Reflections John and Anna Travis Help from without can take many forms.

171 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations: A Melanesian Ethnohistorical Case Study Alan R. Tippett What can we learn from earlier research on movements?

182 Book Reviews 182 A Wind in the House of Islam: How God is Drawing Muslims around the World to Faith in Jesus Christ 183 No Continuing City: The Story of a Missiologist from Colonial to Postcolonial Times

186 In Others’ Words 186 The Art of Mission Indigenous Art Forms and the Gospel Cultural Encounters between Christianity and Korean Religions One in Six Now an Urban Slum Dweller Singles and Missions The Gender Gap in Missions 30:4October–December 2013 UPCOMING 2014 EMS Regional Meetings FOCUS Diaspora Missiology

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Evangelical Missiological www.emsweb.org Society The Long Shadow of Alan Tippett October-December 2013 Volume 30:4

he IJFM welcomes two timely publications as an extensive backdrop Editor to this issue’s focus on how we understand movements to Christ. The Brad Gill first is David Garrison’s A Wind in the House of Islam (see ad p. 181 and Editor-at-Large Bradford Greer’s review pp. 182-83). This book is the culmination of three years Rory Clark T Consulting Editors of research on sixty-nine such movements that have emerged across the Muslim Rick Brown, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, world since the year 2000—the broadest research effort of its kind to date. Rebecca Lewis, H. L. Richard, Steve Saint Garrison’s careful phenomenological approach cuts through the more recent Layout anecdotal hearsay and reflex judgment regarding movements and offers solid Marjorie Clark evidence that God is drawing Muslims to himself to an unprecedented degree. Secretary Lois Carey The second book, Fullness of Time, is the most recent in a series of previously 1 Publisher unpublished works by Alan Tippett (see ad p. 170). When it comes to under- Bradley Gill, representing the student-level standing movements to Christ, few were as perceptive as this eminent mission meeting at Edinburgh 1980. anthropologist. This book is a collection of his essays on ethnohistory, a disci- 2013 ISFM Executive Committee pline thought to be Tippett’s most innovative contribution to missiology. We’ve Greg Parsons, Brad Gill, Rory Clark, Darrell Dorr gotten permission to include one of the essays that captures Tippett’s perspective on different types of movements in Oceania (see pp. 171-80). And don’t miss Web Site Glenn Schwartz’s review of Tippett’s autobiography, No Continuing City, a 580- www.ijfm.org page “inside look” into the life of this rather private Australian (p. 183-85). Editorial Correspondence It’s too easy to forget the missiological rigor of someone like Tippett. Now, just 1605 E. Elizabeth Street twenty-five years since his passing, the rapid-fire publication of his unpublished works Pasadena, CA 91104 is simply astounding. The conviction of this journal is that any understanding of (734) 765-0368, [email protected] movements would benefit from comparing his field experience in Oceania with that Subscriptions of a Garrison (or anyone else) in the Islamic world. You would expect the contextual One year (four issues) $18.00 dynamics to be radically different, but when it comes to movements, both are studying Two years (eight issues) $34.00 “actual dynamic processes at work,” and both are alert to how God “can speak to men Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 Single copies $4.00, multiple copies $3.00 through social mechanisms.”2 Sure, one setting is the post-WWII colonial resistance Payment must be enclosed with orders. of Melanesia and the other the global resurgence of a post-9/11 world, but notice that both represent periods subsequent to historical watersheds. As Tippett notes, most Please supply us with current address and change of address when necessary. “movements are the result of stress situations which arise when two very different cul- Send all subscription correspondence to: 3 tures clash or come into acculturative contact.” The intersection of Tippett’s Oceania IJFM and Garrison’s Muslim world should be a fertile field for comparisons. 1605 E. Elizabeth Street Pasadena, CA 91104 All that said, there is growing attention to the study of movements among Muslims Tel: (330) 626-3361 today. The research is growing, and for this we can be glad. The missiological forum Fax: (626) 398-2263 Email: [email protected] on Muslim contextualization known as Bridging the Divide (BtD) has spent the past four years wrestling with different (often controversial) perspectives on IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established in 1984 by the International Student Editorial continued on p. 136 Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. It is published quarterly. The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those COPYRIGHT ©2013 International Student of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 136 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are insider movements in the Muslim Secondly, more and more we’re study- some of the same sensitivity that Travis world, and it’s in that forum that each ing actual research from the field. fleshes out in his description of the of the authors in this issue, as well as Nothing impacts or disturbs presup- “Alongsider” (pp. 161-69). I think the Garrison’s research, has had a consider- positions quite like a case study that barefoot, island-hopping Alan Tippett able impact. It’s apparent that two vital holds surprising data. It can bend would second any motion to instill developments are pushing the discus- one’s preconceived image of real- the cross-cultural habits Travis has sion of movements forward. ity and force one beyond caricatures. outlined. Understanding movements Admittedly Garrison’s research is demands it. First, we’re willing to discuss our mis- broad and encompassing, but more siological predispositions when it comes to This year’s ISFM in Atlanta focused research on actual movements (September 23-25) will offer this movements. It’s quite apparent that our in particular contexts is finally begin- generation another look at world evan- perception of those Jesus movements ning to be published. A good example gelization with the theme “Recasting emerging in other religious terrain is the second installment of Ben Evangelization: The Significance of is often colored by the unexposed Naja’s empirical research on two Jesus Lausanne ‘74 for Today and Beyond” assumptions each of us brings to the Movements in Muslim communities (see ad on the back cover or on p. 169). table. Len Bartlotti recognized his in Eastern Africa—offered initially at Hope to see you there. own presuppositions and broke them the BtD and now published here in down into nine categories, which he this issue (pp. 155-60). In Him, then offered to the BtD forum The long shadow of Alan Tippett (pp. 137-53). He clarified the different should convince us we have a way to “thought styles” and “group think” that go. It should encourage us to continue Brad Gill can so easily captivate us. I witnessed our pursuit of thorough field-level Senior Editor, IJFM the paralysis of misunderstanding at research. We can’t afford to fall into the that meeting melt into significant oversimplification that Tippett so often Endnotes dialogue. His contribution forces each 1 decried, what he amusingly called “car- The Missiology of Alan R. Tippett of us beyond a posture of evaluation, toons,” “exaggerating one feature at the Series, available at http://missionbooks.org/ beyond that immediate impulse to search/results/search&keywords=tippett/ expense of the others to the distortion 2 4 Alan Tippett, People Movements in validate (or invalidate) movements, of the general effect.” This is no easy Southern Polynesia, Moody Press: Chicago, to a personal examination of those mandate to fulfill, for we no longer live 1971, p. 6 3 models of church, culture, or theology in Tippett’s post-colonial world, and Ibid., p. 5 4 that drive our judgment. the role of the field researcher requires Ibid., p. 226

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders;  cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology;  highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions;  encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies;  foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and  advocate “A Church for Every People.”  Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifically concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorification of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, field mission- aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Understanding Movements Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions by Leonard N. Bartlotti

Editor’s note: This paper is a revised and updated version of a presentation to the first Bridging the Divide Consultation on Muslim contextualization, Houghton College, June 20–23, 2011.

s a scholar-practitioner, when I hear reports of movements of “Mus- lim followers of Christ” who retain their socio-religious identity “inside” the Muslim community, I find myself rejoicing within aA zone of ambiguity. Annoying questions sometimes pop the effervescent bubbles of excitement over Muslims “following Jesus.” The cacophony of voices exuberantly affirming or stridently objecting to this “new thing” in the Islamic world suggests that I am not alone in my intellectual quandary.1

Part of my caution is based on my experience that some reports of insider movements appear to slide from the “descriptive” (what is, what appears, or what is said to be happening among Muslims deus ex machina, so-called “Jesus movements” attributable to sovereign acts of God) to the “prescriptive” (what could or should be modeled or allowed to happen elsewhere). Biblical, cultural, and historical rationales are then marshaled to defend, affirm, encourage, or endorse the rights and pioneering (some would say, aber- rant, heterodox) practices and understandings of local believers and/or their defenders, promoters, and “alongsiders.”

Counterbalancing these doubts is the fact that this is truly great news! New communities of faith are springing up within a religio-cultural sphere that his- torically has seemed impervious to biblical faith. Innovative expressions of what it means to follow Jesus are being forged on the edges of the Kingdom of God.

Leonard N. (Len) Bartlotti is an I began to ask myself, “Why, then, am I reacting to these reports?” “Why ethnographic folklorist, educator, is it so hard to accept some of the legitimizing arguments and missiological strategist, and consultant to humanitarian organizations. He rationale for insider movements?” “What is really going on here—in their served fourteen years among a large thinking, and in mine?” Muslim tribal people, and earned his PhD from the Oxford Centre for I am no stranger to the challenges of gospel contextualization and theologizing Mission Studies/University of Wales. in a global context. My family and I served fourteen years in a sensitive Islamic He currently lives in La Mirada, CA. [email protected] context. I strove to overcome barriers and explored bridges to communication.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 30:4 Winter 2013•137 138 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions

Sincere Christians hold a range of his is because, on closer examination, insider views on each concept, and each func- missiology itself isn’t saying one thing; it is tions as an evaluative criterion. Thus, viewed singly or taken together, the T saying many things. lenses or filters help us evaluate insider I have seen firsthand the challenges Rather than accepting, or rejecting, missiology along a spectrum—a decid- and dangers Muslims face in “following insider missiology outright or in toto, edly biblical and evangelical (rather Jesus” in communities of faith (fellow- we can explore a range of possible than deviant or heterodox) spectrum ships, house churches) that aspire to understandings of each associated of faith and practice. both biblical faithfulness and cultural fit. concept. Then, in a spirit of biblical At the first Bridging the Divide I empathize with the desire to remain truth-seeking and evangelical collegi- Consultation (Houghton, NY, June “inside” pre-existing social networks, ality, we may discern truth and error, 2011), participants were encouraged to and appreciate the gospel potential of explore alternative understandings, reflect on their own position along the what McGavran famously called the and advance the theory and praxis of spectrum of understandings for each “bridges of God” (2005 [1955]). frontier mission. issue. They then discussed how their Nevertheless, the way insider missiol- What are some of the lenses, filters, own position, ecclesiastical tradition, ogy has been framed and promoted and theological presuppositions that views, or presuppositions on each is- raised unsettling questions in my mind. affect what we see when we look in- sue affected their critique, positive or Finally, I realized that I was not react- side and evaluate insider movements? negative, of insider movements. The ing to one thing, but to many things. presentation (humorously dubbed This paper proposes that there are at “Len’s Lenses”) drew an enthusiastic This is because, on closer examination, least nine alternative lenses by which response, and more importantly, facili- insider missiology itself is not saying we can see “inside” insider movements tated robust interaction. one thing; it is saying many things. and assess insider missiology and its Like a fiber optic cable, multiple theo- nexus of associated theories and praxis. The utility of this conceptual approach logical “strands” have been bundled to- The beliefs and assumptions associ- is itself based on three interrelated gether to present what appears to be a ated with each concept raise questions, assumptions: singular case for biblical faith and Jesus highlight issues and problems, and Assumption 1: There are boundaries of community “inside” Muslim identity, provide an opportunity for biblical and orthodox biblical truth, and sincere networks, and community. This com- missiological reflection and evangelical Christians can and do hold differ- plicates theological assessment. dialogue. The nine lenses are: ing positions within these explicit or implicit endpoint boundaries. Similarly, for observers, one’s own 1. Ecclesiology presuppositions function like ocular 2. Authority Assumption 2: Believers and groups lenses, or visual and photographic 3. Culture may be described as holding posi- filters. These, too, affect the intensity, 4. Pneumatology tions weighted to the right or left of color, and clarity of the light and the 5. History a presumed mid-point on each issue. resulting image. 6. Doing Theology That is, the scale is not so much “1-10” (from least to most extreme) as “Plus Thus, for proponents and critics alike, 7. Other Religions 1-5” or “Minus 1-5” around a near- our presuppositions or background be- 8. Islam consensual midpoint: -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 liefs affect what they say and what we 9. Conversion-Initiation +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 see when we assess insider movements Admittedly, the nine subject areas are or evaluate similar attempts to apply Assumption 3: Positioning oneself on broad, and entire books have been the biblical text to new contexts. the broad spectrum is first a reflective written about each one of them. It will and descriptive exercise, not an evalu- I realized that if we can identify these not be possible to explore these themes ative one. The suggested starting point presuppositions—the background in any detail. We shall touch upon only is not to judge oneself or another as understandings on which insider mis- those dimensions that shed light on right or wrong, but to understand how siology appears to be grounded, or by diverse approaches to Muslim contex- a given position affects how and what which it is being judged—we may be tualization, and that suggest some ad- one might “see.” in a better position to examine each ditional lines of inquiry and dialogue to assumption from a biblical, theo- advance our understanding of insider As you look at insider movements logical, and missiological perspective. missiology and insider movements. through each of the following lenses

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 139 or filters, consider how these lenses— your underlying beliefs about each ertain understandings of what it means to be issue—affect how you see insider and do “church” are used to promote or defend movements and assess insider mis- siology: “Where am I on the evangelical C developing faith communities in Islamic contexts. spectrum of faith and practice?” similar questions: Missionary Methods: modeled solely on the pattern of the St. Paul’s or Ours? (2010 [1912]). New Testament church. Lens 1: Ecclesiology At the other end of the spectrum, As Benjamin Hegeman observes, Word • Sacraments • traditional Reformation ecclesiol- ecclesia is used in six different ways in Discipline • Order • Leadership • ogy, and its Evangelical derivatives, the New Testament; various models of Pauline Emphasis values the Word rightly preached and church may be associated with differ- the sacraments or ordinances (Lord’s ences in governance, models of wor- —or— Supper and Baptism) rightly admin- ship, and “joints and ligaments” (Col Word • Spirit • Two or Three istered. Additional criteria include 2:19) to hold it together: universal (Mt Gathered • Simple Church• church order, discipline, and approved 16:18), global (Eph 3:10), national Synoptic Jesus Emphasis leadership (official, trained, certified, (Gal 1:2), regional (Acts 9:31), urban or ordained), within the more textured (Acts 8:1), and household (Rom 16:5). ecclesiology usually associated with Hegeman notes that liturgical church- A major theological presupposition Paul (e.g., 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, es (following a “Temple worship” of insider theory and praxis involves Colossians). Moving toward the pole, model) are least attractive to Muslim ecclesiology. Certain understandings of the “Eucharistic Ecclesiology” of Lu- followers of Christ, but “ironically, what it means to be and do “church” are theran, Catholic, and Orthodox theol- new African initiated churches find used to promote or defend developing ogy positions the Lord’s Supper at the that model most attractive” (Hege- faith communities in Islamic contexts. heart of the church; the Eucharist is man, personal communication, May At the minimalist end of the ecclesio- the center of the Spirit’s action for the 22, 2012). Yet churches in Iran and logical spectrum, insider advocates em- transformation of both the elements Algeria follow patterns that Western phasize the spiritual and ecclesial DNA and the people (McPartlan, 1995, 8-9). and Middle Eastern churches would recognize, such as styles of worship, within even the smallest communal There are many historical precedents buildings, home groups, and so on. structure: “For where two or three linking gospel breakthrough with have gathered together in my name, ecclesial tensions. The religious energy Whichever side we lean toward, our I am there in their midst” (Mt 18:20 of the sixteenth-century Reformation heritage, understanding, and experi- NASB). In this view of church, believ- resulted in new ecclesial structures, ence of “church” may affect our assess- ers who gather around the Word and with their own views of church polity, ment of “insider” communities of faith. the Spirit of Christ have essentially all doctrine, spirituality, practice, and they need to grow and develop in faith, engagement with society. According to Lens 2: Authority practice, Christlikeness, and witness. Littell (1964), for dissenting Anabap- This side of the spectrum values tists, the real issue was not the act of Scripture • Apostolic Teaching and simplicity, freedom, informality, and baptism, but “a bitter and irreducible Ministries • Outside Resourcing struggle between two mutually exclu- a synoptic “Jesus style” somewhat —or— removed from Pauline theologizing sive concepts of the church” (quoted in and complexities, but not removed Haight, 2005, 223). Scripture • Local Believers • from Pauline dynamics. Similar to the At the heart of the Wesleyan Move- Local Decisions Radical Reformation as described by ment was a desire to experience true Haight (2005, 218ff.), the emphasis spiritual transformation in Christ. A second lens through which to view to carry the movement forward is on Importantly, “perfect love” for God and and assess insider missiology and small voluntary groups, meetings in others was to be worked out in com- movements involves the related con- houses, diverse low-level leaders, and munity, leading to the classes, bands, or cept of authority. By this I mean the vibrant inner faith—rather than on societies of early Methodism. The early processes and influences by which de- superimposed concepts, structures, and nineteenth-century Restoration Move- cisions are made in a pioneer context. organization. They share the vision of ment advocated abandoning formal “Who decides?” and how are decisions Roland Allen’s Spontaneous Expansion denominationalism, creeds, and tradi- made related to biblical faithfulness of the Church (1997 [1927]) and raise tions altogether, in favor of practices and cultural fit?

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Theoretically, the answer is local for the faith which was once for all years (of his) working with other ex- pats and western agencies that this believers. However, one need simply handed down to the saints” (Jude 3). basic biblical and historical creed was revisit the missiological discussions The other side of the spectrum draws not a foundation stone to his faith! surrounding the words “contextualiza- its energy and very identity from He had never heard of it. We googled tion,” “indigenization,” and “incul- apostolic mandates to “Command and it together so he could understand its turation” to appreciate the nuances teach these things” (Col 4:11), “Preach value and the importance of being involved. Early literature on con- 2 the Word … correct, rebuke and tied to the historic faith. textualization was faulted for over- encourage … discharge all the duties emphasizing the role of the missionary As we affirm Scripture as the final of your ministry” (2 Tim 4:2-5). “We in the contextualization process. Today, authority for faith and practice, to what proclaim him, admonishing and teach- there is welcome sensitivity to issues of degree does the local decision-making ing everyone with all wisdom, so that power and process. process involve elders in the faith as we may present every one perfect in teachers cum advisers, and welcome the The current emphasis on insider Christ. To this end I labor, struggling wisdom of the historic and global church? dynamics and movements represents a with all his energy which so power- pendulum swing in the opposite direc- fully works in me” (Col 1:28-29). Lens 3: Culture tion: the processes of biblical decision- Interestingly, in one Asian context, making and local theologizing lie in local believers responded indignantly to Christ against • the local community. Local believers what they considered a condescending Christ over or in paradox with make local decisions based on their own understanding, however limited at —or— the time: “Give them the Bible and the Christ of • Spirit, and leave them alone—they’ll Christ transforming work it out!”

Those on the other side do not deny A third lens by which to view insider this as a goal, or diminish this ex- In one Asian context, missiology involves understandings of pression of the “priesthood of all local believers responded the relationship between the gospel believers.” All would recognize that and culture. Richard Niebuhr’s seminal local assemblies are in process toward indignantly. typology, Christ and Culture (1956), maturation. But the relationship with sets out five positions: Christ “against” missionaries, teachers, and other culture, “over” or “in paradox with” representatives of the wider Body of culture, “of ” culture, or “transforming” Christ, while not essential, is validated culture. He enriches the discussion as biblical and “apostolic.” with a range of historical examples Similarly, Scripture is the final author- notion: that they did not need outside from every period of Christian history. ity on both sides of the spectrum. But teaching and resources (e.g., books and While there are clear weaknesses one side tends to emphasize the local teaching on the Ancient Near East, in Niebuhr’s schema,3 for the pur- discovery and application of biblical social background of the NT, church poses of this paper, the typology truth, and the other, the discernment history, councils, doctrinal disputes, provides another useful way to view and impartation of biblical truth by etc.). Outside resources were considered insider missiology. Insider followers those who embody the teaching min- assets for growth and local decision- of Christ—who talk or pray (in Jesus’ istry of the church. making about contextual issues. Name) in mosques and wear a Muslim This is not a matter of mere pedagogy, In another context, a leader who works cultural identity—follow the Christ for both approaches utilize discovery extensively with Muslim background “of ” culture who eats with “tax collec- methods of teaching. In reality, the believers described his experience at a tors and sinners” and who sparks what underlying presuppositions involve recent meeting: some advocates consider an “insider” understandings of the degree to which, As we discussed I began with the Messianic movement when conversing and the manner by which, the church Apostles Creed. One leader said “this with a woman at the well in Samaria. in this generation, through its aposto- is wonderful, someone has already Insider proponents emphasize the late to the nations, functions as a faith- done this for us. When was this writ- continuity of socio-religious identity as ful “steward of the mysteries of God” ten?” I was overjoyed by his embrace one follows Christ and lives out bibli- (1 Cor 4:1) and “contends earnestly but saddened that after so many cal faith in a given context.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 141

These kinds of “Jesus movements” are viewed hopefully as “salt and light” he way forward is far more complex than transforming culture—including the either proponents or critics of insider constituent socio-religious structures missiology have acknowledged. and/or social networks—from within. T Gospel meaning can be ascribed to kingdom of the Son he loves, in whom worldview) from outside the dominant and co-exist within virtually any form, we have redemption, the forgiveness of culture, not only shape and form a including religious forms, except those sins” (Col 1:13-14). Christian culture recognizably differ- that specifically contradict Scripture. ent from that in which it is embedded Importantly, this “rescue” has vis- Meaning is negotiated by the local but also become deeply committed to ible and dramatic social consequences believer in his or her context. enhancing the whole” (Carson, 2008, beyond an inner conversion of heart 143-44). The objective is for believers to remain and worldview or an ethical change, in the social role and networks in viz. a new social identity. As universally Therefore, one agenda for insiders, which they were called and to trans- understood by social scientists, identi- observers, and alongsiders of “Jesus form this context from within. Using ties by definition are constructed, re- Movements” in Islamic contexts is a Acts 15 as a hermeneutical guide and constituted, negotiated, and contested thoroughgoing exploration of biblical paradigm, Gentiles do not have to be vis-à-vis the “Other.” For insider critics, and historical models of the relation circumcised and become Jews. Rather, following Christ means a rejection, not between the gospel and culture. “Let every man abide in the same retention, of Islam as embedded within calling wherein he was called” (I Cor Muslim cultures. Most markers of “Is- Lens 4: Pneumatology 7:20 KJV), sacrificially serving family lamic” identity are eschewed, in favor and community. All become the best of a new identity in Christ and with possible fathers and mothers, sons and His people that is visible, if not always Spirit-appointed Leadership • daughters, brothers, sisters, and citizens socially viable without persecution. Sacraments and Channels of Grace • of their community, embodying not “However, if you suffer as a Chris- Disciplined Growth • “Wind” only biblical ideals, but also the highest tian”—the word is a term of derision —or— social and spiritual aspirations of their used as a socio-linguistic marker—“do people and culture—in Jesus’ Name. not be ashamed, but praise God that Spirit-anointed Leadership • you bear that name” (1 Peter 4:16). Sovereignty of Spirit • Spontaneous Critics of insider movements and Expansion • “Rushing Mighty Wind” missiology propose an alternative Fortunately, we do not have to choose view of culture. They would not say one or another of Niebuhr’s types. that they are against transformation; The way forward is far more complex A fourth theological presupposition of nor are they unengaged with Mus- than either proponents or critics of insider missiology involves an under- lims as people. Rather, their critiques insider missiology have acknowledged. standing of pneumatology, the work emphasize the extent to which “false” According to contemporary critiques, of the Holy Spirit. Advocates defend understandings permeate every dimen- Niebuhr’s construction of “culture” insider movements as a unique work of sion of Islamic religion and Muslim (as in “Christ against culture”) lacks the Holy Spirit in our day. Sometimes culture. Sin and Satan have defiled and an appreciation of the multiple issues, Christian witness and teaching is not distorted the hearts and minds, under- dynamics and groups operating within present. The Spirit is sovereignly using standings of God, social relationships, cultural settings, and of the way indi- a variety of means to lead Muslims to practices and structures of Islam—and viduals negotiate their own multiple Christ—from signs, wonders, dreams, every other socio-cultural and reli- identities and contest them within and visions, to references to “Isa al- gious expression of humankind—at social groups. Masih” (Jesus Christ) in the Qur’an. the deepest level. Properly understood Thus, D. A. Carson emphasizes, our What we are witnessing, then, is a on their own terms, Islam and biblical understanding of the relation between Spirit-inspired movement to Christ, faith are simply incompatible. Christ and culture is contextually the “rushing mighty wind” of the Book Following Christ, then, involves a shaped; and it depends, in part, on of Acts, resulting in the spontaneous radical break with the past; regenera- “the concrete historical circumstances expansion of the church. Yes, it’s messy tion and sanctification through the in which Christians find themselves” and may appear chaotic to outsiders, but sacrifice and Spirit of Christ inevita- (2008, 65). There is no single model. give it time. Trust the irrepressible Lord- bly “rescue[] us from the dominion Christians shaped by Scripture, “who ship of the Spirit, and surely things will of darkness” and bring us “into the are taking their cue (and thus their eventually work out. “The Counselor, the

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Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send Concerned observers at the opposite with certain aspects of the workings of in my name, will teach you all things and end rightly emphasize that Spirit- the Spirit. The challenge for everyone will remind you of everything I have said appointed leaders are also “gifts” to the is to have “ears to hear what the Spirit to you” ( John 14:26). “But when he, Body of Christ: “And He gave some says to the churches” (Rev 2:7). the Spirit of truth, comes, he will guide as apostles, and some as prophets, and you into all truth” (John 16:13). some as evangelists, and some as pas- Lens 5: History tors and teachers, for the equipping of In this, as with early champions of the saints for the work of service, to the the Charismatic movement in Roman Spirit Active throughout History building up of the body of Christ” (Eph Catholic and Conciliar denomina- • Church’s Wisdom (Theologies, 4:11-12 NASB). Leadership and min- tions in the 1960s and 1970s, we hear Creeds, Councils) • istry are spiritual gifts given by God. echoes of the compulsion that took the Faithfulness • “Faith Once Delivered” In this broad view of the Spirit’s work, Apostle Peter across cultural frontiers: —or— “And the Spirit bade me go with them” gifted leaders, sacraments (ordinances), (Acts 11:12 KJV). Indeed, one of the and the variegated wisdom of the Spirit Active Now in Local Context contributions of insider missiology is church through the ages, including the • New Insights & Expressions • a strong, prophetic call for the church rich spiritual insights of non-Western Freedom • “A New Thing” to discern, embrace, and rejoice in the churches, are channels of grace to “out of the box” and “out of the Temple” every part of the Body of Christ. work of the Spirit of God in the hearts One’s understanding of culture and and lives of tens of thousands of our the work of the Spirit are interrelated Muslim cousins in Abrahamic faith. with Lens 5, presuppositions involving Confronted with indicators of true faith history. As suggested in Lens 4, insider in Isa al-Masih in the lives of Muslims,4 Detractors proponents have an optimistic, open- detractors or questioners unfortunately ended view of God at work in human can be judged as opposing the work of or questioners can history by His Spirit. God himself! Likened to Judaizers in The emphasis, however, is on the activ- the Book of Acts, these doubters are said unfortunately be judged ity of the Spirit in the “now,” in our to be hindering Gentiles from coming as opposing the work of day. Insider movements are thought to Christ “by faith alone,” apart from the to represent a kairos moment in two religious accoutrements associated with God himself! ways: (1) at the macro level, in the his- “Christianity” as we know it. tory of the Muslim-Christian encoun- The argument is that, if God is doing a ter (usually contrasted with polemical, new thing, then of course “we” (usually hostile, or hopeful but largely inef- meaning anyone not directly familiar Thus, insider advocates must also recog- fective evangelistic endeavors of the with the persons or situation involved) nize that to minimize these potential past); and (2) at the micro level, gospel do not understand it and do not know avenues of spiritual growth is to risk breakthroughs in specific local Muslim “them.” Thus, we do not have the right “quenching” the Holy Spirit, the voices contexts (sometimes in contrast with to criticize what is happening. Nei- of prophets and teachers, and the “word decades or centuries of perceived ther the “home base” nor any outsider of wisdom” through His people. The unfruitfulness or resistance). New should hamper field initiatives or in- disciplines of 1 and 2 Corinthians and expressions of the faith are springing novation. Nor do we have the right to the “wind” blowing through the Pasto- up in what was rocky ground. “impose” (the verb is pejorative, backed ral Epistles are no less “spiritual” than Appealing again to the historic Jerusa- by sensitivities to and resentment of the “mighty rushing wind” and rapid lem Council, advocates report insider power dynamics) “our views” on “them” growth in the Book of Acts. “All Scrip- movements as a breakthrough on par (who must remain anonymous for secu- ture is inspired by God and profitable with the gospel breaking out from its rity reasons, and whom we must protect for teaching, for reproof, for correction, Jewish soil into the Hellenistic cultural from outside interference). for training in righteousness; so that the sphere. Here, too, Acts 15 is used as a man of God may be adequate, equipped Leaving aside the hints of indepen- template and “globalizing hermeneu- for every good work” (2 Tim 3:16-17). dence and dysfunctional social dynam- tic” (Strong and Strong, 2006) to argue ics in church-mission relations, other At all points along the spectrum, that Muslim followers of Jesus should theological assumptions are at work. believers are more or less comfortable have the same freedom as Gentiles

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 143 to retain their socio-religious identity and live out their faith with minimal his shift has theological implications. cultural imposition from other “Chris- No longer do Westerners sit alone at the tians” (Judaizers?). “Therefore it is my theological table or dominate the discussion. judgment that we do not trouble those T who are turning to God from among do any better than they did … We de- of the kerygmatic essentials of the the Gentiles” (Acts 15:19). lude ourselves if we believe that we Christian faith to be discovered and can be respectful to other faiths only restated within an infinite number of But history is a two-edged sword. if we disparage our own. new global contexts” (2007, 16). Without imputing authority to tradi- tion, cautious observers argue that the Lens 6: Doing Theology Accordingly, some of the difficulty dis- Spirit has been active throughout the cussing matters of Muslim contextual- history of the church, as represented ization appears to arise from tensions for example in the historic creeds, Universal Truths • in the way various parties conceive of confessions, and traditions of the Western Theological Tradition • “doing theology” in the twenty-first Christian faith. Thus, even notori- “Pilgrim Principle” century. In the well-known words of ously independent evangelicals retain —or— Andrew Walls (1996, 7-9), the mis- the Nicene Creed as a plumb line of sionary movement in history involves Local (Contextual) Theologies • orthodoxy, while affirming with the a tension between two principles: the Theologies from Majority World Westminster Confession that Scrip- “pilgrim principle” and the “indigeniz- Church • “Indigenizing Principle” ture is “the only infallible rule of faith ing principle.” The pilgrim principle is and practice.” Faithfulness to the “faith the “universalizing force of the gospel,” once delivered to the saints” is the A sixth lens for viewing insider which provides a common “adoptive primary evaluative criterion. movements is suggested by my earlier past” and identity that transcends the comments on the use of history, and particularities of the local, associating What is important to recognize is that perhaps is best encapsulated in the them with people and things outside both sides use history, but in different title of Timothy Tennent’s book their cultural sphere. The indigeniz- ways. One side of the spectrum uses (2007), Doing Theology in the Context ing principle is the particular force history to argue that diversity, het- of World Christianity: How the Global of the gospel as it impacts and takes erodoxy, and the danger of syncretism Church Is Influencing the Way We Think root within specific cultures, enabling are normal—a natural consequence About and Discuss Theology. Christianity followers of Christ to be at home with of the messy-but-mighty expansion is a global movement. Secularization, their group and context (see also Ten- of the Christian faith across cultural the decline of Christendom in the nent, 2007, 1-24). boundaries. The fact of theological West, and the concurrent growth of Those who lean toward the insider heterodoxy, and its cultural roots, are the church in the non-Western world, justification for tolerance today. side of the spectrum seem more have led to a shift in the center of comfortable with the move toward The other side uses history to de- gravity of Christian faith to the Global “local (or “contextual”) theologies” fend orthodoxy (as represented in South, where the majority of today’s as one aspect of the inculturation the Western theological tradition) as Christians now live. of the gospel in particular contexts normative—in the face of the slippery This demographic shift has theological (see Schreiter, 1985, 1-21). Schreiter slope of syncretism, cultural relativism, implications. No longer do Western- describes this shift from traditional and the dreaded “H” word (“Heresy”) ers sit alone at the theological table or theological reflection: “Rather than perceived in some of the principles and dominate the discussion. But as Ten- trying, in the first instance, to apply a practices of the insider approach. nent observes, “The Western church received theology to a local context, Bosch (1991, 485) summons us to has not yet fully absorbed how the this new kind of theology began with an examination of the context itself,” humility: dramatic shifts in global Christian- and “a realization that all theologies Humility also means showing respect ity are influencing what constitutes have contexts, interests, relationships for our forebears in the faith, for normative Christianity” (2007, xviii). of power, special concerns—and to what they have handed down to us, “The universal truths of the Gospel pretend that this is not the case is to even if we have reason to be acutely are being revisited and retold in new, be blind” (1985, 4). embarrassed by their racist, sexist, global contexts” (2007, 2). Tennent and imperialist bias. The point is that calls this process “theological translat- Here’s how one respected practitio- we have no guarantees that we shall ability,” which he defines as “the ability ner in the Middle East described the

30:4 Winter 2013 144 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions process, in the context of discussing But as some respondents wryly noted, when, in fact, it was geographically the translation of key terms: MacArthur’s ministry is itself culture- localized and culturally limited, Euro- If we start with our denomination’s shaped and zip-code based. All truth pean and Western, and not universal” theology, or a creed, etc., instead of is expressed in cultural forms, from (quoted in Vanhoozer, 2006, 88). the NT, we may be guilty of imposing the language and literary structures of This helps us situate insider missiology our theology on people, instead of Scripture (Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek; and movements within the vestiges giving them the meaning of the NT proverbs, poetry, epistles, law, treaties, of the post-colonial project, as part words and allowing the Holy Spirit to genealogies, stories, parables, laments, show them how it applies to their cul- of the Majority World church and curses, blessings, etc.) to the supreme ture. Theologies are developed to an- the trend toward global theologizing, paradigm of the Incarnation itself, swer the issues of a certain culture in with all the attendant challenges and when the “Word became flesh.” The a certain time and are not necessarily sensitivities involved. relevant to other times and places. Son of God did not clock “hang-time” For instance, how many American somewhere between heaven and earth, Thus, the development of local theolo- seminaries teach courses on idolatry like a demi-god or jumping athlete. gies in Islamic contexts (represented or witchcraft? It is not a major issue He taught and ate and left his foot- by insider missiology—with more or in our culture, so we don’t develop prints in Nazareth, Galilee, and the less input from outsider “alongsid- detailed theologies to deal with it.5 rural routes of Palestine. He suffered, ers”) is taking place in an environment died on a cross, and rose from a tomb sensitized to issues of power, injustice, This description—beginning with left empty in the urban “zip-code” of oppression, economic inequities, etc., context, rather than the text—tends as well as the troubled history of Islam to make those schooled in Western and the West. If we add the post-9/11 seminaries very nervous, with their steroids of prejudice, bigotry, hate, traditional curriculum of Systematic fear, mistrust and misunderstanding in Theology, Historical Theology, etc. relation to Islam and Muslims, we end The latter have learned to contend for This helps us situate up with a toxic brew that threatens to universal biblical “Truth” in the face distort our visual acuity and poison our of “Tolerance,” cultural relativism, and insider missiology discussion of theological issues and the the declining influence of Christian- within the vestiges of process of theological reflection. ity in government, education, and the public square. Voices raised against the post-colonial As Tennent (2007, 13) advises, we must the relativistic tide decry a kind of project. find a “proper balance” between the “anthropological captivity of missiol- universal and the particular, or (as Walls ogy,” and reaffirm the importance of puts it) between the “pilgrim principle” doctrine, propositional truth, and the and the “indigenizing principle”—af- 6 “transcendent message” of the gospel. firming the universal truths of the gospel for all peoples in all places and For example, in a 2008 conference Jerusalem. In the process, He dignified address, Dr. John MacArthur famously space and time, culture and creation. times, while remaining open to new insights into gospel truth as the Word decried contextualization as “zip-code As a final note here, one detects in ministry”: takes root and bears fruit in the soil of Schreiter’s comments above, as well new hearts and minds and cultures. The apostles went out with an ab- as MacArthur’s, the nuance that local solute disdain for contextualization. theologizing is taking place—must, Lens 7: Other Religions The modern drive for cultural contex- should, will take place—in apposition tualization is a curse, because people to the real or imagined imposition of are wasting their time trying to figure a “received theology” from the outside. Discontinuity • Exclusivism • out clever ways to draw in the elect. Radical Disjunction Contextualization is “zip-code min- The identity of local theologies is being istry.” The message of Jesus Christ, constructed, contested, negotiated; lo- —or— on the other hand, is transcendent. cal/contextual theologizing takes place It goes beyond its immediate culture vis-à-vis critique of (or by) the perceived Continuity • Fulfillment • or sub-culture. It crosses the world, “Other,” a universal, usually Western- Praeparatio Evangelica and ignores the nuances of culture. ized church and theology. In the words It never descends to clothing or musi- of Kwame Bediako, “Western theology The seventh and eighth lenses are closely cal style, as if that had anything to do was for so long presented in all its par- related: the seventh involves our philo- 7 with the message of the gospel. ticulars as the theology of the Church, sophical approach to other religions,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 145 while the eighth lens looks at approach- es to Islam and Muslims in particular. o what degree is public identification with The New Testament clearly affirms the the heritage and adoptive past of a religious uniqueness and exclusivity of Christ community relevant to following Jesus? as the only way to God and salvation T ( John 14:6; Acts 4:12). There are dif- The contrasting side is aligned with Granted, insider proponents argue that ferent understandings, however, of the Kraemer’s position (1947 [1938]), insider believers do, in fact, identify notion of “religion” itself, and different rejecting continuity and compatibil- with the larger body of Christ. But this Christian attitudes and approaches ity between Christianity and other identity would appear to be largely in toward non-Christian religions and religions and instead asserting radi- their hearts, in the meeting room, and faith communities (Bosch, 1991, 474- cal discontinuity and a clear line of with select individuals who, in effect, 89). These are usually classified as three distinction (cf. Singh, 2010, 234). mediate that relationship. For security broad positions generally known as The differences, then as now, involve reasons, for social reasons, and now for Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism intense dispute. theological reasons, Christian identity is not assumed or marked in public, or in (Wright, 2000, 951-53), or Exclusivism, In a separate but related argument, the now globalized public square. Fulfillment, and Relativism (Bosch, some insider advocates, following 1991, 478-83). Bosch contends that post-Enlightenment and contempo- One major question, therefore, in- “the two largest unsolved problems rary Western critiques of religion (cf. volves our understanding of “identity,” for the Christian church” today are “its Bosch, 1991, 474-76), use the terms one of the most complex and well- relationship (1) to world views which of- “religion,” “church,” and “Christianity” researched concepts in every branch fer this worldly salvation, and (2) to other in a pejorative sense, in juxtaposition of the social sciences today. To what faiths” (1991, 276-77, emphasis his). to their preferred terms “Kingdom” degree is public identification with the In the debate over insider missiology, and “Jesus-centered new movements.” heritage and adoptive past of a reli- one issue is the continuity or disconti- Analysis of their argumentation gious community—as it is commonly nuity between religions and religious exhibits a method of defending insider understood, even by the Muslim um- worldviews. On one end of the spec- missiology and movements by painting mah—relevant to following Jesus? trum, Christian faith comes as the fulfill- their critics as historically and cultur- ally rooted defenders of the (Western) There are pragmatic reasons for saying it ment of the aspirations of other religious is not. Certainly anyone with experience traditions, and becomes what Scottish faith, whose now-reduced place in the global Christian movement serves sharing the good news with Muslims missionary J. N. Farquhar (1861-1929) wants to maintain distance from exte- called the “crown” (of Hinduism) (1913; to undermine the legitimacy of their claims to superior wisdom and insight. rior religion, false or nominal Christians, see Netland, 2001, 33ff.). Insider mis- and the historical and highly charged siology is clearly sympathetic to this per- The net effect is to allow for an escape stereotypes associated with Christian- spective in relation to Islam. Elements from the burden of Christian his- ity. The focus is on the Person of Jesus of culture and other religions function tory and the “common adoptive past” himself as embodying “the gospel.” as praeparatio evangelica; these prepare affirmed by Walls: Who wants to be the way for the gospel (for the discussion left “holding the bag” in defense of But some insider theorists and prac- related to the Islam, see Singh, 2010). “Christianity” and two thousand years titioners are saying more than this. of real or imagined Christian sins? “Religious identity” is contrasted with Thus, Lamin Sanneh (2003, 2009) “Following Jesus.” The former is reified argues that divine preparation for the As E. Stanley Jones argued in 1925, as a negative category, an idol of hu- gospel preceded the arrival of mission- perhaps more hopefully than presciently, man fabrication (cf. the discussion of aries in Africa. The coming of gospel “India can now take from Christ Calvin and Barth in Bosch, 1991, 478- light “rekindles” the sparks “entrusted to because she is able to disassociate him 79). It is reduced to historically condi- all living cultures” into a “living flame” from the West. .. . [T]he centering of tioned human efforts, ethics, and cultic of faith. This provides a theological everything upon the person of Jesus observances; and it is associated with basis for translating the Scriptures into clears the issue and has given us a new identity in a largely Western, bounded all vernacular cultures. He notes further vitalizing of our work” (1925, 109-110). social group (see, e.g., Medearis, 2011). that the response to Christian faith in In a similar vein for Sunder Singh and Africa is linked to those societies where N. V. Tilak, “the direct experience of The boundaries associated with faith the indigenous name for God was used. Jesus” was foundational to their faith and communities are also rejected. This Thus the notion that “Christ does not led them to walk outside the boundaries reductionist generalization about “Re- arrive as a stranger to any culture.” of the organized church (Singh, 2009). ligion” is contrasted with a “Kingdom”

30:4 Winter 2013 146 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions ideal based on the New Testament, to would be silently leavened by the spirit Smart, 1998), even as we invite them, promote and defend the emergence of of Jesus—they would be Christianized with love and respect, to follow Christ. Restoration-type movements to (and from within. We see these two things To inform the ongoing discussion, we communities of ) Jesus that retain and/or taking place with the impact of Christ need to draw not only on mission field reframe their former “religious” identity upon the soul of the East” (1925, 59- surveys, but also analyses from the fields within their faith community. In this 60, emphasis added; cf. Morton, 2013). view, according to Bosch (1991, 477), of psychology, sociology, religious studies, Few descriptions capture better the “What is really called for, however, is church history, the history of religions, Christo-centric passions and dreams of not just inculturation but inreligioniza- conversion studies, and other disciplines, tion,” the implanting of a new faith and insider practitioners. Jones’ prediction including historical studies (e.g., the spiritual center within an existing reli- is certainly true in the Muslim world heated controversy over the theology of gious tradition, community and system. that Christianity is actually “breaking religions in the 1920s and 1930s). An out beyond the borders” of the church appreciation for the church’s diverse and Note in passing that in insider missiol- and is “being seen in most unexpected “shifting perspectives” on other religions ogy, public identification with one faith places.” Jones raises a probing parallel (see, e.g., Netland, 2001, 23-54) can community’s socio-religious identity question: “Will the Christian Church broaden our frame of reference and (Christian) is rejected, while the other be Christ-like enough to be the moral foster much-needed patience, intellectual (Muslim) is affirmed as necessary, or at and spiritual center of this overflowing humility, and understanding in the very least acceptable, for the sake of a Christianity?” (1925, 69). contemporary dispute over engagement larger telos (e.g., rapid evangelization, with other religions such as Islam. church-planting movements, cultural transformation from within). Lens 8: Islam But really, this is nothing new. One again hears echoes from the past, for Few “Islam” • example, E. Stanley Jones’ The Christ of descriptions capture Historically Essentialized • “Muslims” • the Indian Road (1925, 59): Islamic Tradition Christianity is actually breaking out better the Christo-centric beyond the borders of the Christian —or— church and is being seen in most un- passions and “islams” (lower case plural)• expected places. If those who have dreams of insider Culturally Embedded • “muslims” • not the spirit of Jesus are none of “Which Islam?” “Whose Islam?” his, no matter what outward symbols practitioners. they possess, then conversely those who have the spirit of Jesus are his, Approaches to Islam (and Muslims) no matter what outward symbols appear to move us to the heart of the This suggests that the way Muslim they may lack. In a spiritual move- divide. “The Nature of Islam” was followers of Christ understand and ment like that of Jesus it is difficult chosen as one of three major topics work out their new identity in Christ and impossible to mark its frontiers. at the Bridging the Divide Consulta- Statistics and classifications lose their in a given context is not merely a tion 2012. This lens is influenced by meaning and are impotent to tell local affair. How does this “overflow- the other lenses or filters, as well as who are in and who are not. ing Christianity” relate to the “moral by one’s academic-cum-disciplinary and spiritual center” represented by perspective, each of which has its own For Jones, “Jesus told us it would be the Christian church? The manner by favored methodologies, aims, scopes, so,” by describing Kingdom growth which new identities are constructed, and agendas (Marranci, 2008, 3). in two ways: (1) “outwardly,” like a negotiated, or contested by others—in mustard seed growing into a tree, that the national/regional/global Christian One primary dichotomy here is repre- is, “men coming into the organized community, as well as in the Muslim sented by the contrast between Islam expression of the Kingdom, namely, ummah—is critical. viewed as (1) a unifying essence across the Christian church”; and (2) “si- disparate social, cultural, intellectual, lently,” like leaven permeating the The reality is that the Christian faith and historical realities; and (2) a social whole: “this tells of the silent perme- is an historical religion like any other, phenomenon variously embedded in ation of the minds and hearts of men by with characteristics common to all. This local contexts. Christian truth and thought until, from enables us to speak of and understand within, but scarcely knowing what is other religions and their adherents The traditional approach of Oriental happening, the spirit and outlook of men without judgment (Singh, 2010, 230; cf. Studies tends to be textual (Qur’an,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 147

Hadith), focused on Arabic, phi- losophy, theology, history, and related he focus is not an essentialized Islam, but literatures (Persian, Turkish, Urdu). on the anthropology of Islam and its unique Islam is also viewed developmentally regional and local expressions. as an historical tradition and phenom- T enon. Dominated by Western scholars, This challenge, and the studies cited our understanding of identity and Orientalism has suffered well-known above, inspired my own ethnographic ethnicity (cf. Banks, 1996) and the criticisms for perpetuating stereotyped research into Muslim identity and often-exoticized “local.” representations of Islam and Muslims. folklore in Afghanistan and northwest Whether the focus is on the macro or Pakistan (Bartlotti, 2000). In contrast, the social and anthropo- the micro, the state or local-regional logical approach to Islam emerged in Anthropologist Marranchi (2008, 7) dynamics, Eickelman reminds us that the 1970s and 1980s utilizing social succinctly summarizes the shift: “We the “universalistic and particularistic science methodologies (e.g., partici- should start from Muslims, rather strains” of Islam are “in dynamic ten- pant observation). The focus is not on than Islam,” and make the former sion with each other” (1995, 342), and an essentialized Islam, but on the our object of study. The emphasis is they have come to constitute an im- anthropology of Islam and its unique on understanding Muslims as people, portant area for study. Scholar-practi- regional and local expressions. what being a Muslim means to them, tioners across the divide must learn to how Muslim identity is marked, and appreciate the “dynamic tension” and Geertz’s seminal Islam Observed the distinct self-understandings, drill down into new pools of knowl- (1968), followed by el-Zein (1977), values, and emotions of Muslims in edge, while drawing upon a wide range Gellner (1981) and Gilsenen (1990 diverse contexts. The knowledge base of resources and insights available via [1982]), influenced a generation of is textured ethnographic studies. multiple disciplinary perspectives. anthropologists. Eickelman (1982, 1997 [1981]), Caton (1990), and Abu- Putting it another way, the dichotomy Lughod (1986, 1993) carried forward is between (1) “Muslims” understood Lens 9: Conversion-Initiation the study of “Islam in local contexts,” as having a common way of believ- albeit primarily in the Middle East/ ing, thinking, behaving, etc., despite Event • North Africa. disparities of culture, and (2) “muslims” Believing, Behaving, Belonging • (lower case) understood as cultural People of God • Bounded Set • In 1977, El-Zein proposed that there muslims, whose sense of religious Clear In/out Markers of Identity is not one “Islam” but many “islams” identity is locally, ethnically, and —or— (lower case, plural). Esposito (2002) culturally constructed. In a critical cor- emphasizes that diversity in Islam is ollary for insider advocates, this leaves Process • also affected by leadership, authority, room for idiosyncratic expressions Belonging, Behaving, Believing • and global forces. Thus, we need to ask and constructions of Muslimness (viz. Kingdom of God • Centered Set • two major questions: “Whose Islam?”, “Muslim followers of Christ”). Moving toward Christ that is, ”Who decides, interprets, leads, and implements” reform in a given The essentialism of the traditional context (rulers, military, clergy, activ- approach tends to smooth out ethno- A final lens through which to view ists, intellectuals, etc.)?; and “What graphic particularities, leading to what insider movements is a sub-set of Islam?”, that is, is the Islam envisioned Marranchi (2008, 6) calls “the fallacy of frontier missiology that may be called “a restoration of past doctrines and the ‘Muslim mind theory.’” Generally, “Conversion Studies.” In this case, I laws, or is it a reformation through insider practitioners and advocates lean have chosen a broader heading based reinterpretation and reformulation of toward the other side of the spectrum. on the classic study by New Testament scholar James D. G. Dunn (1970) on Islam to meet the demands of modern The insider emphasis on particularities, the baptism in the Holy Spirit in the life?” (Esposito, 2002, 70-71). however, risks overlooking historical Book of Acts. In the social sciences, influences, downplaying connectivities, Textured ethnographic studies of every- the term “conversion” can refer to and oversimplifying notions of causal- day Islam (“lived Islam”) among Mus- the complex of cognitive-emotional- ity. The local is sacralized. lim people groups have enormous value; religious meanings associated with they are greatly needed if servants of In a globalized world, flattened lines of personal change; “initiation” involves Christ are to move beyond stereotypes, authority, multiple networks, transna- elements and behaviors related to re- sterile generalizations, and surface un- tional identities, economic migration, cruitment, participation, and belonging derstandings of Islam as a lived religion. and social media add complexity to to a new social group or movement.

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Dunn shows that water baptism is one Christ; and the critical issue is one’s Gentile). As Constantineanu (2010, element in a “conversion-initiation” movement toward, or away, from him. 209) demonstrates in his study of process. (In the phenomenology of Pauline theology, reconciliation is The “process” side of the spectrum is Lukan theology, Luke is concerned an essential aspect of salvation and comfortable with conversion-initiation not with the ordo salutis, but with contains “an intrinsic, social, horizontal as a long road without clear mile markers visible markers of the age of the dimension” that cannot be separated or what most people consider “religious Spirit inaugurated by the Messiah.) from vertical reconciliation with distinctives” associated with a particular Conversion-initiation in Acts involves God: the two are “inseparable … faith community. The length of journey, five elements: repentance, faith, water two dimensions of the same reality.” timing of regeneration, and the bound- baptism, Spirit baptism or the gift of The new identity believers share as ary lines are fuzzy, as are the progress the Spirit, and incorporation into the reconciled people in Christ is “the markers; the direction, however, is not. community of faith. basis for their sharing in, or living out, Centered set theory is nearly unchal- a reconciled life with others.” At issue, then, is the process of how peo- lengeable truth in some circles, and ple (Muslims) come to faith and begin to Can one argue for the liberty of Muslim appears to be one assumption of follow Christ as members of His people, followers of Christ (cf. Acts 15:7-11) to insider advocates. Moving “toward” and the biblical markers of change. continue to identify with Muslims, but Christ approximates “following” Christ find it inconvenient for them to identify Traditionally, the truth encounter is and His teaching. Movement in turn publicly with “Christian” brothers and in the foreground. Crisis conversion is equated with “true” faith = follower sisters—due to the consequences or is followed by a discipleship process, social stigma in the eyes of their own leading to life change and incorpora- people? Peter tried it (cf. Gal 2:11-16) tion into a (generally heterogeneous) and was rebuked by Paul. group or church. There are clear mark- ers of faith and new life, viz. public Relationships potentially veil or reveal confession of faith, identification with the reality of a redeemed humanity. “The the Christian community, water bap- Centered set theory is shared table was the acid test” (Walls, tism, open witness, etc. Believers are to 1996, 78). be bold in witness and renounce their nearly unchallengeable A concerted study of the complexity former way of life. People know who is truth in some circles. of conversion can shed light on critical “in” or “out” of the family of faith. issues. This includes field studies of On the other side of the spectrum, conversion to Christ (on the order of closer to the insider view, the notion Syrjänen, 1984), as well as Christian of process and the concept of faith as a conversion to Islam, in various cultural journey are central. This is expressed in contexts in the West and Global South. the now-familiar “belonging-behav- of Jesus = a real “Christian” (though Manger’s (1999) study of the Lafofa ing-believing” schema popular in the not publicly so named). This contrasts of Sudan, for example, shows that “emerging church” model in the West. with those who are so in name only, Muslim identity is a dynamic process; Faith emerges in the context of an who are made to bear the weight of “being a Muslim” is contested through “Emmaus Road” journey to faith with that maligned historical identity. The the manipulation of the meaning(s) of others, involving a gradual discovery “distance” between various people and a changing set of diacritical markers of the Person of Christ, His truth and Jesus is reduced to a matter of personal (individual customs and traits) that way of salvation. contact or experience or degree of per- become symbols of Muslim identity. ceived obedience (not confession, re- Hiebert (1994) introduced an anal- It is well known that conversion is a generation, or baptism). The key issue ogy from set theory that is used to multifaceted process involving personal, is the direction of the arrow toward or undergird this approach. He pro- cultural, social, and religious dimensions. away from Jesus—not the distance or posed viewing the church in terms of Thus, studies are needed that include, but relation to a boundary. “bounded sets” versus “centered sets.” go beyond, surveys and interviews with In the former, the focus tends to be on The conversion-initiation lens converts and assumptions about causal- who is “in” or “out,” and there are clear also focuses our attention on ity. Buckser and Glazier (2003, 212ff.) boundaries to the faith community. In the theological issue of the social suggest studies of the “contextual matrix a centered set, the focus is not on the implications of spiritual reconciliation of conversion” (e.g., the role of the family boundaries but on the center, viz. Jesus in Christ (e.g., between Jew and and others in the individual intrapsychic

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 149 process); the processes of conversion, including the subtleties of “first contact”; he question, “Are you for or against insider longitudinal versus synchronic studies, to movements?” has been shown to be simplistic explore the long-term consequences of in the extreme. religious change; the definition of “con- T version” itself (what exactly is changed?); with insider missiology. To date, most diagnostics (“what’s really going on differences between outsider and insider discussions of insider missiology have here?”) and biblical hermeneutics can points of view (epistemologically, phe- been complicated by the fact that become the handmaiden of our own nomenologically); and the role of theol- advocates have braided these notions cherished presumptions. ogy in the way the process is understood into one tight, multi-strand argument Thus, in addition to suggestions for and framed (see, e.g., Kraft, 2013). legitimizing or promoting insider dialogue and further study The disciplines of theology, biblical approaches and movements. Likewise interlaced with analysis throughout studies, anthropology, sociology, psy- some critics have adopted a ”zero-sum” this paper, I would like to offer a few chology, and historical studies—all offer approach that reduces the debate to closing recommendations: possible perspectives through which to winners and losers. understand the multifaceted processes This analysis has shown that insider 1. Understand insider missiology and involved in Muslims coming to faith missiology is multivocal, not univocal: movements from within, by talking in Christ in diverse contexts around insider advocates are saying many with and listening to the voices the world. There is no single way to things, not one thing. Thus, insider of Muslim followers of Christ. In understand conversion. There are mul- missiology must be assessed—and must this, the emerging research and tiple theoretical approaches, multiple be willing to be judged, and adjusted— data from the field will play an “lenses.” This brings us full circle. accordingly. Each element involves important role in helping us move 9 critical theological issues. toward a “thick description” of Conclusion what following Christ means for How we view any single element in this these new believers and groups. This paper has argued that multiple set of interrelated issues influences what 2. Balance empathy with a sanctified theological presuppositions lie at the we “see” when we look “inside” insider hermeneutic of questioning. Other heart of insider missiology. These movements, and affects our judgment of voices must be heard as well. This presuppositions consciously or un- what is true, right, fair, and biblical in recommendation applies particu- consciously affect the way proponents relation to one of the most contentious larly to sympathetic local work- have presented, and concerned observ- subjects on the current mission scene ers, alongsiders, and researchers. ers have critiqued, insider movements In most insider contexts, we are and insider missiology. The nine inter- Throughout this paper, my aim is not dealing with cultures where inter- related assumptions or background to defend or criticize a particular posi- tion, nor to argue for one approach personal and intercultural commu- beliefs discussed above—ecclesiology, nication are influenced by notions authority, culture, pneumatology, his- over the other. I have taken the risk of over-simplifying and dichotomizing a of honor and shame, patron-client tory, doing theology, other religions, set of immensely complex concepts in relationships, economics, and Islam, and conversion-initiation— order to underline the point that there power dynamics. Suspicion and comprise an array of “talking points” is a spectrum of defensible and contested intrigue are in the air. One mark of for further dialogue and critique. biblical positions on each issue. wisdom, understanding, and spiri- The question, “Are you for or against in- tuality is the ability to distinguish The doyen of Islamic Studies, Ber- sider movements?” has been shown to be the outside dimension (Arabic nard Lewis, was recently described simplistic in the extreme. An individual zahir, exterior, apparent meaning) as someone who has always been observer—whether an advocate, insider, from that which is on the inside “unusually alert to nuance and am- or alongsider, or a critic, concerned (Arabic batin, hidden, inner, spiri- biguity; he is wary of his sources and Christian, or scholar-activist—may tual dimension). This applies not tests them against other evidence.”8 deem one of these theological/mis- only to understanding the Holy Alertness to nuance, tolerance for siological lenses more significant than Books and to spirituality, but also, ambiguity, and a willingness to test others in assessing insider movements. importantly, to relationships. In the sources against other evidence, are latter case, failure to question or The right-hand column of Table 1 difficult qualities to cultivate in the discern inner intentions can be, in (next page) summarizes the primary high-octane world of missions, where local eyes, both a sign of foolish- theological presuppositions associated pragmatics (“what works?”) can trump ness and patently dangerous.

30:4 Winter 2013 150 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions

Table 1. Theological Presuppositions of Insider Missiology and the Evangelical Spectrum

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Theological Lens Insider Missiology

Word Word Sacraments Spirit Ecclesiology/ Discipline, Order Two or three gathered Leadership Church Simple church Pauline Emphasis Synoptic Jesus emphasis

Scripture Scripture Apostolic teaching & ministries Authority Local believers Outside resourcing Local decisions

Christ “against” Christ “of” Culture Christ “over” or “in paradox with” Christ “transforming”

Spirit-appointed leadership Spirit-anointed leadership Sacraments & channels of grace Pneumatology/ Sovereignty of Spirit Disciplined growth Holy Spirit Spontaneous expansion “Wind” “Rushing mighty wind”

Spirit active throughout history Spirit active now in local context Church’s wisdom (theologies, creeds, councils) New insights & expressions History Faithfulness Freedom “Faith once delivered” “A new thing”

Universal truths Local (contextual) theologies Western theological tradition Doing Theology Theologies from majority world church “Pilgrim Principle” “Indigenizing Principle” Discontinuity Continuity Exclusivism Other Religions Fulfillment Radical disjunction Praeparatio Evangelica “Islam” “islams” (lower case, plural) Historically essentialized Culturally embedded Islam “Muslims” “muslims” Islamic tradition “Which Islam?” “Whose Islam?”

Event Process Believing, behaving, belonging Belonging, behaving, believing People of God Conversion-Initiation Kingdom of God Bounded Set Centered Set Clear in/out markers of identity Moving towards Christ

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Leonard N. Bartlotti 151

3. Listen with discernment. Alongsiders, analysts, and observers e used to challenge our PhD scholars to dig need to discern the full range deeper into field realities by raising this one of cultural, relational, economic, linguistic, and other dynamics at W important question . . . work in a given situation. The reality from Biblical Studies, Theol- in the worldwide church. Let us is that insider voices are generally ogy, Missiology, Islamic Studies, affirm evangelical unity, delight mediated voices, due to security Anthropology, Linguistics, and in (or at least tolerate) evangelical issues, language, and other factors. other disciplines, and not dismiss ambiguity, and create space for evan- Sympathizers and critics alike bear a the insights of those who may lack gelical diversity. special responsibility to discern their “field” experience. What is required Joyfully we can affirm that this process own biases; to exercise discernment is a Jesus-style of scholarship that of seeking spiritual wisdom and insight of spirits; to acknowledge the (1) allows others to sit at the table from the Word of God now includes role of their own theological and and have a voice, even if we dis- new brothers and sisters with a Mus- missiological presuppositions; agree, and (2) raises one’s own voice lim heritage. These communities of to recognize the line between with both courage and humility. faith in Jesus Christ are singing praises description and prescription; and 6. Engage the ongoing process of “Global- to the Lamb of God, who reigns on to speak with love and respect, izing Theology.” We need to hear high and in thousands of hearts within boldness and humility. As a faculty again Hiebert’s call for “metatheol- the heart of the Islamic world. IJFM at the Oxford Centre for Mission ogy,” for local Christian communi- Studies, we used to challenge our ties to “do theology within their Endnotes PhD scholars to dig deeper into field own local contexts but in conversa- 1 For a discussion of current issues realities by raising this one important tion with other Christians globally” related to insider missiology and move- question: “What’s really going on (Hiebert, 1994, 102-103, emphasis when what’s going on is going on?”10 ments, see Haskell, Rob and Don Little, eds. added). Netland (2006, 30) defines “Insider Movements: Bridging the Divide.” 4. Ask the hard questions. “Facts are “globalizing theology” as “theo- Special issue. Evangelical Review of Theology friendly,” one of my former col- logical reflection rooted in God’s 37, no. 4 (2013). leagues used to say, quoting his self-revelation in Scripture and 2 Email message to author, January 28, doctoral supervisor. Let’s not be informed by the historical legacy of 2014. 3 afraid to ask critical questions, the Christian community through For a current critique of Niebuhr, see especially questions related to the ages, the current realities in the D. A. Carson, Christ and Culture Revisited (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008). biblical exegesis and hermeneu- world, and the diverse perspectives 4 Some evidence is anecdotal; other tics. The Word of God is our of Christian communities through- evidence is based on surveys and a growing final authority. Notwithstanding out the world, with a view to greater body of field-based research in progress. the desire to be culturally sensi- holiness in living and faithfulness 5 Email message to author, May 18, 2012. tive and contextually relevant, we in fulfilling God’s mission in all the 6 See the website BiblicalMissiology. 11 must discipline ourselves to think world through the church.” Insider com for representative samples of vocal biblically and deeply about these advocates in local settings bear a opposition to Muslim contextualization, matters. In this process, scholar- special responsibility to engage in including the debate over Bible translation practitioners must resist the temp- both deeper theological reflection principles for Muslim audiences. See also St. tation to proof-text their case, or and a broader global conversation. Francis Magazine published online at http:// make hermeneutical leaps. This is www.stfrancismagazine.info/ja/. 7. Bridge the Divide. The divide on 7 This text is from a detailed “sum- a call for a deeper immersion in matters of Muslim contextualization marized paraphrase” of MacArthur’s the Scriptures. is both ideological and relational. message by Nathan Busenitz published in 5. Explore multi-perspectival views. Bridging the divide involves content Pulpit Magazine: A Ministry of Shepherds’ The same situation can be inter- and process, biblical interpretation Fellowship, March 5, 2008. http://www. preted in different ways. A multi- and biblical fidelity, boldness of con- sfpulpit.com/2008/03/05/opening-session- %e2%80%93-wednesday-morning/. disciplinary and multiple lens viction and mutual respect, purity of 8 approach to insider missiology heart and a Christ-like tone of voice. Eric Ormsby, “The Tale of the Drago- man,” review of Notes on a Century by Bernard should be welcomed. This does In the ongoing process, we must Lewis, Wall Street Journal Online, May 11, not minimize or discredit more embrace the tensions and ambigui- 2012. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001 narrow disciplinary analyses. We ties, and persevere in love, listening, 424052702304743704577380390207004120. must welcome expertise derived speaking, and learning with others html/ (accessed May 16, 2012).

30:4 Winter 2013 152 Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and Presuppositions

9 A key term in the anthropology of Constantineanu, Corneliu Kraemer, Hendrik Clifford Geertz, “thick description” of a 2010 The Social Significance of Reconciliation 1947 [1938] The Christian Message in a culture goes beyond factual description in Paul’s Theology: Narrative Readings Non-Christian World. Interna- to analyze the conceptual structures and in Romans. NY: Continuum. tional Missionary Council. complex layers of meaning and interpretation Dunn, James D. G. Kraft, Kathryn A. ascribed to specific contextual happenings. 1970 Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re- 2013 Searching for Heaven in the Real See Clifford Geertz, “Thick Description: Examination of the New Testament World: A Sociological Discussion of Toward an Interpretative Theory of Culture,” Teaching on the Gift of the Spirit in Conversion in the Arab World. Eu- Relation to Pentecostalism Today. in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: gene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Basic Books, 1973). Littell, Franklin H. Eickelman, Dale F. 1964 The Origins of Sectarian 10 I am grateful to Dr. Bernard Farr, 1982 “The Study of Islam in Local Protestantism: A Study of the Senior Residentiary Research Fellow at the Ox- Contexts.” Contributions to Asian Anabaptist View of the Church. New ford Centre for Mission Studies, for this insight. Studies, 17:1-16. York, Macmillan. 11 Paul Hiebert, “Metatheology: 1995 “Popular Religion in the Middle Manger, Leif O. The Step Beyond Contextualization,” in East and North Africa.” In The 1999 “On Becoming Muslim: The Con- Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern struction of Identities among the Issues (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1994), Islamic World, edited by John Lafofa of the Sudan.” In Muslim Di- 102-103, emphasis added. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford versity: Local Islam in Global Contexts, University Press, pp. 339-343. ed. Leif Manger. London: Curzon. References 1997 The Middle East and Central Asia: Marranci, Gabriele An Anthropological Approach. Third 2008 The Anthropology of Islam. Oxford: Abu-Lughod, Lila edition. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Berg. 1986 Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Po- Prentice-Hall. etry in a Bedouin Society. Berke- McGavran, Donald Esposito, John L. 2005 [1955]. Bridges of God: A Study in ley, CA and London: University 2002 What Everyone Needs to Know of California Press. the Strategy of Missions. Eugene, About Islam. Oxford: Oxford OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers 1993 Writing Women’s Worlds: Bedouin University Press. [Friendship Press]. Stories. Berkeley, CA and Oxford: Farquhar, J. N. McPartlan, Paul University of California Press. 1913 The Crown of Hinduism. London: 1995 Sacrament of Salvation: An Intro- Allen, Roland H. Milford. duction to Eucharistic Ecclesiology. 1997 [1927] The Spontaneous Expansion of Geertz, Clifford Edinburgh: T&T Clark. the Church: And the Causes Which 1968 Islam Observed: Religious Develop- Medearis, Carl Hinder It. Eugene, OR: Wipf & ment in Morocco and Indonesia. Stock Publishers. 2011 Speaking of Jesus: The Art of Not- New Haven, Yale University Evangelism. Colorado Springs, 2010 [1912] Missionary Methods: St. Press. CO: David C. Cook. Paul’s or Ours? ReadaClassic.com. 1973 “Thick Description: Toward an In- Morton, Jeff Banks, Marcus terpretative Theory of Culture.” In 2012 Review of Christ of the Indian 1996 Ethnicity: Anthropological Con- The Interpretation of Cultures. New Road, by E. Stanley Jones. www. structions. London and New York: York: Basic Books. biblicalmissiology.org/2012/11/19/ Routledge. Gellner, Ernest book-review-christ-of-the- Bartlotti, Leonard N. 1981 Muslim Society. Cambridge: Cam- indian-road/, November 19, 2012 2000 “Negotiating Pakhto: Proverbs, bridge University Press. (accessed July 3, 2013). Islam and the Construction of Gilsenan, Michael Netland, Harold Identity among Pashtuns,” Ph.D. 1990 [1982] Recognizing Islam: Religion 2001 Encountering Religious Pluralism: Thesis, Oxford Centre for Mission and Society in the Modern Middle The Challenge to Christian Faith Studies/University of Wales (UK). East. London: I. B. Tauris. & Mission. Downers Grover, IL: Bosch, David J. Haight, Roger InterVarsity Press. 1991. Transforming Missions: Paradigm 2005 Christian Community in History: 2006 “Introduction.” In Globalizing Shifts in Theology of Mission. Comparative Ecclesiology, Volume Theology: Belief and Practice in an Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. 2. New York: Continuum Interna- Era of World Christianity, edited Buckser, Andrew and Stephen D. Glazier. tional Publishing Group. by Craig Ott and Harold A. Net- 2003 The Anthropology of Religious Con- Haskell, Rob and Don Little, eds. land. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker version. Lanham, MD: Rowman 2013 “Insider Movements: Bridging the Academic, pp. 14-34. and Littlefield Publishers. Divide” Special issue. Evangelical Niebuhr, H. Richard Carson, D. A. Review of Theology 37, no 4. 1956 Christ and Culture. NY: Harper 2008 Christ and Culture Revisited. Hiebert, Paul and Row. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 1994 Anthropological Reflections on Ormsby, Eric Caton, Steven C. Missiological Issues. Grand Rapids, 2012 “The Tale of the Dragoman,” 1990 Peaks of Yemen I Summon: Poetry as MI: Baker. review of Notes on a Century by Cultural Practice in a North Yemeni Jones, E. Stanley Bernard Lewis, Wall Street Jour- Tribe. Berkeley and London: 1925 The Christ of the Indian Road. NY: nal Online. May 11, 2012. http:// University of California Press. Abingdon Press. online.wsj.com/article/SB100014

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24052702304743704577380390 March 2009. http://www. Vanhoozer, Kevin J. 207004120.html/ (accessed May edinburgh2010.org/en/study- 2006 “‘One Rule to Rule Them All?’: 16, 2012). themes/9-mission-spirituality- Theological Method in an Ott, Craig and Harold A. Netland and-authentic-discipleship/seoul- Era of World Christianity,” in 2006 Globalizing Theology: Belief and Prac- consultation.html (accessed May Globalizing Theology: Belief and tice in an Era of World Christianity. 18, 2012). Practice in an Era of World Chris- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Smart, Ninian tianity, edited by Craig Ott and Sanneh, Lamin O. 1998 The World’s Religions. Cambridge: Harold A. Netland. Grand Rapids, 2003 Whose Religion is Christianity?: Cambridge University Press. MI: Baker Academic, pp. 85-126. The Gospel Beyond the West. Grand Strong, Cynthia A. Walls, Andrew Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 2006 “The Globalizing Hermeneutic of 1996 The Missionary Movement in 2009 Translating the Message: The the Jerusalem Council.” In Global- Christian History. Maryknoll, NY: Missionary Impact on Culture. izing Theology: Belief and Practice in Orbis. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. an Era of World Christianity, edited Wright, Christopher J. H. Schreiter, Robert J. by David K. Strong and Cynthia 2000. “Theology of Religions” in Evan- 1985 Constructing Local Theologies. A. Strong. Grand Rapids, MI: gelical Dictionary of World Mis- Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Baker Academic, pp. 127-139. sions, edited by A. Scott Moreau. Singh, David Emmanuel Syrjänen, Seppo Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2010 “Hundred Years of Christian- 1984 In Search of Meaning and Identity: pp. 951-953. Muslim Relations.” Conversion to Christianity in Zein, Abdul Hamid el Transformation: An International Pakistani Muslim culture. Finnish 1977 “Beyond Ideology and Theology: Journal of Holistic Mission Studies, Society for Missiology and The Search for the Anthropology Vol 27: 225-38. http://trn. Ecumenics. of Islam.” Annual Review of An- sagepub.com/content/27/4/225 Tennent, Timothy C. thropology, 6:227-254. (accessed May 18, 2012). 2007 Doing Theology in the Context of 2009 “Sunder Singh and N. V. Tilak: World Christianity: How the Global Lessons for Missiology from 20th Church Is Influencing the Way We Century India.” Papers presented Think About and Discuss Theology. at the Seoul Consultation, 22-24 Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

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MISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION Understanding Movements Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern Africa: What Does the Data Say? by Ben Naja

Editor’s note: In a recent issue of IJFM (30:1, pp. 27-29, “A Jesus Movement among Muslims: Research from Eastern Africa”), we presented the background story to the main movement referred to below as well as some initial findings from the author’s research. Readers are encouraged to familiarize themselves with that account. n a previous article in this journal, I briefly related how a movement to Christ began and then grew over a thirty-year period in a Muslim area of Eastern Africa. I also offered some preliminary findings of an in-depth Istudy that showed how these Muslim followers of Jesus share their faith, meet for fellowship, and relate to the wider Muslim community.

In this second article, I describe sixteen features of belief and practice identi- fied in two movements, including the one documented in the previous article. I then touch on three vital issues I hope will contribute to the ongoing discus- sion concerning “insider movements.” Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice Identified in Two Eastern African Movements The following sixteen features derive from my field data, which was obtained using a 70-question questionnaire administered to 390 people in two move- ments. 322 interviews were conducted with believers from the first such movement that occurred in a particular African country (primary research group). These findings were compared with interview data from 68 believers from a second movement in the same country (comparison group). Where rel- Ben Naja has served among unreached Muslim people groups evant, the findings from these movements have been complemented by other in different countries in northern, available data of movements around the world (which I reference in my foot- western and eastern Africa for the last notes). Each of these features (except two) was true for at least 50% of those 20 years. In partnership with local ministries, he has trained, facilitated interviewed in both groups, and in the majority of cases, these features in fact and coached numerous church reflected the responses of a full two-thirds or more of those interviewed in planting tentmakers for cross-cultural pioneer ministry in several African both groups. and Asian countries. He is currently Feature 1: Trust in Jesus alone for salvation, forgiveness, blessing also involved in training disciples and protection and developing leaders in two emerging movements from a Muslim Salvation through Jesus alone is foundational to any biblical Jesus movement. background. Together with his wife and children, he currently lives and Four questions addressed this crucial topic and all received clear answers. In ministers in eastern Africa. both contexts, over 92% of all participants agreed (in response to all related

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 30:4 Winter 2013•155 156 Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern Africa: What Does the Data Say? questions) that they trust in Jesus for Feature 4: Pursuit of a dual identity: they still feel part of the wider Muslim their salvation, blessing, forgiveness social and cultural insider, spiritual community, 59% of those interviewed and protection. outsider said yes. This ambiguity may reflect a This feature has been—and continues tension between (1) the new believer’s Compare this to the strikingly low to be—one of the most disputed areas own sense of belonging to the wider positive response for the other options in the current debate. According to community and (2) their perception on the questionnaire. Indeed, less than my research, the followers of Jesus in of acceptance by unbelievers; however, 7% trust in Muhammad’s intercession these two movements are insiders on a further research is required to clarify for salvation; 11% believe that Allah cultural and social level, but outsiders this important aspect of their identity. will forgive them because Muhammad 1 on a theological and religious level. What the data seems to indicate, then, is prays for them; 4% perform the salat They pursue a dual identity, which that most of these followers of Jesus de- to obtain God’s forgiveness of their is possible for some to maintain but fine themselves as Muslims in a qualified sins; 2% trust in talismans for protec- impossible for others. tion; and 2% trust in the local sheiki’s sense, but about 40% no longer feel part power to intercede. These findings Some 80% of these disciples identify of the wider Muslim community. are all the more significant consider- themselves as Muslims in a qualified Feature 5: Muhammad is not ing that, for most respondents, these sense, namely, Muslims who follow acknowledged as a true prophet features of popular Muslim piety were Isa al-Masih. By adding the qualifier nor do believers in these two likely all part of their pre-conversion “… who follow Isa al-Masih,” they movements trust in his power practices. Thus, feature 1 is clear testi- already identify themselves as religious to intercede mony to the powerful transformation To acknowledge Muhammad as a that has occurred in their lives. true prophet is part of the first pillar Feature 2: Belief that Jesus is the of Islam. My research revealed a clear Son of God who died on the cross trend in this regard. Although some for their sins major differences do exist between the The evidence from Scripture is clear: The members of these research and the comparison groups, Jesus is the Son of God, and without Jesus movements are in neither context do a majority still the cross, there is no salvation. The consider Muhammad a true prophet customary interpretation of the Qur’an theological outsiders. (only a tiny minority [3%] of the com- is equally clear: Jesus is not the Son parison group, and a more significant of God, and he didn’t need to die on minority [34%]—but still a minor- the cross for the salvation of humanity. ity—in the research group). Two questions addressed this criti- Feature 6: The Qur’an is no longer cally important topic and again the considered as the sole and response was overwhelming. In both outsiders, for it is not possible to be an highest authority contexts, 95% of Jesus followers hold insider theologically or religiously and trust in Jesus alone for one’s salvation, Six questions sought to discern the to the biblical truth that Jesus is the place of the Qur’an in the lives of Son of God and 95% also believe that blessing, forgiveness and protection. Only a small minority identifies as these followers of Jesus. Only a tiny he died on the cross. In response to minority (3% in the primary group, each of three related questions, over Muslim (13%); an even smaller per- centage identifies as Christian (4%). 0% in the comparison group) seeks to 92% agreed that they are saved, for- follow the Qur’an alone. When asked given and loved by God because Jesus Thus, while these followers of Jesus which book is the greatest, only 8% died for their sins. define themselves as Muslims in the chose the Qur’an, ten times as many Feature 3: Baptism social and cultural sense, they are chose the Bible. clearly religious outsiders since their The overwhelming majority (80%) of spiritual identity is in Jesus alone. Although few hold to the Qur’an as all followers of Jesus in both move- Nevertheless, not all disciples actually their sole authority, around 60% do ments have been baptized. Among succeed in remaining socially and cul- read it or listen to it at least occasion- believers who have been following turally inside the Muslim community; ally. One cultural feature of the Mus- Jesus for more than a year, over 90% 51% responded that they are no longer lim community is to read or listen to of respondents in the primary research accepted as a member of the wider the Qur’an, so it is not surprising that group have been baptized, a full 100% community. But when asked whether many of these followers of Jesus (being in the comparison group. cultural insiders) would do so as well.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Ben Naja 157

As religious outsiders, however, they no longer acknowledge the Qur’an as mong the believers who have been following their sole or highest authority. Jesus for ten years or more, an impressive 73% Features 5 and 6 confirm the findings have read the entire Bible. in feature 4, namely that the members A of these Jesus movements are theologi- itself in regular attendance at local, half of the disciples of Jesus in these cally outsiders—they do not believe in visible ekklesia (fellowship) gatherings two movements do suffer for their Muhammad as a true prophet nor con- with other believers from a Muslim faith (47 percent in the research group, sider the Qur’an their highest authority. background. (Note that for the pur- 52 percent in the comparison group). poses of this study I am using the term Note that persecution for faith in Feature 7: Diverse practices with ekklesia to refer to “the gathering of Jesus seems to be the experience of the regard to mosque attendance those who follow Jesus.”) majority of followers of Jesus in other Jesus movements around the world, as I found no clear majorities concerning In both groups, our research found 2 highlighted by several authors.8 mosque attendance. Nearly 60% of that over 92% of respondents partici- the research group and more than 40% pate in such gatherings, the majority Feature 14: Experience of the of the comparison group in these two doing so at least once a week.5 They supernatural power of God movements never go to the mosque. come together primarily to pursue four Related to this were two questions re- These believers have experienced the main activities: the reading of Scrip- supernatural power of God in their garding salat performance. Not surpris- ture, prayer, worship, and fellowship. ingly, the data on the salat and mosque lives, both before conversion and in attendance are similar: more than 40% Feature 10: Regular Bible reading evangelism. 41% indicated that a super- of respondents in both groups say that The Bible has a special place in the natural event influenced their decision they never perform the salat. lives of these followers of Jesus. 88% of to follow Jesus prior to their conversion (31% had a vision of some kind, while Feature 8: Believers in these them read or listen to the Injil at least weekly, with 85% of the leaders indi- 10% experienced a supernatural healing movements feel that they are a part or deliverance).9 of the worldwide family of God cating they read it even daily. Among the believers who have been following Possibly because of the role such expe- I have already mentioned that many Jesus for ten years or more, an impres- riences played in their own conversion of these followers of Jesus maintain sive 73% have read the entire Bible. process, some include the supernatural a Muslim identity and feel part of dimension in evangelism, with 27% the wider Muslim community (see Feature 11: Evangelism praying for the sick when they share feature 4). But they also have the sense A full 92% of these believers share 6 the gospel. Since we don’t know the of being fully part of the worldwide their faith. Their primary means of extent of the overlap between these spiritual family of God. My research evangelism are verses about Jesus two groups—those having had dreams found that an overwhelming 97% of in the Qur’an, personal witness, the and visions and those who pray for all respondents feel they belong to Bible, and prayer for the supernatural the sick when evangelizing—it would God’s beloved people. intervention of God (especially prayer 7 be safe to conclude that somewhere for the sick). Despite what some Western writers between 41% and 68% of the respon- contend should be the case,3 these be- Feature 12: Numerical growth dents have experienced the power lievers apparently do not perceive this along the lines of pre-existing social of God. This figure is actually much dual identity as a harmful, or compro- and family networks higher in some of the other move- mising, contradiction. They feel a sense In the research group (two-thirds of ments of Jesus followers in other parts of physical belonging to their com- all cases) and—to an even greater de- of the world.10 munity of birth, which happens to be a gree—in the comparison group (78% Feature 15: Believers are commonly Muslim community. At the same time, of all cases), respondents had immedi- from a Sufi or other non-Wahabi they feel a sense of spiritual belonging ate family members who also follow background to God’s worldwide family in Christ.4 Jesus. The gospel is flowing through Different, even contradictory, Mus- Feature 9: Participation in weekly their community mainly, though not exclusively, along family lines. lim movements exist in the wider or even more frequent geographic area of Eastern Africa in ekklesia gatherings Feature 13: Persecution question. Although potentially from The spiritual sense of belonging to I include the area of persecution be- a number of backgrounds, in neither God’s worldwide family manifests cause, while not a clear majority, nearly group (research or comparison) did the

30:4 Winter 2013 158 Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern Africa: What Does the Data Say? majority belong to any of the various a God-given way in which many The possibility of a dual identity sects with stricter interpretations of Muslims are coming to saving faith My findings show that many followers Islam, such as the Wahabi. Believers in Christ. In addition, two features of of Jesus in these two movements pursue from non-Wahabi backgrounds ac- these movements—pursuit of a dual a dual identity. Culturally and socially, counted for 77% of the research group identity and regular ekklesia gather- these believers are Muslim, while spiri- 11 and 57% of the comparison group. ings within the Muslim community— tually they are disciples of Jesus. They Feature 16: Believers grow into are not simply theoretical possibilities, are still part of the wider Muslim com- more biblical expressions of faith but actual reality. munity, even though their thinking di- and practice over time Jesus Movements as a God-initiated verges theologically and spiritually from that of mainstream orthodox Muslims. As time goes on, these disciples grow phenomenon Their Muslim communities do not seem in their closeness to God through In the literature on insider movements, to mind that much what these disciples Jesus; their understanding of God and supporters and opponents are divided actually believe and practice, as long as Jesus becomes more biblical;12 and as to whether such movements are a they do not bring shame or offense to they share the gospel more frequently. modern theoretical construct concocted the community. This growth over time is a central by Western missiologists or whether feature of both movements. they are actually happening as a God- Within the wider umbrella of at least some expressions of Islam, there seems Mosque attendance and salat perfor- given phenomenon in the Muslim world to be room for many deviant views, mance decrease among older believers. today. My research on these two Jesus practices, and opinions. This is true not Over time, disciples participate more only for members of Jesus movements, regularly in local ekklesia gather- but also for the very numerous members ings and identify increasingly with of Sufi orders or other Muslim sects.14 the worldwide spiritual family of all who confess Jesus as Lord. While the The reality of a “visible/invisible” percentage of those still perceived as This might be ekklesia Muslims by the wider Muslim com- The findings presented here show discreet munity decreases significantly over the one of the most gatherings of disciples of Jesus within a years, about half are able to remain important findings wider Muslim community to be a reality in the Muslim community. That said, (and one that can now be carefully docu- how disciples identify themselves does of my research. mented). The existence of “visible/invis- not change over time. Even after many ible” informal groups of disciples (ekklesia) years the oldest believers still refer to who regularly gather in the midst of themselves primarily as Muslims who Muslim communities might be one of the follow Isa al-Masih. most important findings of my research. In relation to the Scriptures, the movements in Eastern Africa seems These informal ekklesia are “invisible,” percentage of those who read the Injil to suggest the latter. These movements in that they do not actively seek public on a daily basis significantly increases appear to have been divinely initiated recognition by displaying Christian the longer they have been follow- and are not the result of a new strategy symbols or engaging in practices ing Christ. Their habit of reading (or developed by a few mission strategists generally connected with Christianity listening to) the Bible much more from the West. In fact, no Western (such as large buildings, loud music, or than they do the Qur’an reflects the gospel worker even knew about them at full-time clergy). But they are none- fact that they no longer consider first. Only at a later stage, as more things theless very real or “visible” fellowships the Qur’an the sole or even highest were happening, were these movements because actual people are meeting at authority in their lives. Indeed, only a brought to the attention of field practi- actual times in actual places on a regu- very small minority still seeks to fol- tioners. These practitioners then sought lar, at least weekly, basis. low the Qur’an alone. to find biblical guidelines and answers to Structurally, these ekklesias usually the missiological questions these believ- follow the lines of natural family and Some Observations about ers were asking. Jesus Movements Based on other pre-existing social networks. Whatever their origin, the data make Rather than extracting members Empirical Research it clear that Jesus movements among from their networks into an aggregate My research provides empirical Muslim communities are happening; church, the kingdom of God and its evidence that Jesus movements are they are an undeniable reality today.13 values are implanted into them.15

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Given the rather authoritarian charac- ter of Islam, open or normal ekklesia owever unlikely on a theoretical level, a new gatherings do not seem to be an op- redemptive community within the old is an tion. Nevertheless, my research shows that—however unlikely on a theoreti- Hactual reality. cal level—a new redemptive commu- movement in South Asia. Regarding 16 inside such movements. However, this nity within the old is an actual reality. is only a humble beginning. As Jesus mosque attendance, their findings differ movements emerge in many other considerably from my Eastern Africa data Sixteen Features Summarized inasmuch as, in their context, almost all contexts around the world, more such respondents attended the mosque regularly, To conclude, we can see that followers empirical research is needed in order to and in that the majority of the believers still of Jesus in these two Jesus movements better understand what God is doing regularly practiced salat. in Eastern Africa, share—to a greater or in Muslim communities today and how 3 Two examples of such writers are IJFM lesser degree—several key characteristics. we might possibly contribute. Dixon (2011) and Nikides (2009). 4 Mazhar Mallouhi, a prominent Mus- Followers of Jesus in these movements: Endnotes lim background believer from the Middle East, vividly describes how this dual identity 1. trust in Jesus alone for salvation, 1 I adopted the term “Culturally manifests itself in his life (2009). forgiveness, blessing and protection 5 Insider, theologically outsider” (CITO) The percentage of regular ekklesia 2. believe that Jesus is the Son of from an unpublished paper written by an participants is very similar in South Asia God who died on the cross for East African movement leader. He writes: (according to the Fuller study). “In one of the … case studies, we have a 6 their sins For a fuller description on how these church called People of the Injeel. This believers come to faith and evangelize, see 3. have been baptized group is generally culturally or socially an my article, “Welcoming Muslim Neighbors ‘insider’ church, but especially, religiously or 4. pursue a dual identity (social and into God’s Kingdom in East Africa,” Mis- theologically ‘outsider,’ or CITO…. When cultural insider, spiritual outsider) sion Frontiers, July/August 2013. we use terminology from the Muslim 5. do not acknowledge Muhammad 7 Kim, describing a movement to Jesus religious context such as the words Allah, in “Anotoc,” mentions the same four factors as a true prophet nor trust in his Isa, Al Messiah and some other religious that led many Muslims to Christ. (Kim in power to intercede terminology it makes us an insider. However Greenlee, 170). 6. no longer consider the Qur’an as when we give biblical meaning for Allah as 8 their sole and highest authority Father, Son and Holy Spirit, Allah so loved For example, Travis in Reisacher 2012, Jameson 2000, and Ali and Wood- 7. pursue diverse practices with the world that he gave his one and only son, Isa al Messiah is Lord, Isa died for our berry 2009. regard to mosque attendance 9 sin according to Scripture.... it makes us The four main factors that are part 8. feel that they are a part of the an outsider because we are not interpreting of their conversion journey are, in order of worldwide family of God any more Allah, Isa Al Messiah as Muslims importance, verses about Jesus in the Qur’an, 9. attend ekklesia meetings at least interpret or define them…this assembly is demonstrations of love and verbal witness, supernatural experiences, and the Bible. once a week generally or Culturally or Socially Insider but Specifically or Theologically or Reli- 10 Other Jesus movements in other 10. read or listen to the Bible frequently giously Outsider CITO.” parts of the world where the supernatural 11. share their faith Disciples in the two Jesus movements factor seems to be present, if not predomi- 12. have family members who also would keep their Muslim names; wear their nant, include Jameson 2000, Travis in Reisa- follow Jesus Muslim clothes; follow Muslim dietary cher 2012, or Daniels 2013. regulations; follow Muslim customs; par- 11 As there was no similar data avail- 13. have been persecuted ticipate in Muslim ceremonies; and identify able from other Jesus movements in the 14. experience the supernatural themselves as Muslims or Muslims in a world, it is not possible to make further power of God qualified sense; read the Qur’an; and oc- comparisons at this point. In my study, at 15. are frequently from a Sufi or casionally attend the mosque. But they would least, it seems that Jesus movements are not hold to Muslim doctrine or theology more likely to emerge in contexts where other non-Wahabi background when it contradicts the Bible. Some examples popular Muslim piety or Sufi expressions of 16. grow into more biblical expressions of this include the fact that they define Jesus Islam predominate. of faith and practice over time. not only as prophet, but as Saviour and Son 12 Feature 16 specifically refers to faith of God; they do not consider the Qur’an as I hope that my research and descrip- practice and less to theological understand- their highest authority, they do not believe ing. I added understanding here because it tion of the sixteen features identified in in Muhammad as the final and greatest seems clear that these believers grow into two Jesus movements in Eastern Africa prophet; and they believe that Jesus died on a more biblical understanding of God and will help the mission community to the cross for their sins. Jesus over time. Abu Jaz (see footnote 1), in understand more accurately some 2 In the 1990s, researchers from Fuller describing a Jesus movement, summarizes of the possible dynamics happening Theological Seminary studied an insider this well: “They progressively understand

30:4 Winter 2013 160 Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern Africa: What Does the Data Say? him, from prophet and messenger to Savior Daniels, Gene and then to Lord. But this takes time and 2013 Worshiping Jesus in the Mosque: the Holy Spirit, as it also did for Peter” What it’s like to follow Christ (Abu Jaz in Daniels 2013, 26). Although embedded in Muslim Culture. An I do not have empirical data to prove this Interview with a Muslim Follower point, there is much anecdotal evidence for of Isa. Christianity Today, 22-23. this progressive understanding of Jesus. Dixon, Roger L. 13 Garrison clearly confirms this. 2011 “A Theoretical Proposal Con- According to Garrison, by the end of the cerning Social, Psychological twentieth century, there had only been ten and Spiritual Influences on the movements to Christ among Muslims. Development of the Insider However, “In the first 12 years of the 21st Movement.” St. Francis Magazine century an additional 64 movements of no. Vol 7, No 2 April 2011:80-95. Muslims to Christ have appeared. These Garrison, David 21st-century movements are not isolated to 2013 “God is Doing Something one or two corners of the world. They are Historic.” Mission Frontiers (2013 taking place across the Muslim world: in July/August):6-9. sub-Saharan Africa, in the Persian world, Gray, Andrea and Leith Gray in the Arab world, in Turkestan, in South 2009 “Paradigms and Praxis Part I: So- Asia and in Southeast Asia. Something is cial Networks and Fruitfulness in happening, something historic, something Church Planting.” International unprecedented.” (Garrison 2013, 9) Journal of Frontier Missiology, no 26:1 Spring 2009:19-28. 14 Green mentions several other ex- amples of sects and reform movements that Gray, Leith and Andrea Gray have emerged within Islam, such as the Alevi, 2009 “Paradigms and Praxis Part II: Why are some Workers Chang- the Druze and the Ismailis. Although each of ing Paradigms?” International these are deviant, they are counted as Muslims Journal of Frontier Missiology, no. and tolerated as Muslim sects under the wider 26:2 Summer 2009:63-73. umbrella of Islam (Green in Greenlee 2013). Greenlee, David, ed. 15 The Grays highlight the importance 2013 Longing for Community: Church, and effectiveness of the transformational Ummah, or Somewhere in Be- model over the attractional model of church tween? Pasadena, CA: William planting and base their argument on the Carey Library. Fruitful Practices research. They found Jameson, Richard and Nick Scalevich that worldview and identity issues are 2000 “First-Century Jews and Twenti- more decisive than contextualization (Gray eth-Century Muslims.” Interna- 2009a, Gray 2009b). The findings of my tional Journal of Frontier Missions research confirm their argument in that no. 17:1, Spring 2000:33-39. church planting mainly happens through Lewis, Rebecca transformation from within pre-existing 2007 “Promoting Movements to Christ social networks and that the gospel usually within Natural Communities.” spreads along family lines. International Journal of Frontier 16 Based on his global research, Gar- Missiology no. 24:2 Summer rison found that in more than sixty separate 2007:75-76. locations in at least seventeen countries new Mallouhi, Mazhar communities of Muslim-background follow- 2009 “Comments on the Insider ers of Christ have emerged over the past two Movement.” St Francis Magazine decades (Garrison 2013). It seems therefore no. 5:5 (October 2009):3-14. safe to say that ekklesia gatherings inside Nikides, Bill Muslim communities are not a phenomenon 2009 “A Response to Kevin Higgins’ unique to the Eastern Africa context. “Inside What? Church, Culture, Religion and Insider Move- References ments in Biblical Perspective.” St Ali, Shah and J. Dudley Woodberry Francis Magazine no. 5:4 (August 2009 “South Asia: Vegetables, Fish and 2009):92-113. Messianic Mosques.” In Perspec- Reisacher, Evelyne A., ed. tives on the World Christian Move- 2012 Toward Respectful Understand- ment, 4th Edition, edited by Ralph ing & Witness Among Muslims: and Hawthorne Winter, Steven Essays in Honor of J. Dudley C., 409-10. Pasadena: William Woodberry. Pasadena, CA: Carey Library. William Carey Library.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Understanding Movements Roles of “Alongsiders” in Insider Movements: Contemporary Examples and Biblical Reflections by John and Anna Travis

o insider movements1 occur spontaneously as sovereign moves of the Spirit, or do they involve the activity of God’s people from out- side the community as well? DHistory and Scripture suggest that all movements to Jesus involve human and divine action. In what would at first appear in Acts 2 to be a spontaneous movement—namely, the outpouring of the Spirit, followed by 3,000 decisions to follow Jesus—divine and human activity are both apparent.2 In the insider movements with which we are familiar, both the hand of God and the labors of Jesus followers are clearly seen.

The present study focuses on ministry-related roles that certain Jesus followers (termed alongsiders) can play in advancing insider movements. We share exam- John Jay and Anna Travis have spent ples from the lives of alongsiders we know, along with relevant passages from most of their adult lives in Muslim 3 communities, and have twice lived Scripture, to give input and encouragement to those called to alongsider ministry. with Muslim families. He and Anna Alongsider Defined and Described have authored numerous book and journal articles on the topics of cross- The term alongsider refers to a follower of Jesus from another culture or area cultural ministry, insider movements, and healing prayer. John has also whom God has prepared to walk “alongside” insiders in their faith journey with written on Bible translation. They Jesus. Alongsiders we know devote themselves to understanding the language, have been involved in church-planting culture and hearts4 of the peoples God calls them to serve. They have learned teams, community development proj- ects, intercessory prayer (Anna) and to view the other—regardless of religion or culture—as a fellow creation of God two Bible translations ( John). Anna equally in need of the salvation and transformation that following Jesus brings. has written training manuals on inner healing that have been translated into Regardless of age, gender or background, alongsiders have two traits in various languages. They spend much of each year coaching and training common. First, they have what we would term a kingdom-centered, rather throughout the Muslim world. than religion-centered, ministry focus. As they work with Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Jews and others, they are focused on seeing the Kingdom of God John holds a PhD in Intercultural Studies and is part-time affiliate fac- enter and transform these socio-religious groups from the inside out, rather ulty at the Fuller School of Intercul- than encouraging separation and change of religious identity.5 Secondly, tural Studies. Anna holds an MA in Intercultural Studies from the Fuller alongsiders are willing to minister with little or no formal recognition. For School of Intercultural Studies. security reasons, they generally cannot announce to the outside world what

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God is doing in the movements they them from their own people, thereby Challenge 4: Understanding the have seen. They realize that serving a inhibiting their ability to influence their Need to Self-theologize movement is not about them or about families and communities. Christians Related to the previous challenge is building up their ministry or the min- have often tended to view other faiths the question of how to help insid- istry of their denomination or orga- or cultures primarily in terms of what is ers develop a biblical worldview and nization. Rather it is about seeing fel- wrong or unbiblical in them. At times self-theologize,8 expressing the message lowships of Jesus-followers blossom in alongsiders do help insiders critically of Jesus in ways understandable and situations where often the alongsider’s examine various beliefs and worldviews meaningful to their family and friends. name and labors will be known only to (see below), but the first step is always While ideally this should happen God and to a handful of insiders. to affirm what is already biblically good whenever the gospel crosses any cul- and praiseworthy. Too often well-inten- tural or religious barrier, it is especially Six Challenges of Alongsider tioned outsiders have spoken ill of the crucial in insider movements, where Ministry new believers’ culture, causing insiders communities may already be predis- to reject their family and culture. posed against the gospel. Self-theol- We have had the privilege of know- ogizing helps insiders incorporate the ing a number of alongsiders and have Challenge 3: Letting Scripture Be the Final Authority old (from the existing community), witnessed firsthand how God has used as long as it does not contradict the them to advance insider movements. How can alongsiders help new fol- new (following Jesus and the Bible), As we have listened to their stories, lowers of Jesus think biblically and finding vocabulary, thought forms, we have identified seven ministry roles 6 subject matter, and communication they frequently assume. Most of these styles that are culturally appropri- roles are similar to those exercised in ate. Failure to do so can result in a the ministries of followers of Jesus in foreign-sounding gospel, as if it were a other types of movements as well. The 9 main difference in alongsider ministry As we have listened message for others but not for them. is how they face and overcome the fol- to their stories, we have Self-theologizing helps a people see lowing six challenges. that Jesus is truly for them, the savior for all people. Challenge 1: Helping Without identified seven ministry Directing Challenge 5: Encouraging roles they frequently Intentional Fellowship in the Alongsiders often come to the field assume. Absence of Familiar Models with years of ministry experience, training and strong Bible study skills. This challenge concerns how to en- The first challenge these alongsiders courage Jesus-centered corporate life face is how to find and develop the among insiders when the alongsider first few believers (or people of peace7) critically about religion and culture, al- cannot directly model or participate without overwhelming them with all lowing the Word of God illumined by in regular insider gatherings. Since the alongsiders’ knowledge and exper- the Spirit of God to inform and trans- insiders do not join local pre-existing tise, an action that could inadvertently form local beliefs and practices? This traditional churches, where they might undermine the confidence of emerging is a dynamic process, one where the find certain elements typical of other insider leaders. Alongsiders involved new followers of Jesus may over time Christ-centered communities (e.g., with the first few believers in a move- arrive at interpretations of the Scrip- corporate prayer, worship, a designated ment must introduce the good news in tures that do not necessarily match the meeting place, youth programs), they ways that empower, impart, encourage, interpretation of either the alongsider must create alternative ways to gather facilitate, catalyze, and enable repro- or of certain Christian traditions. In that are both biblical and viable. Small ducible ways of engaging Scripture, all the movements with which we are insider home groups, which often without controlling or directing the familiar, we observe that as insiders meet in ways similar to underground emerging movement. look at their traditional practices and churches in certain closed countries, study Scripture, they choose to retain must rely heavily upon inductive group Challenge 2: Sharing Truth without certain key aspects of their culture and Bible study, the direct guidance of the Undermining Insiders religious community, reinterpret oth- Holy Spirit, and the use of spiritual The second (related) challenge is how ers, and reappraise or reject still others. gifts (e.g., teaching, healing, discern- to share biblical truth in ways that do Trusted alongsiders have often helped ment, helps, vis-à-vis Eph. 4:7-13, not undermine insiders or separate facilitate this sensitive, crucial process. Rom. 12:3-8, 1 Cor. 12:4-31).

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Challenge 6: Ministering in Spite of the Lack of a Recognized Position his small movement continues to this day and The sixth challenge involves the has gradually spread to several neighboring status and identity of the alongsid- towns and villages. ers. Alongsiders serve the insiders in T a variety of roles, yet they are often in Example: We know groups of along- are called to reach by engaging, over the awkward place of neither being siders who set aside regular seasons an extended period of time, in some insiders themselves, nor officially hold- of intercession and fasting for their form of ethnographic interviewing. ing leadership positions in the move- adopted people. This may be several While cross-cultural field workers in ment. In addition, few mentors or hours daily for extended periods of other types of ministry often do the role models exist for alongsiders, and time, all night once a week, an entire same, the knowledge gained through home churches are just now beginning month, or one full day every week over such research and participation in the to understand this type of ministry. many years. We were part of one such community is particularly crucial for Like the insiders, most alongsiders are four-year period of intercession. This alongsiders as they need an in-depth pioneers, learning as they go. Some time was preceded by utter despera- understanding of how God is already alongsiders thrive in this environment tion for God to move and, thankfully, at work in the religion and culture more than others. was followed by the beginning of a of those they serve. Without it, they Jesus movement within the religious Having briefly considered these six may find it hard to see what is already community of our adopted people. challenges, we now turn to ministry biblical and praiseworthy—or truly This small movement continues to this roles exercised by alongsiders and rel- wrong, even demonic—in the religion day and has gradually spread to several evant Scriptures related to each role. or culture in question. Those who neighboring towns and villages. intimately understand the hearts and Seven Roles for Alongsiders Biblical reflections: To understand minds of the people are better posi- intercessory prayer, we look first to the tioned to recognize these dynamics. The following seven roles are present- life of our Lord. At every key juncture ed with two caveats. First, by combin- Examples: Many alongsiders have in his life we find Jesus off alone, inter- lived with Muslim families for several ing various roles, or further delineating ceding before the Father. Prayer was others, some may see either more or 15 months, and in some cases, years. We central to his ministry. Before Jesus, know one team of alongsiders who less roles than seven. Secondly, these men such as Moses, Daniel and Ezra seven roles are based on personal were not able to live in the homes of demonstrated intercession as they local families, so they rented attached observations of alongsiders we have repented for the sins of their forefa- rooms close to them in the very center known as well as our own ministry thers.16 After the ascension of Jesus, 10 of Muslim neighborhoods. We lived experience, thus there may be roles we find that intercession was integral with two different families—first for we have missed due to our own limited to the ministry of the apostles in the one month in a village setting followed exposure to other fields and ministries. earliest Jesus movements.17 Today, by two months with a family in a large intercessors continue this work, joining 1. Intercessor urban area. All our ministry cowork- Jesus in his intercession at the right We place the role of intercessor first 18 ers, both expatriates and nationals, hand of God. as prayer is central in any type of live with local non-Christian families movement to Jesus.11 Most alongsid- 2. Learner for at least one month. Living with ers would say that breakthroughs Alongsiders are learners. While they a family not only creates bonds of took place after intercession and that do bring a vital message to be shared, friendship, it also opens an entire insider movements are sustained they first seek to understand before web of extended family relationships through intercession. Intercession insisting on being understood. For that allow participation in weddings, paves the way for a movement as alongsiders, the pursuit of a deep holidays, funerals, and other key life- intercessors ask God to cause signs understanding of the people often cycle events. Several alongsiders who 12 and wonders to take place, move involves living with local families eventually saw Jesus movements take on human hearts, hold back demonic who do not yet follow Jesus, which place within the religious community strongholds, call workers, and bring helps facilitate a process that Tom around them, first studied with their about maturity in new believers.13 In and Betty Brewster have called bond- local friends the holy book(s) viewed addition, God speaks to intercessors ing.19 In addition, most alongsiders as authoritative in that context (e.g., and gives them love for those they are try to gain insight into the religious the Qur’an with Muslims), before go- called to serve.14 heritage and worldview of those they ing on to study the Bible with them.

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Biblical reflections: Scripture abounds simply does this because he loves to work was marked by friendship with with examples of people powerfully share life with this mosque leader. those he served.25 Jesus, too, longed for used by God who, through life’s cir- the friendship of his disciples, espe- A second type of friend is one who has 26 cumstances, learned the language and cially in the hour of his greatest need. deep, long-term relationships with key culture of others. Daniel learned the leaders of insider movements; these 4. “Worker of Miracles” language, sciences, culture, and religion friendships often span decades. Many of the Babylonians, eventually becom- We use the term workers of miracles for insider leaders find great strength in ing a change agent for God’s purposes alongsiders whom God has gifted and 20 having such a friend, someone from in that polytheistic culture. Moses uses regularly in physical healing, inner knew firsthand the ways and language outside their group who can be a confi- healing, deliverance from the demonic, of the Egyptians. Joseph lived in dant and counselor, especially in shame- the interpretation of dreams, proph- Potiphar’s household,21 a situation God based cultures where gossip is rampant. ecy, and so on. Their ministry benefits used to prepare him for a work far be- These insider leaders are pioneers who those who follow Jesus and those who yond what he could have ever imagined. face dilemmas of many kinds, par- do not follow him yet. An alongsider ticularly in cultures where leaders are can assume the role of a worker of Jesus sent out the seventy two-by-two expected to play a large role in the lives miracles without becoming a leader in to the villages where he would later go. of the people in their groups. the movement. Miracle workers can He had them stay with local families, serve at strategic moments when deep- eating and drinking what was offered Examples: We think here of two long- term alongsider friends we know who seated spiritual problems arise. While them. He told them not to travel from all believers may pray for miracles, house to house so they could discover these alongsider workers of miracles who those people of “peace” were who are recognized by trusted insiders as would receive the message of the king- being especially gifted and experi- 22 dom. Upon their return from the Many insider leaders enced, likely having what the Bible field, we find them “debriefing” with refers to as gifts27 of healing,28 discern- Jesus, the one who had sent them out find great strength ment of spirits,29 prophecy,30 and/or to learn and grow spiritually, staying other gifts. with families other than their own.23 in having such a friend, especially in shame-based Examples: We know alongsiders gifted 3. Friend in inner healing and deliverance who We use the word friend here in two cultures where gossip have been great resources to insider ways. First, alongsiders become friends movements. Especially in places where with those who do not yet follow Jesus. is rampant. folk practices are common, those who As these cross-cultural relationships come to faith often need freedom form, the subtle “us” versus “them” from demonic strongholds. This usual- mentality begins to disappear. Our ly involves renouncing magical practic- Muslim, Hindu or Buddhist neighbors have stood by their insider friends es, getting rid of charms and amulets, become dear friends, and sometimes through thick and thin—seeing chil- and breaking ties with shamans and our children’s adopted uncles and dren get married, grandchildren born, power practitioners. Another aspect aunties. From this level of intimacy, and many new people put their faith of this type of prayer is the healing of heart-to-heart discussions can happen, in Jesus, as well as illnesses, imprison- past traumas and emotional wounds, a making it more natural to speak of ments, torture, depression, slander, and ministry that greatly assists in spiritual Jesus and how someone can know him. marriage difficulties. These friends, transformation. This healing of heart who often live in other countries much wounds also helps new followers of Je- Examples: Alan (not his real name) of the year, keep in touch regularly as sus learn to forgive others, a vital part is an alongsider whose closest friend, best they can in light of security con- of forming Jesus-centered communi- next to his own family members, is the cerns. They meet face-to-face whenev- ties of faith. leader of a mosque near his home. Alan er possible. Both insider and along- began his relationship with this man One alongsider we know prayed for sider sense that God has put them by volunteering to teach English to Muslim women in her neighborhood together and equally benefit from this children in the mosque. What amazed concerning a variety of physical, emo- unique cross-cultural friendship. us about Alan is that he spends much tional and spiritual problems. She then of his free time at his friend’s house Biblical reflections: In Scripture we invited them to her home where they watching TV or drinking coffee. To discover that Paul not only counted on talked about health, stress and the heal- Alan this is not a ministry strategy; he the friendship of his co-workers,24 his ing Jesus brings. With the alongsider’s

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John and Anna Travis 165 help, this group eventually embraced Jesus and became a “covenant com- quipping generally calls for a high level of munity” where together they studied language skill, cultural understanding, and the Bible, shared their lives, and prayed relational wisdom. for each other and their neighborhood. E They also became familiar with healing someone or some form of media from Peter and John with Jews,52 Ananias prayer and how to stand against evil the outside has crossed a religious and with Saul the Pharisee,53 Paul and powers. Within a number of years, this social barrier. In every insider move- Silas with Jews,54 Jesus with a Samari- original group experienced growth and ment we have seen, the growth of the tan woman,55 Phillip with a Samaritan multiplication, meeting in several homes movement can be traced back to one sorcerer,56 Peter and John in Samaritan and branching out to a neighboring or two insiders who first received the towns,57 the healed and delivered man town. This movement now involves gospel and then persuaded their fam- with Gentiles,58 Peter with a Roman entire families and brings the blessings ily and friends to embrace it as well. God-fearer,59 people of Cyprus and of the kingdom of God through Jesus Although some of these movements Cyrene with Hellenists,60 Paul with to their neighborhoods. God powerfully began with a dream or vision, the Lord philosophers,61 and many more. used the alongsider and her prayers to often directed the first insiders to an 6. Equipper see this small insider movement begin. alongsider who could proclaim to them the full message of the gospel. Whereas proclaimers are often the first Biblical reflections: Scripture is filled to bring the good news to a particular with accounts of anointed workers of What makes alongsider proclaimers 31 group of people, equippers are alongsid- miracles whom God used in early unique is that they do not link follow- ers whom God uses to help mature or Jesus movements, powerful evidence ing Jesus with the concept of “chang- assist certain key insider leaders in later of the initial fulfillment of Jesus’ words ing religions.” In addition, they are stages of the movement.62 These equip- to his followers, “Very truly I tell you, constantly looking for potential “people 48 pers can suggest specific activities that whoever believes in me will do the of peace” whom God will use to help could help advance a movement without works I have been doing, and they lead groups of their fellow Muslims, undermining its indigenous leadership. will do even greater things than these, Hindus, Jews, etc., in following Jesus. because I am going to the Father.”32 Examples: While all Jesus followers are Equippers may provide spiritual men- We are inspired to read how the Lord toring, marriage counseling, training in 33 called to share the good news, pro- worked miracles through the disciples, inductive Bible study methods, tools for 34 35 36 37 claimers seem to have what Scripture Peter and John, Stephen, Phillip, 49 calls the gift of evangelism. One Bible translation, help in creating films Ananias,38 Paul,39 Barnabas,40 Paul’s alongsider proclaimer we know il- and other materials, or technical assis- friends,41 Agabus,42 and the recipients lustrates this well. He loves to go to tance in various health and community of the letter to the Hebrews.43 Paul the mosque and wisely yet boldly share development projects. They may help shared how much patience was required with the imam how Isa the Messiah insiders wrestle with the transforma- in his ministry of miracles.44 James in his great love came for all people tion of certain traditions that could be urged that elders should pray with peo- 63 and how he, the imam, could come to contrary to Scripture. At times they ple, and that believers should confess know Isa as a Muslim. God has used may wisely connect insider leaders with sins and pray with each other, and God others from outside the community 45 this particular proclaimer to help lead would make them workers of miracles. some of the first Muslims to Jesus in who have specific needed expertise. As miracle workers take risks to see what later became an insider move- Equipping generally calls for a high God work, they may need patience like ment across a number of villages. For level of language skill, cultural under- Paul, remembering that even Jesus met years he mentored five men who were standing, and relational wisdom. with resistance to miracles at times.46 the leaders of this still growing move- Examples: One equipper worked with Many miracles may be required before ment. Because so many millions have the fruit of allegiance to Jesus results, as a seasoned leader of an insider move- yet to hear the good news, alongsider ment for many months to create a we see when the ten lepers were healed proclaimers will always be needed both two-year leadership development cur- by Jesus, and only one came back to to catalyze new works and to work 47 riculum for newer movement leaders, pledge his allegiance to the Master. alongside leaders in insider movements. based on Luke and Acts. While this 5. Proclaimer Biblical reflections: Scripture records seminary-trained equipper could have The gospel does not come out of the creative work of proclaimers in attempted to develop the curriculum on thin air; whenever the good news is diverse religious contexts. We see Jesus his own, the result would have been a proclaimed in a new area, it is because with Jews,50 the disciples with Jews,51 less indigenous training experience and,

30:4 Winter 2013 166 Roles of “Alongsiders” in Insider Movements: Contemporary Examples and Biblical Reflections more importantly, it would have short- three days later), he did not immedi- an uncircumcised Gentile follower of circuited something that God wanted ately connect with the leaders already Jesus (Titus) with him. He was greatly to do in a key leader he had raised up in place. Did this give time for God’s relieved when the Jewish leaders did for this movement. Instead, the pair radical call on Paul’s life to be de- not pressure Titus to change religious worked through Luke-Acts carefully veloped, away from the strict, long- identity (to be circumcised).71 James and inductively, and together they dis- standing religious boundaries observed welcomed Paul, giving him wise coun- covered key principles under the guid- by godly leaders like James?66 Yet the sel, though the contrast between the ance of the Spirit. Insider leaders then time did come for those connections callings on each of their lives had only introduced the Luke-Acts curriculum to be made. increased. While these relationships 72 to eight fellow insider leaders. In less 67 68 were not without some conflict, Paul God used Ananias, Barnabas, than ten years, scores of home group 69 70 greatly benefited by input from those Peter and James in the life of Paul. leaders in the movement were engaged God sent to equip him. Ananias gave Saul his earliest spiritual in this two-year leadership training. input in the way of Jesus. He obeyed Paul then poured into many other In another country, a working group the Lord’s voice (though it went against lives, like Priscilla and Aquila,73 of alongsiders was formed to serve everything he knew and had heard), Timothy,74 and Onesimus.75 Priscilla developing insider movements across found Saul, prayed for his healing, and and Aquila helped equip Apollos,76 several different language groups. The spoke prophetically to him concern- who was a blessing to many. Timothy pressing need was for culturally and ing his calling. Barnabas saw Saul equipped many believers in the Gen- linguistically relevant Bible transla- with eyes of faith, believing God was tile movements, and Onesimus was of tions. The alongsiders assisted the great value in the work as well. In the insiders in training translators, check- later years of ministry, Paul could say ing translations, field testing key terms, that nearly all those he equipped were and using tools to check the mean- One translation non-Jewish77 leaders in the Gentile ing of Greek or Hebrew words. One Jesus movements. such translation in a widely spoken has been a major factor language has been a major factor in Another aspect of equipping is seeing thousands come to faith across in seeing thousands come depicted clearly in the New Testa- a number of distinct ethnic groups to faith across ment. Paul and others helped support through inductive Bible study. growing Jesus movements through the a number of distinct writing of letters to individuals, groups 78 Biblical reflections: In the earliest Jesus ethnic groups. and networks. movements, we see God preparing cer- 7. Interfacer tain men and women to equip others, who in turn empower yet others.64 Peter God used Paul, Barnabas and Peter and John assisted Philip the Evangelist calling him, though he was certainly a to explain Gentile ministry to their in his ministry among the Samaritans, diamond in the rough when Barnabas fellow Jewish believers, advocating for and were used by God to pray for the first started encouraging him. Peter the right of Gentiles to follow Jesus believers to be filled with the Holy without being circumcised and taking assisted Saul (by this point called Paul) 79 Spirit. Peter and John may have been when Jewish followers of Jesus heard on a Jewish religious identity. In positively impacted by their experience that Gentile followers of Jesus were a similar way the Lord will also call with Philip regarding ministry in non- remaining uncircumcised. He verified some who have seen insider move- Jewish religious communities, because the legitimacy of Paul’s calling with the ments firsthand to explain to fellow before returning to Jerusalem, they testimony of his own experience with Christians what God is doing behind entered several other Samaritan towns Cornelius. James listened well when the scenes inside other socio-religious 65 to bring the good news. Paul shared with the Jerusalem leaders communities. We call this alongsider role that of an interfacer. An important aspect of equipping is how the good news was breaking out to make the right connections at the of the known Jewish religious struc- Examples: In recent years, some care- right time. Note Paul’s explanation of tures. James gave his spiritual input, fully planned meetings have taken his interactions with the leaders of the backed by Scripture, and kept the door place involving a few English-speaking Jesus movement in Jerusalem, espe- open for Paul’s radical ministry among leaders of insider movements, along- cially regarding the timing involved. Gentiles. Years later, Paul sought out siders who serve as interfacers, national After his miraculous encounter with those leaders in response to a revela- pastors, and some foreign Christian the Lord (and his call to the Gentiles tion from God, and even dared to take leaders. During these face-to-face

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John and Anna Travis 167 meetings (which take place over several days), it becomes apparent hen confronted with the accusation that while the participants are differ- of idolatry, the eastern leaders were ent from each other in many ways, all shocked. present are true followers of Jesus. W In one such meeting, several national eternal witness to coming generations. people what was actually happening in pastors (who might typically be suspi- They wanted everyone to know that other groups. The leaders of the east- cious of insider movements) saw the even though their tribes had settled ern tribes explained to their western grace of God in the lives of the insid- on the east side of the Jordan, they counterparts the intent behind their ers and spontaneously decided to wash were fully part of God’s people and altar. Jesus explained to his disciples one with the western tribes. Their God their feet; everyone was moved to tears. that the person doing deliverance in was the same God, the one true God. A year later, at a gathering in another his name was actually on their side. This satisfied the western leaders; they location, the insider leaders washed the Peter, Barnabas, Paul, and James spoke brought the good news back to their feet of the Christians, saying, “Please to the other leaders in Jerusalem on tribes and never again talked of mak- forgive us. When you sent people to behalf of the Gentile Jesus follow- ing war on their eastern brothers.81 bring the gospel to our people years ers, advocating their legitimate place ago, our people killed many of them.” Jesus had to rebuke his own disciples within the people of God as equals to Again, many were in tears. This kind for incorrectly judging and wanting the Jewish followers of Jesus. of strategic interface—where one to stop the deliverance ministry of group does not dominate the other, someone “who did not follow them.” Conclusion and where each comes to learn—can (This incident took place not long Alongsiders are part of a process that after the disciples had tried—and be a beautiful example of the body of frequently begins with intercession for 80 failed—to cast a demon out of a mute Christ in action. Another positive a particular people group. Many then outcome of this type of meeting, and boy.) Jesus told them: “Do not stop live among the people for whom they the work that interfacers can do, is him; for no one who does a deed of have prayed, often with local families. that it helps insiders see how they can power in my name will be able soon In time, deep friendships are forged. relate to the wider body of Christ. afterward to speak evil of me. Who- ever is not against us is for us.”82 Thus When alongsiders serve as proclaimers, Biblical reflections: Looking only at the Jesus affirmed this ministry being done their experience as learners and friends outward forms used in certain Jesus in his name. Yet in a different situa- helps them know how to share the movements within Muslim, Jewish, tion described in Acts, the seven sons good news in ways that make sense. Buddhist or Hindu communities, the of Sceva tried to bring deliverance in Some alongsiders serve as workers of outside Christian world might assume Jesus’ name and ran into severe dif- miracles, or as equippers as movements that these believers are not being true ficulties. Apparently they didn’t know begin and develop. And some along- to God, or are not even part of his the Lord Jesus and thus did not have siders attempt to explain what they kingdom. A similar situation existed authority in his name.83 have seen and experienced to those in Joshua’s day. When the tribes who eager to know what God is doing in- In Acts 15, certain Jewish followers of had settled to the west of the Jordan side other religious communities, thus Jesus reacted negatively to the news observed from afar a large altar built interfacing between insider believers that Gentiles had become part of the by the two and a half tribes who had and Christians outside the situation. settled to the east, they jumped to the people of God through Jesus without conclusion that their brothers to the being circumcised. Those insisting on Not all insider movements have east had fallen into idolatry, treachery circumcision claimed that those with- alongsiders. When they do, alongsiders and rebellion. Fearing God’s judg- out it were not yet saved. After hearing may only be involved in a few of the ment (not only upon their brothers, case studies from the field, going roles mentioned in this article. While through long deliberations and taking a but themselves as well), the western most of the roles described here are deeper look at Scripture, it was decided tribes prepared to make war. Thank- most needed in the early stages of a that these Gentile followers of Jesus, fully, the leaders from both sides met movement, some are needed at later although uncircumcised, were indeed first. When confronted with accusa- stages. May God, as the one who longs saved and part of the people of God.84 tions of idolatry, the eastern leaders to draw all people to himself, continue were shocked. They explained that In each of these events as recorded to sovereignly connect alongsiders and their altar was not built for idolatrous in Scripture, God used interfacers to insiders so that the full harvest will sacrifice, as was assumed, but as an explain, testify and interpret to his be realized. IJFM

30:4 Winter 2013 168 Roles of “Alongsiders” in Insider Movements: Contemporary Examples and Biblical Reflections

Endnotes RCIA among Catholics) to instruct new be- challenging his followers (Luke 9:18), at his lievers in basic tenets of Christianity and the transfiguration (Matt. 17:8, Mark 9:8, Luke 1 The term “insider movement” refers theological distinctions of their particular 9:28), when teaching his followers how to pray to groups and networks of non-Christian group. The insiders, on the other hand, have (Matt. 6:9, Luke 11:1), for children (Matt. peoples who follow Jesus as Lord and Savior more of a self-discovery approach, where 19:3), for his follower facing temptation (Luke and the Bible as the word of God, but re- they read the Scriptures together, ask the 22:32), for his followers to be indwelt by main a part of the socio-religious commu- Holy Spirit to lead them, interact with other the Spirit ( John 14:16-17), for all his future nity of their birth. A synonymous term used groups of insiders with whom they have followers ( John 17), before facing the cross for insider movements is “Jesus movements contact, and when helpful, interact with (Matt. 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 12), for within” with mention of the particular socio- trusted alongsiders who may bring perspec- God to forgive his enemies (Luke 23:34), in religious community/communities being tives from other Christ-following commu- his pain (Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34), with tears described, such as “Jesus movements within nities worldwide, either past or present. (Heb. 5:7), and as he died (Luke 23:46). Muslim communities” or “a Jesus move- 9 16 ment within the Hindu community.” (See See “Is There More Than One Way See the prayers of Moses (Ex. 32, John J. Travis and J. Dudley Woodberry, to Do Theology?” by Charles Taber (Gospel 34), Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29), Jeremiah ( Jer. “When God’s Kingdom Grows Like Yeast: in Context, Jan 1, 1978, Volume 1:01, pp. 14, 31), Daniel (Dan. 9), Nehemiah (Neh. 1), 4-18;22-40). Here Taber asks: “What is to Ezra (Ezra 9, 10) and Solomon (1 Kings 8). Frequently Asked Questions about Jesus 17 Movements within Muslim Communities,” prevent Africans, Asians, and others from Acts 6:4 18 Mission Frontiers July-August 2010 24-30). using their culturally conditioned method- Heb. 7:25 19 2 This movement, recorded in Acts 2, ologies in the interpretation of the biblical Thomas and Betty Brewster, in their was preceded by the translation of the Old texts, just as we do? If we want to insist that seminal book Bonding and the Missionary Task Testament into Greek (before 200 BC); the our approach is universal, we must justify the (Dallas: Lingua House, 1982), advocate living ministry of John the Baptist calling the people claim: what is it that might give our particu- with local families when first arriving on the to repentance; the miraculous birth of Jesus; lar style transcultural validity? Why should field as a way for cross-cultural workers to ac- the training of the twelve, the seventy-two, we be in a privileged position? ...What is quire language and culture and understand the and the women who accompanied them; the needed now is for Africans and Asians to hearts and lives of the people they will serve. miracles and preaching of Jesus and his band; start afresh, beginning with the direct inter- They refer to this process as bonding, likening Jesus’ death, resurrection, appearances for forty action of their cultures with the Scriptures it to the bonding that occurs between a mother days, and ascension; and the 120 obediently rather than tagging along at the tail end of and child as the newborn first enters the world. praying and waiting, as described in Acts 1. the long history of Western embroidery.” 20 We see in Dan. 1:4,17; 4:8 that 10 3 Most of these alongsider roles are not The movement in which we were Daniel studied the Chaldeans’ literature, unique to insider ministry and are similarly involved as alongsiders is described on pages wisdom and language, and was even named applicable in other ministry contexts. 240-242 of Toward Respectful Understand- after one of their gods. 21 4 Many passages illustrate that Jesus ing and Witness Among Muslims, ed. Evelyne Gen. 39:2 is more concerned with the inside (heart) Reisacher (2012 William Carey Library: 22 Luke 10:1-9 Pasadena, CA). than with the outward appearance. He sees 23 Luke 10:17-20 11 The late church historian, Dr. through the life circumstances of those he 24 Paul’s friends treated him with Edwin Orr, spent a lifetime studying what encounters, and he understands and speaks kindness and cared for him (Acts 27:3). factors led to the world’s great revivals. to the heart. Examples include Zacchaeus, Philemon was both a co-worker and friend He concluded that the only trait he saw the woman at the well, the Pharisees, and, for Paul (Philemon 1:1). in a parable recorded in Luke 18:9-14, the in common in all the different revivals 25 Paul and his co-workers shared their man who came to pray at the temple. was that intentional, corporate, interces- very selves as well as the good news (1 Thes. 5 sory prayer preceded all of these move- Some insiders may in time wish to 2:8). Paul took risks by opening his heart change religions, something they have every ments. Orr, J. Edwin, The Role of Prayer in Spiritual Awakening, Oct. 1976, accessed and expressing deep affection for those he right to do. The point is that the decision served (2 Cor. 6:11-13). was not encouraged or forced upon them by on 6 June 2013 . 12 support when facing his darkest hour (Matt. must be a choice the insiders have prayer- Acts 4:19 26:37, 38). fully and carefully made on their own. 13 Epaphras’ work as an intercessor is 27 Many who were taught that such 6 We are privileged to have personally mentioned in Col. 4:12. gifts ceased after the New Testament era served in each of these roles at one time or 14 2 Cor. 2:4, 12:15, Phil. 4:1, 2 Tim. 1:3. have modified their views after witness- another over the last 25 years. 15 The New Testament records Jesus 7 ing the Spirit work through some of God’s The term “person of peace” refers to praying at his baptism (Luke 3:21), early in servants in these miraculous ways. those individuals who first welcome the good 28 the morning (Mark 1:35), in the wilderness 1 Cor. 12, 28,30 news of the kingdom and open the door for (Luke 5:16), all night before a big decision 29 1 Cor. 12:10 others to also hear and believe (e.g., the vil- (Luke 6:12), with thankfulness (Matt. 11:25, 30 lage ministry of the seventy in Luke 10:5-9, Rom. 12:6 Luke 10:12), when facing bad news (Matt. 31 and Cornelius and his oikos in Acts 10:24). 14:13), before saying or doing anything 1 Cor. 12:10: where working of 8 Most churches and denomina- ( John 5:19, 12:49, 14:10), before raising the miracles is a spiritual gift 32 tions over the centuries have relied upon dead ( John 11:41), after exhausting ministry John 14:12: greater works catechism classes or rites of initiation (e.g., (Matt. 14:22, Mark 6:47, John 6:15), before 33 Mark 16:20, Acts 2:43, 5:12

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John and Anna Travis 169

34 Acts 5:15 55 John 4:7-41: the woman at the well 72 Paul had conflict with Peter (Gal. 35 Acts 3:1-16: Peter and John on the 56 Acts 8:5-24: Phillip with the sorcerer 2:11), friends of James (Gal. 2:12) and temple steps 57 Acts 8:25: Peter and John in Sa- Barnabas (Acts 15:39). 73 36 Acts 6:8: Stephen maritan villages Acts 18:2-3, 18: Paul for Priscilla & 37 Acts 8:6, 13, 14: Phillip 58 Mark 5:18-20: the Gentile demoniac Aquila 38 74 Acts 9:10-18: Ananias with Saul 59 Acts 10:1-48: Cornelius Acts 16:3, 1 Tim. 1:18, 2 Tim. 3:10: 39 60 Paul for Timothy Acts 19:11, Rom 15:19: Paul Acts 11:20: the people of Cyprus 75 40 Acts 14:3, 15:12: Paul and Barnabas and Cyrene with Hellenists Col. 4:9, Philemon 1:10: Paul for Onesimus 41 Acts 14:20: Paul’s friends may have 61 Acts 17:18-34: the philosophers 76 Acts 18:24-26: Priscilla & Aquila raised Paul from the dead 62 Some alongsider equippers may be for Apollos 42 Acts 11:27-30: Agabus active in the lives of potential leaders before 77 Col. 4:11: Paul mostly equipped 43 Heb. 2:3-4: miracles among the movements begin, trusting that their service non-Jews in the later years Hebrews will equip future leaders and movements. 78 Paul (Col. 4:16), Peter (1 Pet. 5:12) 44 2 Cor. 12:12: Paul with utmost 63 Which can be retained? Which and others were inspired by the Spirit and patience need to be confronted by the gospel? Or 45 went to great effort to write letters. James 5:13-16: prayer of faith rejected, reinterpreted, or reassessed? 79 64 Acts 15: Jerusalem leadership 46 Mark 6:1-6: Jesus sees doubt in 2 Tim. 2:2 65 gathering where the question was addressed: Nazareth Acts 8:14-17, 25: Peter and John in Can uncircumcised non-Jews be fully recog- 47 Luke 17:12-19: ten lepers healed Samaria nized as the people of God through Jesus? 48 66 Luke 10:6-7; Mt 10:11-14 Gal. 1:18-24: Saul’s early develop- 80 The insiders we know personally all 49 Eph. 4:11 ment away from existing leaders see themselves as a part of the Body of Christ. 50 67 Matt. 4:23-24 Acts 9:10-20: Ananias for Saul 81 Josh. 22:10-34: the altar of the two 68 51 Matt. 10:5-8: disciples sent to lost Acts 4:36-37, 9:26,27, 11:21-26: and a half tribes to the east of the Jordan sheep of Israel Barnabas for Saul 82 Mark 9:38-41: another person’s 69 52 Acts 4:1-2: Peter and John at the Acts 15:7-11: Peter for Paul deliverance ministry 70 temple Acts 15:13-21, 21:17-26, Gal. 2:9: 83 Acts 19:11-20: sons of Sceva 53 Acts 9:10-20, 22:12-16: Ananias James for Paul 84 Acts 15:1-35: Here leaders deliber- with Saul 71 Gal. 2:1-10: Paul’s later connections ate as to whether uncircumcised non-Jewish 54 Acts 17:1-3: the Jews in the synagogue with leaders of the Jewish Jesus movement Gentile followers of Jesus are actually saved. Int’l Society for Frontier Missiology

September 23–25, 2014 Atlanta, Georgia

Recasting Evangelization The Significance of Lausanne ‘74 for Today and Beyond

Registration: $60 ($50 before September 1 g Missionary: $40 g Student: $25) For more information on ISFM 2014 and to register and secure accommodations: www.ijfm.org/isfm/annual.htm ISFM Speakers include: Miriam Adeney g Doug Birdsall g Steve Hawthorne g Todd Johnson g Greg Parsons g Jeff Walker 30:4 Winter 2013 William Carey Library

Fullness of Time No Continuing City Ethnohistory Selections from the Writings The Story of a Missiologist from Colonial of Alan R. Tippett to Postcolonial Times Alan R. Tippett Alan R. Tippett Doug Priest, Editor Doug Priest and Charles Kraft, Editors

Tippett believed his writings on ethnohistory were As a gift to Edna and the children on the occasion of his most original contribution to the discipline of their golden wedding anniversary, anniversary, Tippett Tippett completed completed missiology. The wealth of material in Fullness of Time his autobiography, ironically just months prior to his is his best ethnohistory writing—most of which has has death. Containing personal reflections on his childhood never been published. and later mission experiences in the South Pacific, relationship with Donald McGavranMcGavran andand thethe foundingfounding ofof Explore the methods and models of this captivating the School of World Mission, Mission, and and retirement retirement years years in in field of study. Realize how documents, oral tradition, Australia, No Continuing City isis thethe insideinside story.story. TheseThese and even artifacts can be used to recreate the cultural are Tippett’s personal reflections that can be found in situation of a prior time. Learn about the South no other publication. Pacific, Ethiopia, Hawaii, and Australia, both in and through time. Charles Kraft is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Fuller Seminary. He has taught there for forty-one years Doug Priest, PhD, served as a missionary for seventeen and authored thirty books and many articles dealing years in Kenya, Tanzania, and Singapore. While at with the relationships between Christianity, culture and Fuller Theological Seminary, Priest was student and spiritual power. He was a colleague of Alan Tippett fromfrom assistant to Alan Tippett. Like his mentor, Priest has an 1969 toto 1977.1977. anthropology degree from the University of Oregon.

He is the executive director of CMF International.

List Price $35.95 Our Price$28.75 List Price $39.99 OurOur PricePrice $$31.9999

ISBN 978-0-87808-477-7 Alan R.R. TippettTippett ISBNISBN 978-0-87808-478-4978-0-87808-478-4 AlanAlan R.R. TippettTippett Doug Priest, Editor Doug Priest and Charles Kraft, Editors WCL | Pages 416 | Paperback 2014 WCL | Pages 580 | Paperback 2013

MISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION Understanding Movements Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations: A Melanesian Ethnohistorical Case Study by Alan R. Tippett

o topic has generated more enthusiasm for research in Melanesia than the study of its nativism, by which I mean the large homoge- neous ethnic units, sometimes whole lineages, breaking away from Nthe traditional Christianity which emerged in the era of colonial missions.1 It has been argued that these movements are the result of stress situations which arise when two very different cultures clash or come into acculturative contact. The clash is said to derive from: (1) the inherent cultural differences, (2) the conflicting values and attitudes of the two societies, (3) the precise nature of the dominance/submission situation, and (4) the effect of forces which emerged with World War II in the Pacific, with the G.I. in particular as the catalyst.2

The movement may be resistive or reformative, perpetuative or accommo- dating, aggressive or passive.3 It may seek to reintegrate the whole subject society, or merely some subordinate homogeneous unit within it; either by the rejection of alien elements in it, or the modification of new elements (i.e., by accepting the forms but ascribing their own meanings to them), or a syncre- tism of basic ingredients from the two cultures. The literature on the subject is Editor’s Note: Taken from Introduction 4 5 to Missiology (Pasadena: William tremendous, and the typologies are numerous. In the literature the move- Carey Library, 1987), 270–84. Used by ments may be viewed negatively as (“nativistic movements” or “cargo cults”) permission. or positively (as “people movements” or “revitalization” [these two are distin-

Alan Tippett’s publications played a guished by the possibility of a foreigner or outgroup person being the catalyst significant role in the development in the people movements, whereas revitalization may be stimulated only by an of the discipline of missiology. His ingroup person]). Figure 1 (p. 172) illustrates some of the various approaches initial pastoral ministry in Australia and then twenty years as a mission- in the literature. ary in Fiji provided a rich data base for his graduate degrees in history This chapter is focused on Melanesia as far as the database is concerned and anthropology, and made Alan (although there is even more data for Africa, which would also introduce us to R. Tippett a leading missiologist of 6 7 the twentieth century. Tippett served concepts like “Negritude”). The findings, I believe, apply also to Africa. as Professor of Anthropology and Oceanic Studies at Fuller Theological In Melanesian research most of the investigation has been focused on the Seminary from 1965 to 1977. components of the nativistic movement or cargo cult, pinpointing such

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 30:4 Winter 2013•171 172 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations

Figure 1. Approaches to the Analysis of Nativism

Political Referents: Nativism

Resistive Reformative

Aggressive Passive Aggressive Passive (Revivalistic) (Negativism) (Revivalistic) (Perpetuative)

Nativism

Rejective Selective (Eliminating (Accommodation) everything alien)

Organized Revolutionary Organized Revolutionary

Cultural Referents: Nativism

Traditional Syncretistic Innovative

Ethnosacral Ethnosacral Ethnosacral Ethnoeconomic Ethnoeconomic Ethnoeconomic Ethnopolitical Ethnopolitical Ethnopolitical

Socio-psychological Referents: Nativism

Perpetuating Restoring Achieving Acquiring (To maintain (To restore (To attain a (To attain new traditional traditional new form of accompaniments self-image) self-image) self-image) for self-image)

Ethnosacral Ethnosacral Ethnosacral Ethnosacral Ethnoeconomic Ethnoeconomic Ethnoeconomic Ethnoeconomic Ethnopolitical Ethnopolitical Ethnopolitical Ethnopolitical

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan R. Tippett 173 features as messianism or millenarian- ism in the eschatology, its antigovern- hen I sit down with the data of religious ment or antimission motivation, its innovation, I find the case studies fall aspect of counterconversion, and end- less speculations as to the real causes of Winto three basic categories. the defection from traditional Chris- vibrant with life, self-expressive, with a which I have described elsewhere at tianity. We have also been weighed cohesive structure and a programmed length,11 and mostly these were power down with generalised speculations daily life and religious routine. encounter situations in which the old about a “theory of nativism.” This is a animistic divinities or their shrines When I sit down with the data of reli- somewhat negative approach which were formally (i.e., ceremonially) gious innovation in Melanesian Chris- has suited the mood of the cultural rejected by the groups concerned by tianity since the war, I find the case relativists, who since the 1930s set means of an ocular demonstration in studies fall into three basic categories. I themselves up as “ judges over Israel.” which the responsible official (head- am not analysing on a basis of my own I think a more positive approach to our man of the village, chief of the lineage, subject is possible when we ask, not conceptualisations of forms, function, or attitude, but rather I find the data priest of the temple, or head of the what was lost (or thought to be lost) household) destroyed or abused the but what really emerged in Melanesia falls into three “heaps,” with different views of selfhood. We discover (1) the mana repository or symbolic locus of after World War II. This is not to reject power (skull houses, ceremonial skulls, the existing research, or the numerous cultic group, nativistic movement, or “cargo cult” which emerges with an fetishes, idols, monoliths, sacred groves, typologies, which all provide different aggressive, syncretistic theology and or taboo totem animals). The mode frames of reference for investigation, is in direct opposition to regulations of destruction was by burning, burial, and certainly aid our ethnological and beliefs, and sometimes its mor- drowning, or devouring according to description. But a positive approach als; (2) the indigenous church, which the local conception of mana disposal. will certainly save us from the error has emerged from a Christian mission of interpreting these movements as These people movements usually led structure by a process of evolution, necessarily disintegrative or chaotic.8 to the planting of Christianity as a and retains a character of faith and functional substitute for the origi- We need to see that, although the practice (and sometimes a structure) nal animistic religious structure; and traditional missionary Christian indigenised, but very little different although they took from one to ten worldview of the colonial age has from the mission prototype; and (3) years to run through the sometimes been rejected (either in part or whole), the independent church, which breaks scattered tribal unit, from subunit to the new emergent state is not one of away on a revolutionary principle, has subunit, they resulted in reasonably chaos. It is an integrated and homo- often assumed folk elements in the total substitutions. geneous structure, functioning as an process, and demonstrates its autonomy autonomous, ongoing concern. The by featuring strongly those elements These Christian churches have contin- notion that change has to be disinte- which were either paternalistically ued in some parts of Melanesia since grative is entirely wrong. controlled or neglected altogether—say, about 1840. Most parts (except for the a healing ministry. New Guinea Highlands) had a time In 1964 I was sent by the World depth of more than half a century of Council of Churches to the Solomon The African data which has come my Christian history by the beginning of Islands to investigate why some twenty way will fit the same three categories. World War II in the Pacific, which How does it come about that the same or more villages had broken away from means they had survived the first set of causative factors suggested above traditional Christianity. It was a break- generation of Christian converts from can lead to three quite different but 12 away from a church whose members animism. Quite apart from the psy- equally autonomous solutions? Further- had received fifty years of Christian chological effect the war had on them, 9 more, how is it that in no case do we instruction. My Western and some Melanesian Christians of the postwar find the breakdown of traditional Chris- Anglo Solomon Islander informants period were mostly persons who had tianity leads to anything resembling a mostly saw the whole thing as chaotic been born to Christian parents in tra- 10 state of chaos? For better or for worse and disintegrative. But however tacit ditional missionary island Christianity. we are dealing with dynamic, function- a Christian missionary may consider They had never themselves rejected ing, autonomous living organisms. the heresy which emerged in the animism, burned their fetishes, buried breakaway of these tribal groups, one Most of the missionary churches of their mana skulls, destroyed their idols, cannot honestly say they were in a Melanesia and Polynesia were planted or cut down their sacred groves. That state of chaos. They were dynamic, as the result of people movements, is, they had never experienced a power

30:4 Winter 2013 174 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations encounter deliverance from the old it is not difficult to see how the war the postcolonial period: the nativistic life, and frequently (but not always) first, followed by technological and cult, the indigenous church, and the they had been quite cut off from the electronic change, led parts of Melane- independent folk church. The charac- animistic worldview and mental set by sia into periods of innovative religious ter of Melanesia as a missionary field mission education. movements.18 Melanesia began (if she has thus been completely transformed had not already thought of it before) since the war. The old paternalistic Historically the period following to see herself as deprived of her “place type of traditional Christianity has World War II was not only one of in the sun.” Sometimes she felt she been greatly reduced. I do not intend rapid social change due to accultura- had lost something from her past by reconstructing in this chapter the na- tion, but the changes in technology culture contact. Her old religion was ture of the old missionary traditional and electronics going on in the West gone. Had the white colonial admin- Christianity, except indirectly by way itself were also being felt in the islands. istrators and missionaries robbed her of comment in the following descrip- These changes were social and politi- of her birthright: her cultural heri- tions. It was too uneven to describe cal as well as religious, and I think we tage, authority, wealth, and religious here. Let it suffice to say that it ranged are wrong if we assume we can really power? Were these to be regained by on the scale from pathetically pater- study the religious change in isola- totally rejecting the government and nalistic to remarkably indigenous, and tion; politics, medicine, economics, the missions? Sometimes she felt she I do not need to do more than point electronics are all part of the picture, had something valuable in traditional out that traditional Christianity at the and the religious life suffered no more Christianity which she should not cast former pole tended to suffer after the than any other of these configurations, war from nativistic cults, while those or “integral institutions” as Malinowski 13 at the latter pole passed from mission calls them. I make the point, not to church with little serious culture because I want to discuss it here but shock. Let me now turn briefly to the because it is often overlooked, and this Soon after the war three types one by one. chapter is really not a complete study without this dimension. many missionaries were The Nativistic Cult The experience of the war introduced found working towards This type of movement, commonly the Pacific islanders to resources far called a “cargo cult” (although in reality greater than anything they had ever this end and not all such forms of nativism feature dreamed of—the number of war- indigenous churches cargo), utilises the term “cargo” to focus ships, the power of their armament, on a concept of wealth. It came out of the quantities of canned food in the began to emerge. the war, when white man’s wealth came cargo ships, the aircraft in the sky— to be envisioned in cases of canned the islanders were completely bewil- meat, such as were seen in the army dered by such resources of power and supplies. A whole mythology developed quantity. Added to this was the vocal lightly away. How could she master about it and described how the white anticolonialism of the average G.I., it, deal with it, and use it in her own man had stolen the islanders’ heritage who saw a good deal of the people in way, as something indigenous rather 20 and wealth back in primeval times. his off-duty time.14 We do not wonder than foreign, autonomous rather than These myths may be collected in hun- that many of the innovative reactions paternalistic? Soon after the war many dreds, and they have been interwoven to traditional Christianity and colonial missionaries were found working in the origin tales. This, in itself, is a government grasped on “cargo” and towards this end, especially from about return to pre-Christian values and aes- “airplanes” and “ships” as their sym- 1945 to 1946, and indigenous church- 19 thetic forms and is a rebellion against bolic reference points,15 as they also es began to emerge. Where this did Christianity and a claim that some- did of the American military system not happen, many ethnic groups broke thing was lost at culture contact. The itself,16 and the notion of administra- away and established independent army stores of food and arms revolu- tive authority.17 churches or, better called perhaps, “folk tionised the islanders’ conception of the churches,” which though they claimed Recognising that this capacity for meaning of plenty as unlimited, and it to be Christian, were inclined to be group movement with some symbolic was natural for them to latch on to this syncretistic or bibliomythical. reference point was inherent in the symbol. This mental set is found in the Melanesian situation anyway, when- Using then an ethnohistorical referent, church especially along the north coast ever some prophetic or charismatic I find that these three types of inno- of New Guinea, where the missionaries leader emerged to grasp control of it, vative movement have characterised of today call it the “cargo mentality.”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan R. Tippett 175

Wealth in canned goods became an element of a new eschatology. It e must remember that no two movements promised a new day which was about are exactly alike, and any classificatory to dawn for the islanders when they system is . . . [an] abstraction. would regain all they had lost—lands, W authority, wealth—and which were of the situational crisis, and by the the messiah goes beyond this to dei- rightly theirs from the beginning of same criteria the role of the charismat- fication. We now have on our hands a time. This conception of Melanesian ic figure will be seen. It does not follow fully developed sacrosyncretic nativis- paradise was soon formulated into an that a nativistic cult has to be religious. tic cult (in terms of cultural referents), apocalyptic belief structure, for which If the crisis is purely political, as in the and a sacrorestorative cult (in terms the model was sometimes the New case of Marching Rule, there maybe no of sociopsychological referents) if the Jerusalem in the New Testament, and religious aspect. A number of Chris- movement purports to restore the new villages might even be given bibli- tian pastors actually held office in this faith of the ancient heritage, as the cal names. When this Golden Age is particular movement, for example.23 act of deification may well do. In still articulated, we speak of the movement another classificatory frame of refer- 21 However, it may well be that the as millenarian. ence we may say we have a revolution- movement is entirely religious, or reli- ary selective accommodation; in other The millenarian element is often gious and economic, as with the John words, a breakaway from traditional accompanied by the emergence of a Frum movement.24 A religious (sacro- Christianity which selects its desirable prophetic or charismatic figure around syncretic) cult will develop a religious elements for modification in terms of whom the group rallies (though all doctrine of some kind, and perhaps the pre-Christian past and validation prophetic movements are not mil- a verbal creed and a liturgy. A collec- by means of myth. lenarian). The interesting factor, in my tion of hymns emerges, usually quite experience at least, is that this leader heretical from the biblical standpoint. We must remember that no two usually turns out to be one who has The institution of hymn singing will movements are exactly alike, and any previously been trained in some white be regarded as an essential functional classificatory system is not only merely man institution in a role of subordinate substitute for its Christian counter- approximate, but is indeed in the mind leadership: a teacher, a policeman, an part, and (in the absence of a printing of the observer as his or her own ab- orderly in the army, or a catechist. The press) there may be a handwritten straction. As long as we have the large man has had authority under author- hymnbook, which each member copies number of variables—cultural values, ity, and has Melanesianised the white 22 by hand as part of the reception into historical antecedents, complexities authority pattern in his nativistic cult. membership ritual.25 Likewise we may of the crisis situation, and different Most nativistic cults are highly expect an organised prayer system, and responses to the movement beginnings structured after the nature of a church perhaps a few written prayers for wor- by the local authorities—we will never 26 organisation, an educational complex, ship. The doctrine of the movement find two exactly alike. Neither will two an administrative system, or a mili- will be found in the hymns and litur- be the same to two different observers. tary organisation. They may include gies, and may even be the composition So within these limitations, and using such features as drill parades, march- of the charismatic leader himself. I my own ethnohistorical referent, let ing formation round a flagpole, with found this myself in a Solomon Islands me identify the normal characteristics commissioned and noncommissioned case. The theology reflects a syncretism of a cultic nativistic breakaway from officers and men, or an administrator of biblical ideas and elements from the traditional Christianity as having the in control behind a desk. The white ancient myths—either truly remem- following features: man’s authority, like his wealth, must bered or imagined. 1. a new, accommodating mythology, be returned to the Melanesian in the Quite frequently this role of the 2. a symbolic locus of power transfer, Golden Age. prophet is extended as more and more 3. a new eschatology, The key personality of the movement extravagant claims are made of him. 4. a syncretistic belief system, has a prophetic character. He is not al- He becomes the promised one of 5. a speculative reconstruction of ways a natural orator, but gains power imagined ancient myths. This type of pre-Christian values, and by his authoritative utterances in the situation acquires the descriptor “mes- specific situation of crisis—he is a man sianic.”27 Once the figure becomes 6. a mythologization of the worship for the hour. The movement depends messianic the movement usually structure. on him. It may be economic, political, becomes millenarian, and in extreme All these are dynamic and evolving or religious, depending on the nature cases (one known to me personally) factors. The extent of their development

30:4 Winter 2013 176 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations will depend on the impact they make groups all over the country and regard “European” and “Native” from the Fijian on the community and the reaction of it as their norm for faith and practice. lawbook, which was in their language. A the civil authorities and church, or any They retain many features of the old Fijian-controlled synod had appointed other against whom they may be direct- preaching pattern, although this had and instructed us in our assignment, ed. In the above features I have omitted already assumed some indigenous fea- and told us to bring a revised script for the immoral dimension because it is tures in former times. Their hymnolo- discussion and ratification at the fol- not a constant, but when it appears it gies are well developed and theologi- lowing synod. If I remember correctly is usually the major factor, as in the cally biblical, and many of the hymns the Fijian to Australian ratio of that case of the Hahalis Welfare Society, in are their own composition, for island legislative body was about fifteen to one. which the Baby Garden was to provide hymn writers are very creative when When I first went down to Fiji before the society ultimately with the birth of given the opportunity. They will have the war, the most critical issues were the messiah. no dealings with any attempt to specu- determined by a European synod, which late on, or seek to recover anything of was the highest court of appeal in the The Indigenous Church the pre-Christian mythology, and are island church. It was comprised entirely We should not imagine that the quick to detect and oppose syncretism of missionaries. About the end of the war I was involved in the procedures entire world of Melanesian traditional with old myths. They are vocal in op- which disposed of their synod. It could Christianity has dissolved into revo- position to anything approaching a na- only be done by the Europeans of the lutionary nativistic cults. Statistically tivistic movement, and if one arises in a synod organising their own demise. they represent only a small percentage small group or village they immediately of the island world population. Pos- The matter was discussed over a series sibly the biggest of them would be of conferences by the composition of covering twenty or so villages. Over the text of a new constitution, which against this we have numerous churches was then submitted to the Fijians, who of 200,000 practising members. The They are vocal discussed it for some days on their own. process whereby these strong indig- And suddenly the European synod had enous churches have emerged is clearly in opposition to gone, and with it a century of white evolutionary rather than revolutionary missionary authority. Fijians and mis- or rebellious.28 These churches conduct anything approaching sionaries alike were now “pastors,” “cat- their own business, social, and religious a nativistic echists,” “teachers,” and so on without affairs on the village, national, and adjectival descriptors. About a dozen international level; and where they still movement. white workers found themselves in the have white workers (fraternal workers midst of 160 Fijians. They had no longer rather than missionaries), they are under the power of autonomy. They were a the authority and discipline of the island minority voice. Thereafter the Fijians determined our appointments. churches. These island churches manage discipline the offender as “backsliders” their own property, administer their own who have “fallen from grace.” At the World Methodist Conference finances, pastor their own churches, train in 1956 I presented a paper on these On the other hand, they differ from their own leaders (except perhaps at the developments, and I identified three the prewar missionary church struc- highest level for which they may be sent highly developed configurations in the tures at a number of significant points. overseas), and integrate their own evan- island world: gelistic efforts, publication programs, The white foreign missionary has no social service projects, and in every longer any authority over them. Where 1. an increasing responsibility in way represent the voice of the church they have fraternal workers, they have leadership roles on the level of in the community. Furthermore they been invited to be there by the island local church activities, belong to the new world of our day and church bodies and have been stationed 2. constitutional developments con- interact with the representatives of other by them through the regular elective structively moving in the direc- churches in international conferences. and appointive mechanisms, which deal tion of indigenous government and autonomy, and Yet although they have retained many also with indigenous appointments. 3. the emergence of new and indig- of the traditional church structures, I remember myself once being assigned 29 enous forms of evangelism. they differ from their prototypes in a clerical task by my Fijian colleagues many ways. They maintain a basic con- somewhere about thirty years ago. Two As far as Fiji was concerned, this stage tinuity especially in their theological of us had to eliminate the adjectives lasted for seventeen years. Over this foundations. They study the Bible in time as the European missionaries

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan R. Tippett 177 retired one by one, they were frequently replaced by indigenous nominees. ometimes we meet with borderline cases Theological training was strengthened, between the nativistic cult and the select people were groomed for respon- independent church. sible positions, and a bilateral curricu- S lum was developed for ten transitional traditional missionary churches had to sacred paraphernalia. They have less years to provide indigenous ministers change with the changing times; that syncretism than the nativistic move- for the very different rural and urban the church was a dynamic organism ments, but some are borderline cases. 30 (and academic) ministries. Some and could not be treated as a static Their main difference is that the inde- cooperative beginnings were launched organisation. They accepted the notion pendent movements are clearly Chris- to bring Fijian, Tongan, and Samoan of change as appropriate. The task was tian. They have not rejected the Chris- programs into step as a move towards not always easy. It was like navigating tian religion of the white man and his the standardisation of entrance require- a banana raft on a flooded river and sacred book. Rather they want to claim ments for a hoped-for central theologi- trying to keep in the current without it for themselves, and they want to be cal seminary in the South Pacific where upsetting the craft. The missionaries able to achieve status beyond what they a divinity degree might be obtained. recognised this and let the current can in the white church, and to express Eventually after the T.E.F. (Theologi- carry the raft, working themselves with themselves indigenously in participant cal Education Fund) Consultation on their poling, not to increase momen- roles. They do not strive to recapture Theological Education in the South tum but to keep them facing in the the ancient animism from which their 31 Pacific this dream materialised. The right direction. fathers departed. Pacific churches now have both univer- sity and seminary resources in Fiji. The probability with this revolutionary Independent Churches departure from traditional Christianity Today the Fijian church, over 200,000 The question now arises: what hap- is that it leads to a rapid institution- strong, is completely indigenous, and pens when the people do not desire alisation of the breakaway movement by its own choice has affiliated with to return to pre-Christian mythology, that ultimately becomes quite rigid. the Australasian General Confer- and when the Christian faith meets The forms become set. They do not ence as a full status and equal body their needs but the missionaries con- have the internal flexibility of the with Australian and Island Confer- tinue to be paternalistic and resistant indigenous churches mentioned above, ence on an international level. I have to change? or their intellectual exchange from used the Fijian Methodists because I outside contacts, or the quality of their The natural thing is for them to break knew them best and have served under theological training. Most cases that I away from the missionary church and them, but this is only one of many know or have read about have mani- to form an independent church of their examples I might have cited for an fested these shortcomings, and I think own. To this extent they are revolu- indigenous church. it probably natural because whereas tionary, and they may be quite anti- in the indigenous church, missionary The indigenous church is the diametric white; but they keep nearer to Chris- controls have been phased out slowly opposite of the nativistic cult, both at tian Scripture, are strongly evangelistic, over a period of time in a smooth the theological level and at the level of and their new theological emphases are evolutionary manner, in the other, the harmonious working with the mother Bible based. Often these are indig- revolutionary cutoff has demanded a church. In both these respects one enous elaborations of some biblical whole complex of institutions “over- rebels and the other develops, one is ingredient which had been neglected night” and the new officials have not revolutionary the other evolutionary. in the missionaries’ training program, 33 been properly trained for it. Both have in a way withdrawn from maybe, say, the doctrine of the Spirit or the parent body. Both have undergone the rites of healing, and there are some Usually such an independent church will dramatic change in the process, but one elaborate developments of baptism. be forced to work out its constitution is reactionary, the other cooperative. Africa can supply us with hundreds of to get public recognition, and if it has documented examples of this, but we day schools they will be at a much lower Before passing on to the third type, I do meet them also in Oceania. An- educational level.34 should point out that the attitude of 32 other strong element is catharsis. the white missionaries undoubtedly Sometimes we meet with borderline was one of the crucial factors in each They are often prophetic or charismatic, cases between the nativistic cult and case. In the former they were authori- strongly liturgical, and present us with the independent church. The border- tarian, unbending, and paternalistic. an abundance of functional substitutes line marks not so much the degree of In the latter they recognised that the for the Christian vestments, rituals, and syncretism, as to whether or not it is

30:4 Winter 2013 178 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations consciously and deliberately intended to Melanesians found three different ways a passive or static one. Later anthropolo- go back to native values which predate of reacting to these factors, and to some gists pointed out that the less powerful one the white man’s presence, or whether it extent at least it may be argued that the was not disintegrating, but that sooner or later, after the initial culture shock it would is a failure of a theologically unsophis- manifest operations of the white trad- reformulate its structures and continue as ticated prophet to discriminate between ers, settlers, and especially the public an ongoing organism. Culture contact is a what is Christian and what is not. It servants, administrators, and missionar- two-way process of interaction. may well be that the prophet believes ies influenced the precise form of the 9 For the report of the research, see he is biblical and claims the right to his Melanesian reaction. IJFM Solomon Islands Christianity (1967) and in own interpretation.35 Such men have particular pp. 212–14, 217–66. often argued that as each denomination Endnotes 10 Somewhere in the same source is a report of an interview on this subject with interprets Scripture in its own way, why 1 The phenomenon is not peculiar to should not a Melanesian also do so.36 an Anglo Solomoner. An Anglo Solomon Christianity, to the postcolonial age, or to Islander is an acculturated or Westernised However, the common point between Oceania. History is replete with accounts native. In this case, despite his acculturation of such movements in Africa, Asia, and the nativistic cult and the independent he still subconsciously cherished his tradition. America, but in Africa and Oceania espe- 11 church is the revolutionary character People Movements in Southern Polyne- cially they have increased by hundreds since sia (1971) is entirely devoted to this subject. of the breakaway, as opposed to the World War II. 2 See also Solomon Islands Christianity (1967, evolutionary character of the passage Nativistic movements frequently 42–43, 60). from mission to church in the case of follow in the aftermath of wars. One of the 12 Christianity entered Fiji in 1835. the indigenous church. best studies of this theme is Wallace’s in- For a record of its diffusion in statistically vestigation of the relation between war and The common point between the indig- large movements, see my monograph The religious group movement in the history of Christian: Fiji 1835–67 (1954). enous and independent churches is the the Delaware Indians (1956, 1–21). 13 3 This concept developed in a most manifest intention to retain their Christi- The passive type, such as the Gandhi important essay on “The Functional Theory anity, as against the intentional rejection resistance in India, does not appear fre- of Culture” found in The Dynamics of Culture of Christianity by the nativistic cult. quently in Melanesia. There have been a few Change (1961, 41–51). He also describes minor strikes among students on mission these institutions as “systems” and as “in- The tragedy of the independent church compounds (see Crocombe 1954, 6–21), but strumental imperatives” (ibid., 46). Melanesian movements are notably aggres- is that in all probability it need not have 14 In my own field research on the Eto sive, the aggression rising or falling accord- happened that way had the mission Movement, I repeatedly had expressions of this ing to the way in which the administration policy been different. The same may be opinion from my Solomon Islander informants. or mission handles the disturbance. 15 argued of the nativistic cult. The number 4 Many movements had secret See the bibliographies in Worsley’s clearings in the forest with a model of an of Western features retained by all three The Trumpet Shall Sound (1957, 277–83), airplane, for example, setup as a symbol. One types of movement demonstrates the Lawrence’s Road Belong Cargo (1964, example of this was the John Frum move- Melanesian readiness for cultural bor- 276–80), Kamma’s Koreri (1972, 300–19), ment. The symbol is illustrated in Attenbor- rowing from the West. Unless there are and Leeson (1952). ough’s Quest in Paradise, facing p. 154. factors I have not identified, we are left 5 Typologies for nativism were developed 16 The Marching Rule Movement in by Linton (1943, 230–40), Kobben (1960, with the following residue: Malaita was structured on the model of the 117–64), Clemhout (1964, 14–15), Worsley U.S. Army. For a description see Solomon 1. A process of change under the (1957), Turner (1974), and many others. Islands Christianity (1967, 204–9). rapid acculturation and end of 6 The concept of “Negritude” was used 17 The classical example of the sym- insularity was inevitable. to describe the resurgence of Bantu pagan- bolization of administration was a wartime ism, and the exaltation of the African past 2. Ultimate resistance against movement in Ysabel (Solomon Islands) (Steenberghen 1959, 287–88). Western paternalism and over- 7 which spread through Gela, Savo, and San loading authority had to come The Christian church in Africa was Cristoval, which related to native repre- made widely aware of this phenomenon by a sentation on the Advisory Council. The sooner or later. growing body of literature on such movements Melanesians raised a flag together with a 3. The Melanesians inevitably had which appeared about 1948. The most notable wooden chair and a wooden rule. They also to develop a new self-image work was Sundkler’s Bantu Prophets in South Africa, published in 1948 and updated in agitated for higher wages. As an outcome adequate for the new day. 1961. But there are many others—Welbourn of this movement, plans were initiated for 4. World War II provided the crisis (1961), Barrett (1968), and Baeta (1962)—and native courts (see Belshaw 1950). situation for the emergence of by Comparative Religionists like Lanternari 18 This was certainly so in the Pa- Melanesian prophets and saviors. (1963) and many others. liau Movement in the Admiralty Islands, 8 Early writers on “culture contact” researched by Margaret Mead (1961) and These were common factors for all used the term “culture clash,” which was Schwartz (1962). (For Mead’s reference to three new and nontraditional forms subsequently discarded because it gave the electronics see 1961, 141 and 1970, xvii– of religiosity we have discussed. The impression of a powerful culture destroying xviii, 58.)

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19 This was discussed in a lecture I 29 This was published in the Transac- Crocombe, Ron delivered in Melbourne, Australia, in 1947. tions and Proceedings of the World Methodist 1954 The theological student’s walkout, It was subsequently printed under the title Conference held at Lake Junaluska, North Raxoconga 1954. Journal of the “Fiji’s Tomorrow” (1947). Carolina, in 1956, under the title “Method- Polynesian Society 79: 6–21. 20 A useful aid in identifying the ism in the Southwest Pacific.” Dearing, F. M. self-image of the movement is to ascertain 30 A full account of the emergence of 1961 Theological education in the Pacific. whether it builds its ritual around a collection theological education in Fiji was multi- London: T.E.F. Committee of the International Missionary Council. of hymns or myths. One might at least start graphed and distributed to delegates at the from this position. This would place Etoism Theological Education Fund Consultation Fox, Charles E. as an independent church, inspite of its heavy on Theological Education in the Pacific in 1962 Kakamora. London: Hodder & Stoughton. syncretism with pre-Christian elements. 1961. See also the report (Dearing 1961, 21 Guiart, Jean Millenial visions and apocalyptic 65–68) for a synopsis of the same. 1956 Un siècle et demi de contacts culturels aspects of these movements featured in 31 The Pacific Theological College at à Tanna, Nouvelles-Hébrides. Paris: Linton’s original essay (1943) but he did not Suva Point, Fiji. Musée de l’Homme. 32 include them in the classification descrip- The catharsis relates to the struggle 1959 Destin d’une église et d’un peuple. tors in his typology. with sin and may be violent. It may recur, and Paris: Mouvement du Christian- 22 Of the leaders of the Solomon Is- reduce in intensity each time. It is seen as a isme Social. lands movements of which I gathered data, power encounter with Satan. It may well be Kamma, F. Ch. Silas Eto was a mission catechist, Paukuba- stimulated by some kind of rhythmic beating, 1972 Koreri. The Hague: Martinus tu a teacher, Taosin trained as a teacher also tapping, or clapping. It may have strong simi- Nyhoff. but failed to graduate, Pekokoqore was a larities to voodoo and may lead to possession. Kobben, A. J. F. discharged policeman, and Timothy George 33 A schismatic indigenous church which 1960 Prophet movements as an expres- had witnessed the Sydney dock strike in breaks away from the main body (which sion of social protest. International 1913 (Tippett 1967, 201). retains the institutions and more sophisticated Archives of Ethnography 49: 117–64. 23 Fifteen percent of the leadership of pastors) may be confronted with this same Lanternari, Vittorio Marching Rule was said to have been bor- problem as it was the last century in Tonga. 1963 The religions of the oppressed. New rowed from the Christian churches (Allen 34 In 1967 I pointed this out in the case York: Knopf. 1950, 41). See also Fox’s autobiographical of Etoism (1967, 225). I understand that Lawrence, Peter account (1962, 127–35, especially p. 134). since then they have been forced to secure 1964 Road belong cargo. Manchester: 24 This movement sought to rid the a constitution to gain their recognition, and University Press. land of the taint of European money, of Eu- even be permitted to run schools. Leeson, I. 35 1952 Bibliography of cargo cults and ropean trade, of immigrant natives, and to For example, Silas Eto argued that the return to the old customs prescribed by the other nativistic movements in Bible was a reference book which he would cite the South Pacific. Sydney: South theocratic Presbyterian Church, as Belshaw when needed. It was not for the people to read. puts it (1950). It was both anti-Western Pacific Technical Paper 37. 36 For example, the Hauhau Move- economic and anti-Church. See also the Linton, Ralph ment, which followed the Maori Wars, was writings of Guiart (1956, ix; 5, etc.; 1959). 1943 Nativistic movements. American 25 established on this attitude to Scripture. Anthropologist 45: 230–40. The Eto document did this. When I was living in Wanawana, I procured such References Malinowski, Bronislaw a collection of hymns. It became a major 1961 The dynamics of culture change. New Haven: Yale University Press. source for Solomon Islands Christianity Allen, C. H. (1967, 253–64). 1950 The marching rule in the British Mead, Margaret Solomon Islands Protectorate: An 1961 New lives for old. New York: 26 The pietism of the Eto Movement analytical study. Canberra: Austra- Mentor Books. prayer pattern was highly institutionalised. lia National University. Microfilm. 1970 Culture and commitment: A study Members recorded the score of their prayers Attenborough, David of the generation gap. Garden City: by inserting the midrib of a palm frond in 1960 Quest in paradise. London: Lut- Doubleday. the hair. These tallies marked the building terworth. Schwartz, Theodore up of merit (see Tippett 1967, 233). Baeta, C. G. 27 1962 The Paliau Movement in the Admiral- There is always a key personality 1962. Prophetism in Ghana. London: ty Islands, 1946–1954. Anthropol- in any group movement, either to or from S.C.M. ogy Papers 49. New York: American Christianity. Even in communal groups Barrett, David B. Museum of Natural History. where new group norms are sought, the 1968 Schism and renewal in Africa. Steenberghen, Pera Rombaut momentum begins with an individual (see Nairobi: Oxford University Press. 1959 Neo-paganism in Africa. Frontier Tippett 1971, 199–214). Belshaw, Cyril S. 2: 287–88. 28 For my own historical account of the 1950. The significance of modern cults Sundkler, Bengt evolutionary emergence of an indigenous in Melanesian development. The 1961 Bantu prophets in South Africa. New church, see “A Church Is Built,” which Australian Outlook 4: 116–25. York: Oxford University Press. was the feature article of the inauguration Clemhout, Simone Tippett, Alan R. program of the autonomous Methodist 1964 Typology of nativistic movements. 1947 Fiji’s tomorrow. The Link. Conference in Fiji (1964). Man 64: 14–15. 1954 The Christian: Fiji 1835–1867.

30:4 Winter 2013 180 Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations

Auckland: Institute Printing and Publishing. 1956 Methodism in the southwest Pacific. Proceedings of the World Methodist Conference. Lake Junaluska, North Carolina. 1961 Consultation on theological edu- cation in the Pacific. Unpublished manuscript. 1964 A church is built. Fiji: Methodist Conference. 1967 Solomon Islands Christianity. Lon- don: Lutterworth. 1971 People movements in Southern Polynesia. Chicago: Moody. Turner, Harold W. 1974 New religious movements. World survey charts. International As- sociation for Mission Studies. Wallace, A. F. C. 1956 New religions among the Delaware Indians, 1600–1900. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12: 1–21. Welbourn, F. B. 1961 East African rebels. London: S.C.M. Worsley, Peter 1957 The trumpet shall sound. London: Macgibbon & Kee.

1 CITY. 800 LANGUAGES. 69 UNREACHED PEOPLE GROUPS.

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International Journal of Frontier Missiology

182 Book Reviews

reading his assessments, the more I was pleasantly sur- prised. Garrison allayed most of my reservations; his goal was limited and he strove to describe accurately what was Reviews happening in these movements, not sensationalize them. He was realistic, cognizant of the potential impacts that could cause some of the claims to be called into question. A Wind in the House of Islam: How God is Drawing Muslims His descriptions of these movements and the life stories he around the World to Faith in Jesus Christ, by David Garrison included as examples of these movements resonated well (Monument, CO: WIGTake Resources, 2014, pp. 328) with my own field experiences and the knowledge that I have gleaned from others. I consequently gave him a very —Reviewed by Bradford Greer, PhD high score with regard to face validity. Following the guidelines for describing one’s research, Garrison begins by laying out the parameters of the project, am a perfectionist and a skeptic. providing definitions, and noting the limitations inherent My perfectionism impacts the way I in the act of researching. He interviewed believers from viewI research. Well-designed, anthro- Muslim backgrounds in each of these areas. To increase pological-missiological research often the reliability of his findings he triangulated his data by has limited parameters and develops consulting with seasoned missionaries and believers from well-grounded idiographic theory Christian backgrounds in each area, and by conducting (descriptions of individuals or individ- background research (for example, drawing from doctoral ual social groups). Once an idiographic dissertations). He acknowledged that he and his team could theory has been validated in numerous not study all sixty-nine movements; his team had to limit other studies, then I am willing to accept a wider applica- their scope to forty-five movements in thirty-three people tion of the theory. groups in thirteen countries. Admittedly, I came to David Garrison’s new book, A Wind in Garrison defines a movement to Christ as at least 1000 the House of Islam, with some doubts. For example, how was baptisms or 100 new church-starts within a given people he going to research in any reliable and valid manner these group or ethnic Muslim community over one or two supposed sixty-nine contemporary Muslim movements to decades (p. 39). Conversion is defined by a transformed life Christ (p. 231)—movements in twenty-nine countries span- through a new relationship with God through the person of ning the Muslim world (p. 5)? The project seemed too broad. Jesus Christ as revealed in the New Testament (p. 38). Now, Garrison (PhD, Historical Theology, University of Though this makes it sound like the book is a dry and dusty Chicago Divinity School) is eminently qualified to conduct this analysis, Garrison has made his research accessible by turning research. He has been immersed in the area of church planting the vast geographical space from Morocco to Indonesia into movements for many years and has written a text of reference a house with nine rooms: 1) West Africa, 2) North Africa, by that name.1 He has broad experience, having served as a 3) East Africa, 4) The Arab World, 5) The Persian World, strategist and regional leader for the International Mission 6) Turkestan, 7) Western South Asia, 8) Eastern South Board in South Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, 9) Indo-Malaysia (p. 23). He presents a brief history of Africa and the Middle East. In addition, he has studied about a Christian engagement in each room, and then he uses stories dozen languages and has visited some 100 countries. of specific believers from a Muslim background who exem- Despite Garrison’s impressive qualifications, doubts remained plify how people have been responding to the gospel in that due to my field experience. I lived and worked in a specific region. Garrison also adopted a phenomenological approach Muslim context for over twenty-five years. I have seen what to his research, simply describing what was observed without can happen in my area of the world. In that conservative con- editorializing about whether it was right or wrong. text people can appear to have dynamic faith but this does As Garrison guides us through the rooms we discover that not mean that they have truly encountered the Lord. Many some have turned to Christ because they were dissatisfied with are poor and faith is sometimes a negotiable commodity. I Islam; this was clear for many in the North Africa Room and have also interacted with those who have worked in other the Persian Room. By contrast, others who have turned to areas of the Muslim world. Though I am confident that many Christ have retained their Muslim identity and have remained of these sixty-nine movements are valid, I have heard reports within their communities, the Eastern South Asia Room being that cause me to question some of them. a prime example. If these followers of Christ had adopted So, with a skeptic’s eye I proceeded to follow Garrison on a a Christian identity this would have been interpreted as a tour through the House of Islam. The further I journeyed, betrayal of their communities and they would have lost the

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n spite of these two weaknesses, Garrison’s book has immense value. It provides a much-needed objective analysis of what God is doing across Ithe Muslim world. opportunity to propagate their faith among others. During his No Continuing City: The Story of a Missiologist from interviews with those from groups who retained their Muslim Colonial to Postcolonial Times, by Alan R. Tippett identity, Garrison sought to clarify the doctrinal accuracy of (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2013, pp. 580 their faith. Believers repeatedly demonstrated a clear under- standing of who Christ is, yet their primary concern was not —Reviewed by Glenn Schwartz doctrinal accuracy but a changed life. Garrison noted, “An unexpected response occurred again and again, as these Muslim background followers redirected the question away from doc- his is the autobiography of Dr. trine and toward holiness and life transformation” (p. 63). Alan R. Tippett who retired Tfrom the Fuller School of World This book has two weaknesses. The first weakness is that it Mission in 1978 and passed away in is limited on data. We are presented with a set of anecdotes, Canberra, Australia in September chosen because of their representative value. As a missiolo- 1988. For those of us who knew him gist, I would have preferred much more. However, there personally, this is a treasure for which were two justifiable reasons for this weakness: 1) the desire we owe him a great debt. I consider it to make the research accessible to everyone, not just to a privilege to have had a close friend- the academic; and 2) security concerns. The second weak- ship with Dr. Tippett during the 1970s when he was on ness appears in the analysis of the West South Asia Room. the faculty of Fuller. Though Garrison accurately presents both the interviews conducted in that room and the experiences of missionar- Several themes surface repeatedly in this 580-page autobiog- ies who serve there, some of us who intimately know that raphy. The first is the struggle with the colonial missionary envi- region would interpret the same data in a different manner. ronment into which he was born and under which he served, particularly in Australia and Fiji. Of course, he encountered it in In spite of these two weaknesses, the book has immense many other places as he traveled around the world, researching, value. It provides a much-needed objective analysis of what writing and lecturing. Along with Dr. Donald McGavran and God is doing across the Muslim world. Over the past few others, Dr. Tippett helped to create a new missiology adequate years there has been a bit of controversy over missiological for postcolonial times. He did this by turning his own experi- trends in the Muslim world, in particular, over insider move- ence as a missionary into something that led to the indepen- ments. Western missiologists who have worked alongside dence of the church in Fiji. That struggle to overcome colonial these movements have asserted that such movements were missions surfaces again and again throughout this book. the result of what God was doing in the Muslim world. Others have doubted this claim because they cannot believe A second theme that surfaces now and again is his dis- that God could allow a person to retain a Muslim identity appointment—even disdain—for the organized church after turning to Christ. The controversy at times has drawn (particularly his own Methodist denomination), which into question the quality of the faith of these followers tolerated a level of unhealthy spirituality that often left him of Christ, with some stating that those who retain their disillusioned. He saw it in the local parishes of Australia Muslim identity only do this because they are either afraid where he served as a young pastor before becoming a mis- of persecution or they have been negatively influenced by sionary. His concern rose not only to the upper levels of the foreign missionaries. Garrison’s research appears to demon- denomination in Australia, but also to the World Council strate that neither of these accusations is valid. His research of Churches, which he felt had left its moral obligation to shows that there are those who feel that faith in Christ and maintain a missionary message, particularly following 1948. retaining one’s Muslim identity and remaining within one’s A third recurring theme is how hard it was to handle separa- community are not inconsistent. It also shows that adopting tion from his family for the sake of what he felt God was this stance does not eliminate the possibility of persecution. calling him to do. During his twenty or so years as a mission- One must read the book to discover how this can be so. ary in Fiji he traveled barefoot for weeks at a time in the rural villages, while Edna stayed behind caring for the home and Endnotes their three daughters. He spent an entire year in Washington 1 David Garrison, Church Planting Movements: How God is D.C. doing a masters degree in history without his family. Redeeming a Lost World, Midlothian, VA: WIGTake, 2004. Later on, he spent two and a half years in Eugene, Oregon

30:4 Winter 2013 184 Book Reviews again without his family helping to establish the Institute for few shillings and then go to the back of the room and separate Church Growth at the invitation of Dr. McGavran. During them. When he had something worth reselling he would take this time he enrolled in the University of Oregon and even- it back to the auctioneer and resell it for a profit. Once when tually earned a PhD in anthropology. At the end of that time he was leaving home for the auction Edna said, “Try to make he missed his family so much that he knew he had to leave enough from the stamps so you can buy a chicken on the way for home as soon as a seat on the next plane could be found. home.” In fact, stamp collecting helped to keep the family He did not even attend his own graduation ceremony. going financially at various times in their ministry. At one point in the book he gives a poignant description of While he kept his interest in philately as a hobby over the what it was like to sacrifice family unity for the sake of his years, it was during his retirement in Canberra that his efforts missionary career. For example, when he and Edna returned began to pay off. By this time he became so accomplished in to Australia from Fiji, they left behind their daughter, collecting and arranging stamps that he won one award after Lynette, who stayed in Fiji all her working life. When he another for various collections he arranged. He and Edna and Edna and Robyn left for the School of World Mission joined the Philatelic Society in Canberra and used it not only in Pasadena, they left Joan behind in Australia. When Alan for a good way to enjoy retirement, but as a place for Christian and Edna finished their time in Pasadena and returned to witness. Edna would attend the meetings with him and set up Australia, they left Robyn behind in America. the displays while he interacted with other philatelists. A fourth frequent theme is his life-long battle for credibility A sixth theme is Dr. Tippett’s exemplary contribution to among secular anthropologists. He was every bit as qualified missionary literature. He produced volumes and volumes as non-believing anthropologists and was determined to gain of research (the equivalent of book-length documents) credibility for missionary anthropology. He never missed an that will never be published. But he left several volumes, opportunity to read a paper and give the Christian viewpoint including this autobiography, that were near enough to at an annual or regional conference of anthropologists. One completion that a new series of heretofore unpublished of the battles along this line is represented by his long-time manuscripts could be readied for publication. We are challenge to James Michener for the way he wrote the book indebted to Drs. Doug Priest and Charles Kraft for moving these manuscripts from the idle shelf to the publisher; they Hawaii. In that book Michener developed an anti-mission- 2 ary stance, blaming missionaries for destroying and break- deserve our deepest appreciation. ing up Polynesian religion and culture. Dr. Tippett felt that A seventh theme that continues to surface, one that Dr. many young potential missionaries went into the American Tippett does not hide in this autobiography, is his struggle to Peace Corps—or not into missionary service at all—as a adjust to unavoidable changes in his life. When he left Eugene, result of the publication of Hawaii. Dr. Tippett had a serious Oregon in 1966 he felt he was returning to the unknown in disdain for the way missionaries were portrayed through Australia. Upon his finishing the PhD program, he says: Michener’s writings. But this is only part of the story, and . . . I was awarded the degree, but I felt no elation whatever. I I am not sure that Dr. Tippett knew before his passing the did not wait for the conferring, which would have meant miss- results of his challenge to Michener. Over the years there was ing Joan’s wedding. There were a few friends who wanted to some change in Michener’s position. During a TV interview celebrate, but it was no celebration. It was no achievement; it in the 1970s, Michener was asked about his treatment of was a long, painful ordeal. I had never sought it. I had never missionaries in the book Hawaii. Michener acknowledged wanted it, and I was utterly torn apart lest I had hurt those whom I loved more than life itself. that his blame of missionaries was not totally justified. He admitted exactly what Dr. Tippett often said, that animism The next day I was on a plane heading home to Australia. in Polynesia was already breaking up before the arrival of I had the degree, but something had gone out of my life. I Christian missionaries. So, Dr. Tippett’s efforts paid off, but wondered if I could ever get it back again. I tried to satisfy Michener’s book had long since done its damage. myself with the thought that it wasn’t just my degree. It be- longed just as much to Edna and the girls, without whose sup- A fifth theme is Dr. Tippett’s passion for philately—stamp col- port I could never have done it, especially in middle age. If it lecting.1 I knew that he was an avid stamp collector and that he was an achievement, it was a family one, that I knew. had a weekly radio program for children in Fiji during which But was I still in the stream of God’s will? . . . It was a long he told the stories behind the issue of a new series of stamps. and almost tearful journey. There was no interest in anything I But several things I learned were new to me. During the Great saw, no taste in the food, no excitement in the return; just the Depression, for example, things were so tight economically depression of not knowing how I stood with those I loved and for him and Edna that he used stamp collecting to help make with my Lord. Not until I was actually home, and for the im- ends meet. He would use his weekly day off as a pastor (usually mediate present caught up with the activity of [Joan’s] wed- a Wednesday) to go into Melbourne on the train to attend ding itself, did the depression start to lift. . . I felt a little better the stamp auction. He would buy a small pack of stamps for a with Edna by my side. . . (pp. 286-87)

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 185

hese words are a bold admission of a human struggle, and one that may sound surprising from someone who was in some ways quite private. But T something seems to have changed after he and Edna retired in Australia. But this was not the only time he faced the challenge of to have changed after he and Edna retired in Australia. adjustment. Consider his thoughts as he left the School of I am guessing that the above words were written before World Mission in Pasadena in 1978. He and Edna were he settled into life in Canberra. As one reads beyond this flying to Australia on a 747 when he penned the following: part of his story it becomes clear that he had quite a few . . . Now we were returning to the land of our fathers – just the invitations to address church groups and even to do some two of us, and we had no idea where we would eventually settle. overseas travel and speaking. I was pleased to see that the The years of my active ministry had been spent, and I had above rather discouraging account gave way to a continu- no longer any active status. My office as a missiologist I had ing and effective ministry during his retirement years. That relinquished, and I no longer had any sponsor for a project. fact alone gives a refreshing slant on the statements above. I I looked out of the plane window and beheld a wide, open heartily encourage anyone interested in missions to read the space of nothingness. True, I was heading home to the land entire book and see how the life of a premier anthropolo- of my fathers. My father and now my mother had passed on gist/missiologist in the 20th century made his contribution hence, and I was the “patriarch of my tribe,” but as I returned there was no tribe that remained. I was heading home with no to Christian mission. goal, no purpose, no mission, no set assignment, no certainty, As I bring this review to a close, several observations are in and no responsibility to anyone. I wasn’t even sure what ex- order. First, it crossed my mind many times while reading this pectations I ought to have when I got home, or whether I story that all those books—published and unpublished—were would even recognize the place when I got there. The 747 prepared using a conventional typewriter, a machine without droned on. I realized how terrible it was to have no purpose in life, not to know who you were or even what you were. memory as we know it today. So Edna typed and retyped many manuscripts. Dr. Tippett was not one to be attracted Sure, one felt that somewhere out there was a new life, that even to the latest fad, but imagine how much more he could have at the age of retirement one could start again. Indeed, unless he did start again, with a new goal, and a new drive, he would surely produced if those books and manuscripts had been saved in die. True, my new passport now read, “Citizen of Australia,” and memory rather than having to be retyped each time. that was reassuring, but for all that, I knew in my heart of hearts A second observation regards Dr. Tippett’s demeanor as a that I had no continuing city and that Australia would be a very missionary and missiologist. Being Australian, he frequently different place from that which I had left before World War II. spoke with understatement. He had the credentials and Like a man coming out of an operation, knowing he had lost experience to toot his own horn if he had chosen to do so. an organ and wondering how things would go with him, with Instead, he discovered that understatement can be more no status, no family, no home but a vast, half-empty land, powerful than overstatement—and have more credibility. The no project, no sponsor, no knowledge of what one could do hundreds of missionaries and international church leaders on a meager pension—not even a deadline to meet. It was a strange emptiness, as the 747 droned on. who were his students experienced firsthand the quality of his spiritual life and professional competence. Both of those Then I reflected that each time I had launched out into the un- qualities come through on many pages of this autobiography. known in faith it inspired something beyond myself to rouse that faith. And I knew the truth found in these words to the In closing, this autobiography should be read by anyone who hymn penned by Anna Waring: knew Dr. Tippett personally, especially his students. It should Father I know that all my life be recommended reading for all missionary candidates who Is proportioned out for me. want to know how a missiologist thinks. If you are interested And changes that are sure to come in missiology—and you are only going to read one book this I do not fear to see; year—I heartily recommend No Continuing City: The Story of But ask thee for a present mind, a Missiologist from Colonial to Postcolonial Times. IJFM Intent on pleasing Thee. Endnotes The rhythm of the droning 747 changed. There was land beneath. (p. 435) 1 There is even a separate index of philatelic terms at the end of this book. These words are a bold admission of a human struggle, 2 The series published by William Carey Library is called “The and one that may sound surprising coming from someone Missiology of Alan R. Tippett Series” with Doug Priest, Series Edi- who was in some ways quite private. But something seems tor and Doug Priest and Charles Kraft, Editors.

30:4 Winter 2013 186 In Others’ Words

approximately one in six people in the world.” Read on to find In Others’ Words out how few are actually working with the poor. Speaking of slums, don’t miss Katherine Boo’s Behind the Beautiful Forevers, Editor’s note: In this department, we highlight resources outside of winner of the National Book Award for 2012. A non-fictional exploration of the world of trash pickers in Mumbai, the book the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, blogs, is based on three and a half years of painstaking sociological videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to the research. See the NYTimes Sunday Book Review. length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title of the resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase. Singles and Missions A news brief in Christianity Today entitled “Matchmaker For The Art of Mission Missionaries Tackles a Top Reason They Quit” highlights istinguished historian Philip Jenkins began a series the launch this spring of a new website, CalledTogether.us, Dof blog posts in March called “The Art of Mission.” which is dedicated to helping singles with a global vision One painting depicts an East African ambassador receiv- connect with each other (see ad p. 153). One of its founders, ing a Bible from a young Queen Victoria, a scene based Gerin St. Claire, was interviewed by National Public Radio. on a popular, but unfounded, anecdote. According to the TheCT article quotes Rhonda Pruitt (Columbia Interna- National Portrait Gallery site, when asked by a diplomatic tional University) as saying that “the number of singles on delegation for the reason for her country’s rise to power, the the mission field has doubled in the 21st century.” queen handed the ambassador a Bible and said, “This is the secret of England’s greatness.” Not the answer you would But Mike Delorenzo, in the powerful 2013 post “I Write to You, expect from a modern prime minister or president. As you Young Men,” notes that only one of every five single missionaries glance at the other arresting images, inevitable questions is male. This upswing in single women missionaries has hap- surface about the confluence of Christianity and colonial- pened before, after the U.S. Civil War left 600,000 men dead. By ism, nationalism, and even pagan religions.(See the link to 1900, over 50 Protestant mission agencies were led by women “Pre-Colonial and Colonial Images of the Kongo”). (“Women Rallied Around Missionary Cause”, Christianity.com). Are we approaching a similar demographic today? If so, why? Indigenous Art Forms and the Gospel Justin Long, on The Long View, speculates about some possible reasons in his series “Single Men in Missions.” One of IBMR’s 15 Outstanding Books of 2013 for Mission Studies in their April 2014 issue looks at art, drama, dance, The Gender Gap in Missions music and film created by Christians in other cultures for We have no Civil War that has recently killed off over half a the purpose of worship. Entitled Worship and Mission for the million young men. But boys have increasingly come under Global Church: An Ethnodoxology Handbook, it is accompa- siege over the last three decades. Take officially-diagnosed dis- nied by a very useful manual Creating Local Arts Together (see abilities, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While 1 in ad p. 154). Contextualized worship and indigenous theology 68 American children has been diagnosed with ASD—com- (firmly rooted in excellent Bible translations) may prove to pared to 1 in 10,000 in the early 1980s—the disorder is nearly be a great preventative against syncretism. five times more common among boys than girls: 1 in 42 vs. 1 Cultural Encounters between Christianity in 189! (See “Autism Statistics” CDC, March 2014.) Internet and Korean Religions addictions have skyrocketed, with 50% of Christian men (20% of Christian women) now admitting to a pornography addic- If you’re interested in how cultures and religions interact tion. (Covenant Eyes 2014 Pornography Statistics). with each other, don’t miss The Making of Korean Christian- ity: Protestant Encounters with Korean Religions, 1876-1915. Then there’s the puzzling loss of ambition among young men, Chosen Books and Cultures’ 2013 Book of the Year, its examined in the widely reviewed 2008 book Boys Adrift: Five author, Sung-Deuk Oak, a professor of Korean Christianity Factors Driving the Epidemic of Unmotivated Boys and Under- at UCLA, succeeds brilliantly at giving us a historiography achieving Young Men. In it, family physician and psychologist of the cultural exchanges between Protestant missions and Leonard Sax claims that one-third of American young men Korean religions and the impact each had on the other. ages 22-34 live at home, don’t want to get married, don’t want One in Six Now an Urban Slum Dweller to get a job, and are playing video games—a 100% increase in the past twenty years! For more, see his book on Amazon or his The January 2014 issue of International Bulletin of Missionary “What’s Happening to Boys?” on WashingtonPost.com. IJFM Research brings us the latest statistical update on global Christianity, “Christianity 2014: Independent Christianity and Editor’s Note: The careful reader will notice that this October– Slum Dwellers” by Todd Johnson. Of special note is the new December 2013 issue is partly composed of material created in category “urban slum dwellers” as opposed to just “urban poor.” early 2014. We apologize in advance for any inconvenience Johnson states that the number of urban slum dwellers “is caused by such anachronisms. International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology IJFM & Perspectives 187

Related Perspectives Lesson and Section Whether you’re a Perspectives& instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth inIJFM . For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divided into four sections: Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C) and Strategic (S). Disclaimer: The table below shows where the content of a given article might fit; it does not imply endorsement of a particular article by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake of space, the table only includes lessons related to the articles in a givenIJFM issue. To learn more about the Perspectives course, visit www.perspectives.org.

Articles in IJFM 30:4 Lesson 5: Unleasing the Gospel (B) Lesson 7: Eras of Mission History (H) Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C) Lesson 11: Building Bridges of Love (C) Lesson 13: The Spontaneous Multi- plication of Churches (S) Lesson 14: Pioneer Church Planting (S)

Seeing Inside Insider Missiology: Exploring our Theological Lenses and X X X X Presuppositions Leonard N. Bartlotti (pp. 137–53)

Sixteen Features of Belief and Practice in Two Movements among Muslims in Eastern X X Africa: What Does the Data Say? Ben Naja (pp. 155–60)

Roles of “Alongsiders” in Insider Movements: Contemporary Examples and X X X Biblical Reflections John and Anna Travis (pp. 161–69)

Contemporary Departures from Traditional Christianity in Cross-Cultural Situations: X X X X X A Melanesian Ethnohistorical Case Study Alan R. Tippett (pp. 171–80)

30:4 Winter 2013 g September 23–25, 2014 Atlanta, GA

ISFMInt’l Society for Frontier Missiology

Recasting Evangelization The Significance of Lausanne ‘74 for Today and Beyond

Forty years ago, Billy Graham gathered evangelical Christian leadership to Switzerland to restore the pre-eminence of world evangelization. Voices from that watershed event reverberate today. By looking at world evangelization through cultural lenses, ISFM co-founder Ralph Winter recast evangelization as a task to be finished, thus focusing attention and priority on the challenge of evangelizing unreached peoples.

Four decades have come and gone since Lausanne ‘74. What has happened since then? What have we learned? What are we missing? ISFM 2014 will interact with the past and (potential) future fallout of that historic, “game changing” event by reexamining the range of missiological issues that underlie and influence the fulfillment of world evangelization. As we celebrate this anniversary of Lausanne ‘74, let us come ready to explore its significance in light of current realities and future possibilities.

Registration: $60 ($50 before September 1 g Missionary: $40 g Student: $25) For more information on ISFM 2014, see: www.ijfm.org/isfm/annual.htm or call 734-765-0368 (Brad Gill)

Speakers include: Miriam Adeney g Doug Birdsall g Steve Hawthorne g Todd Johnson g Greg Parsons g Jeff Walker