CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 VOLUME-I PART VII-A CRAFT SURVEY MONOGRAPH SERIES (5)

IVORY WORKS IN INDIA THROUGH THE AGES

(UPTO THE END OF 19TH CENTURy)

. COMPILATION AND DRAFT ...... M.K.PAL, M.A.

RESEARCH DESIGN, SUPERVISION AND EDITING ...... B.K.ROY BURMAN, M. SC., D.phil.

FOREWORD ...... •...•..•.••.... A. MITRA, REGISTRAR GENERAL, INDIA.

OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL, INDIA MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS NEW DELHI Stenography H. N. MAN CHANDA Typing B. N. KAPOOR, S. D. SONl Cover page and Maps S. K. PILLAl Photography AMAR, SINGH Index RAM GOPAL CONTENTS

PAGES

Foreword v-vii

Preface ix-x Acknowledgements xi-xii

CHAPTER I Introduction 1-3

CHAPTER II Number of centres where ivory objl.!cts could be expected to be found in different periods and number of centres where ivory objects are known to have actually existed. 5-12

CHAPTER III Hypotheses relating to the probable factors that might havo contributed to the volume and the pattern of distribution of the craft in different periods 13-21

CHAPTER IV Ivory objects in different periods and centres ~ -types and techniques 23-29

,ApPENDICES Appendix I 33-77

Appendix fI 78-99

Appendices III and LV 100--110

Select bibliography 111-113

Index 115-119

Plates I-XXXIII

Maps A-E

111

FOREWORD

One of the first steps to be taken in the First Five Year Plan was the establishment of six boards for the promotion of handicrafts, village and small industries: 1. The Khadi and Village Industries Board; 2. The All India Handicrafts Board; 3. The All India Handloom Board; 4. The Central Silk Board; 5. The Coir B03.rd; and 6. The Small Industries Board. The rapid expamion of the ac~ivities of these Boards which concentrated not only on production and techn;qu~, but at~o on O;ganisation, extension, credit, marketing and export, consolidated and enlarged the position that the household industries sector had so long enjoyed in the nation's economic life. It was this fact that forced itself upon the preparations for the 1961 Census and demanded that household industry should be separately investigated for a proper accounting of the nation's manpower resources and its specific contribution to the national income. The 1961 Census, therefore, asked as special series of questions on household industry, input of family and hired labour, and the p~riods over which hvusehold industry is conducted. It was felt, however, that an enumeration of the total number of establishments and their industrial classification would be incomplete without a proper description of what they produce and how they produc~. It was important to make a!1 assessment of the limits of rigIdity within which traditional skill operates. This could be obtained by studying the caste, occupational, social and economic stratifications, the limitations of credit and marketing facilities, the dominance of custom over contract, the persistence or traditional tools and design forms, the physical limita­ tions of transport, communication and mobility, the inability to adopt new lines or adapt to changing circumstances.

Mrs. Ruth Reeves, author of Cire Perdue Casting in India, was associated with this project from its inception in 1959. [n fact, it was she who exhorted the RegLstrar General, in 1958 to undertake and extend the limited task which he, as Census Superintendent for West Bengal in 1951, had completed in 1953. Her association and selflessness, ha9 been one of the prime movers in the Craft Survey Project and I take this occasion to pay homage not only to her great work, but to the great debt under which she held us since 1958 till the moment of her death in New Delhi in December, 1966.

For co-ordinating the various special studles including the craft surveys, the Handicrafts and Social Studies Section in the Office of the Registrar General of India, was set up m 1961 with Dr. B. K. Roy Burman as the head. The section has been responsible for training up an army of lnvestigators in the Centre as well as in the States in the habit of looking for and recor­ ding the exact process on strict standard of precision, objectivity and rectitude. Besides, this Section assisted each State with a thorough scrutiny of each draft Craft Survey and with many suggestions for technical improvement of contents and presentation. This Section evolved an extended questionnaire and a model analytical chart of scrutiny which were extremely useful for the craft studies. The extended questionnaire referred to above wa5 the end-product of a process which was started earlier. Durmg 1960 and the first half of 1961, several States had made explorative studies to find out how the enquiries should be made. It was felt desirable that empirical ana~ lytical studjes based on a structured questionnaire should replace general descriptive accounts that had obtained so far. The primary aim was to obtain a picture as much of the artisan him­ self as of his craft, to obtain a perspective of the artisan and his craft in his social and economic setting, the extent to which tradition bound him and the winds of change milled him, the extent of his mobility and immobility, the conditions of market, credit, new contacts and designs III which he operated, the frame of new as well as traditional producer-customer relationships in which he still worked and how far he was ready to pieicc his own caste-tribe socio-economic coco­ on and makc a break through to new opportunities promised by the Five Year Plans. The aim v VI was to hold up the mirror to hereditary skills struggling with th~ dialectics of tradition and change. With the above objective, in view, the first part of the questionnaire, purporting to be a village schedule, sought to take account of the size and population of the vjllage, its remote­ ness from or proximity to centres of trade and commerce, in short, the degree of isolation in which the artisan worked, and the relative strengths of various communities in the village which would afford clues to social inter-dependence and the prevalence of the jajmani system. The second part was devoted to artisan communities in the village; the several castes of artisans, the number of families in each, the total number of workers, males and females, the extent of co-operative activity among them, the extent of dependence upon employers and of wage or contract labour. There were other questions on the exchange of flow of designs, the use of colours, the ancient­ ness of the craft and legends associated, the colonization of the craftsman, on patrons and customers and on social and economic contact with the world inside and outside the village. There were specific questions on the workshop itself and particularly the tools and the source of supply of these tools, because it was felt that tools decide everything and are the surest index of inertness or flexibility. Separate blocks of questions were designed to bring out the ramifica­ tions of artisan castes throughout the country and the ways they sustained themselves, the type of clientele they catered for, the extent to which they operated on money or barter or service, how specialised their craft was, how wide the market, how dependent they were on their socially preordained clientele and how restricted the latter was by the seemingly unalterable laws of social custom; the extent to which they could operate in the open market, the range of their wares and the sizes to which these were ordinarily restricted either by the limits of their own skill or the length of their customer's purse strings. Inquiries were to be made about the operation of middlemen and of co-operative societies, the people who gave new designs and demanded new products. Finally the several stages of production of the articles themselves were to be fully described including the final and finishing stage and a list of very skilled craftsmen of each community was to be furnished. The third part was devoted specially to tribarcommunities and designed to find out how self-sufficient or dependent they were on the production and supply of manufactured goods, the extent to which they produced themselves or depended on others, their contacts with other communities and the specific forms of production and commerce through which these contacts were maintained.

In the course of the survey work, it was found that many of the questions required to be further spelled out so that the investigators would know exactly how to collect the particulars in respect of the various items. The enlarged sQhedule was mainly the outcome of this realisa­ tion. Some new dimensions were also added to it. For instance, there were separate sections for practising and non-practising artisan families, co-operative societies, production-cum-training centres, consumers prefer-ence, and so' on. Several Census Superintendents adopted this enlarged schedule for the surveys carried out by them. The Handicrafts and Social StudIes Section also took up a number of crafts for special studies on the basis of the enlarged schedule.

Along with the specIal field investigations the Handicrafts and Social Studies Section undertook a few ancillary studies which include: 1. Preparation of directories of craft centres throughout the country for various crafts. 2. Techno-historical study relating to selected crafts showing their distrIbution over space and time beginning from the earliest period to the modern time. 3. Preparation of bibliography on handicrafts of India. 4. Collaboration with National,. Library in preparation of a bibliography on small scale and co~tage industries and handicrafts of India. vii

5. Buildm~ up a Photo-Library depicting various crafts and other aspects of Indian life· A collection of about 3,000 photos, which was given to the office of the Registrar General, India, by Mrs. Ruth Reeves constituted the nucleus of the library; in course of tIme the Handicrafts and Social Studies Section has collected about 20,000 photos, and has indexed, classIfied and categorised them.

The present study on Ivory Works in India Through the Ages, commenced in 1964. The compilation of the data was made by Shri M. K. Pal, under the guidance of Dr. B. K. Roy Burman. I avail myself of this opportunity to express my appreciation of the work done by my colleagues in connection with this project.

NEW DELH1: A. !v1ITRA, December 19, 1967 Registrar General, India.

PREFACE

The Census Organisation has taken up the investigation ?f a l~rge. num?er of traditional crafts throughout India. During the course of these lllveStlgatlOns, It was found that many of the crafts have their roots going back to the hoary past and that to have a proper understanding of the present traits of the craft-its organisation, social base and technology, one must have understanding of the vicissitudes of changes that it has gone through from time to time. It is this realisation, that stimulated the Handi­ crafts and Social Studies Unit of the Office of the Registrar General, India to take up the project of studying a few crafts in their historical depth. I vory works in India is one of them.

The basic data for the study wa3 mainly compiled by Shri M. K. Pal. The frame for analysis of the same was provided by myself. The responsibility for the interpretation of the data also pertains to me. I am grateful to Shri Pal for the devotion with which he has compiled the data from various sources.

The illustrations included in this monograph were obtained from the following sources: .. - 1. Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. 2. Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, University of Calcutta. 3. Arthur Probsthain, Oriental Bookseller, Gt. Russell St., London. 4. Directorate of Archaeology, Gujarat State. 5. Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad. 6. K. P. Jayaswal, Research Institute, Patna, Bihar. 7. Musee Guimet, Paris. B. Musee du Louvre, Paris. 9. Museo Nazionale, Italy. 10. Museum of Kabul, Afghanistan. 11. Mr. M. Pierre Hamelin, 9B, Avenue du Roule, 92-Neuilly sjSeine, Paris, France. 12. Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay. 13. Sri Ramling Khandappa Lamture, Thair, Tq. and Distt. Osmanabad, Maharashtra. 14. Seattle Art Museum, U.S.A. 15. Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.

I am grateful to the authorities of the above institutions as well as to Sri Lamture for giving permission to us to reproduce the illustrations.

I avail of this opportunity to thank the Director General of Archaeology, Indi and his colleagues for extending their co-operation to the project.

2-2 RGI/ND/67 x

Dr. Niharranjan Ray, Director, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Simla and Dr. D. P. Ghosh, Officer-in-charge, Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Calcutta Uni­ versity could find time to go through the manuscript and give their valuable comments. I am grateful to them for the same.

I avail of this opportunity to express my gratitude to Shri A. Chandra Sekhar, Additional Registrar General and Shri A. Mitra, Registrar General, India, for their encouragement to the Craft Studies in general, and to this project in particular.

B. K. Roy BURMAN ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to the following institutions and individuals for the illustrations which have been reproduced in the pi esent monograph. A. 1. Archaeological Survey of India, Janpath, New Delhi: P1. I, figs. 1,2,3,4, 5 and 6; PI. IT, figs. 1,2, 3,4 and 5; PI. III, figs, 1,2, 3 and 4; PI. IV, figs. 1,2, 3 and 4; PI. V, figs. 1,2,3,4 and 5 ; PI. VI, figs. 1,2,3,4 and 5; PI. VII, figs. 1,2 and 5; PI. VIII, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5; PI. IX, figs. 1, 2, 3,4 and 5; PI. X, figs. 1,2,3 and 4; PI. XI, figs. 1,2 and 4; Pl. XU, figs. 1,2,3,4 and 5; PI. XIII, figs. 1,3 and 4; PI. XIV, figs. 3 and 4; PI. XV, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4; PI. XVI, figs. 1 and 3 and PI. XVII, figs. 3 and 4. 2. Arthur Probsthain, Oriental Bookseller, Gt. Russell St., London: P1. VII, figs. 3 and 4. 3. Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, University of Calcutta: PI. XVI, fig. 2; PI. XXV, fig. 1 and PI. XXVIII, figs. 1 and 2. 4. Directorate of Archaeology, Gujarat State, Gujarat : P1. IX, fig. 6 and PI. XI, fig. 3. 5. Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad : PL XIV, fig. 2. 6. Kabul Museum, Afghanistan: PI. XVI, fig. 4; PI. XVII, figs. 2,3 and 4; PI. XVIII, figs. 1,2,3 and 5; PI. XIX, figs. 2 and 4 and PI. XXI, fig. 1. 7. Musie du Louvre, Paris : PI. XXIII, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 8. Musie Guimet, Paris: PI. XVII, fig. I; PI. XVIII, fig. 4; PI. XIX, fig. 1 and PI. XXI, figs. 2,3 and 4. 9. Museo N azionale, Italy : PI. XXV, fig. 3. 10. Mr. M. Pierre Hamelin, 98, Avenue du Roule, 92-Neuilly S/Seine, Paris, France: PI. XiX, fig. 3 and PI. XX, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. 11. Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay: PI. XXlI, figs. Land 2; PI. XXV, fig. 2; PI. XXVI, fig. 1 and PI. XXVll figs.!. 2 and 3. 12. Seattle Art Museum, U.S.A: PI. XXIV, figs. 3, 4 and 5. 13. Sri Ramling Khandappa Lamture, Thair, Tq. and Distt. Osmanabad, Maharashtra: PI. XIV, fig. 2. 14. Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London: PI. XlII, llg. 2 and PI. XXVI, figs. 2, 3 and 4.

Xl xu· The following illustrations have been reproduced from the published sources as noted against each: B. 1. PI. XXIV, figs. 1 and 2: Fig. 1 : (Reproduced from G. Tucci's "Indian Paintings in Western Tibetan Temples", Artibus Asiae, Vol. II, 1937, fig. 15. Fig. 2 : Reproduced from Sir Aurel Stein's "Ancient Khotan", Vol. II, 1907, ,PI. XLVIII). 2. PI. XXV, fig. 4: (Ajit Ghosh Collection, Calcutta, reproduced from Ajit Ghosh's article in Rupam, No. 32, October, 1927, pp. 126-127, fig. K). 3. PI. XXVIII, figs. 3 and 4 : (Fig. 3: reproduced from Sir George Watt's "Indian Art at Delhi, 1903", Calcutta, pi. No. 78). (Fig. 4: reproduced from J. L. Kipling's "Indian Ivory Carving", Jour. of Indian Art, London, July 1885, No.7, pp. 50-53, fig. No. 13). 4. PI. XXIX, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4: (Figs. 1 and 2: reproduced from J. L. Kipling's "Indian Ivory Carving", ibid, figs. 7 and 8). (Fig. 3: reproduced from Sir George Watt's "Indian Art at Delhi", op. cit., pI. 40, fig. 3). (Fig. 4: reproduced from "A Monograph on Ivory Carving", by Cecil L. Burns, 1900, pis. la and lb.) 5. PI. XXX, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 : (Figs. 1 and 2: reproduced from Sir George Watt's "Indian Art at Delhi", op. cit., pI. 40, fig. 7 and :pI. 61, figs. 1-4.) (Fig. 3: reproduced from 1.L. Kipling's "Indian Ivory Carving", op. cit., p. 52, fig. 10.) (Fig. 4 : reproduced from the "Monograph on Ivory Carving in Bengal", by G. C. Dutt, 1901, Cal­ cutta, pp. 3-10, pI. II.). 6. PI. XXXI, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4: (Figs. 1,2 and 3: reproduced from the "Monograph on Ivory Carving in Bengal", by G. C. Dutt, Ibid., pp. 3-10, pis. II, III and IV). (Fig. 4 : reproduced from Sir George Watt's "Indian Art at Delhi", op. cit., pI. 77). 7. PI. XXXII, figs. 1,2 and 3: (FIg. 1 : reproduced from Sir George Watt's "Indian Art at Delhi", op. cit., pI. 76). (Figs .. 2 and 3: ibid., pI. 41, fig. 6 and pI. 42, figs. 1 and 2). 8. PI. XXXIII, figs. 1, 2 and 3 : (Fig. 1: reproduced from 1. L. Kipling's "Indian Ivory Carving", op. cit., figs. 1 and 2, p. 51.) (Fig. 2: Ibid., p. 51, fig. 3). (Fig. 3: Ibid., p. 51, fig. 6). SjShri D. R. Kapoor, P. K. Jain and Bhagwat Sahi of the Library of the Archaeological Survey of India, who rendered un stinted co-operation in connection with the present study deserve special thanks. Other members of the Staff of the Library and the Photo Section of the Archaeological Survey of India, have also placed us in great debt. CHAPTER 1

lNTRODUCTlON

Ivory work is a very ancient craft in India. It is also Serial a modern craft of great charm. Evidences of its exist­ num- Period Centre ber or the ence are found in Harappan Culture sites (Circa 2500- period 1500 B.C.) of Western and North-Western India. From 2 3 the fine workmanship of the specimens found at VIlI 1501 A.D. to 1800 A.D. Pataliputra, Travancore, Goa' Mohenjodara (Early Harappan Period), it can be pre­ Karnatak regIOn, Lucknow or. Banares, South India, sumed that even in the Pre-Harappan Culhre stage, Vijaynagar, Orissa, Bijapur, the craft may have flourished in the region. Definite Jaipur, Mysore, Udaipur, Bi­ kaner. Surat, Darbhanga, evidences of the same are, however, lacking. Mpitan .. Kashmir, Cambay, Tatta and Bombay. A statement giving the particulars of the ivory ob­ IX 1801 A.D. to 1900 A.D. Po~na, Sattara,Tirupati, Goda- vari, Broach, Surat, Udaipur, jects found at different sites in different periods up to Junagarh, Bhuj, Amritsar, the end of 19th century is furnished in Appendix I. Mahuva, Sylhet, Kumta, Ban­ vasi, Slddapur, Bilgi, Sehwan Here an analysis would be made of the pattern of dis­ Town, Delhi, Rajputano, Jai­ tribution of the ivory objects through space and time pur, Ajmirmarwara, Alwar, Bikanir, Pali, Rewa, Ratlam. in India. Dhar, Alipura, Berhampur, Mothra, Daulatbazar, Ran­ shagorgram, Hill Tippera, Period and centres where evidences of ivory objects have Chittagong, Dacca, Cal­ t been found or reported to be in existence. cutta, Panga, Kakinia, Bara­ bad, Balasore, Monghyr, Patna, Darbhanga, Baroda, Serial Kutch, Halla, Kathiawar, Tra­ num­ vancore, Mysore, Vizaga­ ber of Period Centre patam, Ludhiana, Patiafa, the Multan, Deraghazikhan, Guj­ period ran-wala, Hoshiarpur, La­ hore, Sialkot, Bhera, Indor, 2 3 Kllnpore, Benaras and Tri­ ------chinopoly. 1 Harappan Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lo­ thai and Kalibangan. It is to be noted from the above statement that there 11 Po,t-Harappan Chirand and Pandu-Rajar-Di-h is both continuity and discontinuity of the craft at bi. indlVidt.al sites. The evidences of the existence of ivory III 7th cent. B.C. to 3rd Rupar, Kapilavastu. Prabha,- objects are found at 32 sites for one period, 18 sites cent. B.C, patan, Nagda, Ujjain, Taxila, for two periods. 5 shes for three periods and only one Nagai, Chandmketugarh, Ba­ nares, Awra. Kayatha and site for four periods. Sonepur. It is, however, to be noted that the sites where the lY 2nd cent. B.C. to 3rd TaxiJa, Nagda, Pmbhaspatan, evioences of ivory objects are found for more than one cent. A.D. Ter, Ujjain, Malwa, Nagal, Rajghat, P~taliputra, Konda­ period do not a:""ays provide the evidences for suc­ pur, Arika01edu. Pragjyoti~h, cessive periods. In quite a good number of sites. the Sanka ran, Chandraketugarh, Begmm, Dharanikota, Nevasa, evidences of ivory objects are found in early period, ~agari. Dasarna, Vidisa. then for some successive periods no evidences are Ayodh)'a, Mysore and Danla­ pura. available and again at a much later period. evidences of the craft come up. Particulars of the sites wbere V 4th cent. A.D. to 750 Kashnm, Assam. Chanllraketu- A.D. garh, Masaon and Mahcth ivory objects have been found in more than one period are furnished below: VI 751 A D. to 1100 A.D Rupar. Indragarh, Hastina­ Periods for which evidences of pur, Dwaraka, Kashmir, Ben­ Site ivory objects are found. gal, Bihar and Orissa. ------2 -_------VII 1101 A.D. to 1500 A.D. Hastinapur, Orissa, Cambay Rupar III & VI and Dwaraka. Prabhaspatan III & IV ------2

Site Periods for which evidences of appears for the first time in this period and in six sites ivory objects are found. there is continuation of the craft from the third period. 2 In one out of the 18 sites of this period, there is con­ Nagda III & IV tinuity to the next period. Evidences of the existence of ivory craft during the fifth period (4th century A.D. Ujjain III & IV to 750 A.D.) are available in respect of two regions Taxila III & IV (without indication of exact sites) and three sites in NagaI nr &IV other regions. The two regions for which evidences are available are Kashmir and Assam. There is one site, Chand raketugarh HI, IV & V namely Mysore. where the craft appears for the first Benaras . lll, VIll & IX time during the fourth period and then seems to have Pataliputra (Patna) IV, VIII & IX gone out of existence for a long time. It reappears during the eighth period (1501 AD. to 1800 AD.) Pragjyotish (Assam) IV & V and has continued later on as well. During the sixth Mysore IV, VllI & IX period (751 A.D. to 1100 AD.) examples of the craft Kashmir V, VI & VIII have been found at four sites. The evidences of its existence have also been found in three regions namely Masaon IV & V Kashmir. Bengal, Bihar-Orissa. Out of these sites Hastinapur VI & VII and regions, as already mentioned, in one site namely Orissa VI, VII, VIII & IX Rupar the craft was found first during the third period. With a lapse during the fourth and fifth periods, it Cambay VII & VIII reappears during the sixth period. In one region, name­ Dwaraka VI & VII ly Kashmir, the craft first appeared during the fifth Travancore VIII & IX period. It continues during the sixth period and then with a lapse during the seventh period it reappears Jaipur VIII & IX during the eighth period. In three sites and regions Udaipur VIII & IX namely Hastinapur, Dwaraka and Bihar-Orissa, the Bikaner VIII & IX craft appeared for the first time during this period and Surat VIII & IX has continued during the next period as well. In Bihar-Orissa region, it has continued even afterwards. Darbhanga VIII & IX Evidences of the existence of the craft during the seventh Multan VIlI & IX period (1101 A.D. to 1500 AD.) have been found only It is found from the above. that there is no continuity in three sites, viz., Hastinapur, Cam bay and Dwaraka. of the craft at the centres of Harappan and Post­ Without specific information about any particular site, Harappan periods. In seven out of the ten sites of the its evidence has also been found in Orissa region. Out third period (seventh century B.C. to third century B.C.) of the three sites of this period, for one site, namely where actual ivory object was found. there is continuity C-ambay only literary evidence about the existence of in the next period as well (second century B.C. to third the craft is available. No actual specimen is, however, century AD.). One site. namely Rupar. where there is available. It is to be noted that in this site evidence of no continuity in the next period, there is reappearance the craft comes up for the first time during this period. of the craft in a much later time. namely sixth period During the next period also evidence of its existence is (751 A.D. to 1100 AD.). In another site, namely available. At Hastinapur and Dwaraka after this period, Benaras. where evidence of the continuity of the craft there is no evidence of the existence of the craft. Dur­ during the fourth period is not found. the craft re­ ing the eighth period (1501 AD. to 1800 AD.) evid­ appears during the eighth period (1501 to 1800 A.D.). ences about the existence of the craft have been found It has later on continued during the ninth period (19th at or reported from 15 sites. Besides, one specimen has century) as well. In one site, namely Chandraketugarh been found for this period whose actual site is not the craft has not only continued during the fourth known; it may be either from Lucknow or from period-first appearing during the third period. but Benaras. Evidences of its existence during this period has also continued during the fifth period, namely, have also been reported from Kashmir. Orissa. fourth century AD. to 750 AD. Karnatak region and South India. Out of the above 15 lIites and four regions in. 3 sites and two regions During the fourth period ivory objects have been the craft existed in earlier periods also. As mentioned found in 18 sites. Out of them in 11 sites, the cruft earlier, at Benaras, the craft first appeared during the 3 third period. Then after a lapse of about 1600 years Summing up, it is to be noted that during 1101 A.D. it reappears during this period. Thereafter it has con­ to 1500 A.D., the craft appears to have suffered a set­ tinued to exist there. At Pataliputra, the craft first ap­ back. There are only a few centres where evidences peared during the fourth period. Here also there was a about the existence of the craft are found and there lapse of about 1200 years before the craft reappears is only one centre where the craft appears for the first during this period. A s:milar position is found at time during the period. From 16th century onwards Mysore. In Kashmir region, the craft existed during the craft seems to have gained in vigour. It reappears the fifth and sixth periods. There is no evidence of jts in a few centres where it ~xisted about twenty centuries existence during the seventh period. During the ago and then had lapsed. It also appears for the ~rst eighth period again, its evidences are available. In the time in quite a good number of centres. During the remaining sites the craft appears for the first time 19th century, however, it appears that there was a during this period. Out of them, in seven sites namely sudden proliferation of craft centres on an unpreceden­ Travancore, Jaipur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Surat, Multan ted scale. The social and cultural factors respomible and Darbhanga the craft continued even during the for the vicissitudes of change in the fortune of craft later period. In the 19th century, the craft is found during the different periods would be examined later to be pract'sed in 66 centres, out of which in nine on. In the meantime, some more aspects of the pattern centres it existed from before and in 57 centres it of ct:stribution of the craft through time and space appears for the first time. would be examined.

CHAPTER II

NUMBER OF CENTRES WHERE IVORY OBJECTS COULD BE EXPECTED TO BE FOUND IN DIFFERENT PERIODS AND NUMBER OF CENTRES WHERE IVORY OBJECTS ARE KNOWN TO HAVE ACTUALLY EXISTED

For different periods and different regions of India Each excavated and explored site belonging to a if the number of sites where ivory objects have been particular period is counted as a potential centre where found or reported is examined with reference to the ivory objects could have been found during that period. number of known and excavated sites. it gives an idea Besides, another category of places is taken into con­ about the prevalence of the craft in those periods and s:deration as potential craft centres. From literary regions. sources like Kautilya's Arthasastra, Vatsyayana's Ka­ masutra, Mahavastu, other Buddhist literature, Ram~ For the purpose of the above enquiry. India has' yana, Mahabharata, Banabhatta's Harsacharita and been divided into the following regions: historical writings of Muslim period, names of capitals of various kingdoms, Mahajanapadas, headquarters of 1. North-Western region feudatory chiefs, cities, towns and trade centres are This region not only includes the areas now situated avai:able. Ivory being a deluxe craft. it is presumed in the north-western region of India. but also the that if it flourished in a region in a particular period, areas which were in India during the British period its evidences would be found in the above places. and which are now in West Pakistan. Thus this region covers West Pakistan. Punjab. Rajasthan. Delhi. A statement giving the particulars of the sites which Himachal Pradesh, Meerut and Kumaun divisions of have been excavated or explored in different periods Uttar Pradesh. or which satisfy the other criteria indicated above and the centres where existence of ivory craft has been 2. Northern region found or reported in different periods is furnished in Appendix II. The particulars available in the above This region includes Uttar Pradesh (excluding statement are summarised below:- Meerut and Kumaun divisions) and Bil?ar. Period;I (Harappan) 3. Western region Twelve Harappan Culture sites have been excavated This region includes Gujarat. Maharashtra and Goa, in Indian Sub-continent, out of which seven are situat­ Daman and Diu. ed in North-western region and five are in Western region. Ivory objects have, however, been found only 4. Central region in four sites, out of which three are in North-western This region includes Madhya Pradesh. region and one is in Western region.

5. Southern region Period II (Post-Harappan) This region includes Andhra, Madras. Mysore. Thirty-nine Post-Harappan sites have been excavated Kerala and Pondicherry. in different regions of India. The distribution of the sites excavated and the sites where ivory objects have 6. Eastern region been found is as follows:

This region includes Orissa. West Bengal, Assam, North- North- South- Manipur. Tripura. Nagaland. N.E.F.A. and East 'Western ern Western Central ern Ea5tem region region region region region region Total Pakistan. \ ~ ~ ,..--'-. ~ ,-"-. ~ r---"'--.. A B A B A B A B A B A B A B As no evidence of ivory craft has been found in '} 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Laccadive and Minicoy Islands and Andaman and 12 12 9 4 - 1 39 2 Nicobar Islands, the same have not been included in any of the regions for the purpose of the present A=Total sites excavated. atudy•. B=Sites where evidences of ivory objcct~ have been found.

~-2 P.GljNDj67 6

It is found from the preceding statement, that North­ The statement shows that during 7th century B.C. western and Central regions are the most important re­ to 3rd century B.C., 13 sites were excavated in North gions for the Post-Harappan culture. In none of these Western India, but out of them only in two sites, Rupar regions ivory objects or other evidences of ivory craft and Taxila, evidences of ivory craft have been found. have been found. Southern region is also of some In Northern India, out of 16 excavated sites, only in importance for Post-Harappan culture. Even in this one site, Sonepur in Bihar. actual evidence of the craft region, no evidence of ivory craft is available. Northern has been found. In Western India out of 9 excavated region and Eastern region are much less important for sites only in two sites Prabhaspatan and NagaI, ivory Post-Harappan culture. Only one site each has been objects have been found. In Central India, out of 9 excavated in each of these regions. These sites are excavated sites in four sites ivory objects have been Chirand in Saran district of Bihar and Pandu-rajar­ found. These four sites include Ujjain in respect of Dhibi in Burdwan district of West Bengal. It is interest­ which literary references are also available. In the ing to note that in both of these sites evidences of Guttila latakc~ it is mentioned that the ivory merchants ivory craft have been found. of Benaras were moving to Ujjain. In Eastern India, out of 4 excavated sites only in one site, Chandraketu­ There are also other evidences of the existence of garh, ivory objects have been found. In Southern India the craft during this period. There is a passage in the no ivory object has been found in any of the 16 eXca­ Aitareya Brahmana, which reads as follows: "They vated sites of this period. recite the Silpas. These are_ the works of art of the gods (devasilpanyateshan); in imitation of these works As noted earlier on the basi'S of literary references, of art, here is a work of art accomplished, an elephant it is estimated that there were 102 capitals of kingdoms, (hastin), a goblet (Kamso), a garment (vasah), a gold Mahajanapadas, cities and towns in the different re­ object (mranyam), a mule chariot (asvatari rathah), a gions of India in this period. Out of the above 25 l work of art is acomplished in him who knows thus • centres were in North-western region; 29 were in Dr. Moti Chandra has interpreted that hastisilpa in Northern, 15 were in Western region, 11 were in Cen­ this passage refers to ivory carving. which was no or­ tral region and 14 were in Southern region, and 8 were 2 dinary art, but an art of the gods. Though the passage in Eastern region. But out of the total 102 potential does not mention any site or region. it may be taken. centres only in respect of three centres, Benaras, Ujjain to refer to the Northern region of India, in a general and Kapilavastu, evidences of the existence of ivory way. craft are available in early literary sources like the Period III (7th century B.C. to 3rd century B. C.) Mahavastu and other lataka stories. These literary Sixty-seven sites of this period have been excavated sources also give an encha.nting picture of the craft in in different parts of India. Out of these 67 sites, in 10 Northern region in general during this period. In the sites evidences of ivory craft have been found. Besides, early Vinaya texts needle-cases made of ivory are men­ for 2 sites existence of ivory craft has been reported. tioned.a Sword handles (satthakadanda) and ear­ Region-wise breakup of the sites excavated and the cleaners (Karnamalahariml of ivory are said to be sites where ivory objects have been found or reported lawful to Budh:st monks.~ It is said in the Silavanaga is furnished below: latakcf that a forester, tempted by the ivory of Sila­ ---- vanaga visited the ivory workecil' bazzar at Benares North- North- South- western ern Western Central ern Eastern where ivory was being worked in diverse forms and region region region region region region iotal shapes. The Mahavastz/' in its list of the guilds at ~ ,.---"-., ,--A-., ,---"-., ,-J'-., ,--A-., ,--A----., A B A B A B A B A B A B A B Kapilavastu, mentions conch-sheIl-cutters (Sankhika) 1-2-- 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 and ivory-carvers (dantakara). There was a master 13 2 16 1(2) 9 2 9 4 16 4 1 67 10(2) craftsman working both in conch-shell and ivory (sankhavalavakaramahattaraka) .A =Total sites excavated. who made ornaments B=Sites where evidences of ivory objects have been found. and other objects from them (gajadantasankhamayam).7 Figures within bracket show the number of sites where objects have not been found, but for which references are aVllilable in He made ivory bangles (nagadantavala~a), collyrium literary sources. sticks (anjaniva); ivory caskets (dantasamudgaka),

'A.B. Keith, Aitareya Brahmana, Harvard University Press, of Wales Museum Bulletin, No.6, 1957-59, p. 70. 1920, VI, 27. 'Chullavagga V. 1.12 ; ibid, V. 3.7. 'Dr. Moti Chandra, "Ancient Indian Ivories", Prince of ·No. n-B-B. Cowell (editor), The !atakas, Vol. I, London, Wales Museum Bulletin, No.6, 1957·1959, p. 4ff. 1956,pp. 175-176. See also Dr. Moti Chandra, op.cit. p. 7. "Bhikku Patimokkha V. 86; Bhikkuni Patimokkha IV. 12. "Mahavastu, lIT. 113, S1. 6-11. See also "Ancient Indian Ivories"-by Dr. Moti Chandra, Prince 7Ibid, II,473, 7

unguent pots effecting fantastic genii forms (rochana­ Name of the region A B pisachika), ivory ewers (dantabhringaraka). ivory bed legs (dalltapadamaya), and lions (simhaka), which 2 3 word may also denote lion-shaped bed legs. Beds made Western 14 4 of lvory are also mentioned.l The Divyavadal1ff men­ Cent tal 3(2) tions ivory seals which were apparently used in a 12 case of emergency. The Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya3 re­ Southern 22 4(1) lates the story of a master ivory carver (dantakala­ Eastern 8 1(2) charya) who went to the land of the Yavanas with a measure of "ivory rice" (dantatandula), and appeared TOTAL 94 18(6) at the house of a master artist. As the latter was away A=Total sites explored or excavated. from his house, the ivory craftsman asked his wife to cook the "rice" and departed. She tried hard to boil B =Sites where evidences of ivory objects have been found. it but failed. Dr. Moti Chandra has interpreted that the Figures withIn braek.::t<; show the number of sites where story indicates the visit of Indian ivory carvers to objects hr.ve not been found. but for which references are avaiL,­ ble in lit..:rary sources. Alexandr:a. Jaina Cannonical literature also yields interesting information. The Prajnapana Sutra at one place classifies the ivory carvers (dantakara) among The statement shows that during 2nd century B.C. noble professions (Silpurya).' The Arrhasastra of Kau­ to 3rd century A.D. in north-western region, 16 sites tilya5 also informs that the Mauryas kept forest reserve were explored or excavated. but out of them. only in for the supply of elephants and if anybody was caught three sites, ev.denccs of the existence of ivory objects poaching. the penalty was death_ However. those who have been found. In northern reg:on, 22 sites were ex­ brought the tusks of dead elephants were rewarded. plored or excavated out of which in three sites evidences Another casual information obtained from the same of ivv.y craft have been found. In addition, in one site, source is that sword handles were made from ivory. namely Ayodhya. though no actual object was found, The Kamasutra of Vatsyayana6 also refers occasionally literary evidences show that ivory craft flourished there to ivory carvings. Ear-nngs made of ivory were so in tillS period. In we~tern region, 14 sites were explored much in demand that Vatsyayana includes the making or excavated, out of which in four sites ivory objects of ivory ear-rings (karnapatrabhanga) in his list of have been found. In central India, 12 &ites were explored sixty-four arts. The commentator explains Karnapatra­ or excavated, out of which in three sites evidences of bhanga as an article of ornament made of ivory. etc. ivory craft have b~en found. In addition. in respect of Dolls (duhitrika) were also made of ivory (gajadantaV two sites namely Dasarna (Ea;>tern Malwa) and Vidisa (Bhilsa), modern Besnagar, evidences about the pre­ Period IV (2nd century B.C. to 3d century A.D.) sence of the craft are available though no actual ob­ Ninety-four sites of this period have been explored ject has been found. In Southern region, 22 sites were or excavated in different parts of India. Out of these explored or excavated. out of which in four sites evid­ 94 sites. in 18 sites evidences of ivory craft have been ences of the existence of ivory craft have been found. found. Besides, for six sites. existence of ivory craft Besides. in respect of one site namely Mysore. evid­ has been reported. Region-wise breakup of the sites ences about the presence of the craft are also available excavated or explored and the sites where ivory objects in literary sources. In Eastern India, eight sites were ex" have been found or reported is furnished below:- pIored or excavated out of which in one site evidences of the presence of the craft have been found. In addi­ Name of the region A B tion, there are two areas, namely, Dantapura (Dantan in Midnapur district. West Bengal) and Assam in Z 3 rellp~t of which literary evidences about the presence North -Western 16 3 of the craft are available though nQ actual object was found. The list of presents from Bhaskar Varman of Northern 22 3(1) Assam to Harsavardhan as furnished by Banabhatta

lIbid, II, 420, See also Dr. Moti Chandra's article in Prince 'The Prajnapulla Surra. Bhagwandas Harshachand of Wales Museum Bulletin, No.6, p. 8. (translator). 1934, L 70. 5The Arthasastra of Kautilya-R. Shamasastry (Tnm~lator) 2DivYtlvadalla, E.B. Cowell (editor) Cambridge 1896. MYSOTt' 1923. p. 53, See also Dr. Mali Chandra,op. cit. p. 11. p.41O. oKuma!lUtra of Vatsyayana ·edited by Damodara Sastri i Bcnara~, 1929, 1.3.16. ' .Oilglt Mss., Vol. 1fT. Pan I, p. 171 j ~ also Dr. Mot Chandra, op.cit. p. g. 'Ibid, HI 3.13. See also Dr. Moti Chandra. op.cil. p. 9 8 includes among other jewelleries and ornaments. rings two guilds came into exi.;tence centering the craft, of ivory. one was that of carvers, the other was that of dealers or those who hunted elephants for ivory. The Maha­ The list of poli.tical centres and important commer­ bharata describes the swords with handles and also the cial, trading and cultural centres of this period that chairs made of ivory, which were presented by the has been prepared by this organisation covers 64 sites. ruler of Assam to Yudhisthira at the time of Rajasuya Their breakup in .the different regions is as follows: Yajna .. 2 The last ~loka of chapter 231 of Haribamsa, has during the course of description of the court of Name of the region X y Hiranyakashipu, stated that "the beautiful win­ dows of that place are built of ivory". In the North-Western India 10 Greek and Latin literatures also of this period, there Northern Ind.ia . 9 1(1 ) are references about the ivory objects of India. Virgil

Western India 17 2 has made a mention of the Indian ivory objects and has praised their purity of colour.3 Central India 9 2(1) Southern India 14 Period V (4th century A. D. to 750 A. D.): Eastern India 5 -(1) Forty-five sites of this period have been explored or TOTAL 64 6(3) excavated. Out of these 45, in four sites ivory objects have been found. Besides, in respect of one site, literary X= Potential Centres. evidences about the existence of the craft are available. A statement showing the region-wise breakup of the y= Centres where evidences of ivory objects have been found. sites explored or excavated and the sites where ivory Figures within brackets show the number of sites where objects have been reported to be in existence is fur­ objects have not been found, but for which references are available nished below: in literary sources.

Out of the 10 sites in North-Western India. in one Name of the region A B site, namely Taxila, ivory objects have been found. In one of the nine sites in Northern India as' well ivory North-Western India. 5 1 objects have been found. Besides, literary reference~ show that ivory craft flourished in another site. Out Northern India • 14 2 of the 17 sites in Western India in two sites ivory ob­ Western India g jects have been found. O'ut of the nine sites in Central Central Inaia 7 India. in two sites evidences about the existence of the Southern India. 4 ivory craft have b~en found and in respect of another site literary evidences about the existence of ivory craft Eastern India 7 1(1) are available. In none of the 14 sites in Southern TOTAL 45 4(1) India evidence about the existence of ivory craft is available. In one site dut of the five in Eastern India, evidences of the existence of ivory craft are available. A= Total sites explored or excavated. B= Sites where evidences of ivory objects have been Descriptions of these objects actually found in the found. different sites of this period. have been furnished in Figures within brackets show the number of sites where the general table. P.articulars available in Ule published objects have not been found, but foc which references are availabJe sources are furnished here. The descriptions in the in literary !.ources. great epics of India, the Ramayana and the Maha~ bharata, which are dated to this period, show that the It is obvious from the above statement that during profession of ivory carvers was well organised and de­ this period use of ivory diminished very much as com­ veloped. Among a large number of guilds mentioned pared to the earlier periods. Further idea about the in the Ramayana,1 appear the ivory carvers (danta­ comparative scarcity of ivory objects in this period rcarah) and ivory dealers (dantapajivinah). Apparently can be obtained, if the potential find-spots like capitals

lRamayana, II, 94,13. 'Georgici, 51; Aenis XII. IMahabharata U, 41, 14; See also Dr. Mod Chandra, op. cit., pp. 4-5. 9 of kingdoms. administrative headquarters up to. provin­ (patimapaJratiichitraischa) and other ornaments. th should be further provided with low railings (Kshud cial level and important commercial and tradmg .c~n· tres are taken into consideration. A statement glVmg vedika) and floral knobs made of ivory (dantajam) the number of the centres of the above categories and wood! lhe Angavijja (4th-5th century A.D.) refers the centres where ivory objects have been found or ornaments made from ivory (dantamayam). It furf indicates that implements and objects of art were a reported is furnished below: made of ivory. The text also mentions in the list . seats (asana) one made of ivory tdantasana) and spe; x y Name of th" region of a palace apartment decorated with ivory in work (dalltagiha).~ In the 16th sloka of Chapter VI North-Western India. 30 Kalidasa's Raghuvamsam and in the 60th sloka Northern India. 19 Chapter I of Magh. ivory ear-rings and other or Western India 22 ments are also mentioned. In the 7th century A Bana minutely observed about certain aspects of iv, Central India 17 carving. While describing the Devi's temple in Southern India 26 Vindhyas he has used the word danta-kapata in 5 Eastern India 14 compound Vanadviradadanlakapatena parivritam. 1 word has been translated by scholars as iv TOTAL. 136 door. In the Kadambari and the Harshacharita he mention.:d the manifold ·u:,e of ivory, For instance X Potential C\)ntr.:s. was used for decorating architectuf'al elements and Y Centres where evidences of Ivory objects have making ornaments ~d caskets. At one place. he been found. made a mentIon of gargoyle made of ivory which 1 Figures within brackets show the number of sites ~ht'rl! carved in the shape of a makara (dantamayamakaral objects have not been found. but for which references are avaIlable in literary sources. khamahapranala)6. Bana also refers to ivory cas under the term dantasapharuka. In the Harshacha he described how during the birth ceremonies The above statement shows that out of the 136 Harsha. attendants carried small ivory caskets cont, centres only in respect of one centre evidences of the ing arecanuts whitened with sa}ldal paste and the t existence of ivory crafts are available. ments of catechu perfumed with mango oil,1 Anot author of this period has not forgotten to make Contemporary literary sources. however. furnish in­ mention of ivory works. Sudraka (Gupta Period) teresting details of the craft. without indicating specific act IY of the Mrichchhakatika refers to a lofty iv sites. There is a reference in the Brihatsamhita of Yara­ !orana (d{mtidantatorana) in the house of Yasantasl hamihira. which indicates that beds with ornamental Similar mention may also be found in Bana's HarJ l ivory inlay work commended admiration. In Chapter charita where it has been stated that the private ap 79 of the book it is further stated as follows: -"Good ment had columns inlaid with ivory. and the Va ivory should be used for purposes of decoration. and mandira was provided with an ivory torana (sadaJ for this purpose a length of twice the circumstance of toranavajramalldira).B Kshemendra (Gupta period) the root. from the tapering end of the tusk. should be his Desopodesa made an interesting reference to i, taken. A greater length may be taken from the tusks figures. He asserted that the wealth of a miser live: of the elephant living in marshy jungles. and a smaller his dirty teeth and the blanket browned with sm length should be taken from the tusks of the elephant in the same way as the goddess Sri of the untouch: bred in the hills"2. In the Mallasarl1 also there is refer­ chandala lives in the figures made of dirty ivory ((; ence about the ivory work. For instance. it enjoins that teshumaJapurneshu) which are wrapped in their d couches should be decorated with lotus-petal carvings q blankets. In the Kuttallir"{latam of Damodaragupta I lBrihatsamltita, 32, 19-26. cr, rvories "-Prince of Wale, Museum Bulletin, No. 6, 19~ 'Brihatsamhita. slokas 19 & 20, S~ also: A monograph 1959, p. 6. on Ivory-carving in Bengal by G. C. Dutt, Calcutta, 1901. pp. 1-2. IV. S. Agarwala, Harshachnrilll (Hindil, Patna 1 IThe Manasara, P. K. Acharya, Allahabad, n.d.; XLIV. p.17. 25-26. 'Punyavijayaji (editor), Anca~'''jja, Bombay, 1957, pages 'Ibid, p. 66. 15,112,136 and 221. IV. S. Agarw.ua, Harshacharitu, 1953, p. 214. 'Y S Agarwaia, Kadambari (Hmdi). Yaranasl, 1~5d, • De30podesQ, oditlXi by M. Kaula, Poom\, 1923, Il, p. 22S', f~ I. See also Dr. Motichandra, "Ancient Indian See alto Dr. Motichandra, op. Cit p. 7. 10

century A.D.). it has been said that Chintamani. the Other scholars have also noticed the paucity of ivory son of an officer. was wearing in his pendulous ear an objects in this period. As stated by Dr. Moti Chandral ornament of ivory (dantapanktl) which had a word "that the art of ivory carving in Mediaeval India did like end (karpatraka).l not receive the same attention as in ancient India is further supported by a lack of references to ivory carv­ Period VI (751 A. n. to 1100 A. D.): ing in contemporary literature. It is possible that the art of ivory carving was no longer conceived as an Twenty-five sites relating to this period have been individual means of artistic expression, bu~ was neglect­ explored or excavated. out of which in 4 sites ivory ed to the category of handicrafts. The real position of objects have been found. A statement giving the break­ ivory carving in the mediaeval period. however, is at up of the sites explored or excavated where ivory ob­ best but a surmise and at some futUre date new dis­ jects have been found is furnished below: coveries may prove that after all ivory carving was not a neglected art in Mediaeval India." Name of the region A B Period VII (HOt A. D. to 1500 A.D.): North-Western India. 1 3 There are 32 explored or excavated sites of this Northern India . - 1 Western India . 5 period out of whtch in three sites ivory objects have Central India . 2 been found. In respect of only one site, literary refer­ Southern India . 4 ences about the existence of ivory craft are available. A Eastern India • statement giving the region-wise breakup of the ex­ plored or excavated sites and the sites where ivory ob­ TOTAL • 25 4 jects have been reported to be in existence is furnished A Total sites explored or excavated. below: B Sites where evidences of ivory objects have been found. Name of the region A B

As in the earlier period in this period also there has North-Western India. 3 been not only reduction in the number of sites where Northern India. 7 ivory objects have been found. but also in the centl'es' Western India where evidences of the existence of the craft are avail­ 9 1(1) able. A list of 154 potential centres nas been prepared Central India 6 ~ut of which in respect of only one centre evidences of Southern India • .( the existence of the craft are available. A statement Eastern India . 3 ~iving the breakup of the potential craft centres as well ----~~ is the centres where evidences of the existence of the TOTAL 3J 3(1) ;raft are available is- furnished below: ,------A Total sites explored or excavated. Name of the region X y B Sites where evidences of ivory objects have been found. North-Western India . 57 Northern India . Figures within brackets show the number of site~ where 18 objects have not been found, but for which references are avail­ Western India 30 able in literary sources. Central India 16 Southern India . 24 Eastern India 9 It is obvious that during this period also ivory was not a flourishing craft. There are 112 potential craft TOTAL 154 centres in this period. out of which only in two centres craft objects have been found. In respect of another x Potential centres. centre. literary evidences about the existence of the y Centres where evidences of ivory objects have bcenfound. craft are available. A statement giving the breakup of the potential centres and 1.he centres where evidences "Kuttanimatam edited by T. S. Rama, Bombay, ]923, V til. 'Prince of Wales Museum Bulletin, No.6, 1957-59, p,48. 11

about the existence of the craft have been found or have been found is furnished below: reported is furnished below: Name of the region A B Name of the region x y North-Western India. 2

North-Western India 34 Northern India . 4 Northern India . 15 Western India 3 Western India 17 1(1) Central India 2 Central India 15 Southern India Southern India . 23 Eastern India

Eastern Tndia • 8 TOTAL 11

A Total sites excavated. TOTAL 112 2(1) B Sitos where evidences of ivory objects have bl x Potential centres. found.

Y Centres where evidences of ivory objects have been found. In this period the craft seems to be coming out the oblivion to which it was neglected in the ea Figures within brackets show the number of sites where objects have not been found, but for which references are available mediaeval period. But if the potential craft centres in literary sources. this period are taken into consideration, it is fOl that e"en in this period, the craft did not receive a quate attention. A statement giving the region-" It is noteworthy that only in two extreme ends of break-up of the potential centres and the centres wh the country, namely the western region and the eastern craft objects have been found or reported to be region evidences of the existence of the craft during existence is furnished below: this period are available. ------Some information about the prevalence of the craft Name of the region' X Y during this period, without the indication of any centre, has been furnished in Manasollasa.l It enjoined that a North-Western India 57 3(: person who killed an elephant was to be awarded Northern India . 35 2(1 capital punishment by the king. If, however, an ele­ phant died a natural death its tusks were to be brought Westem India 43 --(3 to him. In the same source. a chair called prishthadha­ Central India 31

rasana has been described as follows, "it is made of Southern India . 49 6 teak wood and decorated with ivory (dantidanl[asuchi_ tritam}".2 Besides, eight types of benches (manchas) Eastern India 29 1 have been described in Manasollasa which includes TOTAL 244 12(i one, which was made of ivory (dantanghn)!. In the palace architectUre an ivory room was of special attrac­ x Potential centres. tion. It had a balcony (mattavarana) made of ivory.' y Centres where evidences of ivory objects h: been found. Period VIII (1501 A.D. to 1800 A.D.) ~ Figures within brackets show the number of centres wh object~ have not been found, but for which refclcnces are av",il~ There are 11 excavated sites of whicb only in one in literary ~ourccs. site ivory object has been found. A statement giving the region-wise breakup of the excavated sites as welt It is very interesting to Mte that it is the first ti as of the sites where evidences about the craft objects after the 3rd period (7th century B.C. to 3rd cent lMaltaSiOIlasa of Somesvara, G. K. Shrigondckar, (editor) Vol. I. Baroda 1921, 3. 180. 8Ibid, 1672. Ilbld, 12&, s/bid, Vol, II, 1939, l}~, 12

B.C.) that evidences of ivory craft are found in South y India. It is also noteworthy that compared to the pre­ Name of the region X vious period during this period the craft has wider Centlal India 11 2(3) regional distribution. Southern India 27 4(6) Among the literary references about the craft of this Eastern India 16 5(8) period mention may be made of "Voyages to the East TOTAt. 143 38(25) Indies 1655" by Terry. In it, while describing the people of India it has been written as follows: - "Their X Potential Centres. skill is likewise exquisite in the making of cabinets, Y Centres where evidences of ivory objects have boxes, trunks and strandishes, curiously wrol1iht, within been found. and without, inlaid with elephant's teeth or mother-of­ Figures within brackets show the number of centres, where pearl, ebony, tortoise-shell or wire."l objects have not been found, but for which references are avail- able in published sources. . Period IX (1800 to 1900 A.D.) During this period the craft objects have been found From the statement it is obvious that 'during the 19th or reported in 63 centres. A statement giving the break­ century, there was not only a revival of the craft. but up of the same is furnished below: in many areas it came into existence for the first time. This is interesting in the context of the fact that during this period many of the traditional industries of India y Name of the region X suffered a setback. A different position in respC

lA Monograph on Ivory-carving in Bengal, by G. C. Dutt, Calcutta,l901, pp. 1-2. CHAPTER III HYPOTHESES RELATING TO THE PROBABLE FACTORS THAT MIGHT HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE VOLUME A~D THE PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRAFT TN DIFFERENT PERIODS (a) Availability of raw-material It can be assumed that in ear!y times when techno­ Assam, North Bengal, Mysore and Kerala, but it is logy was at very low level and scope for external trade only in recent times that ivory has become a flourishing was limited, the incidence of the craft was conditioned '::iaft i"'l these areas. The earliest time when existence to a large extent by the ava:labiHy of ivory. At pre~ent oe ivory objects has been reported from Assam and elephants are found in the forests of Assam. North SO:lth India is the Ep:c Age (2nd century B.C. to 3rd Bengal. North Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Mysore and century A.D.). On the other hand ivory objects have Kerala. It is not known what was the exact d:stribution been found at Rupar and sites of Kashmir where ele­ of elephants in India in ancient periods. It is under­ ph;:n's arc unlikely to have existed any time. Further, stood that some tusks have been found at Kalibangan Cally dccounts f,how that ivory was being imported in of Rajasthan, which is a site of Harappan period. Re­ Ir!dia from other countries. In Bernier's travers there is port in this matter, however, is stilt, to be published. '1 refnence which shows that elephants were imported At Autha (District Gurgaon, Huyana), a site of Post­ from Pegu, Siam and Ceylon. It appears that another Harappan period, an elephant ske1eton has been found source from where elephants' tusks were obtained dur­ e at t~c N.B.P. leveP Duri:1g the MughaJ ,~.?~i()d eL~t­ :ng the late Mughal period is Ethiopia. Elephants' ence of elephants in good number in Northern and Cen­ tusks were also imported at that time from England tral India has been reported. According to S. M. whic~ used to get the supply from Africa.' Edwardes and H.L.O. Garrett2 "In Babur's day the rhinoceros abounded in the country adjacent to the In view of the fact that the elephants or elephants' Gogra river and also in the neighbourhood of teeth were imported from outside in some partl of the Peshawar; wild elephants were found at Karrah in the country, it should not be concluded that in India as a modern Allahabad d:strict and were hunted by Akbar whole there was shortage of raw-materials tor ivory in places like Agra, Malwa, Marwar and Bihar, where c:raft. During the period between seventh cent. B.C.-320 they are quite unknown. Practically the whole area of A.D. there is a reference which shows that "ivory the modern Ghazinur seems to have been a fo:'cst swar­ was one of the chief articles of export from India.' In ming with herds of elephants and rhinoc..:ros". S.S. Kul­ tLt" I::rlrlus of the Erythraean sea (first century A.D.). shreshthaS has reported that "in the hilly country south it has been mentioned that India had flourishing trade of the Ganges and the Jamuna, elephants were com­ in ivory with Rome. In the Liang-shu' which refers to mon ...... KhuJa,at makes a reference that as late as earTy mediaeval period (~enth to twelfth century A.D.), 1695 wild elephants roamed over the forest of Khali­ there is a list of Indian exports which includes hom. fabad. "The jungles of Bijaigarh, Hind:a and Garh of rhinoceros, ivory, skin of leopards, tortoise shell. were noted for sheltering wild elephants." gold, silver, mus;ins etc.'O In the mediaeval period it has been recorded by travellers in respect of Cambay "thd It is obvious from the facts furnished above that in the workmanship of its inhabitants in weaving and dye. earlier periods elephants had wider distribution than ing, in embroidery as well as various works of art. at present.' But it i~ diftkult to say t1 at avai~abi1ity made of wood, metal, ivory, amber, horns of IU­ of ivory influenced the fortune of the craft to a very horszs, and various kinds of stones, was the wonder significant extent. It can be presumed that even in of the world. There are found all kinds of cotton and early periods, elephants roamec1 about the fore~ts of silk manufactures, perfumes, innumerable thingl of

lIndian Alchaeology, 1964-65, p. 63. "D. Pant, The ComfJ1ercial Policy of the MUihals. 1930. 1'l.241 'Mughal Rule in India, London. 1930. p. 2X! 8The Development of Tlade and hll.:stry under the 7lbid, p. 207. Mughals (1526 to 1707 A.D.) 1964, pp. 106-107. BMazumdar, R. C. edited. ThQ Age of Imperial Unity. ]960, Volume II, page 604. 'A statement provided by the Zoological Survey of Ionia \\.\(\\catmg the availability of elephant in different 1 eglOn:; in differe­ 'Chau Ju Kua, page 113. nt perioas is furnished in Appendix III. lDNlYOgi, Puspa-Contribution to the 'Economie Hmory, oC Northern India (from the lOtb to the 12th century A.D.) ~Bernier, VolumQ I, 1826, page 217. Calcutta, 1962, p. 139. .

4-2 ROI/ND/67 14

ivory. beautiful woodwork of all kinds. bed-spread of northern region. It is interesting to note that in not a all colours. works of art made of coral as well as agates. single site out of the 12, in the north-western region, carnelians, onyxes and other precious stones, delicate ev:dences of ivory craft have been found. In the north­ cush'ons, quilted cloths, canopies of delicate work­ ern region, however, some evidences of ivory craft manship, beautiful pa:ntings, shields made of tortoise have been found in the single site which has been ex­ shell which were 'wrought and inlaid vary workman­ cavated. The only other site of this period, where ev:d­ like', fair s:gnets, rings, buttons, handles of kn:ves and ences of ivory craft have been found, is in the eastern beads of white as milk stone which were sold in all reg:on. It seems not unlikely that the paucity of ivory parts of the world"l. It is obvious from the fact that on cr;ft in this period is related to the soc to-political con­ the one hand elephant and elephant's teeth were im­ ditions of the country. This was the period when the ported in Ind:a and on the other ivory objects were ex­ Aryan pastoral and semi-pastoral hoards were spread­ ported from India, that the availability of the raw­ ing over different parts of India. In the scale of techno­ material did not always seriously affect the prevalence economic developments they were barbarians and were of the craft. It is also obvious that the craft was since the enemies of city c:vibation. In the Rig Veda there the very early period involved in market economy. In is a prayer where the assistance of Indra has been in­ other words, even though there is no definite informa­ voked for plundet:ng the cities of the Asuras, the ene­ tion whether it was being produced for the local com­ mies of the Aryans. There is no evidence that in this munity as well, it can be said definitely that it was period any commercial or industrial centre flourished being produced for larger market. in any part of the country. It also appears that there was hardly any large kingdom with centralised autho­ (b) Contribution of el!onami~, pOlitical and social factors to tbe prevalence of the craft. rity. The Rig Veda says nothing of fixed settlement, let alone brick-built cities or of reading, writing, art As mentioned earHer, during the Harappan period and architec'ure. Technology amounted mostly to the ivory objects have been found only in four out of the construction of chariots, tools and weapons of war, 12 excavated s:tes of that period. The four sites name­ it belonged primari:y to the god Twashtri and his ly Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal and Kalibangan followers, ooth seem:ngly of Indus orig:n. However, appear to be fairly large-sized cities at that time. The there was no caste or class differentiation within the other excava:ed s:tes Were comparatively small town­ tribe at th· s stage; the craftsmen were still free mem­ ships. It appears to be in conformity with the expected bers of the tribe, not degraded in the caste status as pattern that the ivory objects were found in the city they would become at the next stage when the tribes sites and not in the township sites. By its very natur~ • began to disso]ve.2 It appears that towards the later ivory craft can flourish only where there is a fairly part of this period some crafts relating to the needs of sizeable affluent class who can patronize the craft. It an upper class came into existence. In the Vajasaneyi is obv:ous that only the socia-economic setting of city Samhita (XXX) and in the Taittiriya Brahmana CIlIA) life would provide the congenial condition for the there is a very comprehensive list of the profeSSions, craft. It is further to be noted that the Harappan cul­ occupations, arts and crafts of this period which in­ ture, c,entred round commercial activities on a large cludes among others the professions of a jeweller, an sca'e, having connections with the river vaHey civili­ elephant-keeper, a worker in go:d, a boat-propeller, a zations of the Middle East. It is quite possible that money-lender and a barber. It should be noted here ivory craft which flourished in The Harappan culture that there was no appreciable break in the economic sites had internat~onal market. No definite ev:dence, life of the Vedic Aryans from the age of the Rig Veda however, is available in this regard. down to the age of the Brohmonas save that there was a more extensive knowledge and Use of different kinds The Harappan culture sites which have been exca­ of metals.! It is qu:te possible that the sites of this vated till now, are distributed only Over north-western period which have been found scattered over the differ­ and western regions of Indian Sub-continent. No sites ent regions of Ind·a, came into existence not as a pro­ of this period have been found in the other regions But duct of the soc·o-cultural milieu of their respective in the Post-Harappan period, a good num~~ of ·sites regions, but through the settlement of the population have been found in the other regions as well. There are who Were d·spersed from the earlier Harappan city-sites altogether 39 excava.ted sites of this period. Out of on the destruction or degeneration of those sites. At these 39, 12 are in north-western region and one is in any case, it is quite clear that the socia-cultural and IBalakris,~~a, "Commercial Relations betwc:;n India 'Kosambi, D. D. 1965, p. 81. ~nd ~ngl.and, Lon,don, 1924, p. 38 quoted by Jha, S. C. in Studles In the beve.opment of Capitalism in India" Calcutta, l~63, P. IThc Vallic Age-Vol. I, edited by R. C. Majumdar, S8. 1965, 4th edition, pp. 466-467. 15

political conditions in this period were not congenial tive and utilitarian objects like stopper, hair-pin, for the cit:es to flourish. It IS, u'1erefore, no wonder comb, bangle, pendant, ear-reel, plaque and mirror that only in two sites evidences of ivory have been hamlle. Benaras was one of the important centres of found. In fact, in this period except for pottery and ivory craft in this period. The industry was located in crafts related to war and chase, there is hardly any a par~lcular portion of the city which was known as evidence of other crafts be:ng in a flourishing condition. the ivory workers' street, (Dantakaravithi). It is pre­ The two sites, Chi rand in Bihar and PUlldu-rajar Dhibl sumed that Itl many of the other cities also the ivory in West Bengal. where evidences of ivory have been craft had similar recoglllsed p:ace in the society. In found, appear to have been small townshIps. It is quite the ArthCl.)ustra there is a mention that an import possible that these were seats of some important poli­ duty of 1/ IOtb to 1/ 5th of the value of the tical authorities and the craft came :nto existence to Ivory products had to be pa:d by craftsmen.1 In the serve the power elites. It is, howc:ver, not possible to fOllrth per'od, namely 2nd century B.C. to 3rd cen­ say anything categorically beyond making this conjec­ tury A.D .• ivory objects have been found in 18 sites. ture in a general way. In the third period namely 7th The literary evidences of its existence have also been century B.C. to 3rd century B.C. evidences about the found m res;.ect of other six sites. It appears that in existence of the craft have been found in all the regions this period t;1e mdustry was in qUIte a flourishing con­ exceptlllg the southern region. In this period, the social d;, ton. Bc!>ides, it is in respect of this penod that the of thJs per:od there was no jJaldIr.Ount po"",r ;. '\"1rth [Ii'st eVIdence of the existence of the craft in South India underwent a complete change. A t the beginning lnd:a is found. of th's period t:.ere was no paramount power in Nor~h India. but there were a number of lmportant k:ngdoms This was the per:od when Indo-Greek contact and namely Magadha, Kosala a:ld Vatsya. There were aho Indo-Ron:an contact were most llliense. The decline a few minor kingdoms. for instance, Kuru, Panch ala, of the M.Hlrya Dynasty and the rise of the Sunga Dy­ Surasena, Kasi, Mithila, Anga, Kalinga. Asmaka, Gan­ nasty in North India also took place in this period. dhara and Kamboja. A large number of Mahajana­ 1n Westem India foreign tribes had formed settlements padas (great countries) also grew up in different re­ and carved out kmgdoms wh:ch were at first subordi­ gions of India. Among them mention may be made nate to :he Indo-Parthlans and subsequently to the of Gandhara, Kuru, Matsya, Kamboja. Asmaka, Chedi, 1(ushan sovereign powers. In Soutll India, this period Avanti, Kasi, Vaisah, Anga, Magadha, Kosala. Vriji. r:1arked the ascendancy of the (,ho!as, Pandyas and Malla. Vatsya. Panchala, Surasena and Kul:nga. During Chera'i. Saivism very much f.our:shed at this time, this period also took place the rise and fall of the though worShip of Vishnu was not uncommon. As re­ Magadha, Nanda and Maurya dynasties in succession. ported by Ptolemy and Periplus, trade and commerce Spread of Buddhism and Jainism and the invasion of were in flourishing condit;on. As regards Eastern India Alexander also took place during this period. definite informat:on is not avaIlable for all the areas. In Onsa, the king Kharave:a came in conflict with The developments indicated above seem to have the Sungc,s. Tbe latter were the '>upporters of Brahma­ created a congenial condition for the promotion of n:cal Hlndui:,m, whereas Kharavela was the supporter various crafts inc:uding the crafts relating to the upper of Ja:n"5m. Traces of feudal sy::-tem in India are first classes. Dur;ng the Maurya rule, a centralised govern­ found at this time and the village community system ment with its bureaucratic structure came into exist­ w'th agriculture as the pivot and local industries as ence. Commercial and cultural relations were also es­ part and parcel of the agrarian structure was emerging tablished with various countries. The spread of Bud­ out as th~ baSIC organi~atl0n of political and social sys­ dhism appears to symbolise the strivings o[ the trading tem of the country. Accord:ng to Dobbz, the characte­ classes for creating a condition of life where they could r st~c ~ ;at ures of the feudal organ:sation, all related to give free play to their aspirations. Thus, it appears' crafts, arc as follows:- that a congenial condition came into exi:-tence for ivory and deluxe crafts to flourish. This was also the "( I) A low level of technique in which the instrument£ period of efflorescence of the creative energy of the of production are sImple and generally inexpensive, and population in various ilelds. ft ;3 in 5u.:n a socia-cul­ the act 01 production is largely individual in character; tural selting that the ivory workers played their role the d:vb Oil of labour...... being at a very primitive in the community. They used to produce both decora- level cf cievelopment.

lPatra., A. C;. "Tltoe Lo..vs G JY~m,n~ Cnftl'l1en and th')ir Crafts from AnCIent uays till to-day in InLlia ", Census of India, 1%1, Volume r, Part VII-A, p. 15. (2) l1roduction for the Immedfate need of the house­ issued only a few copper coins ...... The rise of the bold' or village community and not for a wider market. local units of production undermined' central autho­ rity." (3) Demesne-farming: farming of the lord's estate, often on a considerable scale by compulsory labour­ "Local officers were gradually assuming economic ierv:ces. power. Vatsayana informs us that peasant women were (4) Political decentralisation. compelled to fill up the granaries of the village head­ man, take things into or out of his house, clear or de­ (5) Conditional holding of land by lords on some corate his residence. work in his fields, and spin yam kind of service-tenure. of cotton, wool, flax or hemp for his clothes, so that (6) Possession by a lord of judicial or quasi-judicial clothes might be supplied to him locally. Some of the functions in relation- to the dependent population." commodities thus produced were also put on sale, ap­ parently to cater for the simple needs of the villagers. As pointed out by Jha\ feudalism in India. also had The Maurya state regulation of trade and industries some of these main characteristics. In the history of was giving way to the management of these affairs by Il1dia origin of feudalism can be traced to Kushan the chiefs of local economic units. independent of the times. But the Gupta period marks the beginning of central control.' some feudal practices. The big difference that Indian feudalism had from European feudalism was in the Simultaneously. there are evidences of the existence village community system. In. its economic make-up of crafts free of the control of the local communities. it had a good combination between the agriculture and As "in Post-Maurya times we get the earliest epigraphic the handicraft which provided an equilibrium in the testimony regarding the existence of the guilds of arti­ aociety. sans. Artisans were organised under their headmen, who probably enjoyed the favour of the king. During In the context of the fact that production tended to the second century A.D. in the Satavahana territory be fOi the immediate need of the household or village money (in silver panas) was deposited by the lay de­ community and not for a wider market, it is rather sig­ votees of Buddhism with the potters, the oil millers nificant that even in this period ivory as well as a few and the weavers for the purpose of providing robes and deluxe crafts were not only in flourishing condition, but other necessities for the monks. In the same century also were in a position of being exported to various coun­ a sum of money was deposited by a chief with the tries. It appears that even at this time the socia-eco­ guild of flour makers of Mathura out of the monthly nomic structure of India was marked by a dual systemf • interests of which a hundred Brahmans could be serv­ Whereas the production for mass consumption was ed daily. Thus the craftsmen organised in guilds could guided by the system of local community life, produc­ function independently. Evidently they could purchase tion for sacerdotal and secular power elites and out­ raw materials and implements with money deposited "ide market was guided by an altogether different sys­ with them and could pay interest on it, out of the tem. proceeds from the sale of their commodities. Literary Here it would not be out of place to briefly ind:cate evidence indicates that the number of guilds had in­ the salient features of the dual system of economy. as creased during this period." during the later periods with certain modifications the same continued till the emergence of mercantile eco­ From the economic point of view, the most impor­ nomy with the oncoming of the British. tant development of the period was the thriving trade between Southern India and the Roman Empire. In As mentioned by Sharma2 "that local units of the ~he beginning the major part of this trade seems to production were coming into existence can also be h:::ve been by land. But the movemeITt of the Sakas. inferred from the paucity of coins of common use from Parthians and Kushanas which followed from the first the Gupta period onwards. While the Indo-Bactrians, century B.C. put an end to this trade. The Parthians of and especially the Kushans, issued a considerable Iran, however, imported iron and steel possibly from number of copper coins, which were evidently in com­ China or India. But from the first century A.D., trade mon use in the Punjab, and occasionally are found was carried on mainly by sea. The discovery of mon­ even as far as Buxar in Bihar, the Gupta emperors soon by Hippalus in A.D. 46 gave a great impetus to

lIbido albid., p. 84. 'Light on Early Indian Society !lnd Economy. Bombay. 1966, pp.13·16. 17

this trade, which may have existed in driblets in earlier the period of rise and fall of the Gupta Empire. Before times. The sailors now become armed with better discussing the same, some idea would be given of the knowledge of navigation, which enabled them to call dynasties that ruled over the different parts of the at the Indian ports of Bhrigukaccha (Broach), Arib.­ sub-continent. Towards the later part of the period medu (Pondicherry) and Tamralipti. But thc trade took place the invasion of the Hunas in North India between India and Rome was not carried on in articles and the Gupta empire was broken into small states. of daily or common use. The details show a brisk rn early 7th century another great power emerged in commerce in luxury goods, but no extensive production Northern India, namely. that of the Pushyabhuti Dy­ by la;ge Industries."! na:.,y. H.l!"shavardhan was the scion of this dynasty. In Southern Indla, the Vakatakas, the Pallavas and It is in the context of the existence of crafts and in­ the Chalukyas ruled over the different parts of the dustries, virtually d;ssociated from the larger economic country. In Eastern Ind,a. the Guptas exercised their and social processes of the country that deluxe crafts auth0r:ty for some time, but afterwards the people like ivory-carving, silk brocade industry etc., flourished of Gauda threw them off under the leadership of Sa­ in this period. It is easy to v:sualisc that the corr.part­ sanka. In Kamarupa. Bhaskaravarman ruled in early mentalisation of the economy in course of time led to 7th century. His dynasty was later on succeeded by the compartmentalisation of the political structure as /vi lecl.chha rulers, among whom Salastambha finds well, resulting in stagnation and de:::line of the C.::o110- mention in a copper plate. In Orissa. the Guptas ruled r.' C" a:ld p;)l 'ical processes both. for a long t:me. After that Mana and Sailodbhava fami­ I:es came into power. Socially and culturally. the most In the fifth period. i.e .. 4th century A.D. to 750 important s;gnificance of this period is the strong A.D. the picture of the flourishing crafts disappeared. Brahman:caI reaction against the ascendancy of rival In this period, there was a degeneration of many crafts, faiths like Buddhism and Jainism. During the later among the notable exceptions mention may be made part of this period. again started the invasion of the of stone icon-making, decorative pottery and terra­ western and north-western part of India by the Arabian cotta. It is not unlikely that while this period marked Mushms. There was also a short thrust in north-eastern the setback of crafts and industries oriented to wider Tnd:a by the Chinese during the late Gupta period. nDdn {,oli5ilmpf:O,1 and ex]ort, the emergence of eEtl~t But the Chinese could not conso:ldate their possession crafts and industries. patromsed by temples and kings in any part of India. also took place in this per:od. Here it may be recalled that during the Maurya period also, there were crafts It ;s d:fficult to say whether these political and social and industries spcda1Jy organi,~ed to serve the needs or ~onditions had direct bearings on the ivory craft. But the king and political elities. But those industnes were as noted earIi(.[ during this period certain characters mostly Stale owned. During the Post-Maurya pt;riod of Ind:an economic structure were being crystallised there was hardly any State ownership of industries. It which had far-reaching results on the later develop­ seems that a shift in the centre of political power within ments. The process of decentraEsaton of the economic the community had taken place even in Pre-Gupta and poh~cal structure, which was noticed in the ear­ 2 period. As noted by Sharma "Some al:ied develop­ iier period, seem to have been intensified during this ments such as strengthening of guilds helped to im­ per'od though the granting of lands to the Brahmans prove the position of artisans". "Epigraphic evidence existed on an extensive scale. The grants of lands of the period shows that the guilds not only issued with the transfer of all sources of revenue. and the coins and seals, but also m~untainerj their militia, w1,lch, surrender of police and adm;n:strative functions be­ according to the Kalachuri inscriptions. was known as came more frequent from the fifth century A.D. Land Srenibala. The increasingly autonomous character of grants were made to the temples too, enjoying all the guilds as virtually independent units of production those administrative and political autonomies as and political power can be inferred fro n the fll1,<; enjoyoc by the Brahman donees. From these priestly which govern the relation between the gl!:lds and th(, and religions hodies an intermediary in the shape of State.'" a warTIor class was also brought into being.'

It is beyond doubt that the above prores~ of th" Before t~L' implicatiom of the above developments immediate Pre-Gupta period further intensified during ~~!e ccHlcldereD. It i~ to he noted that a deluxe oraft ------'Sharma, R. S. Light on Early Indian Society and Economy. "Ibid. P;J. 84-85. 1966, pp. 75- -17. 'Jha, 'i.e /Jp. {'it .• 1963, Pp. 4-5. 'Ibid, p. 86. IS

like ivory can flourish in ali economic and social set­ produce themselves in the same form, and when acci­ ting where the financiers and craftsmen are not inhi­ dentally destroyed, spring up again on the spot and bited by religious and security considerations and with, the same name; where a sizeable class of consumers or patrons exists. It appears not unlikely that in the zeal of revivalism (5) The secret of the' unchangeableness of Asiatic of Brahman.stic Hinduism the capital more flew into societies, an unchangeableness in such striking con­ limited channels like constructlOn of temples and manu­ trast with the constant dissolution and refounding of facture of stone-icons and other religious parapher­ Asiatic States, and the never-ceasing changes of dy­ nalia. Secular crafts could be pursued only where there nasty".l was assured patronage and protection. The importance given to fine arts during this period suggests the exist­ It is obvious from the above that the economic ence of a class which was more ideologically oriented. structure was oriented towards the perpetuation of But, it is obvious that unless congenial conditions pre­ low level of technology for the country as a whole. vailed which ensured mobility of capital and skill, The exquisite skills and marvels of workmanship which some crafts and industries would flourish, while others were found in isolated elitist crafts, were not the would degenerate. Paucity of ivory, bone and shell ob­ products of the society at large; these were the mani­ jects durmg thlS penod may be the outcome of the deve­ festations of esoteric cultures pursued by a few. Un­ lopment of some rig:dity of outlook caused by reli­ doubtedly ivory craft belonged to this category. gious considerations. For instance obsession about Ahimsa, might have created. reluctance among the Sixth period (751 A.D. to 1100 A.D): craftsmen to handle animal products. This is, however, only a suggestion. More mediculous research is neces­ During this period, out of 25 explored or excavated sary to test the hypothesis. It however, appears that, sites only in four sites ivory objects have been found. if really a general degeneration of crafts and industries Out of 154 potential craft centres evidences of the with certain exceptions and a stagnation of the eco­ craft have been found in only one centre in addition nomic structure as a whole took place, the most im­ to the four mentioned above. It is obvious from the portant factor that contributed towards it, was the above that during this period, the craft was in a lan­ complete dissociation of the mode of production for guishing condition. On a long range the most impor­ the classes living in urban and administrative centres tant event of this period was the tripartite struggle from the mode of production for the masses living in between the Palas, the Rashtrakutas and the Gurjara the rural areas, as a result of which the production Pratiharas for establishing supremacy in the Gangetic for the classes failed to invigorate the production for Daab. During the reigns of the Senas and the Palas the masses technologically and the production for the both Buddhism and Hinduism flourished side by side. masses failed to support the production for the classes Ballal Scna revived the Kaulinya system and as a result economicaI:y by reducing the over-head charges. For caste system became rigid. Art, architecture and sculp­ a proper apprec:ation of the weakness of the infra­ ture flourished in a number of centres. Both cultural structure provided by the village community system, and commercial contacts were maintained with coun­ the salient features of the same may be noted, which tries like Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan. Burma, Ceylon, are as follows: Jabadvipa and Sumatra. Beginning from the middle of this period there were constant Muslim invasions (1) "Passed on possession in common of the land in the north and north-western regions. Among these on the blending of agriculture and handicrafts, and invasions special mention may here be made of those on the unalterable division of labour; of Sultan Mahmud and Mohammad Ghori. In the south, the rise of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, the (2) The chief part of the products destined for di­ Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the rect use by the community itself and does not take rise of the Chola, Chera and Pandya kingdoms are the form of commodity; noteworthy. Though, there was not much political sta­ (3) Production here is independent of that division bility due to constant conflicts among the neighbouring of labour brought about, in Indian society as a whole, kingdoms, art, architecture and culture flourished to a by means of the exchange of commodities; great extent. The kings of this period were mainly devotees of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva; but it appears (4) The simplicity of the organisation for production that they fol1owed a policy of religious toleration. in these self-sufficing communities that constantly re- They had also established commercial and cultural

lJha, S.C. op. cit., 1963, pp. 1-8. 19

relations with other countries outside India. The Cholas Golkanda, Didar etc, Vijaynagar kingdom famous for had contact with Ma;aya, Sumatra, Java, Borneo. its arts and cultural act:vities also flourished during this China, Japan and Rome. period. In Eastern India, independent Hindu kingdoms continued to exist in spite of the spread of the suze­ In the context of the above facts, when it is noticed rainty of the Delhi Sultanate OVer considerable parts that ivory was not a flourishing craft during this period of the region. In Orissa, local kings like Anantavarman, one would like to understand What could have been Narasingha 1. Purushottama Gajapati. Prataparudra, the possible factor. Accorcing to Dr. Mot! Chan{lra, 't etc. at'ained fame during this time. But with the death appears that the art of ivory carving was no longer of \1ukunda Har'chandan in 1568. Orissa was con­ conceived as an ind.vidual means of artistic expression, quered by the KcliTani-Sultan of Bengal. It appears but was neglected to the category of handicrafts.! It is that during this per;od, due to the contact of two cul­ tures, new ferment was created in the social life of not clear what actl;'l!Jy M0ti Chandra wanted to CO;1· vey by the above statement. It appears that according India. Many of the old values were being replaced by to him, while prev;ously the motivation for the craft new ones. An outstanding mamfestation of the same was the self-expression of the craftsmen. dllr;ng th;:; was t1:e Bhakti movement which flourished in different period it was more related to the system of production parts of India. It ill considered by many that this move­ of handicrafts. This does not appear to be analytically ment marked the strivings of the artisan classes to assert a complete depictation of the situation. An artist given their position in the society. to self express'on would require support to keep his body and soul together. On the other hand, as :ndicated Beginn:ng from the Post-Maurya period, when vil­ earlier, handicrafts were manufactured under two lage republics became the dominant pattern of social systems. one holding good for the rural masses, the organisation in India. pursuit of crafts was completely other holding good for the clites. Perhaps what Mo!i subordinated to the more of the agrarian structure and Chandra wanted to convoy is that in th:s per:od ivory the craftsmen were having low status in the society. craft ceased to receive adequate patronisation of the Their scope of social climbing was also very much elites which would have enabled the artisans to strive restricted by the rigidity of the caste structure. In for. embe.l1ishments of the craft. With the elite patroni­ conformity w:th the social irr..mob:lity, there was ab­ satlOn wlthdrawn, the artisans had to depend on the sence of economic freecom. The artisans produced. larger community for support and at that level a;so the mainly for the local community and not for the mar­ support was not adequate. This restatement of the ket. The Bhakti movements of this penod were in a way. protest against these intolerable conditions, It is P?sit!on leaves op~n the question as to why the patro­ DlsatIOn of the elItes was w:thdrawn from the craft? not known to wha.t extent the above developments in­ Is it because of some change in the structure of f:n'l'}ce fluenced the position of ivory industry. It is, however, or some shift in the nature of the elites? Or even is to be noted that out of t!1e 32 excavated or explored it because of some change in the ideology and outl~ok sites of this period. on 'y in three sites ivory objects of the e!ite? These questions remain unanswered ir, have been found. Also, out of 1] 2 potential centres only the present stage of the study. in respect of two centres, eV'dences of the existence of the craft have been available. Thf're are also literary Seventh period (1101 A.D. to 1500 A.D.): references in respect of one more centre. It can, there­ fore. be safely presumed that the craft was not in a During this period, Muslim rule was established flourish;ng condition during this period. over large portions of North-West India. There wen', however, changes of one dynasty after another in As in the previous periods, in this period also if the qu:ck successions. as in nightmare. The rise of the craft did not flourish. it is possible to draw only one Rajputs ~lso took place during this period in North­ condusion viz., that, it failed to attain the position of West Ind.a. In South India, the first Muslim invasion elitist craft. took place during the time of Allauddin Khilji. Latl'!" ~n, the Tug~laq dynasty consolidated its effective poli­ It is, however, to be noted that during thi!! period bcal. power m large parts of this region. But, with the a change had taken place in the nature of court craft. declme. of the authority of the Delhi Sultanate indepen­ As stated earlier, whereas during the Maurya perio::}, dent kmgdoms came into existence in course of time. there were state owned industrial enterprises, during Among them, mention may be made of the Bahmani the Post-Maurya period. the craftsmen not only freed kingdom, the kingdoms of Bijapur, Ahmednagar. themselves of state control, but also in some areas IMoti Chandra, op. cit., 1957-59, p. 48. established their virtually autonomous units of poli­ 'There is, however, no mention of ivory objects being tical power. It seems that under such dispensation the manufactured in any of the karkhanas. There is a suprematy of the state was not primarily in the politi­ possibility that there was some reluctance in courts to cal field, but in the social field in matters connected make industrial use of the limbs of elephants, as ele­ with internal relationship and military field in matters phants constituted an important wing of the militia. In connected with external relationship. With foreign in­ this connect:on it is to be noted that in the 14th cen­ vasions and military conquests, the situation, however. tury Nikitin and Barbosa made a mention of export of underwent a complete change. As noted by Jha1 "With elephant tusks from India. This seems to suggest that the rise of new social forces from the fourteenth and if ivory craft did not flourish. it was not because of fifteenth centuries, there started coming a change in paucity of raw material. but because of some other the mode of production. Production up till now had inhibitive factor. What could be the factor is a matter been for use, but now commodities were being pro­ of conjecture. but it could very well be the one sug­ duced in which the monarchs started taking interest. gested here ...... In the Moghal period Karkhanas were started. Karkhanas were both of the emperor and of the arti­ Eighth period (1501 A.D. to 1800 A.D.): sans. The artisans worked on their own as well as in Out of the 11 explored or excavated sites of this royal karkhanas. The artisans who bit by bit had period only in one site ivory objects have been found. accumulated some capital, had also their own karkha­ Evidences of the existence of ~vory are available in nas in which other artisans were working on the wage another 11 sites, though actual specimens were not basis." found in these sites. During this period a radical transformation was Kureshi2 has made a mention of 36 Karkhanas during taking place in the organisation of the craft. Some the nile of Fruz Shah. The karkhanas dealt with va­ of the craftsmen were becoming manufacturers them· rious types of goods including jewellery, textiles, wood selves. As noted by Mukherjee\ "During the Mughal etc. For instance. the jamdarkhanah turned out the best period there was in India a considerable variety of cloth in the empire. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq employ­ arts and hand:crafts. which, indeed exhibited a more ed no less than 500 workers in gold brocade and advanced economic and financial organisation than the 4.000 weavers of silk, who manufactured the cloth crafts in contemporary Europe. In the first place. in required by the housellOld and for making the robes several handicrafts, the specialisation of task advanced of honour which were so profusely bestowed. to the extent that particular groups of artisans came to undertake distinct processes in the chain of produc­ There is, however, no mention of ivory objects being. • tion. Such integration and co-ordination of production manufactured in any of the karkhanas. But it is not were hardly reached in European handicrafts. Secondly. unlikely that ivory was manufactured for wider market there were whole villages and muhallas of cities and and not under royal patronage by artisans who were towns wh:ch devoted themselves to production of spe­ brought together by master artisans and entrepreneurs. cialized products, whether cotton or silk fabric, gold. As stated by Mukherjee! during that peri03 in addition silver and brass manufacture, biari work, or ivpry to to other organisations of production "there were whole mention only a few that commanded both Indian as villages and muhallas of cities and towns which devoted well as foreign markets. Thirdly, the foreign trade in themselves to the production of specialized products products of Indian arts and handicrafts developed a whether cotton or silk fabric. gold, silver and brass corresponding organisation of production, under which manufacture, bidri work or ivory to mention only a master artisans or entrepreneurs brought together few that commanded both Indian as well as foreign groups of artisans who worked for them on the wage markets." basis ...... Artisans worked on their own account as well It is, however, obvious that there could not have as in karkhanas, big and small, under master artisans dealers and financiers." ' been many centres where ivory objects were manufac­ tured or consumed during this period, or else many The above picture of the industrial structure gives more actual iinds and literary references would have some insight into the total economic and political struc­ been available. ture of the country. It seems that taking advantage

lJha, S.C. op. cit., 1963. p. 36. . 1 Mukherjee, Radhakamal. The Econ,)'llic Hi~tory of 'Kureshi, The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi, IndIa: 1600-1800, (London: Longmans Green and Co Ltd) 4th edition, 1958, pp. 69-71. 1914, p. 81. •. .• ·Quoted by Jha, S.C. op. cit., 1963, pp. 36-37. 21 of the existence of the warring factions among the poli­ (c) Ai:> a result, though ivory objects might have tical elites the artisans were throwing up industrial and been manufactured by entire groups of artisans as men­ financial elites of their own. tioned by Mukherjee, the markets for the same were more likely to be outside the country than inside the If, even in the content of this revolutionary develop­ country. ment ivory craft did not flourish much during this period, it seems that the explanation would be either one or both of the following-. The above hypotheses are still to be tested in the light of empirical data. But it can be safely stated that (a) For security and other reasons conspicuous con­ whatever might be the state of actual use of ivory ob­ sumption was limited to a highly selected oligarchy. jects in the country, structurally, the condition had (b) The oligarchy for reasons of its own had inhi­ come into existence .in this period for the flourishing bition in the matter of use of ivory objects. of the crafts in the next period.

5-2RGl/ND/67

CHAPTER IV

IVORY OBJEcrS I~ DIFFERE."l r PERlODI5 A~D CENTRES-TYPE" A:"lD TECHNIQUES

A statement indicating the types of Ivory object~ Stick (22) Ring. (23) Bands and plaques incIudling found in different periods and centres is furnished at panels, (25) Seal. Appendix IV. Period V (follrth century AD. 10 750 A.D.).-{1) Analysing the statement. it is proposed to find oul Animal figure. (2) Figure of Buddha, (3) Ring. (4) the following: Game-piece, (5) Casket, (6) Seal. 1. Types of objects which are characteristic of part:­ Period VI (751 A.D. to 1100 A.D.).-(l) Bangle cular periods irrespective of centres. (2) Figure (popularly known as charlemagne chess­ 2. Types of objects which are found in different pe­ man), (3) Figure of Buddha, (4) Male figure, (5) Three­ riods irrespective of centres. tiered stupa.

3. Types of objects which are found In different Period VII (1101 A.D. to 1500 A.D.).-(l) Bangle. centres irrespective of periods. (2) Armlet. (3) Human figure (a-morous couple). (4) Fi­ 4. Types of objects which are found in same centre gure show:ng a denseuse. (5) Throne leg, (6) Inlaid in different periods. ivory work and turned articles such as bangle. ches:l­ man. dice. chess-board. sword. bedstead and sword Types of craft objects found in each period: hilt, (7) Lid.

A statement indicating the types of objects found Period VIII (1501 A.D. to 1800 A.D.).-(I) Dice. in different periods is furnished below: (2) Plaque showing dancing female figure, (3) Plaque showing Mary teaching child Jesus, (4) Figure of Gaja Period I (llal'apPtm) -( I) Jar-stopper, (2) Hair-pin - Lakshmi, (5) Human figure, (6) Makara head, (7) (3) Comb, (4) Dice, (5) Vessel, (6) Awls, (7) needles, Casket. (8) Throne leg. (9) Ivory room. (10) Ivory (8) Fish-Eke pieces, (9) Cubical gamesman. (10) bed-stead inlaid with gold. (11) Door-way inlaid with Batton. (11) Rod. (12) Roundel, (13) Goblet-shaped ivory. (12) Settee back rest. (13) J?angle, (14) Inlaid terminal, (14) Cup. (15) Cylindrical gamesman. (16) ivory works including turned articles such as bangle. Handle. (17) Kohl-Sticks (18) Pillar-shaped piece. (19) sword-hilt, dice, chessman. chess-board and bed-stand. Shaft. (20) Cone, (21) Balusters. (22) Points. (15) Inlaid ivory works such as cabinets, (16) Inlaid Ivory works such as writing-cases. Period II (Post-HlIrappan) (I) Dice. (2) Arrow­ heads and styluses • .(3) Comb. Period IX (1801 A.D. to 1900 AD.).-Cl) Comb. (2) Idol (Krishna), (3) Dice, (4) Bangle, (5) Mirror Period /1/ (7th century B.r. to 3rd cCfllllry B.C)­ frame. (6) Box or Casket, (7) Door (inlaid with ivory). (1) Stopper. (2) Casket, (3) Hair-pin, (4) Comb. (5) (8) Mat, (9) Fan, (10) Stick, (1 I) Chessman, (12) Paper­ Dice, (6) Pot. (7) Awls and needles, (8) Bangle, (9) cutter. (14) Card-case. (15) Chair, (16) Scent-case. (17) Pendant, (10) Human figure, (11) Ear-reel. (12) Ear­ Image. (18) Ring, (19) J;3utton. (20) Vegetable products, ornament. (13) Beds, bed-legs and lions, (14) Mirror­ such as chilly, hrinjal, hibiscus etc. (24) Toys, such as handle, (15) Handle. (16) Kohl sticks, (17) Arrow-head, jingling bell. chess-board, check-mat. humming top etc. (18) Seal. (25) Elephant loaded with guns. (26) Miniature paint­ ing on ivory, (27) Paper-knife. (28) Elephant. (29) Period IV (2nd century B.C. 10 3rd CClllury A.D.) Camel. (30) Boat, (31) Sword-hilt, (32) Thumb-guards. (1) Half-pin, (2) Comb, (3) Die or gamesman. (4) (33) Models of bullock-carts, (34) Models of proces­ Dice. (5) Awl. (6) Bangle, (7) Armlet, (8) Pendant, (9) sions, (35) Models of marriage ceremonies. (36) Images Human figure (ritua!). (10) Human figure (secular). of Durga. Kali. Jagaddharti etc., (37) Models of Ja­ (11) Elephant-rider, (J 2) Handle, (13) Sword-handle. gannath's car procession. (38) Miniature palanquin. (14) Mirror-handle, (15) Handle of Fan or fly-whisk. single or with bearers and attendants. (39) Elephant (16) Antimony rod (kohl stick). (17) Toy furniture or fighting with tiger. (40) Horse plain or with rider. (41) miniature chest, (18) Dagger. (19) Knife, (20) Disc. (21) Mayurpankhi. (42) Camel with driver, (43) CQW, single 23 24

Or with calf, (44) Dog (45) Pig, (46) Buffalo, (47) Croco­ all the periods excepting the Fifth and Sixth periods. dile, (48) Deer, (49) Plough with ploughman, (50) Loc­ Combs are found from the Harappan period down­ ket and chain, (51) Ear-ring, (52) Figures of (a) Ladies, wards to the Fourth period i.e., 2nd century B.C. to (b) Hindu priests, (c) Washerman, (d) Water-carriers, 3rd century A.D. Later on, again these are found to be (e) Peons, (f) Porters, (g) Tailors, (h) Sepoys, (i) Fakirs, manufactured during the 19th century. A statement (53) Bracelet with or without gold or silver mountings, indicating the types of objects which are found during (54) Knitting needles, (55) Crochet needles, (56) Photo more than one period is furnished below: frame, (57) Casket, (58) Fly-flap, (59) Elephant with a howdah, (60) Mouth-pieces of hukka.J, (61) Ear-scat­ Typologies Periods chers, (62) Fig. of tortoise, (63) Chain, (64) Hexagonal shrine, (65) Idol (Vishnu), (66) Brush-back, (67) Money­ counting board, (68) Door-way, (69) Mirror-back, (70) Jar-stopper I & III. Book-slide (ivory inlaid), (71) Inlaying wood with ivory, Hair-pin. I, III & IV. (72) Veneered ivory work such as howdah and chairs Comb I, II, III, IV & IX. coloured with lac, (73) Jewel casket made of ivory on tortoise sheJ, (74) Billiard balls, (75) Dagger and sheath Dice I, II, III, IV, VII, VIII & IX. (76) Toys, (77) Models of buildings, (78) Paper-weight (79) Antimony rods, (80) Couch on the model of a ghat Awls and needles I, III, IV & IX. on the Ganges at Benares. (81) Models of fruits like (a) Batton I & IX. Almonds, (b) Mangoes, Capsicum pods etc. and flowers Handle I, III & IV. such as a single rose, (82) Painted ivory objects (wares) with the subjects like Cauvery Bridge, Trichinopoly Kohl-sticks (antimony rods) I, Ill, IV & IX. rock temple and mosque, (83) Scissor, (84) Ivory in­ Arrow-heads and styluses II & III. laid desk and Work box, (85) Sandal-box and (86) Casket III, V, VIII & IX. Antimony box (surmadani). Bangle III, IV, VI, VII, VIII & Analysing the statement, it is found that number of IX. types of objects vary from period to period. The same Human figures III, IV, VI, VII, VIII & is ind:cated below: IX. Beds, bed-legs, bed-stead III, VII & VIII. Period Types of and lions. objects Mirror-handle . III & IV.

I (Harappan) 22 Sword-handle or hilt IV, VII, VIII & IX. II (Post-Harappan) 3 Seal III, IV & V. III (7th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) 18 Gamesman or chessman IV, VI, VII, Vln & IX. IV (2nd century B.C. to 3rd century A.D.) 24 Armlet IV & VII. V (4th century A.D.-to 750 A.D.) 6 Dagger IV & IX. VI (751 A.D. to 1100 A.D.) 5 Stick IV & IX. VII (1101 A.D. to 1500 A.D.) 7 Ring IV, V & IX. VIII (1501 A.D. to 1 SO/) A.D.) 16 Bands and plaques including IV & VIII. panels showing scenes IX (1801 A.D. to 1900 A.D.) 85 Animal figures V & IX. V & VI. The above figures broadly corroborate the vicissitude Figure of Buddha the frequency of distribution of craft centres in different Game-pieces V & IX. of changes in the condition of the craft as analysed from Throne-leg VII & VIII. periods. Inlaid ivory-work VII, VIII & IX. Continuity of craft objects in different periods: Chess-board VII, VIII & IX. It is found that some of the craft objects are found Door way inlaid with ivory VIII & IX. in different periods. For instance. a dice is found in 25

Types of ivory objects found or reported to be in exist­ POlllts Lotha!. ence in dl1ferent centres irrespective of periods : Batton (.\ ) Mohe,:)oaaro, (.2) Sehwan lown, (3) CaJ­ cutta. Typology: (11 Harappd., {2) Rupar, (3, Ank.ameJu, (4) (1) .Mohenjodaro, (.2) Jar-stopper Ncvasa Rupar. Kohl-sticks (antimony rods I (1) Harappa, (2) Ujjain, Hair-pin. (l) Mohenjodaro. (2) (3) Chandra£etugarh, ( ... ) Rupar, (3) Prabhaspatan. Kapilavastu, (5) Rajghat, (4) Nagda, (5) Ujjam. (6) Kanpur. (6) Taxila. Arrow-heads and styluse ... (1) Chlrand, (2) Sonepur. Comb (1) Mohenjodaro, (2) Harappa, (3) Kali- C.l~ket or box . (l) K:.qil::.vastu, (2) Chan­ bangan, (4) Pandu- draketugar h, (3) Vijay­ Rajar-dhibi, (5) Ujjain, nar:al, (4) UdaIpur, (5) (6) Taxila, (7) Nagda, Junagarh, (6) Bhuj, (7) (8) Rupar, (9) NagaI, }(anara, t8) 1iysore, (9) (10) Malwa, (11) Poona, ilelhan1pon., (10) Tra­ (12) Sattara, (13) Kanara, vancore, (II) Kanpore, (14) Surat, (15) Delhi. (12) Surat. (16) Ratlam (17) Dhar, (l8) Alipura, (19) Ber­ Pot Kapilava&tu. hampur, (20) Calcutta, Bangle (1) Chandraketugarh, (2) (21) Panga, (22) Travan­ NagaI, (3) Kapilavastu, core (23) Vizagapatam, (4) Sirkap (Taxila), (5) (24) Amritsar, (25) Kan­ Rupar, (6) Indragarh, (1) pur. Hastinapura, (8) DW:::'l a­ ka, (9) Surat, (10) Broad,. Dice (I) Mohenjodaro, (2) (11) Jaipur, (12) Ajmer­ Chirand, (3) Ujjain, Marwara. (13) Alwar, (4) TaxiJa, (5) Cambay, (14) Bikan:r, (15) Pali, (6) Pataliputra, (7) Sy1- (16) Berhampur, (17) het, (8) Sehwan town. Pariga, (18) Patiala, (19) (9) Surat, (10) Panga. Bombay. Vessel Mohenjodaro. Pendant • (1) Taxtla, (2) Rupar, (3) Nagda, (4) Prabhaspatan, Fish Mohenjodaro. (5) Ujjain. Fish-like pieces Mohenjodaro. Human figures (1) Bhirmound (Taxlla), Cubical-gamosman Mohenjodaro. (2) Awra, (3) Kayatha, (4) Ter, (5) Pataliputra, (6) Roundel . Mohenjodaro. Kashmir, (7) Orissa, (8) Awls and needles (1) Mohenjodaro, (2) Lucknow or Benares, (9) Harappa, (3) Ujjain, (4) Berhampore (Murshida­ Chandraketugarh, (5) bad). Berhampore Ear-ornament (reel) . (I) Bhirmound, (2) Ujjail1.

Rod (l) Mohonjodaro, (2) Beds, bed-leg!;, bed-stead (1) }(apilavastu, (2) Cam- Harappa. and lions. bay, (3) Vijaynagar, (4) Bombay. Goblet-shaped terminal Harappa. Mirror-handle . 0) Ujjain, (2) Taxlla. Cup Harappa. Cylindrical gamesman Harappa. Sword-handle or hilt (I) Pragjyotisa (Assam). (2) Cambay, (3) Bombay, Pillar-&hapoo piOC

Gamesman or chessman (6) Kanara, (1) Schwan The statement shows that if the time dimension is -·contd. town, (8) Jaipur, (9) overlooked. some craft objects like comb. dice. casket Ajmer-Marwara, (10) or box, bangle. human figures. gamesman or chessman Alwar, (11) Bikaner, (12) PaJee, (l3) Panga, (14) have wide dispersal. On the other hand. some craft Kanpore. objec's have been found hardly in one or two centres Seal (1) Rupar, (2) Ujjalll, (3) throughout the entire range of history. For instance, Nevasa, (4) Nagari, (5) Ivory-fish has been found only at Mohenjodaro, Jar­ Dharani-kota,(6)Maheth. stopper has been found only at two centres namely Armlet Ujjain. Mohenjodaro and Rupar. Elephant-rider. Kondapur. Continuity of the craft tradition in different centres: Handle of fan or fly-whisk Taxila. Toy-furniture or miniature Taxila. If examined in terms of continuity of the craft tra­ chests. dition, in the same centre in different periods, it is Dagger (1) Sankaran, (2) Patiala, found that in some cases such continuity exists, For (3) Amritsar. instance, at Prabhaspatan hair-pin is found both dur­ Knife Taxila. mg the third and fourth periods. In Kashmir. figures of Buddha are found during the fifth and sixth periods Disc Chandraketugarh. and 50 on. A s:atement indicating the craft objects Stick (1) Chandrakctugarh, (2) which are found in the same centre during more than Sylhet, (3) Berhampore, one period is furnished below: (4) Calcutta,' (5) Bala­ sore, (6) Kanpur. Ring (1) Taxila, (2) Assam, (3) Name of the centre Type of object Period Sehwan town (Karachi), ----- (4) Berhampore. Prabhaspatan Hair-pin III & IV. .Bands and plaques includ­ (1) Begram (Kafiristan), (2) Prabhaspatan Pendant III & IV. ing panels showing scenes. Travancore, (3) Goa. Nagda Hair-pin III & IV. Animal figures (1) Delhi, (2) Rewa, (3) Berhampore, (4) Orissa. Nagda Pendant III & lV. Figure of Buddha (1) Kashmir. , Ujjain Comb III & IV. Game pieces (1) Masaon, (2) Sehwan­ Ujjain Awls and noodles III & IV. town (K

Period and technique: Period Technique A statement indicating the different techniques of manufacture of ivory objects in different periods is furnished below: also painted black and so also the pupils of the eyes. Period Technique V (4th century A.D. to I. Traces of chisel marks 750 A.D.). on the reverse of a I (Harappan) . 1. Cutting with saw. Buddha figure from 2. Use of lathe for making Kashmir show that a shafts. piece of the required size was hewn and sawn 3. PJaining of surface with out from the tusk and die. then it was levelled. 4. Incision. 2. Carving may have been 5. Filling up of incised done by different types portion with black, red of chisels. and yellow pigments. 3. Colouring with lac. 4. Inlay work in ivory. II (Post-Harappan) . I. Incision. VI (751 A.D. to 1100 A.D.) I. Carving may have been JIl (7th century B.C. to 1. Incision and engrav­ done by different types 3rd century B.C.). ing. of chisels. 2. Punching. 2. Traces of colour are 3. Decoration with cheq­ found on the body, hair uers and hachures. and the eyes of some 4. Painting. specimen. VII (1101 A.D. to 1500 1. Articles were turned IV (2nd century B.C. to 1. Incision and pressing A.D.). on lathe. 3rd century A.D.). with pointed narrow rods. 2. Designs were obtained by incision. 2. Turning on lathe. 3. Applique band was 3. Elimination of undeco­ used on the bangle with rated zones by scooping the help of a pin or and bringing out the screw. decorated part in light relief. 4. Inlay work on wood. 4. In certain plaques the S. Use of paints. classical formula of a very much accentuated VIII (1501 A.D. to 1800 1. Lacquering. relief as in wood work is A.D.). followed. 2. fnlaying with ivory and marquetry. 5. In some plaques the contour is lightly in­ 3. Veenering with ivory cised and the zone to and application of pig­ be decorated is lightly ments and also etching scooped and resulting in on the same. relief nnd reverse. 4. Turning on lathe. 6. On certain bands the decoration has been en­ IX (1801 A.n. to 1900 I. Joining together of graved with a style. A.D.). small pieces of ivory at 7. The plaques and bands each angle of octagon show traces of painting to make a box, while in which red pre-domi­ the top is carved from nates. Black was used a solid piece. at times to accentuate 2. Inlay work with ivory the contours of the and straining with groen figures. The hair wa5 and rod. 18

Period Technique Technique Centres

IX (1801 A.D. to 19CO A.D.) 3. Making of bangles on Decoration by incision-contd. 4. Rupar -contd. ordinary wooden lathe 5. Nagda and colouring the same in deep red or covering 6. Taxila the outside with thin 7. Ujjain sheets of gold or silver. 8. NagaI 4. Making of miniature 9. Chandraketugarh painting on ivory.-First 10. Nevasa of all the ivory is sawn up into very thin plates 11. Nagari and then polished. The 12. Dwaraka painting is done on the 13. Begram polished surface and is protected by a very thick, 2. Incised designs coloured Mohenjodaro but clear glass. or inlaid with coloured 5. Carving of other pigments. objects such as card­ case, sandal-box, paper­ 3. Cutting of awls from Mohenjodaro knife, comb, etc. with die. the aid of files, chisels, knives, steel styles, etc. 4. Making or ivory I. Harappa 6. Colouring of ivory ob­ examples on lathe. 2. Taxila jects with lac. 3. Dwaraka 7. Weaving of ivory mats. 4. Cambay 5. Bombay Technique and period: 6. Surat From the statement furnished above. it is found that while certain techniques are found from the ear­ 5. Decoration by punching 1. Rupar method and pin-holes. liest period. some others are found only in later pe­ 2. Prabhaspatan riods. For instance. decoration by incision. cutting of 3. Nagda pieces by saw. turning on lathe, painting with colour 4. Ujjain are found even during Harappan period and hav~ • 5. Chandraketugarh continued during later periods. For certain other tech­ niques. for instance, use of applique band with the 6. Decoration with chequers 1. Rupar help of a pin or screw, inlay work with ivory. weaving and hachures. 2. Taxila in fine filaments of ivory are found only during later periods. In fact, weaving in fine filaments of ivory has 7. Ivory works painted with 1. Prabhaspatan been found only in 19th century. colours. 2. Begram 3. Orissa Technique and centre: 4. Surat The question of technique can be examined from 5. Pali (Jodhpur) another point of view to find out whether, if the time 6. Trichinopolly dimension is overlooked, certain techniques have re­ 7. Panjab mained concentrated to certain regions or whether they have wide spread. A statement Indicating the techni­ 8. Carving and engraving 1. Begram of ivory objects with the 2. Kashmir ques found in different centres overlooking the time help of chisels, styles, files dimension is furnished below: etc. 3. Orissa 4. Delhi Technique Centres 5. Berhampur

1. Decoration by incision 1. Mohenjodaro 9. Inlay work: with ivory. 1. Cambay 2. Harappa 2. Vijaynagar 3. Chirand 3. Bijapur work, painting etc., have been in existence in various Technique Centres regions at some period or other, but certain other techniques, for instance, inlaying incised designs on 9. Inlay work with ivory 4. Jaipur ivory wtih coloured pigments, cutting of awls from -contd. 5. Mysore die, decoration with chequers and hachures, use of ap­ 6. Udaipur plique band on bangle with the help of a pin or a 7. Bikaner screw, are confined to only North and North-Western g. Tatta India. 9. Bombay 10. Amritsar Linked crafts: 11. Travancore 12. Vizagapatam As noted earlier, during later periods ivory pieces are frequently found to be inlaid on wooden structures 13. Hosiarpur and tortoise shell structures. In fact, these inlay speci­ 10. Ivory works coloured 1. Kashmir mens show very high level of skill and beauty. The lin­ with lac. 2. South India kage of ivory and fine wood work has perhaps been 3. Mysore possible because many of the tools and techniques for 4. Udaipur both the crafts are identical. It is, however, to be noted that at no s~age ivory craft has been entirely dependent 5. Pali (Jodhpur) on wood work or any other craft. There are good 6. Vizagapatam number of specimens which are made of ivory only 11. Use of applique band 1. Dwaraka and perhaps such specimens constitute the major por­ on the bangle with the tion of the ivory work. help of pin or screw.

12. Beadstead of ivory in­ 1. Vijaynagar Place of the craft in social complex: laid with gold. It appears that since the earliest time ivory is a de­ 13. Mat weaving with ivory I. Sylhet luxe craft related to the needs of the higher classes of or weaving in fine fi1ament~ 2. Pali (Jodhpur) of ivory. the society. It has always been found in urban' and 3. Tipperah commercial centres and its industrial organisation is always related to urban manufacturers, financiers and 1. Delhi 14. Painting on ivory patrons, Unlike many of the traditional crafts of India, 2. Trichinopolly it has never been part of the rural economic complex. Perhaps this more than anything else, explains why the It is found from the above statement that certain craft gives a picture of alternating ebbs and tides, in techniques, for instance, decoration by incision, inlay its fortune in the different periods.

fj-2 RGI/ND/67

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 Frequency of occurrence of craft objects at different periods as well as sites

PeIiod Material Type of object Description of representative Site where Source of information Remarks specimens found

2 3 4 5 6 7

J. Harappan Ivory Jar-stopper There can be no que~tion that Mohenjodaro l. Mackay, E.J.H .• this object wa~ used a~ the stopper Further Ex:cavation~ at of a narrow-mouthed jar. It Mohenjodaro, New i5 made of ivory and IS Delhi, 1938, Vol. r, p. 1. 75 ins. long by 0.75 in. 434, Vol. II, pI. CIX-19. in diameter at the wider, and 0.49 in. at the narrower end. [PI. I, fig. 1]

Do. Do. Hair-pins (i) Well-made and hIghly polish­ Do. I. Ibid, pp. 538-540, Vol. ed by use. Surmounted by [[, pI. CVIl-B. the head of an animal like a dog. The grooves round the (PI. I, fig 2] top of the shank were per­ haps intended to keep the pin from slipping from the hair, Size: 2.6 ins. long and 0.21 in. in diameter.

(ii) Simply decorated on both Do. I. Ibid, pI. CXXXIX, 23. sides with incised lin~s. Size: 4.4 ins. long; 0.12 in. dia- [PI. I, fig. 3] meter; flat top, O. I in. thick.

~ili) Greater part of pin missing. Do. 1. [bid. pI. eVIl-7. Incised lines decorate the head end, appear once to have be::n [PI. I, fig. 4] filled in with black. Size: [,35 ins. long by 0.3 in. in diameter.

(i¥) The two heads are apparently Do. 1. Ibid. pI. CX-57: ducks' heads. This object may once have been considerably longel as the end of the shank appears to be broken. De- corated on the two border faces only with incised curved lines. Size: 1.75 ins. long by 0.6 in. wide and 0 15 in. thick.

(v) The thin end appears to have Do. 1. Ibid, pl. CX-56. been either sawn or cut off. Incised line drawn in the middle [PI. I, fig. 5J of the head and stem on both sides. Only one of the birds' heads at the top has survived. Size: 2.1 ins. long; stem, 0.21 X O. 11 in. in section.

(Yi) Incised curved lines on shank Do. I. Ibid, pI. CX-57. onee filled in with black pig- ment. Two birds' heads at [PI. I, fig. 6] the top very conventionalised. Size 1.72 ins. long; Rectan- gular in section: 0.2 in. thick.

(vil) Incised design of circles Do. 1. IbId, pJ. eX-58. on both &ides. Size: 2.05 ins. long by 0.21 in. thick. [PI. 11, fig. 1]

33 34

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

I. (contd.) Ivory Hair-pill' (viii) It is uncertain whether this Mohenjodaro 1. Ibid, pI. CXXV-S. was actually used as hair- ornament, but nothing else [PI. II, fig. 2) seems so likely. The bird on it seems to represent a duck, and pattern incised on the wider part of its shank was formerly filled in with black pigment. Size: 1.71 ins. long and 0.35 in. wide. Do, Do. Combs (i) V-shaped ivory comb. Judg- Do. 1. Mackay, Vol. I, p. ing from its shape and th~ 541. Vol. II, pI. XC[-25. fineness of the teeth, it may have been used to remove 2. Brunton and Caton­ vermin from long, lanky hair ; Thompson, Badarian its shape certainly suggests Civilization, pI. xxrv, that the hair upon which it fig. 4. was used was lope-like. It was very carefully made the teeth [PI. n, fig. 3J being cut with a &aw and the roundness and polish of th~ angles of the former betoken considerable wear. This comb may be compared with the comb unearthed at Badari in Egypt. Size: 1.11 ins. long by 0.6 in. wide and 0.33 in. thick. (1) (ii) This ivory comb seems from Do. 1. Mackay, Vol. I, p. its polish' to have seen much 542, Vol. II, pI. XCI- use, and the teeth which were 26, See also pl. CXXV- cut with a saw may originally 24. have been very long. When perfect it must have resembled [PI. II, fig. 41 in shape the combs that are sometimes represented on the Mohenjodaro pottelY. Size: 1.56 by 1.2 by 0.19}n5.

(iii) The finest comb that. has Do. 1. Ibid, p. 542, pI. C-15. been found at Mohenjodaro upto the present. It is damag­ [PI. II, fig. 5] ed, but none the less in a surprising state of pr::serva­ tion considering its delicate nature. Both sides are de­ corated in the same way with incised, concentric circles, and the teeth were cut with a saw whose blade appealS to have been 0.02 in. thick. Size: 4.5 ins. long by 3.18 ins. broad and 0.2 in. thick.

Do. Do. Dice (i) Square in section. Four sides Do. 1. Ibid, p. 561, pIs. all different-the dice of this CXXXVlII, 41, 43,48, group average 2.99 ins. in CXLIII, 47, 49 and 51. length. On three sides they bear one, two or three circular [PI. III, figs. 1 & 2] marks respectively, or only two sides are numbered ; the num­ bering most favoured being 1, 2 and 3. Two sides -of one of the dices arc, however, numbered six and eight res­ pectively. A device very com­ mon on the fourth side of the die is a series of parallel longitudinal lines, or. more rarely. curved lines arranged as in one of the dices. 35

APPEKDIX I-could. ------2 3 4 5 6 7 ------_ ------I (contd.) Ivory Dice (ii) Square in ~ection; thrt'.) Mohenjodaro 1. Thld, r. 561. pIs. CXXV- side~ diff'erent. TIle dice of 9, 11; CXLfU"41, 43, this type vade... in len'\th fT0'11 48.54. 1.35 to 4.02 im. fhr0e of the slde~ are dii:erently m:trked, [PI. m. fig~, 3 & 4 and and lhe fOllrl'1 dol");'C1tC~ on~ pI. IV, fig>. 1.2.3 & 4] oft;1c other thr~e ; fnr ·mtanc('. two sides are ma~,\ed t'vo on one of the dIce, and two marKed one nn the I1the~, though in th~ latter ca~(' the po<;iticln of the mark j~ WIt the same. On on~ ~lJecimen two s'cj.)s pcctively. 0.1 a t'lird ,;.1e there a',_; Iwn pa"llle! longi- tudinal jjne~, and fO":"lh side duplicates the Ic:~: ride.

The last one of th s typ,_; ha~ a rounded bluntly pointell cnJ and it i~ pl))sible t1-jat this die was twirled betwe<'n the fins{Jr~ befcre be:n~ t 1r0 .... n. The fourll ,i(.e is a ,lupLca:c of the "iue mal"'.:.! vvlth he smaHer circle,.

(iii) Square in section; t .... o Do. 1. Ihid. pp. 561-562 pIs. SIdes "'llJarly l:1.ltked. The eXXVIlI, 58. exu. dice of this tYi'_ whic1-j are 32; CXLIII-'24. rare ha,e t!-Ie ,a T• .: dj·;tingl'i'h­ ing 111<.1;'),,5 on o,1po,ih: side~, (PI. V, fig. I] am! it IS ,) ),.Ible t'1at two were tnro", Jl a1l1~ t: ne. One of th~ ui_e, e)f thi~ glOUp b ruunded 1.1 t'1" m:cldle, w here it is J 2! 1l1. In dlunl ~ter. and it wa~ per,ld!'JS tw Ir:ed in the tin",.:rs IJkc tno,,, of type (iii.

(h') Tflangular in section: tnree Do. 1. Ibid, pp. 561-62. pIs. ~ides alt different. CXXXVlIT. 44. CXLI- 33 & eXLllI-50.

[PI. V, figs. 2 & 3] (v) Trian~ular in ~ection: two Do. 1. Ibid, pp. 561-62, pIs. ~id<.!, aii;(c, the t:1irl1 ditre~cnt eX-53. eXXXVlll, 45, - -thv,c d,-:es range from 1.36 51 ; eXLI, 28, eXUH. t..> 3.9 ins in length, and one 17 & eX-55. ~Jde of nne of them is C('IllH'X in~tead elf being l1at. [PI. V, figs. 4 & :5 and p1. VI, figs. 1 & 2) Do. Do. Vessels (i) Rase portion or the top of a Do. vase. It is 2.26 ins. in dia" meter and 1.04 i:H. high, and lhere i~ a ~terpeu vertical hole through it, part of wh..ch I~ 0, 1.t in. i:1 lli8.rneter and the othel part 0,35 in. If this ohject ~ervea a~ the ba~e of a ------jar, the hule wuuhl------hdYv 36

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 5 6 7

I (contd.) Ivory Vessels served to peg it to the bodv; Mohenjodaro 1. Ibid, p. 324, pI. CXLIf, if the upper portion, as its Nos. 48 and 49. bevelled edge leads us to thin1<, the whole would have been the [PI. VI, fig. 3] mouth of the jar, though one fails to see why in this case It had not the same diameter right through. On this piece of ivory was a geometric design of circular motifs carefully carved in low relief, each circle being made by three petals on the border surface of the objects and by four petals round the pro­ jecting piece. The latter de­ vice is commonly used on the pottery. Most of the petals still show traces of the light red pigment with which they were inlaid. /- Do. Do. Awls and needles (i) Square in section. This awl Do. 1. Ibid, p. 421, pI. CV-l1. was trimmed down from an ivory stiGk that may have [PI. VI, fig. 4] been used as a die, for though two of its sides bear the same pattern, namely, a row of small circles between a border line on either side. On the third side there is a row of larger circles without the lines, and on the fourth side three pictographic signs al [ of the same form, with large circles on each sid" of them. The point is abrupt and rather roughly cut. Size: 2. 18 ins. long by 0 23 in. (ii) This awl also appea's to have Do. 1. Ibid, p. 421, pI. CV-12. been cut fro.n a die. on two sides of which th"lre were rows [PI. VI, fig. 5] of fine circles. with four circles on another side, and on the remainiD] side two simple lines that divid<;) the red into three longitudinally. Point blunt and somewhat abrupt. Size: 2.25 ins. long; 0.28 xO.15 in. in section.

Do. Do. Fish (i) Flat model of fish decorated Do. 1. Ibid. p. 564, pI. with incised marks which had CXXXVIII-52. been filled in '.vith red and black pigment. Polished by [PI. VH, fig. 1] constant use. Size: 3.7 ins. long by 0.49 in. wide by 0,28 in. thicle.

(il) Fish with eyes and fins in­ Do. 1. Ibid, p. 564, pI. cised and filled in with a CXLIU-28. coloured paste which is now light yellow. Size: 2.8 ins. [PI. VII, fig. 2] long by 0.28 in. wide by 0.19 in. thick.

No definite conclusion can yet be formed as to the use of these little fiat models of fish. 37

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 t (con/d.) Tvory Fish That they were a part of SO'11C game seem~ likely, as they are only roughly shaoe1, the markin!!~ which are the sa'11,:) on both ~ides being crnde attempts to copy those of the real fi~h. Do. Do. Curious pieces (i) One side of this piece of Do. 1. Moheniodaro and the of ivory shaped ivory is rounded and the other Tndll~ Civilization: Sir like a fish. flat. rhe eye ani s;;lle TI1rk­ John M,rshall, Vol. II, ings are filled in with a red 1931 (Cha')ter by E. paint. Size: 2.58 inches long Mackay) p. 557, Vol. and 0.25 inch thick. III, pI. CXXXII-19. [Pl. vn, fig. 3] (ii) It is rectangular in section Do. I. Ibid, p. 557, pI. CXXXU. with slightly rounded angles. 20. Scale markings are filled in with red paint. Size: 2.58 inche~ long and O. 24 inch [PI. VII, fig. 4] thick. These ivory pieces cl)uld hardly have been intended for use a~ amulets since they are not perforated in any way. Some very similar fish, also carved in ivory have heen found in a royal burial at Nagadeh in Egypt, and may have been pl,,1.'.::ed there aq a food offering. There is no evidence, however, that the'le model fhh were used for that purpose in ancient Sind. Do. Do. Cubical games- (i) Gamesrnen bearing incised Do. 1. Macl(ay, op. cit. VO!. men. circular motifs; The only use J, p. 573, Vol. II, pIs. we can suggest for these care­ CXXXVIII, 55, .60 & fully made ivory pieces is that CXLIIl,35. they were gamesmen; they could not have been used as [PI. VII, fig. 5 and pI. dice, for all six sides bear VIII, fig. 1] identically the same device. Do. Do. Battons (i) This rod is extremely well Do. 1. Ibid, pp. 432-33, pl. finished, and the incised de­ CVI-41. coration at each end was on.:e filled in with black paste. [PI. VIII, fig. 2] Possi1Jly it served as a pin for a cloak, though it certain­ ly seems rather large and heavy for this purpose. (Size: 7.8 ins. long by 0.9 in. in dia­ meter at the wider end 0.44 in. at the other). Several tapenng ivory battons have been found. They are attractively shaped and orna­ mented, but their purpose is Quite unknown, and they may even have had more uses than one. Though these bat­ tons arc all very carefully made and fintshed, there LS little variety of decoratIon and they were evidently all made to one pattern, wlth the sale difference that one speci­ men only has a rounded top. lt is ptobable that they were turned on a lathe.

7-2 RGI/ND/67 38

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

1 (contd.) Ivory Rods (i) This rod is plain and having Mohenjodaro 1. Ibid, p. 563, pI. CX-45. square-cut ends. Shows a con- siderable amount of wear and is (PI. VIII, Fig. 3.) not exactly round. On one side is a group of three pictographic signs and on the other three figure of eight marks. Since the rod was drawn, we have found the missing end which was exact- ly the same as the other end and added nothing to the inscription. Size: 2.65 ins. long by 0.4 in. in diameter. (ii) This rod having ends square­ Do. 1. Ibid, p. 563, pI. CX-52. cut and decorated with concen­ tric circles. Bears pictographic (PI. VIII, fig. 4.) marks. Size: 3.07 ins. long by 0.31 in. in diameter. (iii) Ends square-cut and plain. Do. 1. Ibid, p. 563, pI. Tapers very slightly to one end. CXXXVlJI-47. The incised bands seem to have been filled in originally with black (PI. VIII, fig. 5.) paint. No inscription. Size: 2.82 ins. long by 0.4 in. in dia­ meter. Probably they were used in some form of game, though what-that was we do not yet know.

Do. Do. Roundels (i) The side of this roundel is Do. 1. Ibid, p. 439, pI. CIX-4. cross-hatched with incised lines that were once filled in with (PI. IX, fig. 1.) black. Size: 0.52 in. in diameter by 0.5 in. high.

(ii) Somewhat warped and not now Do. 1. Ibid, p. 439, pI. CIX-14. truly circular. Ornamented in the same way as the preceding one. (PI. IX, fig. 2.) Size: 0.7 and 0.6 in. in diameter at ends by 0.51 in. high.

(iii) Similarly ornamented to the Do. 1. Ibid, p. 439, pI. CIX-15. others. It differs from them, how­ ever, in having once had an (PI. IX, fig. 3.) attachment on the side, whose shape, we do not know. Size: 0.82 in. in diameter by 0.65 in. high. These three objects cannot have been gamesmen, for neither their flat tops nor bases show any polish through use, whereas their sides are well smoothed by constant handling. The possibility of their having been used as seals is also invalidated by the regularity of the decoration upon them which would have allowed of easy for­ ging.

Do. Do. Combs Fragmentary comb with only one Harappa 1. Vats, M.S., Excava­ preserved tooth. Like the Mohen­ tions at Harappa, 1940, jodaro combs its body is orna­ Vol. I, p. 459, Vol. II, mented with double incised cir­ pI. CXIX, No.6. cles. Size: length including tooth and handle, 3.8 in. Thick 0.2 in. Length of tooth 0.7 in. 39

APPE='JDIX I-contd.

i 3 4 5 6 7

I (contd.) Ivory Goblet-shaped The terminal is flat at the top and Harappa 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 459, terminal pierced at the centre with a hole Vol. II, pI. CXIX-No. 7. 0.3 in. in diameter and 0.85 in. deep. Ht. 1.5 in.

Do. Do. Cup Part of an unguent (?) Cup with Do. 1. Ibid, VoU, p. 459, Vol. fiat horizontal rim. It has been II, pl. CXIX-No. 2. restored in pla~ter of Paris. Size: Diam. 2.5 in.

Do. Do. Awl Awl sharply poi.1ted at the upper Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 460, end and less so at the lower. Size: Vol. II, pI. CXIX, No. L. 3.4 in. ; diam. 0.4 in. 25.

Do. Do. Cylindrical It is like one of the pieces used in Do. I. Ibid, Vol. 1, p. 461, gamesman the present day game of draughts. Vol. II, pI. CXIX, No. It is ornament.:d on both faces 55. with seven double concentnc cir- clets incised round one at the centre, and witn a series of single circlets rOLlnd the circumference, Diam.l in. Do. Do. Rod Ivory roJ wit;l bird-like head. Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 158, Slze:L.I~in. Vol. II, PI. LXXVIII, No. 19.

Do. Do. Handle Long-necked. oVdl-shaped handle, Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. T, pp. 459- flat on the underside, but other- 460, Vol. IT, Pi. CXIX, wise roul1lled. In the top is a No. 11. hole 0.2 i'1. in diameter which tappers duv. n to 0.15 in. at the lower end. Si.-:e: L. 1.9 in.

Do. Do. Kohl sticks The Kohl sticks are generally cy- Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 460, Iindrical. Usually they tapper a Vol. II, pl. CXIX, Nos. little at b,)th ends, which are 13,15-16. fairly thick and rounded, but sometimes, only one end is finish­ ed, the other bemg left rough.

Do. Do. Pillar-shaped Concave pillar-~haped piece with Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 459, piece flat ends. Round the ~haft are two Vol. II, pl. CXIX, No.9. wavy ratt~rns separated from each ot ler by horizontal bands. At both ends, the piece is pierced with lathe holes, 0.4 in. in depth as well as in diameter. Ht. 1.8 in.

Do. Do. Shaft End of a lathe-turned shaft with Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 459, flat base. ThE" shaft is relieved with Vol. II, pI. CXIX, No. reel and beed motifs. It may be 10. the handle of a copper mirror. Its present height is 1.9 ins. and maximum diameter 1 in.

Dn. Do. Cones Fragmentary. but identical ivory Do. 1. Ibid, Vol. I, pp. 116- cones with flat horizontal rim at 117, Vol. If, pI. the base. On the underside each CXXXVIII, Nos. 24 & of them has at the centre a rec- 25. tangular vertical hole 1-1/8 x 3/8 in. reaching upto the apex, and this is bisected at right angles by a round hole bored through the body just above the rim. May have been used as chauks or co- nical ornaments for the head. Size: Ht. 1-3/4 in. and 1-9/16 in. dium. 2-7/16 in. 40

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

I (concld.) Ivory Balusters The balusters probably belonged Harappa 1. Ibid, Vol. I, pp. 460- to small caskets or miniature fur­ 461, Vol. II, pl. CXIX, niture. The uniformity of their Nos. 3-5, 30-41, 43 and ornaments on all sides is against 45-54. their having been used as dice or for casting in any game of chance. 'There are a few balusters tri­ angular in section. Their'length varies from 0.9'5 to 2.1 in., the width of their sides is 0.4 in. The four-sided specimens, square in section, are both plain and deco­ rated with bands. Some of them are segmented, each being divided into three sections by four bands. In one specimen there are three holes pierced through two sides. Their length varies between 2-4 and 2.38 in .

Do. Do. Points of ivory . Points of ivory probably used as Lothal (Sarag­ 1. Indian Archaeology, needles or styluses. Size: Ap­ wala), Distt. 1956-57-A Review, proximately 4" to 5t" long. Ahmedabad, New Delhi, 1957, p. 16, Gujarat. PI. XVI-B. (PI. IX, fig. 4.)

Do. Do. Comb Comb with projecting teeth and Kalibangan, 1. Information from rectangular in section. It may be Distt. Ganga­ Arch. Survey of India, noted that elephant's tusk has also nagar, Rajas­ Janpath, New Delhi. been found at this site. than.

II. Post­ Do. Dice Dice decorated with circular floral Chirand, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology- Harappan motifs and incised circular bands. Saran, Bihar. 1962-63-A Review, New Delhi, 1965, p. 6, pI. XIII-B.

Do. Do. Arrowheads Do. 1. Ibid, 1964-65, (Cyclo­ aI!d styluses' style copy), 1965, p. 13. Do. Do. Comb Pandu-Rajar 1. Ibid, 1962-63, New Dhibi, Distt. Delhi, 1965, p. 43. Burdwan, West Bengal.

III. (7th cen­ Do. Sto'pper Decorated stopper with incised Rupar, 60 miles 1. Ancient India, No.9, tury B.C. to lines and motifs including the north of Am- 1953, p. 132, fig. 4, No. the end of lively figures of elephants.(2) bala, Punjab. 9, (period HI). 3rd cent. B.C.) 2. Description by the Compiler. (PI. IX, fig. 5) .

Do. Do. Caskets Ivory caskets (dantasamudgaka) .. Kapilavastu, 1. Mahavastu, II, 420, (probably Pip­ see Dr. Motichandra's rawa in the article on "Ancient In­ north of the dian Ivories". Prince of Basti Distt. Wales Museum Bulletin, U.P.) No.6, 1957-59, p. 8. Do. Do. Hairpins Four hair-pins with carved and Prabhas Patan, 1. Indian Archaeology, decorated stops. They look like Distt. Sorath, I 956-57-A Review, miniature rods with painted bot­ Maharashtra. New Delhi, 1957, p. 17, toms, excepting the fourth one pI. XVIII, B. 1-4. which is of flat dimension and having the shape of a pointed 2. Description by the arrow-head. Compiler. Size: (i) 4 in. long (approx.) (ii) 3 in. long (approx.) (iii) 2t in. long (approx.) (iv) 2! in. long (approx.)(2). (PI. IX, fig. 6.) 41

APPEKDIX 1- -contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

HI (colltd.) Ivory Hairpins Rupar, 60 miles 1 Y. D. Sharma, "Past north of Am­ Patterns in living as un­ bala, Punjab. folded at Rupar", Lalit­ Kala, Nos. 1-2, (1956), p. 121

Do. Do. Do. Mutilated hair-rin \\ ith inc bed Nagda, Distt. I. Indian Archaeology lines and project ng t~~th lbroken) V]jain, lvladhya 1955-56-/\ Review, N. in the lo\\er part. The ~.:mi-circu­ Pradesh. Delhi, 1956. pI. 14, pI. lar motifs on the six-horizontal XXIV, B. lines forming the lower decorative part of the hair-pin is also deco­ 2. Description by thc ruted with a border of chained CompileJ. circular motifs. S17e: 2-3/4" 2-3,4". (2). (PI. X. fig. 1.)

Do. Do. Comb~ l'jjain, Di~tt. l. Indian Archaeology Ujjain, Madhya 1957-58,-.A Review, Piadesh. New Deihl, 1958, p. 36.

Do. Do. Do. HUIT combs w:th ~traight edge at Taxlla,20 miles 1. Taxila-by Sir John top and sidc5 slightly curved north-west of Marshall, Vol. 11, pp. inwards. Del:oration of incised Rawalpindi. 655-56, 1951, Vol. f[J, cIrcles between parallel beaded pI. 199, No. 23. borders, which are also Incised The comb is unusua'ly large and (PI. X, fig. 2.) 11t:avy. meaSUTlng 4.12 3.5 0.45 in,

Do. Do. Do. Combs decorated with concentnc Nagua, Dislt. 1. Indian Archaeology, bands and circles. Ujj,Jjn, Mad­ 1955-56. p. 14, PI. XXIV­ hya Pradesh. B. (PI. X, fig. 3.)

Do. Do. Do. Rupar, 60 miles 1. Y. D. Sharma, "Past nOTth of Am­ patterns in living as bala, Punjab. unfolded at Rupar" Lalitkala, Nos. 1-2 (1956), p. 121.

Do. Do. Do. N<.gal, D.,tL I. Indian Arcl{aeulogy, Broach, Guja­ 1961-62-A Review, N. rat. Delhi, 1964, pp. 11-12.

Do. Do. Dice Ujjain, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology Ujjain, Madhya- 1957-58, New Delhi: Pradesh. 1958. p. 36.

Do. Do. Pots Unguent pots affecting fantastic Kaptlavaslu pro- 1. M:lizal'mtll, rr, 420. genii form~ (rochanaplsarhika) bably Piprawa in Basti, U.P.

Do. Do. Awls and knitting Ujjain, Madhya- 1. Ibid, 1956-57, New needles Pradesh. Delhi, 1957. pp. 27-28.

2. ibid, 1957-58, New DeIhl, 1958. p. 36

Do. Do. Bangles Chandraketu- I. IndIan Archaeology, garh, Distt. 1959-60 A Review, N. 24-Parganas. Delhi, 1960, p. 51. West Bengal.

Do. Do, Do. NagaI, Di5tt. 1. Ibid. 1961-62. New Broach, Guja- Delhi, 1964, pp. 11-12. rat.

Do. Do. Do. Kapilavastu, 1. Mahavastll. 1I, 420. (Probably Pip- rawa in the north of Basti Distt., U.P.) 42

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 .,

III. (contd.) Ivory Pendant Pendant in the form of a bust fe­ Taxila (ancient 1. Ancient India, No.9, male figure with primitive charac­ Takshasila), 20 1953, "Exploratiom of teristics. The figure is very simple miles north­ Historical Sites" by in line and form bearing west of Rawal­ Y. D. Sharma, p. 132, incised circular designs on its pindi. fig. 8, No.5 (period I). body. (2) Probably it was a child's 2. Description by the toy. It is provided with a small Compiler. hole near the top for suspension. 3. Taxila-by Sir John Height 2.5 in. (3). Marshall, Vol. II, 1951, pp. 654-655, Vol. III, pl. 199, No. 12. (PI. X, iii. 4). Do. Do. Do. Pendant in the form of highly Rupar, 60 miles 1. Ancient India, No.9, stylised figure of the Mother north of Am- 1953, op. cit. p. 124, fig. Goddess with a stemmed cup­ baIa, Punjab. 4, No. 11 (period Ill). like head decorated with punch­ ed circles. The triangular lower (PI, XI, fig. 1). part decorated like-wise, is very interesting. Do. Do. Do. Two pendants in the forms of Nagda, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, highly stylised figures of the Ujjain, Madhya 1955-56--AReview, N. Mother Goddess decorated with Pradesh. Delhi, 1956, p. 14, pI. incised motifs and punched cir­ XXIV-B. cles. Size: (1) height: approx. 2. Description by the 2-1{2 in. (2). Compiler. (Pl. XI, fig. 2) Do. Do. Do. Pendant resembling a female figure Prabhaspatan, 1. Indian Archaeology, probably the Mother Goddess. Distt. Sorath, 1956-57-A Review, The figure with a triangular head Maharashtra. New Delhi, 1957, p. 17, and decorated with incised lines pI. XVIII-B-5. and punched circular motifs looks 2. Description by the exactly like the one found at . compiler. Nagda. The Punched circles with pin-holes in the Centre are meant (PI. XI, fig. 3). for indicating eyes, nostrils, breasts and other parts of the body. The figure is.abstract in composition and having sugges­ tive details which are of primi­ }ive nature. Size : Height. 2N (2). Do. Do. Do. Pendant in the form of Mother Ujjain, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, Goddess decorated with punched Ujjain, 1956-57, p. 27, pI. circles. It exactly looks like those Madhya Pra­ XXXIU-A.7. found at Nagda and Prabhas­ desh. 2. Description by the patan respectively. Compiler.. (PI. XI, fig. 4). Do. Do. Figure Crude standing figure of a man in Bhir Mound, 1. Taxila-by Sir John the round, probably a doll. The Taxila, 20 miles Marshall, Vol. II, 1951, man wears a long tunic with a north-west of p. 666, Vol. III, pl. 203, band above the waist and a Rawalpindi. No. 221. necklace. Through the body from shoulder to shoulder there is a (PI. XII, fig. 1). hole for the attachment of mova­ ble arms ; and another tiny hole from the back to the front of the shoulder, for the same purpose. Height : 2.75 in.

Do. Do. Do. A small Mother Goddess in ivory. Awra, Distt. 1. Indian Atchaeology, Mandasor, 1959-60-A Review, Madhya Pra­ New Delhi, 1960, p. 24. desh. Do. Do. Do. Figures of Mother Goddesses. Kayatha, Distt. 1. Ibid, 1964-65 (Cyclo­ Ujjain, style copy), New Delhi, Madhya Pra­ 1965, p. 33. desh. 43

APPEKDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

TTl (contd.) Ivory Ear-reels. Ear-reels-~ome are solid and Bhir mound 1. Taxila-by Sir John others pierced with a hole at the (Taxila). Marshall, Vol. II, 1951, Centre. For example, the follow­ 1,11,1.653-654, Vol. TH, p1. ing ones de~erve special mention: 199, Nos. 5 & 6. (i) Ear-reel with one side convex and hole through centre. by (P1. XII, fig. 2). which the reel may have been suspended on a cord. Diam. 0.93 in.

(if) Similar, well turned on the lathe. One side slightly con­ cave and decorated with in­ cised concentric circle~ round a central projection Diam. 1 in.

Do. Do Ear-ornaments. Ear-ornaments in the form of dice~ Ujjain, Di~tt. 1. indian Archaeology, of ivory. Ujjl1in, Mad­ 1956-57-A Review, hya Pradesh. New Delhi, 1957, pp. 27-28.

Do. 00. Beds, Bed Jegs Ivory bed-legs (dantapaclamaya) and Kapilavl!.stu, 1. Mahavastu, Tf,420,see and liom. lions (simhaka) which word may (Probably Pip­ also Dr. Moti Chandra, al~o denote Hon-shaped bed legs. rawa in Basti op cit. Prince of Wales Distt. U.P.) Museum Bulletin, No.6, 1957-59, p. 8. Do. Do. Mirror handle Ujjain, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, Ujjain, Mad­ 1957-58-A Review, hva Pradesh. New Delhi, 1958, p. 36.

Do. Do. Collyrium or Collyrium sticks known as am;a­ Kapilavastu, 1. Mahavastu, II, 420, Kohl ~ticks. n(l'a. (Probably Pip­ see also Dr. Mod Chandra rawa in the op. cit., Prince of Wales north of the Museum, Bulletin No.6. Basti Distt. 1957-59, p. 8. U. P.)

Do. Do. Handk A beautiful spout-like ivory handle Rupar, Distt. 1. Y. D. Sharma, "Past decorated with chequers and Ambala, Pun­ patterns in living as un­ hachurcs This shows a definite jan. folded at Rupar" Lalit advancement in the technique of Kala ::-.ros. 1-2 (1956), ivory carving. Length : 4.2 ins. p. 121, pl. XLVI, fig. 16. (Pl. XII, fig. 3). Do. Do. Antimony rods. Ujjain, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, Ujjain, Mad­ 1956-57-A Review, hya Prade~h. New Delhi, 1957, pp. 27-28.

Do. Do. Do. Chandraketu­ 1. Ibid, 1957-58, ~ew garh, Distt. D::lhi, 1958, p. 51. 14-Parganas, We5t Bengal.

Do. Do. fvory work One of the centres of ivory work Benares, Utta.r 1. Kasava Jatakas. 221. was at Benare... This in<1u~try was Pradesh. 2. Silavannaga-Jataka, located in a particular portion of No. 72. the city which was known as the 3. Guttila Jataka, 243. ivory-worker's street (Danta-kara- 4. Economic Life ana Vilhi). It is also mentioned that Progress in Ancient ivory-merchants of Benare~ were India-by N. C. Bandyo­ moving to Ujj.tin (4). padhya}a, 2nd Eaition, Univcroity of Cftlcutta. 1945, p. 245.

Do. 00. Arrow heads Socketed i.trrow-hel;!d~ of ivory. :'ionpur. Distt. 1. Indian Archa!ology, Gaya, Bihar. 1959·60-A Review, New Delhi, 1960, p. 14. 44

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

III (concld.) Ivory Seal A small ivory seal inscribed with Rupar, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, the word Bhadapalakasa in Maur­ Ambula, Pun­ 1953-54--A Review, yan Brahmi characters. jab. New Delhi, 1954, p. 6. Do. Do. Do. Two ivory seals inscribed in early' Ujjain, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology; Brahmi characters and the other Ujjain, Mad­ 1956-51, pp. 21-28. one marked with Ujjain symbol hya Pradesh. 2. Indian Archaeology, and bearing inscription "gotha­ 1957-58, p. 36. jasatisakasa." V. 2nd cen- Do. Hair-pins Hair'pin of ivory with head in form Sirkap (Taxila) 1. Taxila-by Sir John tury B.C. to of inverted bell capital anO incised 20 miles Marshall, Vol. 11, 1951. the end of rings below. north west of p. 656, Vol. III, pI. 199, 3rd cent. Rawalpindi. No. 28. A.D. (PI. XII, fig. 4). Do. Do. Do. Description same as noted in the Nagda, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, relevant portior of period Ill. Ujjain, Mad­ 1955-56,-A Review, hya Pradesh. New Delhi, 1956, p. 14. Do. Do. Do. Same as noted in the relevant por­ Prcbhas Patan, 1. Ibid, 1956-57, New tion of period Ill. Distt. Sorath, Delhi, 1957, p. 17. Maharashtra. Do. Do. Do. - Ujjain, Distt. 1. Inoian Archaeology, Ujjain, Mad­ 1957-58,-New Delhi. hya Pradesh. 1958, p. 36. Do. Do. Combs Combs one of which consists of a Taxila (Sirkap), 1. Ancient India, No.4, half-elliptical ivory piece with a 20 miles north­ July 1947-Jan. 1948, rectangular section and a slightly west of Rawal­ "Taxila (Sirkap) 1944-45" raised rim, and with 116 projecting pindi. -by A. Ghosh, p. 79, teeth (broken) in the lower part. pI. XX. The piece is excellently carved on both sides. On one side appears 2. Description by the the figure of a woman reclining on Compiler. her right palm on a pillow with beaded borders. The face is 3. Ancient India, No.9, damaged. The hair is tied with a 1953, op. cit. p. 132, fig. fillet at the front and is made into 8, No. 14 (period V) See a plait loosely coiled at the back. also Taxila-by Sir John A three stringed necklace covers a Marshall, Vol. III, 1951. part of the.left breast and is part­ pI. 199, No. 21. ly hidden by the left arm. The. forearms are adorned with ban­ (PI. XII, fig. 5). gles, while the left one is having seven of them indicated by incised lines. The upper part of the body is nude. Two natural folds of the skin are indicated in the Central portion of the body. The right leg is slightly bent backwards, while the left one is stretched practically straight. There are anklets on both leg;. Near the head is seated a dwarfish male figure with folded legs, presuma­ bly a slave attendant. The other side of the comb is divided into four zones by three vertical lines. The left zone is occupied by a powncing lion. The second zone contains an ornamental design of an altar ('/) or the front of a build­ ing ('1). The thi.rd is occupied by a treading elephant, its trunk, head and body decorated with notches possibly representing trappings. The spaces in front of the trunk of the elephant, between its fore­ legs and over its back are filled with rosettes. An inverted conch­ shell occupies the fourth zone. H H Size: Approx. 5 x 1_1/2 • (1) 45

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IV. (contd.) Ivory Combs Another comb recovered from period V (Scytho-Parthian-cir. 100 B.C.~ -A.D.·50) represents a couple (Dampati) talking to each other. The female figure having (PI. XIII, fig. 1.) an elaborate coiffure and ear­ rings is shown holding a flower­ stalk by the right hand, while the male figure is represented in such a manner as if he is talking to his consort with some sort of serious­ ness. The scene is very realistic. and in line and form the figures ap-' pear to be the prototypes of min- ' iature paintings, The object was probably used as a hair ornament (2). Do. Do. Do. Ujjajn, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology. Ujjain, 1957-58-A Review, Madhya Pra­ New Delhi, 1958. p. 36. desh. 2. Ibid, 1956-57, New Delhi, 1957, pp. 27-28. Do Do. Do. l'ragmentary comb with its top fra­ Malwa., Central 1. Ancient Indian Ivories me divided into two

8-2 RGI{ND{67 46

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IV (contd.) Ivory Dice Oblong playing dice with 1 to 4 Sirkap (Taxila), 1. Taxila-by Sir Joho marked on sides. The marks con­ 20 miles north­ Marshall, Vol. II, 1951, sist of group of three circlets west of Rawal­ p. 663, Vol. III, pl. 200, surrounded by two concentric pindi. No. 97. circles. Bands <>f three circlets between two incised parallel lines (PI. XIII, Fig. 4). on each side at ends. Length 3'87 ins.

Do. Do. Awls Ujjaio, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology- Ujjaio, 1956-57-New Delhi, Madhya Pra­ 1957, pp. 27-28. desh. Do. Do. Do. Chandraketu­ 1. Ibid, 1959-60, New garh, Distt. Delhi, 1960, p. 51. 24-Parganas, West Bengal. Do. Do. Bangles Three bangles of oblong section Sirkap (Taxila), 1. Ancient India, No.4, and one of which is more than 20 miles north­ July 1947-Jan. 1948, op. half-an-inch wide. west of Rawal­ cit. p. 80, pI. XXI, A-I0. pindi. Do. Do. Armlets Ujjain, Distt. L Indian Archaeology, Ujjain, Madhya 1956-57-A Review Pradesh. New Delhi, 1957, pp. 27-28.

Do. Do. Bangles Nagai, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology- Broach, Guja­ 1961-62, New Delhi, rat. 1964, p. 12. Do. Do. Pendant Description same as noted in the Nagda, Distt. 1. Ibid, 1955-56, New relevant portion of period III. Ujjain, Madhya Delhi, 1956, p. 14. Pradesh.

Do. Do. Description same as noted in the Prabhas Patan, 1. Ibid, 1955-57, New relevant portion of pl:riod HI. Distt. Sorath, Delhi, 1957, p. 17. Maharashtra.

Do. Do. Human Figure Figure of Sri-Lakshmi with ova­ Ter, 11 miles to 1. Lalit Kala, No.8, Oct. (Ritual) loid face, large sunken eyes, the north-north- 1960, "An Ivory figure prominent eyebrows, big nose, east of Osma- from Tern-by Dr. large sensual mouth pinched in a nabad Distt. of Motichandra, pp. 7-14, smile and short chin is out of pro­ Maharashtra. pI. L . portion to the slim body. Around the head runs a twisted band with (PI. XIV, fi~. 1). a resette in the ccntre. The hair is arranged in a triple plait tasseled at the ends. The coiffure is mount­ ed with a floral veni. She wears bangles set off with bracelets and armlets. The lower left hand is holding an end of the rolled-up palka. The torso is flexed, the breasts well developed 'and the naval indicated by a deep cavity. The zone is beaded. The legs' with prominent knee caps are broken a little below the knees.

Attention may also be drawn to an ivory female figure of Indian ori­ gin from Pompeii in Italy. The Pompeii ivory, probably carved in the early years of the I st century A.D. represents the Goddess Sri with which the ivory figureirom Ter is closely related. Size : height 5".

~ ~~~--~~~------~--~~----~------~------47

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IV (contd.) Ivory Human Figure An interesting headless figure of a Pataliputra 1. Ibid, p. 7. (Secular). soldier. The lower part of the legs (Patna) Bihar. are also missing. He holds a 2. K. P. Jayaswal, "An sheathed broad-sword In lhe right Early Ivory", JISOA, IV ham! and a sl:mi-cm.:u;ur fringed (June 1936), p. 75. shield III the left. He wears a light-fittmg coat reaching to a 3. Ancient Indian Ivories little below the v.aist. Its liaps are by Dr. Motichandra, crossed at the chest and pleated Prince of Wales Museum below the waist and secured with Bulletin, 1957-59, No.6, a simple waistband. The p.20. under-garment is also pleated and shows traces of a painted and pleated Palka, a common feature of the male costume of the sunga period. Size: 2" x 3,'4" (3).

Do. Do. Figure Figure of c!eph

Do Do. Handle Fragment of a handle ( ?) of plano­ Arikamedu, near I. Ancient India, No.2, July convex. section, divided into zones Pondicherry, 1946, "Arikamedu: An by raised bands, the sides con­ South India. Indo-Roman Trading Sta­ taining at least two mortices, the tion on the East Coa~t of intervening ~puce decorated by India"-by Dr. Wheeler, rosettes. (I) The intervening Sri Ghosh and Sri K. spaces in between the raised or Deva, p. 108, pI. XXXV[­ deeply carved designs consisting B. of floral and creeper motifs: 2. Description by the ~ize : Approx.. 5" long (2). Compiler. (PI. XIV, fig. 3).

A long piece of ivory, elliptical in Do. 1. Ancient India, No.2, section, divided into zones with 01'. cit. p. 1.08, fig. 43, 7. parallellllcised lines. It looks like the part of a handle. Size: (PI. XIV, fig. 4). Approx.. 3" long.

Ivory handles Nevasa, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology, Ahmednagar, 1960-61-A Review, Maharashtra. New Delhi, 1961, p. 21.

Do. Do. Sword-handle SworJ with the 11'l'111es ma·je of Pragjy.)tisa 1. Maltabharata, II, 47, pure ivory Suddhadalllotsal'llllas­ (Assam). 14. in. Bhagadatta, the King of As­ sam presented to Yudhisthira ...... 2. Geographical and Eco­ among other things, swords with nomic Studies in the the handles made of pure ivory. Mahabharata : Upayana Pragjyotisa could well afford to Parva--by Dr. Moti­ present as many ivory handles as chandra, Lucknow, 1945, it liked as the kingdom was the p.58. home of elephants in ancient times as to-day. Ivory handles of the sword probably show that the ivory carver's art was highly deve­ loped in Assam at least two thou­ sand years back. (2).

Do. 00. Mirror-handle Mirror-handle of ivory, with Taxila, 20 miles I. Taxila-by Sir John single torus moulding resembling north-west of Marshall, Vol. U, the handle of a Greek mirror from Rawalpindi. 1951. pp. 658-59, Bulandi Hagh at Patna. now ill Vol. III, pI. 199, No. 56. the Patna Museum. This is proba­ bly turned on lathe and decorat­ (PI. XV. fig. 1). ed with mouldings and inci~ed lines and hatching. 48

APPENDIX I-contd.

-~------~------1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IV (contd.) Ivory Handle of fan Handle of a fan or fiy-whlsk pro­ Sirkap (Taxila), 1. Taxila-by Sir John or fiy-whisk. vided with a hole at the butt-end 20 miles north­ Marshall, Vol. II, for suspension and three holes at west of Rawal­ 1951, p. 658, Vol. III, pI. the other end for attaching the fan .pindi. 200, No. 57. or whisk. The fan was in daily use among the greeks, and the fiy­ (PI. XV, fig. 2) whisk was also familiar to them, but either object may equally well have been Indian. Size : Length 10.43 in. Do. Do. Antimony rods Rajghat, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology (Kohl sticks). Varanasi, Uttar 1964-65-A Review (cy­ Pradesh. clostyled copy), New Delhi, 1965, p. 82. Do. Do. Toy furniture (f) Rectangular side-piece of Sirkap (Taxila), 1. Ibid, Vol. II, pp. 663- or miniature chest or table made of ivory and 20 miles north­ 664, Vol. III, pI. 204, chests. decorated with incised circlets on west of Rawal­ Nos. 103-104. outer side. Seven peg-holes for pindi. fixing to legs and top. Size : 3.5 X 1.62 in.

(if) Similar to preceding, but Do. decorated with two rows' of (PI. XV, fig. 3) double concentric circlets between line-borders. Size : length 3.5 in. Do. Do. Dagger The pierced ivory dagger probably Sankaran, in 1. Annual Report, Ar­ used as a pendant ornament. The Vizagapatam, chaeological Survey of knobbed end would seem to indi­ Distt. India, 1907-08, pp. 170- cate that it was sheathed. The end 171, PI. LlX, fig. 24. of the handle is trefoil. (PI. XV, fig. 4) Do. Do. Knife Ivory knife, wedge-shaped in sec- Taxila, 20 miles 1. Ancient India, No.4, tion. The bottom portion is deco- north-west of op. cit. pp. 80-87, pI. rated with incised lines. Rawalpindi. XXI, B, No. 21. (PI. XVI, fig. 1) Do. Do. Discs Two discs bearing incised circu­ Chandraketu­ 1. Indian Archaeology lar motifs with pin-holes in the garh, Distt. 24- 1959-60-A Review, centre. Size (i) 1-2/3" long, (ii) 1," Parganas, West New Delhi, 1960, pI. long (2). Bengal. LIV, 12 & 13. 2. Description by the Compiler. (PI. XVI, fig. 2) Do. Do. Stick Round cosmetic-stick with pointed Do. 1. Indian Archaeology, but smooth ends. Size : Approx. 1959-60, op. cit. pp. 51- 5. in. long (2). 52, pI. LIV, 14. 2. Description by the Compiler. Do. Do. Ring Ring of ivory. This has the Sirkap (Taxila), 1. TaxiIa-by Sir John. appearance . of a bangle, but 20 miles north­ Marshall, Vol. II, 1951, seems rather to have been the west of Rawal­ p. 653, Vol. III, pI. 199, base of a small pedestal, though pindi. No.3. made in a separate piece. The inner face of the ring is rough, (PI. XVI, fig. 3) only the outer face is smooth, size : Diam. 2' 5". Do. Do. Bands and de­ During excavation 10 plaques Begram, the 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ corated plaques and bands of ivory beautifully ancient kapisa ries by Dr. Moti Chandra, including ornamented and decorated with (Mod. Kafi- Prince of Wales Museum panels. human figures, were discovered. ristan). Bulletin, No.6, 1957- Besides, there were also found .59, pp. 31-36. large ivory panels representing in high relief the figures of 2. 1. Hackin and M. 1. Yakshis or river. Goddesses. Hackin, Recherches The technique of the orna­ Archaeologiques a Beg­ mentation of the Mnds and gram, 2 Vols. Paris, decorated plaques may be noted 1939. 49

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IV (contd.) Ivory Bands and de­ here. The bands are almost 3. J. Hackin & others, corated plaques of the thickness of two miUi­ Nouvelles Richerches including metres, but the decorated pla­ Archaeologiques a Beg­ panels. (contd.) ques have a thickness of 10 to .ram, 2 Vols. Paris, 12 mm. On certain bands the 1954. decoration has been engraved with a style. The aquatic birds [PI. XVI, fig. 4; pI. XVll, appear in profile holding in figs. 1, 2, 3 & 4 ; pI. their beaks a twig of Asoka. XVIII, figs. J, 2, 3, 4 & 5; Their feathers are indicated by pI. XIX, figs. 1, 2, checks and lozenges and their 3 & 4 ; pI. XX, figs. 1 , bell :es and tails are hachured 2, 3 & 4 and pI. XXl, lightly. The stylised rosettes figs. 1,2,3 & 4.] above the birds are slightly hollowed. ThIS simple expe­ dient is repeated in a number of plaques. The tendency to scoop leaves and petals is at times accentuated. Certain variants in this method may be seen. In some scenes with human figures are shown with double lines. The varia­ tions in the technically yield the following interesting diver­ gences : (a) the undecorated zones are eliminated by scoop­ ing with the result that the decorated part comes out in light relief. The transition from simple engravmg with a style to fiat relief by scooping and hollowing the non-decorated zones is represented in a piece, (b) The contour is lightly scoop­ ed and on this surface the craftsman did the relief work resulting in "relief in reverse." This technique reaches its per­ fection in the bigger plaques. The deeply incised contour yields a shading which admir­ ably gives the effect of modell­ ing. The anatomical details are rendered with a great vir­ tuosity. The' composite motifs on the borders give an ex­ cellent example of this technique. In certain plaques the classi­ cal formulae of a very much accentuated relief as in wood work is followed. The artist was not satisfied by chamfering this undecorated surface: he eliminated it.

The plaques and bands show traces of painting in which red predominates; floral and ani­ mal designs on red ground are veyy effective. Black was used at times to accentuate the con­ tours of the figures ; the hair was also painted black and so also the pupils of the eyes. No other colour seems to have been employed. The motifs of the Begram ivories, however, bear very close resemblance to the Kushana ltrt;of Mathura.· Fully so APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IV tconfd.) Ivory Bands and de­ developed sensual types of Begram corated pla­ women are common to both. ques including Like the women in the Kushana panels. art of Mathura the women depicted in the Begram ivories wear a chindamani-a filletted circular medallion. Their nose is slightly curved, a feature also found at Mathura. The three Yakshis have makara vehicles and are also associated with geese as at Mathura. The treatment of the hair of one of them reminds us of Helle­ nistic influence. Their tunics are also not Indian. The eel­ legged figure of Begram and Mathura with a makara or a leograph on either side is of Western Asiatic origin. Similarly the figures of flying birds or geese at times carrying twigs of the Asoka tree are common to both. As regards the winged monsters at Begram, while the points of contact with Sanchi and Mathura are clear, in one particular they differ from Mathura; their foreparts rest and the hind parts are lifted. This is found in one band from Begram. Here the monsters with human, makara or griffin faces have their bodies unduly stretched. This mannerism is rarely seen at Mathura, but is frequent at Amaravati. the elongation of zoomorphic figure is also a characteristic of Scy- thian art. • Though the Begram ivories are interesting from the technical view point, the physical types are also remarkable; the nose' is short and arched, and the eyes are not so elongated. The naked body shows a purely Indian grace. The anatonical details are represented with a sense' of realism devoid of vulgarity. The round effect is not bloated, but shows all the shades. Women are diversely clad here in a sari there in a tunic. Those wearing tunics have their hair dressed in Greek fashion, and iti the treatment of their drapery western in­ fluences are apparent. The borders are equally in­ teresting. The composite figures at intervals carrying the scrolls remmd us Of the Yakshas and animals Which play the same role at Sanchi, Mathura, Amara­ vati, etc. This was a common motif in the Kushana period. According to Hackin. the style is primitive. Fixed to the sur­ face it refmted evasion and did 51

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7 ------IV (contd.) Ivory Bands and de­ not suggest any relief. The Begram corated pla­ female types are heavy and ques including awkward with large heads and panels. small jambs, which do not con­ form to the ideal Indian Con­ ception of the human body. If, however, the human figures are heavy the bird and animal figures-fighting cocks, flying ducks, lapwings and leographs show a remarkable quality of observation and firmness of hand. There are, however, cer­ tain female figures the contour of whose body is marked by a double line. The physical type here is less massive and more graceful, which shows a departure from the accepted technique of composition. In the excavation of 1939 some large plaques (height 35 cms) were obtained. In a plaque certain details and de­ coration recall to mind some Ancient Indian monuments, par­ ticularly gateways torana and the elephant appearing in the zone between the bands, bear­ ing com]!Jarison with the ele­ phant frieze in the Lomas Rishi cave in Gaya. One plaque reproduces a gateway recalling the gateway of Sanchi and Mathura. In Begram ivories the majority of the subjects deal with the various activities in the palace, while the female guards and door-keepers keep watch, their mistresses are showing adorn­ ing themselves with the help of mirrors, reclining on the bed or seated in asoka groves. The maid-servants help them in their toilet and also bring to them spice-boxes, po.ts of pomade, jewels, in addition to fanning them. The female musi­ cians perform before them, while attendant dwarfs flit in the background. The royal ladies are also shown enjoying delica­ cies in the company of atten­ dants and their pets such as ducks, parrots and geese. They are also shown plucking at tho asoka bough or- playing at ball or swinging. The young mothers play with their children and suckle them as they walk. The figures wear varied cos­ tumes. A king wears the usual dhori and turban, while men of lesser social status wear seven garments. Thus hunters and horsemen wear cl05c-fitt­ ing double-hreasted, full-sleeved coats and light breeches, whilc the equerries wear breeches, coats and bonnets. Women 52

APPENDIX I-con/d.

2 3 4 6 7

IV (conC[d.) Ivory Bands andfdecorated wear long striped Saris, Jew:;:ls, Begram plaques - including headdresses, embellisheet with panels. pins anet asoka twigs. The ivories also give det:tils of architecture, the toranas· have one to three architraves and are provided with door leaves and central catches, handles and knockers and pinbolts. In arched Cloors the siete columns have sculptured capitals assembl­ ed with stylised hoops and connected to the porches with latticed windOWS. The harem was a vaultea structure pro­ vided with two-storeyeCl pavi­ lions and two arched doors. The fumiture consi~ts of various kinds of stools, beds, cushion, wickerwork, brackets, tables, etc. In the vessels appear bowls, ewers, squate jars, etc. (I). Do. Do. Do. A unique ivory ·seal incised with Nevasa, Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology several Buddhist symbols like Ahmednagar, I955-56-A Review, the trimlna, svastika and twin Maharashtra. New Delhi, p. 11. fish. Do. Do. Do. An ivory seal incised with svas- Nevasa, Distt. 1. Ibid, 1962-63, New tika and taurine symbols. Ahmednagar, Delhi, 1965, p. 19. Maharashtra. Do. Do. Do. Tnscribed seal showing traces of Dharanikota, 1. Ibid, 1964-65 (cyclo­ a stupa with railings in the Distt. Guntur, styled copy), 1965, p. 5. Amravati style. The four letters Andhra Pradesh. inscribed below the stupa and the railings probably contain the name of a chieftain or the head pontiff connected with the stupa·at Ama~avati. Do. Do. Ivory works in­ According to Peri plus, the region 1. Dasama 1. The Peri plus of the cluding carv­ of Dasarna (Dasarna-South­ (Eastern Mal- Erythraean Sea, Sees. ings. east Vindhyas) yields the ivory wa), Madhya 56&62. known !I.S Dosarenic. (6) ,The Pradesh. (1) 2. A Comprehensive His- Sanchi inscription states that 2. Vidisa (Bhil- tory of India, Vol. U, one of the piers of the southern sa) the capi- edited by K.A.N. Sastri, Gateway was executed and tal of East Mal- 1956, pp. 432-433. dedicated by ivory carvers of wa, Modern 3. The Arts and Crafts Bhilsa. It is thus apparent Besnagar, Mad- of India & Ceylon, A.K. that they were already organised hya Pradesh Coomaraswamy, 1913, as a guild, and worked in stone (2&3). Chap. VII, p. 175. as well as ivory. (3) It is stated 3. Ayodhya, 4. Lalit kala, No.8, Oct., that ivory was used for making Uttar Pra- 1960, op. cit. p. 7. hair-combs, dice, and other desh (5&6). 5. Ramayana II. 83, 12. small as well as ornamental 4. Mysore (2&6). 6. Social and Rural Eco- sword hilts, armour and the 5. Dantapura nomyofNorthernIndia, like (2). (probably Dan- Cir. 600 B.C.-2oo A.D. tan on the -by Atindranath Bose, Kansai in Mid- Vol. II, Calcutta, 1945, napore Distt., pp.212-213. West Bengal.) (6). V. Beginning of Do. Figure repre­ The figure, half human, half mon- Findspot not 1. The Art of Greater the 4th Century senting Hanu­ key, is armless; the right leg is known. India, Los Angeles 1950, A.D.-750 man. broken above the knee, the p. 45, fig. 43. A.D. left leg at the ankles. Diagonal 2. Ancient Indian Ivories markings on the head, body, -by Dr. Moti Chandra, and legs suggest hair.. The Prince of Wales Museum figure is nude except for a Bulletin, No.6, 1957-59, girdle of lotus leaf palmetteS p.37. around the hip. Size: Height: 7!* (2) 53

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

V (contd.) Ivory Figure repre- Figure of Buddha with his atten­ Kashmir 1. Ibid, pp. 38-44, pl. 6. senting Buddha. dants (carved separately) the central piece is roughly rectan­ gular in shape with tapering sides. Traces of chisel marks on the reverse show that a (PI. XXII, fig. 1). piece of the requiredlsize was hewn and sawn out from the tusk and then it was levelled. The figure of the Buddha is carved in deep relief, almost in the round. His ushnisha touches the centre of the top arch, and the schematic curls arched on both sides of the forehead cover the head and reach down to the ears. The ears have the usual distended lobes. The face is evaloid with full cheeks, painted nose, arched eyebrows and urna in the centre of the forehead. The eyes are fish-shaped and half-closed. The small mouth has bow-shaped fuIl lips painted red and a fleshy chin. The neck has a triple fold. The expression on the face is of beautiful meditation. The Bud­ dha is shown seated in padma­ sana in dhyanamudra. On the top, hovering over the Buddha's head on either side is II pair of Sidhas and below them two Yakshas with grinn­ ing faces. On the extremes are two Maharajas, below them appear Yakshas with flower baskets and lower down aappear more Maharajas, while at the b:Jttom are again two Yakshas. The Bodhisattva on the left (carved separately) stands with his hands interlocked in dharma­ chakra or anjalimudra. The hairlocks, arranged in ringlets. are lacquered black and fall on the shoulders. The evaloid face with arched eyebrows. aquiline nose and open, slightly distended lips has a noble smile. These together with the carefully modelled chest show the admirable skill of the artist. The Bodhisattva wears a three pointed crown decorated with pearl strings, a circular ear-ring in the left ear and a rosette shaped ear-ring in the right ear, a necklace. the sacred thread (yajnopavita) arm­ lets and bracelets. An elabo­ rate (Vanamala) reaches the anklets. To his left kneels an attendant holding a flower tray and to his right stands a chauri -bearer. Near the left shoulder there appears another chauri-bearer. The Bodhisattva on the right is almost an exact replica of his counterpart on the left. 9-2 RGI/ND/67 APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

Y (contd.) Ivory Figure repre­ The ivory figure of Avalokites- Kashmir 1. Ibid, pp. 45-46, pI senting Avalo­ vara, in his Lokanatha form lOb. kitesvara. (ht. 14·4 ems.) carved almost in the round. The top portion (PI. XXII, fig. 2). of the tusk was cut and hewn in such a manner that its con- cavity was maintained. The carver left the reverse polished but unfinished. The figure is in tribhanga pose. The hair, lacquered black, is arranged in a mitre-shaped crown with stylised locks in ringlets falling over the shoulders. In the centre of the crown appears the seated image of Amitabha with legs crossed in. Dhyana- mudra. The full evaloid face of the Bodhisattva is unfortu- nately damaged, but the fish- like eyes and well-modelled chin point to the high plastic quality. The eyebrows and other details of eyes wero alSo accentuated with black. Traces of red have also survived on - the lips. The neck is marked with the conventional triple line and the broad chest is well-modelled. The left hand with open palm, the fingers of which are damaged, is bent on the chest and holds an open lotus with long sinuous stalk. The right hand is stretched in varadamudra, the long fingers being very sensitively carved. To the left kneel a dev.ot(:c with folded -hands, wearing a three-pointed crown, ear-rings, a necklace, bracelets, dupatta and dhoti. The standing·figure on the right with folded hands seems to be an acolyte. He wears a dho!i and a chadar passed across the chest. He does not wear ornaments. Lokanatha wears rich ol1'la­ ments and dress. Two small necklaces and the central tiger­ claw indicating the youthful­ ness of the Badhisattva adorn.. the neck. An -elaborate Vana­ mala almost reaches the ankles. The armlets are made of Ipoped strands of pearls ; the bracelets are beaded. There can be little doubt that this ivory example is the work of the same artist who carved the figure of the Buddha described above. Do. Do. Rings The list of presents to Harsa Assam 1. A Cultural history of from Bhaskarvarman as des- Assam (Early period), cribed by the court poet Bana Vol. I, by B. K. Barua, includes among other jewellery 1951, p. 95. and ornaments, rings of- ivory encrusted with rows of huge 2. Harshacharita (Hindi), pearls from the brows of ele- V. S. Agrawala, Patna, phants. (1) 1953, p. 170. Do. Do. Game pieces Masaon, Distt_ 1. Indian Archaeology Ghazipur, 1964-65-A Review, U.P. (Cyclostyled copy), 1965, p.77. 55

APPENDIX I--contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

V (concld.) [vory Casket Fragment of a carved ivory object, Chandraketu- 1. Ibid, 1958-59-A Re­ probably a casket. garh, Distt. view, New Delhi, 1959, 24-Parganas, p.56. West Bengal.

Do. Do. Seal Ivory seal in~cribed in charac­ Maheth, Distt. 1. Ancient India, No.9, ters of the 4th-5th centuries Bahraich. Uttar 1953, p. 145. A.D. Pradesh. VI. 751 A.D.- Do. Bangle Circular bangle with incised llllcs Rupar, 60 miles 1. Ancient India, No.9, 1100 A.D. on the body. north of Am­ 1953, op. cit., p. 124, bala, Punjab. fig. 4, ~o. 4, (period V). (PI. xxn, fig. 3). Do. Do. Do. Fragments of bangles of ivory Indragarh. Distt. 1. Indian Archaeology Mandasor, 1958-59- A Review, New about 3 miles Delhi, 1959, p. 28. north-west of Bhanpura.

Do. Do. Do. Fragments of bangles of Ivory, Ha~tinapura, 1. Ancient India, Nos. rectangular ill section. Mawana Teh­ 10 & 11, 1954 & 1955, sil, Distt. ~ee­ "Excavations at Hasti­ rut. liHar Pra­ napura and other Explo­ desh. rations in the Upper Ganga and Sutlej Basins 1950-52"-by B. B. Lal, p. 91, pI. LUI No. 13. (PI. XXII, fig. 4).

Do. Do. Figure popular­ intercstmg piece of ivory which Findspot not 1. "Some old Indian Ivo­ ly known as is said to have formed one of the exactly known. ries"-by Ajit Ghose, Chariemaine picces in a set of chessmen sent Rupam, No. 32. (1927), Chessman as a present to Charlemagn'.: by pp. 123-124, pis. A-D. Harun-ur-Rashid. This set was preserved amongst the treasures 2. Ancient Indian Ivo­ of the Abbey of St. Denis, nes- by Dr. Motichan­ but at the time of t he French dra, Prince of Wales Revolution there existed only Museum Bulletin, No. the unique piece which i~ noted 6, 1957-59, pp. 51-52. here. It has smce formed one of the r.:markablc ornaments of the Cabmet of Medals of the (PI. XXlH, figs. 1,2, 3 & Bibliotheque ~ationale. 4). The object shows a king seated on a semi-circular howdah, the exterior of which is carved with the figures of eight soldiers under arches carrying straight swords and circular shields. They wear tight-fitting shorts. The King wears a fiat turban of Dilli­ vola type or a scarf and a necklace, armlets, bracelets and anklets. The elephant, which is heavily armoured, has caught a cavalryman in its trunk and the elephant-driver has Ju~t fallen off from his perch either by the jolt or has slipped off his seat to rescue the rider from peril. There are two riders on either side. One of these, on the right side of th.: King. carries a sliglItly curved sword and a circular shield and the othcr carries a battle­ axe and a straight-sheathed 56

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

VI (contd.) Ivory Figure popularly sword attached to a strap. known as Char­ The soldiers on the left of lemagne Chess­ the King carry naked swords man. and circular shields. The base is decorated with a double row of beading. There is an Arabic inscription on the base -the purpose of which is not clear. It is difficult to say whether some Arab ivory­ carver worlcing in Indian styJe put his name on the ivory or whether its Arab owner got his name inscribed there. (2). lDo. Do. Figure repre­ The ligure representing Bodhisat­ Kashmir 1. "Indian Paintings in senting Bodhi­ tva is shown in a slightly tri­ Western Tibetan Tem­ satt)la. bhanga pose. The modelled ples" by G. Tucoi, chest is broad, the naval deep Artibus Asiae, VII and the legs show the curva­ (1937), pp. 202-203, fig. ture of flesh. Traces of colour 15. on the body, the hair and the eyes are quite evident. The 2. Ancient Indian Ivo­ Bodhisattva wears rosette-shap­ ries-by Dr. Motichan­ ed ear-rings, a short beaded dra, Prince of Wales necklace, armlets and Vanamala Museum Bulletin, op. reaching below the knees. The cit. p. 47. dh"/I does not completely cover the legs, but goes round the (PI. XXIV, fig. 1). chest being longer on the right than on the left. (2).

Do. Do. Male figurine • The figure is curved in the round Do. 1. Ancient Khotan by representing a beardless male Sir Aurel Stein, Vol. I, with short hair. He wears pp. 209, 222, Kh. 008 i ear-rings and a necklace and Vol. II, pI. XLVIII, is dressed in a long tunic Kh.008. with long tight- sleeves and secured to the waist with a 2. Ancient Indian Ivo­ girdle. His left arm is around ries-by Dr. Motichand­ the shoulders of a small female ra, Prince of Wales figure and his right is placed, Museum Bulletin, op. palm upwards, on her breast. cit., pp.47-48. The female figure wears a long tunic and a short cloak (PI. XXIV, fig. 2). at the back which is either furlined or embroidered round the edges. Her right hand is placed behind the left shoulder of the man and her hanging left hand carries a small wreath. Apparently the pair represent~ a mithuna, a common motif in Indian Art. (Size: height 3tH. width 3/8" and depth t") (2).

Do. Do. Three-tiered stupa Three-tiered stupa with a modi­ Bengal, Bihar 1. "An Early Pala Ivory" fied cruci-form cross-section. or Orissa. -by Sherman Lee, The top is flat with a square­ JISOA XVII (1949), pp. cut hole indicating the existence 1-5, pIs. I-II. of a missing part. The piece. complete with columns, cano­ 2. Ancient Indian Ivo­ pies, thrones, and niches, is ries-by Dr. Motichand­ adorned with fifty-six figures, ra, Prince of Wales sixteen of them in animal form, Museum Bulletin, op. the rest being god~ from the cit. pp. 49·50. Mahayana pantheon. (PI. XXIV. figs. 3, 4 & 5). In the first z.one or tier appear three Buddha figures. The second zone has three images. 5'7

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 s 6 7

VI (comld.) Ivory Three-tiered stupa The third zone has three units : Bengal, Bihar the corners supported by pot­ or Orissa. bellied yakshas ; the centre with throne bases, lion thrones with two small dwarfs and lotus thrones with dancing dwarf supports, with two small lions above, the space between the centre and corner being deeply recessed, each containing an elephant head represented fron­ tally. The four principal Badhi­ sattvas hold a lotus flower in the left hands. The colour of the ivory varies from a rich deep brown to crellmwhite. The small Buddhas probably represent either the seven Manushi Buddhas with Mail­ reya or the eight scenes from the life of Sakyamuni. In the second zone are represented Visvapani, Tara, Avalokitesvara:! Hayagriva, Sarasvati, Vajrapalli, and Vajradhara or Manjusri.

The lowest zone represents the carnal or the material world supported by Yakshas in gro­ tesque form. (2).

VII (1101 A.D. Do. Bangle Description: Same as noted in Hastinapura, 1. Ancient India, Nos. -1500 A.D.) the relevant portion of period VI. Mawana Teh­ 10 & 11, 1954 & 1955, sil, Distt. Mee­ B. B. La), op. cit. p. 91, rut, Uttar pI. UTI, No. 13. Pradesh.

Do. Do. Do. Flat, rectangular section. Incis­ Dwaraka, Distt. I. Ref. following, Z. D. ed line in the centre with small Jamnagar, Ansari & M. S. Mate, holes meant for a pin or screw Gujarat. fig. 10, No. 167, p. 44. to hold an applique band, Dia. 88 mm.

Do. Do. Amulet This is a rectangular piece WIth Dwaraka, Distt. 1 Excavations at Dwara­ one end, rounded. It has a Jamnagar, ka by Z. D. Ansari &: triangular section, in other Gujarat. M. S. Mate, Poona, words it is wedge-shaped. There 1966, fig. 9, No. 130, p. is a hole near the rounded 41. part, the other side is a sharp edge.

Do. Do. Figure depict­ The amorous couple are seated Orissa 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ ing an amo­ on a high-backed rectangular ries-by Dr. Motichand­ rous couple. cot resting on a base decorated ra, Prince of Wales with a fringe of lanceolate Museum Bulletin, op. pattern. The male partner, ril., p. 60, pI. 1 I li. seated in ardha-paryankasana, has a round face, a large nose (PI. XXV, fig. I). and a smiling mouth, full cheeks and a fat painted chin. He wears necklaces and brace- lets. The female partner is seated comfortably with one hand around the neck of her lover. and the other resting in her lap. She wears ear- rings, a nccklace, anklets al1d a diaphanous sari marked with parallel folds. sa

APPENDIX I-ctmtd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

VII-contd. Ivory Figure showing The dancer's head is bending to Chalukya work 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ a danseuse. the right and the left hand holds ries by Dr. Motichan­ delieately the sling which pass- dra, Prince of Wales ed round the left ankle carry- Museum Bulletin, op. ing a musical instrument which cit., p. 53, pI. llb. is now broken. The lean, ovaloid face has arched eye- brows; two lines below each (Pl. XXV, fig. 2). eyebrow indicate a painted de- coration. The eyes are fish- shaped, the painted nose has broad nostrils, the thick lips are dilatea ana the sharp chin is well modelled. The well- modelled legs .and flexed torso pulsate with the rhythm of the dance. The hair hanging in curly locks, is secured to the forehead with a jewelled tiara made up of square plaques and pendants. Two pearl neck- laces hang between the breasts. A vanamala made of rosette plaques, hanging down the right knee, passes under the left thigh and then disappears. On her left hand she wears armlets and bracelets and finger-rings. Ank- lets adorn the feet. The stiff folds of the uttariya with pal- mate-shaped ends fall on either side. The rectangular base cut at both ends is in the form of a lotus. S~ze : height approx. 10 ems.

Do. Do. Throne leg The ivory throne-leg represent- Orissa 1. "Indian Ivories with hig a Gajasimha standing up Special reference to a on his hind legs, holding between Medieval Throne Leg his front paws the'body of a from Orissa"-by J. E. demon warrior who is dangling Van tohuizen-de-teeuw, up-side down held by rus left Arts A~iatique, VI leg in the monster's trunk. (1959), pp. 195-217, The Gajasimha is standing on fig. 3. a mountain, with animals such as elephants, an heraldic lion, 2. "Early Indian Ivory antelopes, rhinoceros (?), a Carving"-by. Stella giant lizard and many other' Kramrisch, Philadel­ wild anhnals. Four hunters phia Museum of Art can be seen, two' of them being Bulletin, LIV, No. 261, bowmen, -one of them shooting 1959, pp. 56-66. an arrow from his large bow. Lower down in the mountain is a cave in which squats a hermit.. The Gajasimha is beautifully represented, full· of life and vigour. Apart from the jewel­ studded bracelets on each paw, he wears a pearl necklace to which a row of penGant bells has been attached. Discussing the· symbolism of this ivory it has been suggested that the lion, which is inter­ changeable with the tige, in Indian Art, is the king of the beasts and symbolises the power of the sun ana the royal autho­ rity. J. E. Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw has pointed out .the closest similarity existing 59

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

VII-concld. Ivory Throne leg between the gajasimha and also Orissa an elephant clutching the pot­ bellied Sab:lra warrior as depict­ ed in th<: 13th century Konarak sculpture and this ivory throne leg. She has also quoted in this connection the inscription of the Jagannatha temple at Puri recording the gift of eight ivory thrones to the deity by Purushottamadeva ( 1467-1497) which confirms the existence of an important school of ivory-carving in Post-mediaeval Orissa. (1) Size: (13-3/4 )< 6'3/16x 5'3/16). Do. Do. Inlaid Ivory Ivory work of very delicate nature Cambay (on 1. Duarte Barbosa, Vol. work "in inlaid work" as well as "in the Gujarat J, pp. 135-142. turned articles" such as bangles, Coast). Gujarat. chessmen, dice, chess-boards, 2. Indian Historical swords, bed-steads and sworC1- Quarterly, Vol. XXIV, hilt •. (2) & (3). No.2, 1948, "Com­ merce and Industry in the Pre-Mughal Per­ iod"-by J. N. Chow­ dhwi, pp. 1:17-128. 3. History of Gujarat­ by Commisariat, p. 262.

Do. Do. Lid This i~ a complete specimen Dwaraka, Distt. 1. Excavations at Dwa­ with a "Padma" or cyma recta Jamnagar, raka-by Z. D. Ansari outline. It has an elaborate Gujarat. & M. S. Mate, Poona, funial having a miniature replica 1966, No. 111, pI. VI-c. of th'! amalaka stone ana a Kalasa. The lid would fit around the mouth of the con­ tainer. Decoration consists of two incised rings and facets on the curved portion. Pro­ bably turned on a lathe. VIII (IS01 A.D. Do. Die. Pataliputra I. Indian Archaeology -1800 A.D.) (patna), Bihar. 1955-56-A Review, New Delhi, 1956, p. 23.

Do. Do. Plaque show­ Ivory plaque showing group of Travancore 1. Some Old Indian Ivo­ ing dancing women dancing. It is a work ries-by AJit Ghose, female figur::s of rich taste and exquisite Rupam, No. 32, Octo­ sensibility. Jt shows a pro­ ber, 1927, pp. 127-121, found feeling for form ar.d PI. Ill, fig. 3. expression and for graceful rhythmic motion. The float­ ing draperies, the feeling for (PI. XXV, fli. 3). relief, the subtle lme and contour, and the slender ele­ gance of the figures highten the decorative effect. It is dream in ivory of the music of the dance. Do. Do. Plaque show­ These carvings were apparently Goa 1. Ibid, pp. 126-127, fig. ing Mary tea­ executed by Indian Craftsmen K. ching the Jesus under Portuguese patronage and inspiration. (PI. XXV. fig. 4). Do. Do. Figure re­ The goddess weanng a mukuta. Karnatak re- 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ presenting necklaces, a breast-band and gion. ries by Dr. Motichandra, Gajalakshmi sari with one end tucked be- op. cit., Prince of Wales hind and secured with a wai~t- Museum Bulletin, pI. band is seated in padmasana l7b. on an expanded lotus the petals (PI. XXVI, fig. 1.) APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 7

VIII-contd. Ivory Figure represen­ of which cover the lunate­ ting Gajafaksh­ shaped base. Her right hand mi is broken and in the left hand she holds a lotus. On either side stands an elephant pouring water from pitcher held in its trunk. The cusped arch at the back has a kirtimukha in the centre. Do. Do. Figure of a man, These are probably not chess­ Lucknow or 1. Some Old Indian Ivo­ a woman and pieces. These pieces are crude Benares, Uttar ries by Ajit Ghose, op. a mother and in craftsmanship and possess Pradesh. cit. p. 127, pI. II, figs. child. little artistic merit. The costume 1,2 & 3. worn by the male figure, a king or noble, arrests attention, for (Pl. XXVI, figs. 2, 3 &. 4). this kind of costume is exceed­ ingly rare. Do. Do. Makara head The makara-head of grotesque South India 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ form probably served as a ries by Dr. Motichan­ decoration to a palanquin rod. dra, Prince of Wales The nose is beaked and the Museum Bulletin, op. wide open mouth with red cit. pI. I7a. lacquered gums, bare fangs and red lolling tongue increase the (pI. XXVII, fig. 1). effect of grotesqueness. The round eyes, lacquered red and black, have scrrated eyebrows. The inside of the ear is also lacquered. From the middle of the temple rises a tiered floral ridge, with floriated tufts on either side. Size: (height 12·4 ems). Do. Do. Casket Small ivory casket rectangular Vijaynagar (My- 1. Ibid, pp. 61-62, pl•• in shape and painted green has .sore). 12 & 13. four stepped legs one of which is broken. The receptacle is divided into archea niches, four in front and at the back and (PI. XXVII, tia•. 2 &. J). three at the sides with delicate - columns decorated with flowers and leaves at the top. Except for the back of the box, each contains female dancers in pairs, separated from one another by a floral motif. They are invariably represented with round faces, pointed nose,.1arge eyes, jutting chin and well developed breasts. One hand is taken over the head while the other is crossed over the chest in 'gajahastamudra. The braided plait hangs down' the back. The arched niches at the back contain highly stylised lions, the two in the centre against green ground facing each other frontally. while the two at the sides look back over the shoulders with arched necks and are carved against a red ground. They have lifted one of their paws and are depicted with raised tail and IOllil1g tongl.le. Jungle vegetation is suggested by floral sprays. Certain detailS show faint traces of having been gilded. 61

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 1

VIII (Contd.) Ivory Casket The cusped arches containing Vijaynagar the dancers and the lions are (Mysore) framed by a narrow band fitted with palmates hanging downward both at the bottom. and the top except that the top band of the front portion has a row of stylised peacocks instead. This band forms part of the lid and not of the re­ ceptacle. The top of the lid is bordered on all four sides with rosette bands. The rest of the space is divided into three registers the top register being divided into ten cartouches, the cen­ tral and bottom register into eight. In the top register be­ ginning from the left, appear the ten avataras of Vishnu, viz. the fout handed Matsya, Kachchhapa, Varaha, and Nri­ simha; the two handed Vamana, Rama, Paras urama , Buddha; the four-handed Krishna seated in lalitasana and Kalki riding a horse. In the Central re­ register we see Venugopala in the centre playing on a flute. The other cartouches contain figures of standing gopis with hair braided in a single plait. The central car­ touche of the bottom register contains figures of Rama and Sita seated on a throne with Hanumana kneeling on the ground with folded hands. In the cart ouches to the left appear Bharata, Sugriva, Lakshmana, and VaslStha seated on a stool ; in the cart ouches to the right appear an attendant with a fan, Satrughna holding an um­ brella and two monkey chiefs with hands folded in adora­ tion. Do. Do. Throne leg The throne leg depict~ an ani­ Oris~a 1. Ancient Indian Ivo­ mated hunting scene. The hun­ ries- -by Dr. Moti Chan­ ter is mounted on a rearing dra, Prince of Wales charger, fully caparisoned, even Museum Bulletin, op. the minutest details of the har­ cit., pp. 56-57, pI. 14 ness being carefully depicted. He wears a turban with beaded transverse band peehi, a full­ sleeved mail-shirt, trausers and (PI. XXVIII, figs. 1 & 2). riding boots. The rider is equipped with a dagger stuck to the waist, a sword hanging in a sling, a bow across the shoulder and a spear in the right and left hands on each of which he has impaled a deer. He wears ear-rings, a pearl necklace, armlets, brace­ lets, finger rings and anklets. Below the rearing horseman is depicted a forest scene with a group of hunters engaged in hunting wild animals, the forest is represented by a single stylised tree and the crags of 10-2 RGI{Nn{67 62

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

VIII (contd.) Ivory Throne leg the hill are seen under the belly Orissa of the horse. On the tree­ top appears a monkey with upraised tail on either side, perhaps munching fruit. On the left side of the horseman, ""behind the right hind leg of the horse, is kneeling a' turbaned hunter equipped with a sword and round shield. He has two daggers tucked to the zone and is followed by.a dog.. In-be­ tween the raised fore-legs of the horse is represented an animated hunting scene. A hunter is seen to. have pierced the neck of a stag standing on its hind legs. A hunting dog has also attacked the animal and a huntress is ready to give it the final blow with a dagger. Under the left hind leg of the horse appear a wild boar and a hunter squatting on the ground. Do. Do. Room of ivory Paes (a Portuguese tra\!"el1er), Vijaynagar (My­ 1. The Arts and Crafts describes a room in the Vijay­ sore). of India and Ceylon­ nagar palace. .. In this house by A. K. Coomara­ there is a room with pillars swamy, 1913, p. 175, of carved stone; this room Chapter VIt. is all of ivory as well the cJ.amber as the walls, from top to bottom, and the pillars of the crcrss timbers at the top had roses and flowers of lotuses all of ivory and all. well executed, so that there could not be .better,-;it is so rich and -beautifl!l that you would hardly tInd anywhere another such."

Do. Do. B~dstead inlaid Fernao Nuniz mentions a bed­ Do. 1. A i

Do. Du. Doorways in­ Inlaid doorways of the Ashar Ashar Mahall 1. The Arts and Crafts laid with ivory Mahall at Bijapur. at Bijapur of India and Ceylon­ (Musulman). by A. K. Coomara.­ swamy. op. tit. p. 176.

Do. Do. Inlaid ivory In old Amber there are wall~ Amber Palace, 1. International Studio, door. panelled with sandal wood in­ Jaipur, Rajas· Feb .• 1925, p. 384. klid with ivory and silver. (2) than. Sir George Watt informs that certain doors (which date from 2. Some Old Indian Ivo­ 1630 A.D.) are inlaid with ries-Ajit Ghose. Ru· ivory and sadeli work (mar­ pam, No. 32, October, quetry). (3). 1927, p. 125.

3. Indian Art at Delhi 1903-by Sir Geor~e Watt. Calcutta. p. 179. .APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

VIII (contd.) Ivory Settee backrest. The settee back-rest may be Mysore 1. The Arts and Crafts described as a tympanum- of India and Ceylon shaped and perforated panel -by A. K. Coomara­ of inter-twined four footed swamy, op. cit. p. 180. and feathered dragons, of all shapes and sizes, richly carved, 2. Indian Art at Delhi gilded, stained and lacquered. 1903-by Sir George Underneath is a band of cus- Watt, Calcutta, p. 189, pedly arched panels each filled pI. No. 78. in by perforated ivories, depict- ing trees with birds on the boughs and animals resting (Plo XXVIII fig. 3). beneath. The frames of the whole structure are elaborately veneered with ivory every por- tion of Wllich has been engra ved and loaded with pigment (most probably lac), the colours being, as with all modern Indian work, pale green and a delicate magen- tc. (2).

Do. Do. Inlaid iYory The doors of the Bari Mahal are Udaipur, Rajas- 1. Indian Art at Delhi work. overlaid with ivory thaC has than. 1903-by Sir George been coloured with lac etch­ Watt. op. cit. p. 180, ings. The gate of these doors has been given as 1711 A.D.

Do. Do. Do. In the old palace of Bikaner Bikaner, Rajas- 1. Ibid, p. 180. there are certain doors richly than. inlaid and overlaid with ivory that very possibly are 18th century style of work.

Do. Do. Ivory work in­ Surat, Distt. 1. District Registrar. Co­ cluding bangle Surat, Gujarat. operative Societies (vide R. G. Office file No. 12/14/63-SS). Do. Do. Ivqry work Darbhanga 1. District Industries Offi­ town, Distt. cer ~hrough S.C.O., Darbhanga, Bihar (vide R. G. Office Bihar. file No. 12/14/63-SS). Do. Do. Do. AI Istakhari speaks of dealers Multan (Now in 1. The History of India of ivory of Multan. who had West Pakistan.) as told by its own His­ their centre in the bazar near torians (The Muhamma­ the idol temple. dan Period)-by H. M. Elliot & J. Dowson, Vo}. T, Kitab Mahal Private Ltd., pp. 28 and 35.

Do. Do. Do. Kashmir 1. The Development of Trade and Industry un. der the Mughals (1526 to 1707 A.D.) by S. S. Kulshre~htha, Kitab Mahal Private Ltd., 1964. p. 19L

Do. Do. Do. Benares. Uttar 1. Ibid, p. 172. Pradesh.

Do. Do. Do. Jaipur, Rajas- 1 The commercial Policy than. of the Moguls-by D, Pant, Bombay, 1930, p. 237.

Do. Do. Ivory works in­ Cambay, Guja- 1. Ibid, p. 154. cluding the rat. manufacture of cabinets inlaid with ivory. 64

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 _ 6 7

VIII (concld.) Ivory Ivory works in­ Tatta, Sind 1. Ibid p. 154. cluding the (now in West manufacture of Pakistan). writing cases and similar goods prettily inlaid with ivory and ebony. Do. Do. Ivory works in­ Bombay 1. Durate Barbosa, p. cluding inlaid 114. and cunningly 2. History of Gujarat­ turned articles by Commisariat, p. 262. such as ban­ 3. S. S. Kulshreshtha, gles, swords, op. cit., p. 64. hilt, dice, chess- men, chess- boards and bedstands. (1) & (3). IX (1801 A.D. D. Combs The ivory comb-makers are about Poona, Maha- 1. A Monograph on Ivory -1900 A.D.) fifteen in number and keep five rashtra, ~arving-by Cecil L. workshops opposite to the Burns, 1900, pp. 8-9. temple of Ganapati in Kasba ward. The present small ivory comb industry will probably continue unless it is killed by the importation of European ivory goods. Brahmin and other high caste Hindu women think bone combs impure, and three ivory combs always form part of the "Vayan" or bride's outfit. Combs for the use of women are rectangular, and have a double set of teeth, while man's combs are crescent-shaped and have only one set of teeth. The small pieces of tvoty left over in cutting out pieces for combs are used in making dice. The combs and dice are sold in the workshops by the workers on their own account. Their only customers are hi p"h class Hindus. Do. Do. Do. Comb boldly carved with the Sattara, Bom­ 1. Indian Ivory Carving f~.miliar subject of the Goddess bay Presidency -by J. L. Kipling. The Mahalakshmi being lustrated (Maharashtra). Journal of Indian Art, by elephants whose uplifted London, July, 1885, No. trunks carry Chambus. At the 7, p. 51, fig. No. 13. present moment there is an ivory carver at Sattara, but (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 4). his work is confined to draughts- men and the ordinary ivory comb. Do. Do. Figure Idol of Krishna playing on his 1. Tirupati 1. Indian Art at Delhi flute. It is so minute that 2. Godavari 1903-by Sir Georie the aid of magnifying glass is Watt, op. cit., p. 191. rtqllired to discover the good or the bad points of the work. Tirupati and Godavari have a fair amount of traffic in ivory but mainly in the production of miniature idols.

Do. Do. Chudi (Bangles) Broach, Distt. 1. District Registrar, Co­ Broach, Guja­ operative Societies rat. through S.C.O. Gujarat, (vid~ R. G. Office file No. 12/14/63-SS). 65

APPENDIX I-contd.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (contd.) Ivory Mirror frame The mirror frame in design and Central India. 1. Indian Ivory Carving execution IS a quaint bit of -by J. L. Kipling, Hindu naivete. The pediment The Journal of Indian represents Krishna's theft_ of Art, London, July,1885, the clothes of the celestial No.7, p. 52. milkmaids while they were bathing. This seems to be the most popular of all freaks ascribed to Krishna. The panels (PI. XXIX, fig. 1). of the sides of the mirror are filled with rude reliefs showing the pleasure of the native and the English gentlemen. The former smokes his hukka, listens to the song of the Nautch-wo- man and cherishes his wife and children. The latter walks abroad with the English Lady (in most native work the English lady wears as here, a narrow skirted, last century dress) and goes a hunting.

Do. Do. Box or Casket Ivory box or casket decorated Udaipur, Rajas- 1. Ibid, p. 52, fig. 8. with floral designs and creeper than. motifs as well as female figures and peacocks. (Pl. XXIX, fig. 2).

Do. Do. Box Box of fine ivory, round which Junagarh, Maha- 1. A Rough List of Indian human figures are carved. The rashtra. Art Ware by T. N. box is so contrived that it Mukharji, Calcutta, 1883, opens only by pressing in two p.6. bolts of ivory placed on both the sides of the box.

Do. Do. Do. Ivory box· made entirely of small Bhuj, Gujarat: .1. A Monograph on Ivory pieces of ivory jointed togethec carving-by Cecil L. at each angle of the Octagon, Burns, op. cit. pp. 4-5, while the top is carved from a pI, Ia & lb. solid piece. It is one of the best examples of the Art of 2 Description by the ivory carving produced in Wes- Compiler. tern India. (1) The top which is serving as a lid is decorated with two reclining male and female figures probably under a tree. The male figure, pro- (Pl. XXIX, fig. 4). bably a warrior, is seen hold- ing a sword by the right hand, wh1le the female figure is shown reclining on a lion with a bird on her knee. The sides -of the box is decOrated with male and female figures who seem to be the attendants standing in front of the doors. The box has octagonal base with pro- bably ten legs. The whole box is beautifully decorated with minute floral and geometric designs and motifs (2).

Do. Do. Door The Darshdni Door at the Golden A.mritsar, Pun- 1 Indian Art at Delhi, Temple, Amritsar, is tnlai:d jab. 1903-by Sir George with ivory, much bf which is Watt, op. cit. p. 175. stained in the character~stic way, viz., with green and red. These doors .probably date from Ranjit Singh's restora- tion of the tem'ple in 1802 A.D. 66

APPENDIX l-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving Mahuva, Distt.· 1. District Registrar Co­ Bhavnagar, operative Societies Gujarat. through S.C.O Guja­ rat, (vide File No. 12/ 14/63-SS) . Do. Do. Ivory carving Sylhet has speciality in ivory-. Sylhet, Assam. 1. Statistical ACCOWlt of including diffe­ ware, the carvers of which Assam, by W. W. Hun­ rent types of are characterised by much in­ ter, Vol. II, Trubner & decorative and genuity and taste. Their work Co., London, 1879, p. utilitarian ob­ consists of mats, fans, sticks, 34. jects. chessmen, dice and gutis (the pegs which pass between the 2. A Rough List of Indian great toe and toe next to it, to Artware-by T. N. prevent the sandal from slipp­ Mukharji, Calcutta, 1883, ing off the foot) (1). Among p.6. other examples mention may be made of Box with ten sets of letters; chair with cross­ pendant, work-box. and scent­ case (2). Do. Do. Do. The "Gudgars" of Kanara whose Kanara (Kumta, 1. A Monograph on Ivory chief calling is carving on Banvasi, Sid­ Carving-by Cecil L. sandal wood and painting, also dapuf and Bil­ Burns, op. cit. p. 7. carve ivory. They generally gi). work on ivory to order, and seldom offer articles for sale. The articles made are generally small boxes, combs, sets of Chessmen, images, paper-cut­ ters, card-cases and other fancy articles. Raw material is im­ ported from Bombay or My­ sore. Do. Do. Do. At Sehwan town the carving Sehwan town, 1. Ibid, pp. 1-8. mainly consists of the manu­ Karachi. Cacture of sets of. plain arm rings called. bahin when they are full-sized and gabha when they are for children. No other articles are ordinarily made, but buttons, dice and handles of knives can be made to order, as also chessmen and pieces for the game of chopar. The carving is always of the simplest kind, and has no artistic merit to speak: of.

Do. Do. Do. (i) Bangle.J : turned in different Surat 1. Ibid, pp. 9-10. sizes and done on an ordinary wooden lathe, when they. are either coloured deep red or are covered outside with thin sheets of gold or silver. The former are worn by women of almost all the lower classes oC Hindus only. (ii) Hinghratia or Ornamental boxes: Used for preserving "Kankoo" a mixture of turmeric and carbonate of Soda, or Ver­ million especially by the women when engaged in sacred duties or marriage festivals. (iii) Snuff-boxes, buttons, dice, combs, paper-knives, English alohabets, small pictures carv­ ed in relief and ribbons for 67 APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 s 6 1

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving carved sandal wood boxes are Surat including diffe­ also made. Some of the veget- rent types of able products such as raddish, decorati ve and chilly, brinjal, hibiseus etc. utilitarian ob­ are also represented in crude jects. manner. Among toys humm- ing tops, jingling bells, chess­ boards, checkmates etc. ar" also made.

(i) A large paper-cutter-This Delhi 1. Indian Art at Delhi splendid piece of work took 1903-by Sir George three years to make. The Watt, Calcutta, pp. 177- handle represents an elephant 178, pl. 40, figs. 3, 7, standing on a pedestal of pI. 61, figs. 1, 2 & 3. admirable relief foliar carving; the scroll on the bladll is bold Mughal work. (pI. XXIX, fig. 3).

(it) An elephant loaaed with guns, 2. A Rough List ofIndian camp equipage, etc. each article Artware-by T. N. including the chains cut from Mukharji, Calcutta, 1883, solid ivory. This is a marvel­ p.7. lous piece of work, more wonderful than artistic, but 3. Ibid, p. 6. it shows the great 'skill that has been attained when tlie (PI. XXX, fig. 1). links of a chain, each not more than the size of a 'pin's 4. Indian Ivory Carving head, can be cut from solid -by J. L. Kipling. The ivory so that they are dis­ Journal of Indian Art, tinct and within each other. London, July, 1885, No.7, p. 50, & p. 52. (iii) Miniature painting on Ivory representing caskets richly chased in foliated scrolls. The large panels depict my­ thological seenes, the upright panels are in Ahmedabad style and the scroll work, in bold fioriation of Mughal. pattern. The painted medal­ lions represent the more note­ (PI. XXX, fig. 2). worthy buildings of Agra and· Delhi (1). As regards the technique it is recorded that the ivory is sawn up into very thin plates which are most carefully season­ ed and pressed that they may not curve, and are finally polish­ ed. The painting, when finish­ ed, is protected by a very thick but c1e.o'1.r glass; smoothed off at the edges like a pebble. The work is always executed either in colour, which is gener­ ally soft, rich and' effective; or else in Indian ink, more light and shade. These latter are often. pleasing, especially in the landscape subjects, for them the very conventiona) treatment of the trees and sky becomes less p'romincnt than in the coloured ones. (2) (iv) Among other ivory objects produced at Delhi mention may be maqe of card-ca:lc, sandal-box, paper knife and 68

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving in­ comb. The carving is wholly Delhi cluding diffe­ done with the aid of the rud- rent types of dest flIes, chisels, knives and decorative and steel styles. '(3) The ivory­ utilitarian ob­ carvers of the Dariba at Delhi, jects. reproduce everything that Moorshedabad produces, and elephants, camels, boats, and goddesses are there regularly turned out to pattern (4). An extensive manufacture in 1. Rajputana. 1. Indian Art at Delhi- bangles, Surmadanis (antimony 2. Jaipur. 1903-by Sir George boxes), chessmen etc. has been 3. Ajmir-Mar- Watt, Calcutta, pp. 178- developed in Jaipur, Ajmer­ wara. 180. Marwara, Alwar, Bikanir and 4. Alwar. the village of PalL Figures 5. Bikaner. 2. Indian Ivory Carving of animals are made in Rewa 6. Udaipur. -by J. L. Kiplin~. op. and paper-cutters, sword-hilts, 7. Pali in Jodh- cit. p. 52, No. 10. combs etc., at Ratlam, Dhar pur. and Alipura. The Pali Uodh. 8. Rewa. pur) craft in ivory deserves 9. Ratlam. special mention. The bangles 10. Dhar. are of graduated sizes so as 11. Alipura. to cover the arm almost from the shoulder to the wrist. They are usually so elaborately colour- ed and ornamented with lac, beads, and gold leaf, that a cheaper material might easily be substituted. The colours are red and green with black lines and circles. One of the most striking peculiarities of Pali ivories is the manner in which they are ornamented, viz., by circles and lines loaded with pink, green or black lac. The delightful series of thumb guards, used in shooting with the bow and arrow are made of ivory. They are richly coated with pale green, or dark claret red, or deep brown or other colour of lac. Through this and on to the white below a delicate design has been scratch­ ed which usually depicts some hunting scene, such as a fight between two elephants or a sportsman spearing a tiger while in the act of seizing its kill. In other instances the pattern consists of oriental floral scrolls, the white flowers having a rich effect imparted to them by the margins of the petals or leaves being gilt. The design$ on many of these thumb guards are so essentially chinese that it is difficult to suppose that they could have been made in India (1) Of the Rajputana ivory objects (PI. XXX, fig. 3). special mention may be made of three bartanas which will probably be taken for paper­ knives. The bottoms are de­ corated with hunting and fight­ ing scenes, birds such as pea­ cock and other floral designs and human figures. European· influence is prominent in their line and form, style and ex­ ecution. (2). 69

APPENDIX I-comd.

2 3 4 s 6

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving Table ornaments, such as ele­ Bengal, special­ 1. Indian Art at Delhi including diffe­ phants, models of bullock carts, ly Berhampui, -1903, by Sir George rent types of processions, marriaic ceremonies Murshidabad Watt, op. cit. pp. 180- decorative and and such like were made by the Distt. 184. utilitarian ob­ ivory workers of Bengal. Be­ jects. sides, the image of Durga was also in demand for the popula­ 2. A Monograph on Ivory­ rity of the festival of Durga. carving in Bengal-by Though made of ivory, it is G. C. Dutt, Calcutta, identical with that produced in 1901, pp. 3-10, pl. clay or in sola pith. The Nos. 2, 3 and 4. manufacture of Durga images was a speciality of Murshida­ bad, but it is now copied in Delhi, and Patiala and finds a market all over India. The principal centre of ivory carving in Bengal has always been the district of Murshida­ bad. The ivory-carvers of Murshidabad are all Hindus and belong to the Vcisnav sect. The ca~te is called Bhaskar, or image-maker, and is a branch of the carpenter caste. The tools used by the carvers are as follows: (1) Files of various sizes; eii) saws, (iii) smaIl chisels, (iv) screw-drivers, (v) awls of various sizes, (vi) pliers, (vii) compasses, (viii) a vice, (ix) mallets (wooden), (x) AT square and (xi) a lathe. The following is a list of ,ivory articles made in Murshidabad. (i) Durga (the ten-handed god­ (Pl. XXX, ftS. 4). dess with her attendant godS and goddesses in the act of fighting with the giant Mahisa­ sura). (ii) Kali standing on the body of Shiva with two attendant goddesses. (iii) Jagaddhatri standing on the lion and elephant with two attendant ~oddesses. (iv) Jagannath's car procession. (PI. XXXI, fig. n. (v) Palanquin, single or with bearers and attendants. - (vi) Chessmen, (vii) Work-box, (viii) Elephant, single or capa- risoned, or fighting with tiger ; (ix) Horse plain or with rider,

(x) ·Bullock-carts, (xi) Mayurpankhi or peacock stage large, (xii) Camel, single or with driver, (xiii) Cow, single or with­ calf.

11-2 RGIfND/67 2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (contd.) Ivory Jvor:r carwing (xi.v) dog, (KV) Pig, (xl'i) .Bengal. including diffe­ ,sulfltlo, rent' types of decorative and !«vii) CrQcodile, I(K:viii1 Deer, utilitarian ob­ jects. (xix) Plough ,with plo.ughman,

(xx) Locket and chain{with,Ol (PI. XXXI, fig. 2). without goM or .silver mount­ ing),

(xxi) Ear-4Tings, I.xxii) Figur.es of ladies, ,Hiodu prJ~ts, Washer­ men, Water-.carriers, Peons, Por­ ters, Tailors, Sepo~s, Fakirs, Policemen,

(xxiii) Paper-cutter ;

(xxi:v) Bangles, .bracelet6 with or without ,gold QI" sHver' mountings,

(xxv) Card-case, (;cxvj) knit- (Pl. XXXI, fig. 3).

o ting needles, (xxvii) .crochet needles, (xJCviil) Napkin rings, 3. Indian Ivory Carving (xxix) Phot0 frarnes; (xx«) -by J. L. Kipling, The Caskets, (xxxi) Sticks, (xxxii) Journal of Indian Art, Fly-flap and (xxxiii) .combs. London, July, 1885, No. (2) (xxxiv) 'Elephant with a 7, p. 5t, pI. 5. howdah in which two royal figures are sitting. The manu­ facture is said to ,have originat­ ed in sylhet (Assam) and to have followed' the transference in Muhammadan times of the seat of Government from Da-cca to Murshidabad. (3). It is reported tilat the industry 4. A Rough List ofIndian is declining ~nd the qua1ity Artware-by T. N. of the ivory work has also de­ Mukharji, Calcutta, 1883, teriorated, one cause of which p.6. being the' interference or'Euro­ peans with native workmanship. Mr. Inglis, the Commissioner for India, states, that the Murshi­ dabad ivory' manufa'Ctures were perhaps more- admir.ed than any other class Df .goods in the Indian Court, one Chief merit being thai 'the sUbjects were also purely origiM.J. They were more artistic

places with the result that atp " present there is not fl 'single Bhaskar in Mothra, (5). 71

2 3 4 5 6

IX (contd.) .Ivar)! Il/ory carving From the Official Report of Hill J:ippera~J. 6. Ibid; p. 5. including diffe­ the Calcutta InternatIOnal Ex­ .Chittagong;;lt;ld rent types of hibition it appears that evelll Dacca. 7. IQdian Art at Delhi- d'ecorative and so recently as 1883, the art of 1903-by Sir George utilitarian ob­ ivory cawing used to be practis-· Wat~" op. cit., pp. jects. ed in other districts of Bengal, 1?O-184. such as Hill Tippera, Chitta­ gong and Dacca. (6) Sir George Watt in his "Indian Art at Delhi-1903", also records that Tipperah has enjoyed the re­ putation of being one of the most ancient seats. in Bengal of the art of ivory carving and ivory mat-weaving. As for ex­ ample mention may be made of an ivory chair furnished by the Maharaja of Tipperah. This is a splendid piece of massive and graceful work. (7).

Ivory work is also done in Calcutta 8. A Monograph on three shops in Calcutta. They I vory Carving in Bengal are all situated in Harcatta Lane -by G. C. Dutt., op. in Bow Ba=. All three carvers cit., p. 5. are carpenters by caste, and carve such plain things as but- tons, chains, combs, mouth- pieces of 11lIkkas, and walking sticks from ivory, horns and eleplant bones. They have no pretensions to perforation or ornamental work, nor in the making of statues and images. They have no assistant in their shops, and they manage both the manufacture and the sale themselves. (8)

The next important centre of Panga, in the 9. Jbid, pp. 2-3. ivory carving was at Panga, Kurigram sub- in the Kurigram sub-division division of 10. Official Report of Cal­ of Rangpur. It is reported that Rangpur, Kaki- clltta International Ex­ there are only six families of hia and Bara- hibition, Vol. II, 1883 ivory carvers or Khondikars bari in the p. 5. ' as they are locally called'. They Rangpur Dis- say their forefathers were trict. brought from Bihar and were setded there- by the Rajcrof Pan­ gao The industry is now ill' a moriburrd condition for lack of encouragement, and the exist­ ing workmen have lost much of the skill their fathers possess­ ed in the art. They have an betaken themselves to agricul­ ture, which is now their chief occupation, and work on ivory in ieisur~ mQments, Ot when toeaJ fairs ,(at Sindurmati and Masankm;a) take place. At present there are only lour men who possess the.. requisite skill­ to make such homely articles as combs, ear-scratchers, churis or bangles, dice, chessmen, etc. The Panga Khondikars are Mussalmans by religion. (9) There were ivory carvers at that time in other parts of the disttict of Rangpur such as Kekinia and Barabari. but they have disappeared since. (10). 72

APPENDIX I-contd.

.1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving (i) The figure of tortoise consists Orissa. 1. Indian Art at Delhi, including diffe­ of 4 pieces of ivory and is 8 1903, Sir George Watt, rent types of inches long by 6 inches wide. op. cit., pp. 180-184, decorative and The body of the animal is re­ pI. 77. utilitarian ob­ presented as wreathed and jects. garlanded with flowers held 2. Description by the in the mouth, while entangled Compiler, pl. 76 (Indian within these floral ornamenta­ Art at Delhi, 1903, tions are two charmingly carv­ George Watt). ed and cleverly stained para­ quets. The floral work is deeply cut, is literally dis­ persed with large composite flowers that look like moon­ stones or lotus-leaf discs and (Pl. XXXI, fig. 4). the deeply under-cut foliage recalls very forcibly the sandal wood work of Mysore. The zones of the scroll work and the garlanding of the body of the animal are strongly sugges­ tive of chalukyan Art. (I).

(ii) The statuettes of Krish/la (Pl. XXXII, fi,. 1). standing on a lotus pedestal is really unique in its style and execution. The figure is richly decorated with a crown, and jewellery and ornaments such as necklaces, bracelets, arm­ lets, anklets, ear-rings and finger-rings. He is shown stan­ ding in a dancing pose. His hands are kept in such a manner as if to hold a flute. The feminine characteristics in the treatment of the body are notable. ,H~ is wearing a tight fitting garment with taper­ ing-like ends hanging down on either side of the body. It may be regarded as an example of forceful modelling in ivory in the round. (2).

(iii) The figure of infant Krishna Orissa. 3. Indian Art at Delhi. kissing his toe. The hair is 1903-Sir George Watt, shown as in a profussion of op. cit., pp. 180-184. short curls. It is a beautiful piece of solid ivory measuring 8t"" in length and 3!' in thick- ness. (3).

(iv). In Balasore there is yet one Balasore, 4. A Mon08raph on man alive who does some carv- Orissa. Ivory carvin! in Bengal ing work. He makes sticks, -by G. C. Dutt, op. ivory chains and the like when Cit., p. 5. ivory is supplied to him.

De. Do. Iyory carving (i)' Monghyr, 1. Ibid, p. 5. Bihar, 2. Indian Art at Delhi, (m Patna, Bihar 1903-by Sir George (iii) Darbhanga, Watt, op. ,cit. pp. 180- Bihar. 184. APPENDIX I-cont4.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (colltd.) Ivory Ivory works in­ (i) Poona. 1. Indian Art at Delhi, cluding carv­ (ii) Kanara. 1903, Sir George Watt, ing. (iii) Surat. op. cit., pp. 184-185. (iv) Baroda. (v) Karachi. (vi) Halh. (vii) Kathiawar. (viii) K.ach.

Do. Do. Ivory carving 10- U) Hexagonal ivory shrine with Travancore, 1. Ibid, pp. 187-189, pI. eluding diff­ idols placed within the six Kerala. Nos. 43,41, figs. 2, 4,5 erent types of triangular niches thus formed. & 6 and pI. 42, fig. 2. decorative and The pillars, canopies, spaRd­ utilitarian ob­ rils, roofing, etc.,of ~his beauti­ (PI. xxxn, fig. 2). jects, figures ful piece of work are admirable etc. and manifest in a forcible way; the great peculiarities of this style of ivory such as its massive form, purity in design and excellence in finish.

(ii) Massive idol representing Vishnu seated on the snake with a canopy formed by a five dog headed hood.

(iii) Brush-back in solid ivory with a boldly drawn floral scroll. interspersed with animal forms seem to originate and receive the f1oriation. From the stand point of design this is perhaps tho most admirable and perfect of the many beautiful works made at Travancore. Uv) The money-counting board is another splendid achievement of decorative art, which demon­ strates the purity in design and feeling that is so remark­ able a feature of these Travan­ core ivories. The small cir­ cular holes are intended, when filled, to count 100 chukrams. The handle consist of digni­ fied floriations proceeding from lion griffins. (v) The casket is a piece of work of which Travancore may be justly pround, but it is very much more Dravidian (Swami). It represents by its twelve panels round the sides, the various incidents, in regular historic sequence, of the story of the Ramayana, while on the lid is carved the final scene -the coronation ceremony. (vi) The doorway is a delightful model of the approach to a temple or house in Travan­ core, showing a flight of steps and moon-stone that strongly recall the similar structures in the ancient Buddhist pavi­ lion of Anuradhapura in Cey­ Jon. It illustrates all the pecu­ liarities of the quaint style of wooden architecture, met with in the extreme south.its 14

APPEND};X I-eonttl.

2 3 4 5 6

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory-carving in­ Dravidian double yali. pillars, cluding diffe­ its floral scrolls, suspended like rent types of draperies from straight, not decorative and curved, eaves and its great utilitarian ob­ elaboration in detail of beams, jects, fi!l;ures joists, etc.• -peculiarities that etc. in some respects give an abori­ ginal (or pre-Dravidian) turn to the art and architecture of Travancore.

(vii) J. L. Kipling describes some 2. Indian Ivory Carving of interesting ivory examples -by J. L. Kipling. The from Travancore. The mirror Journal of Indian Art, back in the centre has some London, July, 1885, No. southern Hindu feeling, but 7, p. 51, fig. No.4. there is a decidedly "modern" if not quite European senti­ ment in the comb, on which is sculptured in relief a scene from the story the Gopa Sudama and Krishna, in the brows­ ing elephants, and the figure of Narayana as a child in a leaf. It is probably from this courtly use of ivory that the modern Vizagapatam trade in a pretty kind of stationers' goods such as desks, paper­ knives, work-boxes, book­ slides etc., wrought in sandal wood inlaid with engraven ivory or with ivory cut out in open work and fastened on black bison horn, has been developed. Do. Do. Ivory carving in­ (i) Brush back portraying practi­ Mysore>. 1. Indian Art at Delhi- cluding utilita­ cally every feature of jungle 1903, by Sir George rian and de­ life and sport. The- fore-' Watt, op. cit. pp. 189- corative ob­ ground, middle 'distance, dis­ 190, pIs. No. 42, fi!l;. I, jects. tance and clouds, are all faith­ pI. No. 40, fig. 4. fully treated and, in a manner that is most surprising, every [PI. XXXII, fig. 3]. detail is shown and still the atmosphere of high class paint­ ing has not been materially disturbed nor the picture- over­ burdened. On the reverse is an exceedingly clear modern design. The Karela gourd is the subject. The compo­ sition, balance and harmony raise this little sketch to that of the highest decorative art. (ii)" A charming casket bound in richly repoussed gold. The side panels depict jun!l;le life and sport, one of the most beautiful showing.elephant cat­ ching. The panel on the lid is a mythological subject. The floral ornamentation is in the characteristic style as. found in the sandal wood of Mysore. (iii) Inlaying woott with ivory. The skill displayed by the Mysore inlayers far excels that of Hoshiarpur llnd othel-Ioca­ lities in Northern India. My­ sore inlaid ivory iS'richly load­ ed with black lat: after the fashion practised in Vizaga­ patam. 75

APPENDIX l-,contd.

2 3 4 5 , 9

IX (contd.) I~ory Ivory carving in­ (i) Vizagapatam is the centre of 1. Vizagapatam, 1. Indian Art at Delhi cluding diffe­ the veneered ivory work of Madras 1903, by Sir George rent types of India. For example the how­ 2. Patiala, Watt. op. eil. p. 191. decorati ve and dahs and chairs are carved in Punjab. utilita.rian ob­ a low fiat style very much jects. like the ivory-carving of Patiala. They are coloured with lac, mostly in shades of green and blue, and are iden­ tical with a sofa and set oT chairs. In Vizagapatam a large amount of ivory carving, as well as ivorY-staining, is practised, but mostly as ven­ eers or appliques over sandal wood or tortoise-shell boxes. It will be observed that the delicate trellis of ivory thrown over the tortoise-shell is richly carved as well as per­ forated, the designs being in -graceful geometric scrolls wHh medallions of mythological and animal 'Subjects thrown within the floriation. (1). (ii) The elaborate examples of Vizagapatam, 2. Indian Ivory Carving Vizagapatam work speciany Madras. by J. L. Kipling. The include jewel ,caskets made Journal of Indian Art. of ivory on tortoise shell. op. cit. p. 51, Fig. Nos: The execution is delicate, and 1,2 & 3. it is unnecessary to dwell on the faults of the .design. (2). [PI. XXXIII. fig. 1]. (iii) Among other examples men­ 3. A Rough List of Indian tion may be made of a book­ Artware -by T. N. back or folio case in bison Mukharji, Calcutta, horn. The subjects in the 1883, p. 6. oval cartouches are Garudas on which divinities are seated. [PI. XX"XIll. fig. 2]. (2) The plain baskets, 'brace­ lets, solitaeres, blotting books, combs and writing companions, are usually ornamented 'with black scroll wotk, eithenimp­ ly etched or engraved. The workmanship and finish of the articles are 'Superior. and they are much in demand as drawing"'I'oom ornaments, for which they are well suited. (3). Do. Do. Do. In Ludhiana an extremely modern (i) Ludhiana. 1. Indian Art at Delhi traffic has assumed some im­ (ii) Patiala. -1903, by Sir George portance, viz., tbe manufacture (iii) Amritsar. ~att. op. cit. pp. 175- of billiard balls. In Patiala (iv) Multan. 176. a fairly old industry exists in Jv) Dera- shallow surface floral tracery Ghazikhan. 2. Indian Ivory Carving -a minute and elaborate. style (vi' Gujranwala. -by J. L. Kipling op. in which, although the designs (vii) Hoshiar- cit. pp. 50-52 fig. Nos. are good, the workmanship pur. 10 and 11. and joinery are very bad. (viii) Lahore. Among the Patiala ivory ex­ (ix) Sialkot. amples, the dl".gger and sheath (x) Bhera. decorated with delicate floral (xi) lndor, designs deserve special men­ 'Madhya tion. In Amritsar the . in­ Pradesh. dustry would -apnear to have originated with the require­ ments of the grandees of the Muhammadan Court and sub. sequently with those at the Sikh Court. '(1). 76

APPENDIX I-contd.

2 3 4 5 6 T

IX (contd.) Ivory Ivory carving in­ J. L. Kipling, in his mono­ 3, Art Manufactures of cluding diffe­ graph on Indian Ivory carving India--qy T. N. Mu­ rent types of gives a very interesting account kharji, 1888, Calcutta, decorative and of the Punjab ivory works. The pp. 148-149. utilitarian ob­ Maharaja of Patiala is said to jects. have store-houses of ivory which "he does not sell, but makes into ivory bracelets and distributes them on the occasion of wedd­ ings. In the Patiala state, the head of the Sikh houses of the Punjab-carving, under courtly patronage accompanied the tur­ ners trade, and it is to encoura­ gement of this kind that the most notable specimens of the art as practised in India are due. The cutters of Bhera and Sialkot came into Amritsar to buy scraps from comb cutters. The Ivory-inlayers of Hoshiar­ pur come into Amritsar to buy scraps from the comb-cutters, no fragment being too minute for the inlayers. The aptitUde with which the English demand for minuteness and neatness of execution has been met by native workmen is shown in the paper­ knives, card-case and combs from Amritsar. Though slight­ ly attractive at first sight, noth­ ing is in the end more tire­ some than the tiny geometric pierced tracery, but it is much admired by character. (2). As regards ivory bangles it has been remarked that in the Punjab, on the occasion of a marriage, the mama or the maternal uncle of the bride is expected to present her with a set of ivory bangles coloured red, green or black, and ornamented with tinsel spangles. or lines with minute scratched circles, as may be the peculiar fashion of the caste. The higher castes wear these only during the first year of wedlock, 'after which they are replaced by bangles of silver and gold or other materials. The women of some Hindu Castes, however, always wear ivory. In nearly all cases the nature of the material is so dis­ guised by colour it would appear that some cheaper substance might be made to serve equally well. (3). . Do. Do. Do. Combs, small toys, requisites for Kanpore, Uttar 1. A Monograph on Kalamdans, articles for applying Pradesh. Ivory Carving in the surma, etc. chessmen, card­ North-Western Pro­ cases, small models of buildings vinces and Oudh-by such as the Taj, paper-knives, L. M. Stubbs, Allaha­ paper-weights, handle-sticks, bad, 1900, pp. 3-4. etc. small boxes and scissors are made at Canpore. There are two or three small shopkeepers in the Canpore bazar who aJe· merely hazar workers with no _l!JllbitipJ;I beyon!1 JJre _earnin,", of the necessary 4 annas a day. 77

APPENDIX I-concld.

2 3 4 5 6 7

IX (concld). Ivory Ivory carving in­ Benares was an important centre Benares, Uttar 1. Indian Ivory Carving cluding diffe­ of ivory carving. For example Pradesh. -by J. L. Kipling, The rent types of mention may be made of an Journal of Indian Art, decorative and elephant howdah belonging to op. cit., p. 51, fig. No.6. utilitarian ob­ the Maharaja of Benares, and jects. probably composed of domestic [(Pl. XXXIII, fig. 3).] ivory, the produce of his large stud. An elaborately carved couch on the model of a large English sofa is also in the possession of the Maharaja, for whom these objects with smaller works have been executed by carvers in his employment. Among these may be men- tioned a model in ivory and wood of one of the ghats on the Ganges at Benares. A feat of a realistic but very unsatis- factory kind was a representa- tion in tinted ivory of a tall plant of com in ear, with a handful of vetches, apparently just plucked, all elaborately copied from nature. Do. Do. Do. There are at Pali whole streets Pali a Station 1. Ibid, pp. 50-51. of ivory bangle-turners. Their on the Jodh­ wares are produced in sets of pur branch of graduated sizes, covering the the Rajputana arm from the shoulders to the Railway, on wrist, with an interval for the the old trade elbona, and they are worn route between almost universally in the Bombay and Western Raj put States. Very Delhi: few other objects are pro­ duced. Small models of fruits such as almonds, mangoes and green red capsicum pods are made as toys or to serve as antimony holders. Flowers are sometimes elaborately curved from nature, not in groups, but for instance, a single rose, crudly coloured in a purely imitative way. To this town may also be traced a curious and most laborious kind of basket work or weaving in fine filaments of ivory. A fan or a mat thus wrought is said to con- sume three months of unremitt- ing labour. Do. Do. Ivory (painting) Painted ivory objects are speci­ Trichinopoly, 1. A Rough List of Indian ally made at Trichinopoly, Madras. Art Ware-by T. N. Madras. For example, men­ Mnkharji, Calcutta, 1883, tion may be made of some ivory p.7. wares painted with the subjects like Cauvery Bridge, Trichino­ poly rock, temple and mosque.

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t..i .!i t..i .i ;; >0 ;a "0 ..... c: ,_t: .:: = .... c:... !=:.... tii .., ,c~ 2 ... t:i E ;; ~'" t3 ~ .J5 ttl 100

1-<0 d) £~ ~ I.~'0 ~~ '0;; 0 0 0 0 I':l Q Q Q Q .... ~1C ~ I':l.... .3 d) '" d~~ ~ .~0. ._S ~ 8 § 0 0 0 00::- 0 e ~ U Q Q Q Q d) .... d) ..2 ]~- :0 ;g .~ ...... !!! _ '0 ~;; 0 'a 0 0 0<:<$ Q Q Q .s r ~t; Z~ ~ I':l I-< ] d:s!~ ~ .~ e e 0 ~ 0. ::1'- 0 ~ 0:r- 1e ~ (.) S Q d) d) d) ~ ..<::-t~ .~ ,-...... _ ~ ...... ~ _ .... C .~ "til 'a 0 0<:<$ 0 0 ~ .....ol '0 > Q Q Q t:>, CI) .....= ~~ - Q Q Q ...t:: .s ~~ -, c ~ ... I ~ ] d) -~.E oS t: e·-0. ._ ~ 0 .:- § E 0 0 ei ._ Z .~ 00::- ._~ 0 ~ u S 0 0 0 0:1 -.Q 1 u u ~._ :a ..2 .... - ~ :0 ~ .s ]~ .!! ;:>. c 0 0:) 0 I-< 4)'; ~ '0'; ~ (I) .d> > Q Q Q z1C I to r ~ol - .5..... I-< .....;:l ..... a 0 ~ 8 ~.... ~ u 0. -5eo '0 i::' ..s 0 ...... 0 A ° u -...0 ;:l '6 ~d) p.., u .8 q Q ~ ... Q .. CI) .( '0 ...... ( < fa >. ~ ..8 »... B U U B . ~ ~ Ii ~ a 8 u... -5 -5 It") ~ ...... C7'I ...... - .... APPENDIX IV Period, Typology and Centre

Period Typology Centre

1. Harappan (i) Jar-stopper Mohenjodaro (ii) Hair-pin Mohenjodaro (iii) Combs (1) Mohenjodaro

(2) Harappa (3) Kalibangan (iv) Dice Mohenjodaro (v) Vessel Mohenjodaro (vi) Awls and needles (1) Mohenjodaro

(2) Harappa (vii) Fish Mohenjodaro (viii) Fish like pieces Mohenjodaro (ix) Cubical gamesmen Mohenjodaro

(x) Button Mohenjodaro (xi) Rod (1) Mohenjodaro

(2) Harappa (xii) Roundel Mohenjodaro (xiii) Goblet-shaped terminal Harappa (xiv) Cup Harappa (xv) Cylindrical gamesman Harappa (xvi) Handle Harappa (xvii) Kohl sticks (Antimony rods Harappa (xviii) Pillar-shaped piece Harappa (xix) Shaft Harappa

(xx) Co~ Harappa (xxi) Balusters Harappa (xxii) Points Lothal

IT. Po!t-Harappan (i) Dice Chirand (ii) Arrow-heads and styluses Chirand (iii) Comb Pandu-Rajar Dhibt

m. 7th C'nl. B.C. to the end o/3rd cent. B.C. (i) Stopper Rupar (ii) Casket Kapilavastu

(iii) Hair-pin (1) Prabha~patan (2) Rupar (3) Nagda

lS-2 RGIfNDf67 102

APPENDIX IV-contd.

Period Typology Centre

III (concl d.) (iv) Comb (1) Ujjain (2) Taxila (3) Nagda (4) Rupar (5) NagaI

(v) Dice Ujjain (vi) Pot Kapilavastu (vii) Awls and needle5 Ujjain (viii) Bangle (1) Chandraketugarh

(2) NagaI (3) Kapilavastu

(ix) Pendant (I) Taxila

(2) Rupar

(3) Nagda

(4) Prabhaspatan (5) Ujjain

(x) Human figure (1) Bhirmound (Taxila) (2) Awra (3) Kayatha

(xi) Ear·reel Bhirmound lTaxila) (xii) Ear·ornament Ujjain

(xiii) Beds. bed-legs and lions Kapilavastu (xiv) Mirror-handle Ujjain

(xv) Handle Rupar (xvi) Antimony rod (Kohl sticks) (1) Ujjain (2) Chandraketugll.rh (3) Kapilavastu (xvii) Arrow head Sonpur

(xviii) Seal (1) Rupal (2) Ujjain (xix) Miscellaneous (unspecified) Denares

TV. 2nd cent. B.C. ID the.nd of3rd cmt. A.D. (i) Hair-pin (1) Sirkap (Taxila) (2) Nagda (3) Prabhaspatan (4) Ujjain 103 APPENDIX IV-con/d.

Period Typology Centre

IV (contd.) (ii) Comb (1) Taxila (Sirkap) (2) Ujjain

(3) Malwa

(4) Nagai (iii) Die or gamesman (1) Rajghat

(2) Masaon (iv) Dice Sirkap (Taxila)

(v) Awl (1) Ujjain

(2) Chandraketugarh

(vi) Bangle (I) Sirkap (Taxila)

(2) Nagai

(vii) Armlet Ujjain

(viii) Pendant (1) Nagda

(2) Prabhaspatan (ix) Human figure (ritual) Ter (x) Human figure (secular) Pataliputra (xi) Elephant-rider Kondapur

(xii) Handle (1) Arikamedu

(2) Nevasa (xiii) Sword-handle Pragjyotisa (Assam) (xiv) Mirror-handle Taxila (xv) Handle of fan or fly-whisk Sirkap (Taxila) (xvi) Antimony rod (Kohl-stick) Raj ghat (xvii) Toy furniture or miniature chests Sirkap (Taxila) (xviii) Dagger Sankaran (xix) Knife Taxila (xx) Dice Chandraketugarh (xxi) Stick Chandraketugarh (xxii) Ring Sirkap (Taxila) (xxiii) Bands and decorated plaques in- Begram (Kafiristan) eluding panels.

(xxiv) Seal (1) Nevasa (2) Nagari (3) Dharanikota (xxv) Miscellaneous (1) Dasarna (E. Malwa)

(2) Vidisa (Besnagar)

(3) Ayodhya 104 APPENDIX IV-contd.

Period Typology Centre

IV (cone/d.) (4) Mysore (5) Dantapura tMidnapore District)

V. Beginning of the 4th cent. A.D.-750 A.D. (i) Animal figure Unspecified (ii) Figure of Buddha and Buddha Kashmir Avalokitesvara (iii) Ring Assam (iv) Game piece Masaon (v) Casket Chandraketugarh (vi) Seal Maheth

VI. 751 Ap.-llOO A.D. (i) Bangle (1) Rupar (2) Indragarh (3) Hastinapura (ii) Figure popularly known as Char- Unknown lemagne chessman (iii) Figure of Bodhisattva Kashmir (iv) Male figure Kashmir (v) Three-tiered stupa Bengal, Bihar or Orissa.

VII. 1101 A.D.-1500 A.D. (i) Bangle 0) Hastinapura (2) Dwaraka

(ii) Amulet Dwaraka (iii) Human figure (amorous couple) Orissa (iv) Figure showing a danseuse Unspecified (Chalukya wort) (v) Throne leg Orissa (vi) Inlaid ivory work and turned arti- Cambay des such as bangle, chessman, dice, chess-board, sword, bed­ stead and sword-hilt. (vii) Lid Dwaraka

VIII. 1501 A.D.-1800 A.D. (i) Dice Pataliputra (ii) Plaque showing dancing female Travancore figures. Ciii) Plaque showing Mary teaching Goa Child Jesus. (iv) Figure showing Gaja-Lakshmi Karnatak Region (Ritual)

(v) Human figure Lucknow or Beoare5 (vi) Makara head South India (vii) Casket Vijaynagar (viii) Throne leg Orissa 105

APPENDIX IV-con/d.

Period Typology Centre

VIII (concld.) (ix) Ivory room Vijaynagar (x) Ivory bedstead inlaid with gold ViJaynagar

(xi) Doorway inlaid with ivory (1) Bijapur (Ashar MahaU)

(2) Amber Palace, Jaipur

(3) Udaipur

(4) Bikanir (xiI) Settee back-rest Mysore (xiii) Bangle Surat (xiv) Inlaid iYvry works inciudmg Bombay turned articles such as bangle, sword-hilt, dice, chessman, chess-board and bed-stand. (xv) Inlaid ivory works such as cabi- Cambay nets. (xvi) Inlaid ivory works such as writing Tatta cases. (xvii) Ivory works (unspecified) (1) Surat

(2) Darbhanga (3) Multan

(4) Kashmir (5) Benares (6) Jaipur

(7) Cambay

(8) Tatta

(9) Bombay

IX. ]801 A.D.-1900 A.D. (i) Comb (1) Poona

(2) Sattara (3) Kanara (Kumta, Banvasi, Siddapur and Bilgi)

(4) Surat (5) Delhi (6) Ratlam (7) Dhar

(8) Alipura

(9) Berhampur (Murshidabad) (10) Calcutta (11) Panga (Rangpur) (12) Tranvancore (13) Vizagapatam 106

APPENDIX IV-contd.

Period Typology Centre

IX (contd.) (14) Amritsar (15) Kanpur (ii) Idol (Krishna) (1) Tirupati

(2) Godavari (3) Orissa Ciii) Ban,I. (1) Broach (2) Surat (3) Jaipur (4) Ajmer-Marwara (5) Alwar (6) Bikanir (1) Pali (8) Berhampure, Murshidabad (9) Panga (Kurigram Sub-division of Rangpur, Bengal) (10) Patiala (iv) Mirror-frame Central India

(v) Box or Casket 0) Udaipur (2) Junagarh (3) Bhuj (Gujarat) (4) Kanara (5) Mysore (6) Berhampore (Bengal)

(1) Travancore (8) Kanpore (9) Surat

(vi) Inlaid door or door-way (1) Amritsar (2) Travancore (vii) Mat (1) Sylhet (2) Tipperah

(3) Pali (Rajasthan) (viii) Fan (1) Sylhet (2) Pall

(ix) Stick (1) Sylhet (2) Berhampore (Murshidabad) (3) Calcutta

(4) Balasore (5) Kanpur 107

APPENDIX IV-contd.

Period Typology Centre

IX (contd.) (x) Chessman (1) Sylhet (2) Kanara (3) Schwan town (4) Jaipur (5) Ajmir-Marwara n6) Alwar (7) Bikanir

(8) Pali (9) Panga (Rangpur, Bengal) (10) Kanpore

(xi) Dice (1) Sylhet

(2) Schwan town (3) Surat

(4) Panga (xii) Game-pieces Schwan town (xiii) Box with ten sets ofletters Sylhet (xiv) Chair (1) Sylhet (2) Tipperah (xv) Work-box Sylhet (xvi) Scent-case Sylhet

(xvii) Idols or images such as Vishnu, (1) Kanara Durga, Kali, Jagaddhatri. Kri- shna etc. (2) Delhi r(3) Berhampore (4) Patiala (5) Orissa (6) Travancore

(xviii) Paper-cuUet or knives (1) Kanara (2) Surat (3) Delhi (4) Ratlam (5) Dhar (6) Alipura

(7) Rajputana

(8) Berhampore (Murshidabad) (9) Amritsar (10) Kanpore 108

APPENDIX IV-contd.

Period Typotogy Centre

IX (contd.) (xix) Card-case (1) Kanara (2) Delhi

(3) Berhampore (4) Amritsar (5) Kanpore

(xx) Ring (1) Sehwan town (Karachi) -.. (2) Berhampore

(xxi) Button (1) Sehwan town

(2) Calcutta (xxii) Handles of knives Sehwan town (xxiii) Snuff-box Surat (xxiv) English alphabets Surat (xxv) Models of vegetable' products. (1) Surat fruits 'and flowers. ~2) Pali (xxvi) Toys (1) Surat (2) Kanpore (xxvii) Elephant loaded with guns Delhi (xxviii) Miniature painting on ivory Delhi (xxix) Sandal box Delhi

(xxx) Animal figures such as elephants, (1) Delhi camels,. tortoise, [ion, tiger, horse,cow, dog, pig, buffalo, (2) Rewa crocodile, deer etc. (3) Berhampore (Murshidabad) (4) Orissa (xxxi) Boat Delhi (xxxii) Sword-hilt (1) Ratlam (2) Dhar (3) Alipura (xxxiii) Thumb-guards Rajputana

(xxxiv) Models of bullock-carts, pro- (1) Berhampore cessions, marriage ceremonies, buildings, model in ivory and (2) Kanpore wood of one of the ghats on the Ganges at Benares. (3) Benares (xxxv) Palanquin single or with bearers Berhampore and attendants. (xxxvi) Human figures Berhampore (xXxvii) Work-box Berhampore (xxxviii) Horse-rider Berhampore (xxxix) Mayurpankhi or peacock-stage Belhampore large. 109

APPENQIX IV-contd.

Period Typology Centre

IX (contd.) (xl) Camel wj~ driver Berhampore (xli) Plough with ploughman Berhampore (xlii) Chain with locket Berhampore (xliii) EaT-ring Berhampore (xliv) Bracelet (1) Berhampore

(2) Patiala txlv) Knitting needles Berhampore (xlvi) Photo-frame Berhampore (xlvii) Fly-flap Berhampore

(xlviii) Elephant with howdah (1) Berhampore

(2) Benares

(xlix) Chain (1) Calcutta

(2) Balasore (I) Mouth pieces of hukkas Calcutta

(Ii) Earscratchers (1) Panga (Rangpur, Bengal) (Iii) Ivory shrine Travancore (liii) Brush teak (1) Travllncore (2) Mysore (Iiv) Money-counting board 1 ravancore (Iv) Mirror-back Travancore (lvi) Ivory inlaid cut-out desk, paper- Vizagapatam knives, work-boxes, book-slides etc. on bison-horn.

(Ivii) Inlaying wood with ivory (1) Mysore (2) Hoshiarpur (lviii) Jewel-casket made of ivory on Vizagapatam tortoise shell. (lix) Veneered ivory works such as Vizagapatam howdahs and chairs.

(Ix) Bi11iard balls (1) Ludhiana (2) Patiala

(lxi) Dagger and sheath (1) Patiala (2) Amritsar

(lxii) Antimony rod~ Kanpore (lxiii) Paper-weight Kanpore (lxiv) Scissors Kanpore (lxv) Carved conch on the model of an Kanpore English sofa. Oxvi) Painted ivory works Travancore

16-2 RGI/ND!67 110

APPENDIX IV-concld.

Period Typology Centre

IX. (concld.) (lxvii) Miscellaneous Ivory works (un- (1) Mahuva spocified). (2) Surat t3) Udaipur (4) Tipperah (5) Chittagong (6) Dacca (7) Kakinja l8) Batabari (Rangpur District, BensaI) (9) Monghyr

(10) Patna (11) Durbhanga (12) Poona (13) Kanara (14) Baroda lIS) Karachi (16) Halla (17) Kathiawar

(18) Kutch (19) Bhira (20) Sialkot (21) Dem-Ghazikhan (22) Gujranwaia (23) Indor (24) Multan SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

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3. Chullavagga V. 1·12 & 3.7 4. Duarte Barbosa Vol. T, pp. 1:15-142. 5. Georgiei 57. 6. Aenis XII.

7. Gilgit Mss. Vol. IH, Part I, p. 171.

8. Guttila Jatak 243.

9. Kesava Jatakas 221

10. Mahabhamta rI, 47, 14.

11. Mahavastu II, 420, 473 & III, 113. S1.6-11.

12. Ramayana fl,94, 13 & 83, 12 If.

13. Silavannaga Jataka No. 72.

B. SECONDARY SOURCES AND MODERN WORKS 14. Acharya, P.H. lhe Manasaia. Allahabad, n.d.; XL. IV. 25-26. 15. Agarwala, V.S. IIarshacharita (Hindi). Patna 1953. pp. 17.66,170 & 214. 16. Agarwala, V.S. Kadamban (Hindi), Varanru.l, 1958, p. 225, fn. I. 17. Anonymous Official Report of the Calcutta International Exhibition, Vol. H, 1883, p. 5. 18. Anonymous Annual Report, Alcha1!ological Survey of India. 1907-1908. pp.170-171.

19. Anonymous Indian Archaeology 195'i-56---A ReVIew, N.;w Delhi, 1956. pp. 14 & 23. 20. Anonymous fnaian Archaeology 1956-57-A Review. New Delhi, 1957, pp. 14, 16-17 & 27. 21. Anonymous • fndianArchaeology 1957-58--A Review. New Delhi, 1958, p. 36. 22. Anonymous Indian Archaeology 1958-l959-A Review, New Delhi, 1959, p. 56. 23. Anonymous Indian Archaeology 1959-60--A Rev;cw, New Delhi. 1960, pp. 51-52. 24. Anonymous Indian Archaeology 1961-62 A Review, New Delhi, 1964, p. 12. 25. Anonymous Indian Archa.;!ology 1964-65- A ReView. p.63. 26. Anonymous International StudiO. 1'1>;»). 1925, p. 384. 27. Balakrishna "Commercial Relations Between India and England", London, 1924, p. 38.

~8. Bandyopadhyaya, N.C. Economic Life and Progress in Ancient India, University of Calcutta, 1945, p. 245. 29. Barua, B.K. A Cultural History of Assam, Vol. T, 1951, p. 95. 30. Bernier Travels, Vol. f, 1826, p. 217.

31. Bhagwandar Harshachand The Prajnapatna Sutra, 193 t, 1. 70. 32. Bose, Atindranath Social and Rural Economy of ;-{orthern india (cir. 600 B.C. -200 A.D.). Calcutta, Vol. 11,1945, pp. 212-213. 33. Burns, L. Cecil A Monograph on Ivory Carving. 1900, pp. 4-10.

34. Chandra, Moti Geographical and Economic Studie~ in the Mahabharala; Upayana Parva, Lucknow, 1945. p. 58. 111 112

B. SECONDARY SOURCES AND MODERN WORKS-contd. 35. Chandra, Moti "Ancient Indian Ivories". Prince of Wales Museum Bulletin, No.6, 1957-1959. 36. Chandra, Moti "An Ivory Figure from Ter ", Lalit Kala, Oct. 1960, No.8, pp. 7-14. 37. Chowdhuri, J. N. "Commerce and Industry in the Pre-Mughal Period." Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXIV, No.2, 1948, pp. 127-128. 38. Coomaraswamy, A.K. The Arts and Crafts ofTndia and Ceylon. 1913, Chap. VII, pp. 175-176 & 180. 39. Cowell, B.B. (Editor) Divyavadana, Cambridge 1896, p. 410. 40. Cowell, B.B. (Editor) The Jatakas, Vol. I, London, 1956, pp. 175-176. 41. Dutt, G.c. A Monograph on Ivory Carving in Bengal, Calcutta, 1901, pp. 1-10. 42. Bdwardeds, S.M. and Garrett, H.L.O. Mughal Rule in India, London, 1930, p. 281. 43. Ghose, Ajit "Some Old Indian Ivories" Rupam, No. 32, October 1927, pp. 123-128. 44. Ghosh, A. "Taxila (Sirkap) 1944-45" Ancient India, No.4, July 1947 - Jan. 1948. pp. 79-87. 45. Hachin, J. and Hackin, M.J. Recherches Archaeologiques a Begram. 2 Vols., Paris, 1939. 46. Hackin, J. & others Nouvelles Recherches Archaeologiques a Begram. 2 Vols., Paris, 1954. 47. Hunter, W.W. Statistical Account of Assam, Vol. II, London, 1879, p. 34. 48. Jayaswal, K.P. "An Early Ivory". JISOA, Vol. IV, June 1936, p. 75. 49. Jha, S.C. "Studies in the Development of Capitalism in India", Calcutta, 1963, pp. 3-8 & 36-37. 50. Kaula, M. (Editor) Desopodesa, POona, 1923, 11, 30. 51. Keith, A.B. Aitareya Brahmana, Harvard University Press, 1920, VI. 27. 52. Kipling, J.L. Indian Ivory Carving. The Journal of Indian Art, LOndon, No.7, July 1885, pp. 50-52. 53. Kramrisch, Stella .. "Early Indian Ivory Carving". Philadelphia Museum of Art, Bulletin No. 261, 1959, pp.56-66. 54. Kulshreshtha, S.S. The Development of Trade and Industry under the Mughals (1526 to 1707 A.D.) 1964, pp. 106-107. 55. Lal, B.B. "Excavations at Hastinapura and Other Explorations in Upper Ganga & Sutlej Basins, 1950-52", AncicQt India, Nos. 10 & 11, 1954 & 1955, p. 91. 56. Lee, Sherman "An Early Pala Ivory". J.I.S.O.A., XVII, 1949, pp. 1-5. 57. Lohuizen-de-Leewvan, J.E. "Indian Ivories with Special Reference to a Mediaeval Throne Leg from Orissa." Arts Asiatique, Vol. VI, 1959, pp. 195-217. 58. Mackay, E.H.H. Further Excavation at Mohenjodaro. Vols. I & II, New Delhi, 1938, pp. 324, 421, 432-433,439, 538-542. 561-564, 573. 59. Majumdar, R.C. (edited) The Age ofImperial Unity. 1960, Volume II, p. 604. 60. MajUmdar, R.C. (edited) The Vedic Age. Vol. T, 1965, 4th edition, pp.466-467. 61. Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization. Vol. II (Chapter by E. Mackay) 1931, p. 557. 62. Marshall, Sir John Taxila. Vol. II, 1951, pp. 653-656, 658-659, 663-664,1)66. 63. Mukharji, T.N. A Rough List of Indian Artware, Calcutta, ISS3, pp. 6-7. 64. Mukharji, T.N. Art Manufactures of India, Calcutta, 1888, pp. 148-149. 65. Mukherjee, Radha Kamal The Economic History of India (1600-1800), London, Longmans Green and Co. Ltd., 1914, p. 81.

66. Niyogi, Puspa Contribution to the Economic History of Northern Inaia (from the 10th to the 12th Century A.D.), Calcutta, 1962, p. 139. 67. Pant, D. The Commercial Policy of the Mughals, 1930, pp. 207 & 241. 68. Patla, A.C. "The Laws Goyerning Craftsmen ana their Crafts from Ancient Days till Today in fndia." Census oflnOla, 1961, Volume I, Part VII-A, p. 15. 69. Punyavijayaji (editor) • Angavijja Bombay, 1957, pp. 15, 112, 136 & 221. 113

B. SECONDARY SOURCES AND MODERN WORKS-coneld. 70. Qureshi, I.H. The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi, 4th edition, 1958, pp. 69-71. 71. Rama, T.S. Kuttanimatam, Bombay, 1923, V. 62. 72. Sastri, Damodara Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, Benaras, 1929, I, 3 '16 &. III, 3 '13. 73. Sastri, K.A.N. A Comprehensive History of India, Vol. II, 1956, pp. 432-433. 74. Schoff (ed.) The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 56 and 62. 75. Sewell, Robert A Forgotten Empire, London, 1924, p. 370.

76. Shamasastry, R. (translator) o The Arth.asastra of Kautilya, Mysore, 1923, p. 53. 77. Sharma, R.S. Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Bombay. 1966. pp. 75-86. 78. Sharma, Y.D. "Explorations of Historical Sites", Ancient India. No.9, 1953. pp. 124 &. 132. 79. Sharma Y.D. "Past Pattern in Living as Unfolded at Rupar". Lalit Kala, Nos. 1-2 (1956). pp. 121 & 127. 80. Shrigondekar, G.K. (editor) Manaso/lasa of Somesvara, Vol. I, Baroda. 1921,3.180, Vol. II, 1939, 126,1144,1672. 1683 & 1684. 81. Stein, Sir Aurel Ancient Khotan, Vol. I, pp 209 &. 222. 82. Stubbs, L.M. A Monograph on Ivory-Carving in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Allahabad, 1900, pp. 3-4. 83. Tucci, G. "Indian Paintings in Western Tibetan Temples". Artibus Asiae, VII, 1937. pp. 202-203.

84. Varahamihira o Brihatsamhita, II, 32, 19-26.

85. Vats, M.S. Excavations at Harappa, Vols. I &. II, 1940, pp. 116-117. 158 &. 459-461. 86. Watt, Sir George Indian Art at Delhi, 1903. Calcutta, pp., 175-185 & 187 -191. 87. Wheeler, Ghosh and Deva, K. • "Arikamedu: An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India." Aneient India, No.2, July 1946, p. 108.

17-2 ROljNDj67

INDEX

A Bengal 1, 2, 26, 56-57, 69-70, 104 Aitareya Brahmana 6 Berhampur 1, 25-26, 28, 69-70, 99, Ajmir· marwara I, 25-26, 68, 98, 106-107 105-109 Alexandria 7 Bernier 13 Alipura I, 25, 68, 99, 105, 107, Bhagadatta 47 108 Allstakhari 63 Bharata 61 Allauddin Khilji 19 Bhaskar Varman 7, 17,54 Alwar I, 25-26, 68, 98, 106-107 Bhera 1, 75, 98, 11 0 Amalaka 59 Bhrigukachchha 17 Ambar Palace 26 Bhuj 1, 25, 65, 99, 106 Amjaniya 43 Bidri work 20 Amaravati 50, 52 Bihar 1, 2, 26, 56-57, 104 Amritsar 1,'25-26,29, 65, 75,98, Bijapur 1,26,28,62,96,105 106-109 Bikaner 1-3, 25-26, 29, 63, 68, Amulet 57,104 93, 98, 105-107 Anantavarman 19 Bilgi 1,99 Anga 15 Billiard balls 24,75, 109 Angavijja 9 Boat 23, 108 Animal figure 23, 26, 68, 104 Bodhisattva 53, 54·57 Antimony Box 24,76 Bombay 1, 25-26, 28-29, 64, 95, Ardha-paryankasalla 57 105 Arikamedu 1, 17,25,47,83, 103 Book slide 24,74, 109 23, 26, 46, 103 Bracelet 24, 75-76, 106 Armlet Arrow head 23, 25, 40, 43, 101-102 Brahma 18 Arthasastra 5, 7, 15 Brihatsamhita 9 Ashar M ahall 62 Broach 1, 25, 64, 99, 106 15 Brush Back 24, 73·74, 109 Asmaka 1-2, 26, 54, 87, 104 53, 56-57, 61 Assam Buddha Buffalo 24,70, 108 Bullock carts 23,69 Autha 13 A valokiresl'ara 54, 57 Button 23, 25, 37, 66, 71, 101, 15 108 Avami 23, 25-26, 36, 39, 41, ' Awls 46, 101-103 1, 25, 42, 81, 102 Awra Ayod/lya I, 52, 103 c

B Cabinet 23 Calcutta 1, 25~26, 71, 99, 105- 1,26, 72,99, 109 106, 108-109 Balasore 23, 25, 40, 101 Cambay 1, 2, 25·26, 28, 59, 63, Balusters 91, 95, 104·105 Banabhatta 7,9,54, 26, 48-52, 103 Camel with driver 23,69, 109 Band 1. 25-26. 41, 46, 55, 57, Card case 23, 66, 67~70, 76, 108 Bangle 63·64, 68, 70-71, 77, Casket or Box 6, 23 .. 25, 40, 55, 60-61, 102·106 65-66, 70, 73-75, 101, 1,99 104, 106.107, 109 Banvasi 1, 71, 99, 110 Chain 24, 70·72, 109 Barabari 20 Chair 23, 66, 75, 107 Barbosa Chambus 64 Bari Mahal 63 1, 73, 99, 110 Chandraketugarh 1-2, 6, 25-26, 28, 41, Baroda 68 43, 46, 48, 55, 82, 84, Bartana 23, 25, 43, 102 87, 102-104 Bed 7, 23, 25, 43, 102 Charlemagne 55 Bed leg 23, 26, 62, 104-!O5 C haur i-Bearer 53 Bed·stead 1, 26, 28, 48, 52, 103 Chedi 15 Begram I, 2, 6, 25, 43, 60, 63, Chess-board 23, 26, 104-105 Benaras 77, 98, 102, 105, 108- Ches5man 23, 25, 66, 68, 71, 76, 109 103, 105, 107

115 116

Chindaman. 50 Elephant-fighting with tiger 23 Chirand I, 6, 15, 25, 28, 40, 78, -loaded with gun 23, 67, 108 101 -rider 23, 26, 103 Chittagong 1,99, 110 -whh howdah 24, 69-70, 77, 109 Chopar 66 English alphabets 66, 108 Comb 23, 25-26, 34, 38, 40-41, Ewer 7 44-45, 64, 66, 70-71, 76, 101-103, 105 Collyrium stick 6 F Cone 23, 25, 39, 101 Cow with calf or single 23,69, 108 Fan 23,66-77, 106 Crochet needles 24, 70 Fernao Nuniz 62 Crocodile 24, 70, 108 Figure-of Buddha 23, 26, 53-·54, 56, 104 Cubical gamesman i3, 25, 37, 101 -of Gajalakshmi 23, 26, 59-60, 104 Cup 23, 25, 39, 101 -of Hanuman 52 Cylindrical gamesman 23, 25, 39, 101 -showing a denseuse 23 -of Tortoise 24, 72 Firuz Shah 20 D Fish or fish-like pieces 23, 25, 36-37, 101

Dacca 1, 99, 110 Dagger 23, 24, 26, 48, 75, 103, G 109 Damodaragupta 9 Gabha 66 Dampati 45 Gajahastamudra 60 Danta.. Kara- Vithi 43 Gajasimha 58-59 Dantapadamaya 43 Game-piece 23,26, 54, 1M, 107 Dantapura 1, 7, 52, 84, 104 Gandhara 15 Dantasamudgaka 40 Garudas 75 Darbhanga 1-3, 63, 72, 94, 98, 105, Goa 1, 59, 96, 104 110 Goblet-shaped terminal 23, 25, 39, 101 • Darshani-door 65 Godavari 1, 64, 99, 106 Dasarna 1, 7,52,83, 103 GopaSudama 74 Daulatbazar I, 70, 99 Gopis 61 Deer 24,70, 108 Gujranwala 1, 75, 98, 110 Delhi 1, 25-26, 28-29, 67-68, Guttila Jataka 6 98, 105, 107-108 Deraghazikhan I, 75, 98, 110 Desopodesa 9 H Dhar 1, 25, 68, 99, 105, 107- 108 Dharmachakra 53 Hair-pin 23, 25~26, 33-34, 40-41 44, 101-102 ' Dharanikota 1,26, 52, 83, 103 -" Dhyanamudra 53-54 Halla 1, 73, 99, ·110 Handle 23, 25, 39, 43, 47, 101- Dice 23, 25, 34-35, 40-41, 46, 59, 66, 71, 101-105, 107 103, 108 Die or gamesman 23, 25, 45, 103 Handle of fan 23, 26, 48, 103 Hanuman 61 Disc 23, 26, 48, 74 7 - Harappa 1, 14, 25, 28, 38-40, 18, Divyavadana 101 Dog 24,70, 108 7 Harivamsa 8 Doll 5, 9 Door-way 23-24, 62, 65, 73, 105- ...Harsacharita 106 - Harshavardhan 7,54 55 Dupatta 54 Harun-ur-Rashid 68,69 Hastinapura 1, 2, 25, 55, 57, 87, 90, Durga 98, 104 57 Dwaraka 1-2, 25-26, 28-29, 57, 59, Hayagriva 90-91, 104 Hexagonal shrine 24,73, 109 Hill Tipperah 1, 29, 71, 99, 106, 110 Hippalus 16 E Hiranyakashipu 8 Horse plain or with nder 23,69 Ear-ornament 43, 102 Hoshiarpur 1, 26, 29, 75, 109 -reel 23, 25, 43, 102 Howdah 55, 70, 75, 77 -ring 7, 24, 70, 109 Human figures 23-25, 42, 46-47, 55-58, -ICratcher 24,71, 109 60, 70, 102-104 117

I Kumta 1,99 Kuru 15 Idol-Krishna 23, 64, 72, 106~107 Kutch 1, 73, 99, 110 -Vishnu 24, 73, 101 Kuttanimatam 9 Images 23, 66, 69, 107 Indore 1,75,99,110 Indragarh 1, 25, 55, 89, 104 Inlaid ivory work 23, 26, 62-63, 74, 76, 104-105, 109 L 24 Inlaying wood with ivory Lahore Ivory room 23, 26, 62, 105 1, 75, 98 Lakshmalla 61 Ivory work (General) 43, 52, 59, 63~64, 66-78, 102-103, 105, 110 Lalitasalla 61 Liang-shu 13 Lid 26,59, 104 Lion 23, 25, 43, 102 J Locket and chain 24,70, 109 Lokanatha 54 Jagaddhatri 69, 107 Lotbal 1, 14, 40, 78, 101 Jagannatha 59,69 Lucknow 1, 25, 60, 94, 104 Jaipur 1-3, 25-26, 29, 62-63, 65, Ludhiana I, 75, 98, 109 68, 93, 98, 105-107 Jamdarkhanah 20 Jar-stopper 23, 25, 33, 40, 101 Junagarh ], 25, 65, 99, 106 M

Magadha 15 K Mag/z 9 Mahabharata 5,8' Kachchhapa ol M a/zajanapada 80,81 Kadambari 9 Mahalakshmi 64 Kakinia 1, 71, 99, 110 Maharaja 53, 71, 76, 77 Kalamdan 76 Mahavastu 5,6 Kalasa 59 Maheth 1, 26, 55, 85, 104 Kalki 61 Mahisasura 69 Kali 69, 107 Mahuva 1, 66, 99, 110 Kalibangan 1,14,25,40,78, 101 Maitreya 57 Kalidasa 9 Makara 50,60 Kalinga 15 Makara-head 2:t, 26, 60, 104 Kamasutra 5,7 Male figure 23, 104 Kamboja 15 Malwa 1, 25, 45, 83, 103 Kanara 25-26,66,105,108,110 Manasara 9 Kanpore 1 25-26, 76, 98, 106-109 M anasollasa 11 Kapilavastu 1, 6, 25, 40-41, 43, 101- Manjusri 57 102 Masaon 1, 2, 25, 26, 45, 54, 82, Karachi 73,.110 85,103,104 Karkhana 20 Mat 23, 66, 77, 106 Karnatak region 1-2, 26, 59-60, 96, 10d Mathura 50,51 Kashmir 1-3, 13, 25-26, 28-29, 53- Matsya 15, 61 54, 56, 63, 85, 87, 93, Mayurpankhi 23,69, 108 104-105 Miniature-paintings 23, 67, 108 Kasi 15 -palanquin 23,69 Kathiawar. 1, 73, 99, 110 Mirror-back 24, 109 Kayatha 1,25,42,81, 102 -frame 23,65, 106 Kharavela 15 -handle 23, 25, 43, 47, 102, 103 Khondikar 71 Mithuna 15, 45, 56 Kirtimukha 60 Mohenjodaro 1, 14, 25, 26, 28, 33- Knife . 23, 26, 48, 103, 107, 38, 78, 101 109 Money counting board 24,73, 109 Knitting needles 24, 70, 109 Monghyr 1, 72, 98, 110 Kohl sticks or Antimony 23-25, 39, 43, 48, 68, Mother Goddess 42 rods 1(11-103, 109 Mothra I, 70,99 Kondapur 1,26,47,83, 103 Mouth piece of Hukka 24, 71, 109 Kosala IS Model-of building 76 Krishna 61, 64-65, 72, 74 -of fruit 24,77 Kshemendra 9 118

Model of Jagannath's 23,69 Plough with ploughman 24,70, 109 Car procession Points 23, 25, 40, 101 -of marriage cere­ 23,69 Poona 1, 25, 64, 73, 99, 105, 110 monies Pot 25,41, 102 -of procession 23 Prabhaspatan 1, 6, 25-26, 28, 40, 42, M richchha-Katika 9 44, 46, 81, 83, 101- Muhammad~bin~ Tughluq 20 103 Mukunda Harichandan 19 Pragjyotish I, 2, 25, 47, 84, 103 Mukuta 59 Prajnapanasutra 7 Mu1tanj 1, 2, 3, 63, 75, 93, 98, Prataparaudra 19 lOS, 110 Ptolemy 15 Mysore 1, 2, 3, 25-26, 29, 52, Purushottama-Deva 59 63, 74, 83, 96, 104·106, -Gajapati 19 109

N R NagaI ], 2, 6, 25-26, 28, 41-42, 45-46, 81, 83, 102-103 Raghuvamsam 9 Nagari 1, 26, 28, 82 Rajasuya-Yajna 8 Nagda 1, 2, 25, 26, 28, 41, 44 Rajghat I, 25, 45, 48, 82, 103 46, 81, 83, 101-103 Rajputana 1, 68, 98, 107-108 Narayana 74 Rama 61 Needle 23, 25, 26, 36, 41, 101- Ramayana 5,8, 73 102 Ranshagorgram 1,70,99 Nevasa J, 25, 26, 28, 47,52,83 Ranjit Singh 65 Nikitin 20 Ratlam 1, 25, 68, 99, 105, 107- Nrisimha 61 108 Rewa 1,26,68,99, 108 Rig-veda 14 o Ring 23, 26, 48, 54, 70, 103- 104, 108 Orissa ], 2, 25-26, 28, 56-57, Roclzanapisachika 41 58-59, 61-62, 72, 92, Rod 23, 25, 38-39, 101 97, 104, 106-108 Roundel 23, 25, 38, 101 Rupar 1, 2, 6, 13, 25-26, 28 40-45, 80, 101-102, 104 p

Padma 59 Padmasana 53.59 Painted ivory work 24; 77, 109 s Pali 1, 25, 26, 28, 29, 68, 77, 98, 106-108 Sadeli work 62 Panchala 15 Salastambha 17 Pandu.·rajar-dhibi 1, 6, 15, 25, 40, 79, lOt Sanchi 50,51 Panga 1, 25, 26. 71, 99, 105, Sandal Box 24,67, 108 ]06, 107, 109 Sankaran 1, 26, 48, 83, 103 Panjab 28 Sarasvati 57 Paper-cutter 23, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 76, Satrughna 61 107 Sattara 1, 25, 64, 99, 105 -weight 24, 109 Scent case 23, 66, 107 Parasurama 61 Scissor 24,76, 109 Pataka 46,47 Seal 23, 26, 44, 52, 55, 102- Pataliputra (Patna) 1, 2, 3, 25, 47, 59, 72, 104 82, 94, 98, 103-104, 110 Sehwan Town 1, 25-26, 66, 99, 107- Patiala I, 25-26, 75, 98, 106-107, 108 109 Settee back rest 23, 26, 63, 105 Pendant 23, 25, 26, 42, 46, 102, Shaft 23, 25, 39, 101 103 Shiva 18,69 Periplus 13, 15,83 Sialkot 1, 75, 98, 110 Photo frame 24, 70, 109 Siddapur 1,99 Pig 24, 70, 108 Silavanaga Jataka 6 Pilla.r-shaped piece 23, 25, 39, 101 SnuffBox 66 Plaques including panels 23, 26, 48, 52, 57, 59, Sonepur - 1, 6, 25, 43, 80, 102 103-104 South India 1,2, 16,26,29,60, 104 119

Srenibala 17 Urna 53 Sri-Lakshmi 46 Ushnisha 53 Stick 23, 26, 48, 66, 70, 71, 72, Utlariya 58 103, 106 Stupa 52,56 Stylus 23,25,40 v Subah 93-96 Sugriya 61 Vaisali 15 Surasena 15 Vajasaneyi Samhita 14 Surat 1, 3, 25, 28, 63, 66-67, Vajradhara 57 73, 95, 99, 105, 106- Vajrapani 57 108, 110 Vamana 61 Surmadani 68 Vanomala 53,54,58 Svastika 52 Varadamudra 54 Sword 23,26, 104 Varaha 61 -handle 23, 25, 47, 103 Vasavadatta 47 -hilt 23, 104, 105, 108 Vasistha 61 Sylhet 1, 25, 26, 29, 66, 99, 106, Yatsya 15 107 Vatsayana 16 Vegetable product 23,66, 108 Veneered ivory work: 24, 75 T Veni 46 Venugopa/a 61 Taitiiriyo Brohmano 14 Vessel 23,25, 35-36, 101 Tamralipti 17 Vidisa 1, 7, 52, 83, 103 Tara 57 Vijaynagar 1, 25, 26, 28, 29, 60-61, Tatta 1, 26, 29, 64, 93, 105 62, 96, 104, 105 Taxila 1, 2, 6, 8, 25, 26, 28, Vinaya 7 41, 42, 43-44, 46-48, 80, Virgil 8 82, 102-103 Vishnu 18 Ter 1, 46, 83, 103 Visvapani 57 Terry 12 Vizagapatam 1, 25, 26, 29, 75, 105, Three-tiered 3iupa 23, 26, 56-57, 104 109 Throne leg 23, 26, 58-59, 61-62, 104 Vriji 15 Thumb guard 23,68, 108 Tiara 58 Tirupati 1, 64, 99, 106 Torana 51,52 w Toy 23, 24, 67, 103, 108 74, 107, 108, 109 Toy furniture 23, 48, 76, 103 Work box Travancore 1, 2, 3, 25, 26, 29, 59, Writing cases 23 73 .. 74, 96, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109 Tribhanga 54,56 Trichinopoly 1,28,29, 77 y Tri-ratna 52 .. Yajnopavita 53 u Yaksha 53,57 Yakshi 48,50 Udaipur 1, 2, 3, 25, 26, 29, 63, Yudhisthira 8,47 68, 93, 98, 105, 106, 110 Ujjain 1, 2, 6, 25, 26, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 83, 102, 103

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