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Lecture 1 Notes, Pdf File Spring, 2009 Kolmogorov complexity and its applications Paul Vitanyi Computer Science University of Amsterdam http://www.cwi.nl/~paulv/course-kc We live in an information society. Information science is our profession. But do you know what is “information”, mathematically, and how to use it to prove theorems? You will, by the end of the term. Examples Average case analysis of Shellsort. Open since 1959. What is the distance between two pieces of information carrying entities? For example, distance from an internet query to an answer. Lecture 1. History and Definition History Intuition and ideas in the past Inventors Basic mathematical theory The course. Textbook: Li-Vitanyi: An introduction to Kolmogorov complexity and its applications, preferably the third edition! Homework every week about last lecture, mid-term and final exam (or possibly individual project and presentation). 1. Intuition & history What is the information content of an individual string? 111 …. 1 (n 1’s) π = 3.1415926 … n = 21024 Champernowne’s number: 0.1234567891011121314 … is normal in scale 10 (every block has same frequency) All these numbers share one commonality: there are “small” programs to generate them. Shannon’s information theory does not help here. 1903: An interesting year This and the next two pages were stolen from Lance Fortnow 1903: An interesting year Kolmogorov Church von Neumann Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (1903, Tambov, Russia—1987 Moscow) Measure Theory Probability Analysis Intuitionistic Logic Cohomology Dynamical Systems Hydrodynamics Kolmogorov complexity When there were no digital cameras (1987). A story of Dr. Samuel Johnson … Dr. Beattie observed, as something remarkable which had happened to him, that he chanced to see both No.1 and No.1000 hackney-coaches. “Why sir,” said Johnson “there is an equal chance for one’s seeing those two numbers as any other two.” Boswell’s Life of Johnson The case of cheating casino Bob proposes to flip a coin with Alice: Alice wins a dollar if Heads; Bob wins a dollar if Tails Result: TTTTTT …. 100 Tails in a roll. Alice lost $100. She feels being cheated. Alice goes to the court Alice complains: T100 is not random. Bob asks Alice to produce a random coin flip sequence. Alice flipped her coin and got THTTHHTHTHHHTTTTH … But Bob claims Alice’s sequence has probability 2-100, and so does his. How do we define randomness? 2. Roots of Kolmogorov complexity and preliminaries (1) Foundations of Probability P. Laplace: … a sequence is extraordinary (nonrandom) because it contains regularity (which is rare). 1919. von Mises’ notion of a random sequence S: limn→∞{ #(1) in n-prefix of S}/n =p, 0<p<1 The above holds for any subsequence of S selected by an “admissible” selection rule. If `admissible rule’ is any partial function then there are no random sequences. A. Wald: countably many admissible selection rules. Then there are “random sequences. A. Church: recursive selection functions J. Ville: von Mises-Wald-Church random sequence does not satisfy all laws of randomness. Roots … (2) Information Theory. Shannon theory is on an ensemble. But what is information in an individual object? (3) Inductive inference. Bayesian approach using universal prior distribution (4) Shannon’s State x Symbol (Turing machine) complexity. Preliminaries and Notations Strings: x, y, z. Usually binary. x=x1x2 ... an infinite binary sequence xi:j =xi xi+1 … xj |x| is number of bits in x. Textbook uses l(x). Sets, A, B, C … |A|, number of elements in set A. Textbook uses d(A). K-complexity vs C-complexity, names etc. I assume you know Turing machines, universal TM’s, basic facts ... 3. Mathematical Theory Solomonoff (1960)-Kolmogorov (1965)-Chaitin (1969): The amount of information in a string is the size of the smallest program of an optimal Universal TM U generating that string. CC (x)(x) == minmin {|p|:{|p|: U(p)U(p) == xx }} UU pp Invariance Theorem: It does not matter which optimal universal Turing machine U we choose. I.e. all “universal encoding methods” are ok. Proof of the Invariance theorem Fix an effective enumeration of all Turing machines (TM’s): T1, T2, … Define C = min {|p|: T(p) = x} T p U is an optimal universal TM such that (p produces x) n U(1 0p) = Tn(p) Then for all x: CU(x) ≤ CTn(x) + n+1, and |CU(x) – CU’(x)| ≤ c . Fixing U, we write C(x) instead of CU(x). QED Formal statement of the Invariance Theorem: There exists a computable function S0 such that for all computable functions S, * there is a constant cS such that for all strings x ε {0,1} CS0(x) ≤ CS(x) + cS It has many applications Mathematics --- probability theory, logic, statistics. Physics --- chaos, thermodynamics. Computer Science – average case analysis, inductive inference and learning, shared information between documents, data mining and clustering, incompressibility method -- examples: Prime number theorem Goedel’s incompleteness Shellsort average case Heapsort average case Circuit complexity Lower bounds on combinatorics, graphs,Turing machine computations, formal languages, communication complexity, routing Philosophy, biology, cognition, etc – randomness, inference, learning, complex systems, sequence similarity Information theory – information in individual objects, information distance Classifying objects: documents, genomes Query Answering systems Mathematical Theory cont. Intuitively: C(x)= length of shortest description of x Define conditional Kolmogorov complexity similarly, with C(x|y)=length of shortest description of x given y. Examples C(xx) = C(x) + O(1) C(xy) ≤ C(x) + C(y) + O(log(min{C(x),C(y)}) C(1n ) ≤ O(logn) C(π1:n) ≤ O(logn); C(π1:n |n) ≤ O(1) For all x, C(x) ≤ |x|+O(1) C(x|x) = O(1) C(x|ε) = C(x); C(ε|x)=O(1) 3.1 Basics Incompressibility: For constant c>0, a string x ε {0,1}* is c-incompressible if C(x) ≥ |x|-c. For constant c, we often simply say that x is incompressible. (We will call incompressible strings random strings.) Lemma. There are at least 2n – 2n-c +1 c-incompressible strings of length n. k n-c Proof. There are only ∑k=0,…,n-c-1 2 = 2 -1 programs with length less than n-c. Hence only that many strings (out of total 2n strings of length n) can have shorter programs (descriptions) than n-c. QED. Facts If x=uvw is incompressible, then C(v) ≥ |v| - O(log |x|). Proof. C(uvw) = |uvw| ≤ |uw| +C(v)+ O(log |u|) +O(log C(v)). If p is the shortest program for x, then C(p) ≥ |p| - O(1) C(x|p) = O(1) but C(p|x) ≤ C(|p|)+O(1) (optimal because of the Halting Problem!) If a subset A of {0,1}* is recursively enumerable (r.e.) (the elements of A can be listed by a Turing machine), and A is sparse (|A=n| ≤ p(n) for some polynomial p), then for all x in A, |x|=n, C(x) ≤ O(log p(n) ) + O(C(n)) +O(|A|)= O(log n). 3.2 Asymptotics Enumeration of binary strings: 0,1,00,01,10, mapping to natural numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, … C(x) →∞ as x →∞ Define m(x) to be the monotonic lower bound of C(x) curve (as natural number x →∞). Then m(x) →∞, as x →∞, and m(x) < Q(x) for all unbounded computable Q. Nonmonotonicity: for x=yz, it does not imply that C(y)≤C(x)+O(1). Graph of C(x) for integer x. Function m(x) is greatest monotonic non-decreasing lower bound. Length-conditional complexity. Let x=x_1...x_n. Self-delimiting codes are x’=1^n 0x with |x’|=2n+1 , and x’’= 1^{|n|}0nx with |x’’| = n+2|n|+1 (|n|=log n). n-strings are x’s of the form x=n’0...0 with n=|x|. Note that |n’|=2 log n +1. So, for every n, C(x| n)=O(1) for all n-strings. Graph of C(x|l(x)). Function m(x) is greatest monotonic non-decreasing lower bound. 3.3 Properties Theorem (Kolmogorov) (i) C(x) is not partially recursive. That is, there is no Turing machine M s.t. M accepts (x,k) if C(x)≥k and undefined otherwise. (ii) However, there is H(t,x) such that H(t+1,x) ≤ H(t,x) and limt→∞H(t,x)=C(x) where H(t,x) is total recursive. Proof. (i) If such M exists, then design M’ as follows. M’ simulates M on input (x,n), for all |x|=n in “parallel” (one step each), and outputs the first x such that M says `yes.’ Choose n >> |M’|. Thus we have a contradiction: C(x)≥n by M, but M’ outputs x hence |x|=n >> |M’| ≥ C(x) ≥ n. (ii) TM with program for x running for t steps defines H(t,x). QED 3.4 Godel’s Theorem Theorem. The statement “x is random (=incompressible)” is undecidable for all but finitely many x. Proof (J. Barzdins, G. Chaitin). Let F be an axiomatic theory (sound, consistent, containing PA). C(F)= C. If the theorem is false and statement “x is random” is provable in F, then we can enumerate all proofs in F to find a proof of “x is random”. Consider x’s with (1) |x| >> C+O(log |x|), and output (first) random such x. Then (2) C(x) < C +O(log |x|) But the proof for “x is random” implies that (3) C(x) ≥ |x|. Now (1)+(2)+(3) yields a contradiction, C+O(log |x|) >> C+O(log |x|). QED 3.5 Barzdin’s Lemma A characteristic sequence of set A is an infinite binary sequence χ=χ1χ2 …, χi=1 iff iεA.
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