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2006 A New Method of Interpreting the Valois Tapestries, through a History of Catherine de Médicis Pascal-François Bertrand

Pamela J. Warner University of Rhode Island, [email protected]

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Citation/Publisher Attribution Bertrand, Pascal-François. "A New Method of Interpreting the Valois Tapestries, through a History of Catherine de Médicis." Translated by Pamela J. Warner. Studies in the Decorative Arts 14 (2006): 27-52. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/studdecoarts.14.1.40663287

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Art and Art History at DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Art and Art History Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A New Methodof Interpretingthe Valois PASCAL-FRANÇOISBERTRAND Tapestries,through a Historyof Catherine de Médicis

In 1959, FrancesA. Yates publishedthe resultsof her researchon the Valois tapestries,made in Brusselstoward the end of the sixteenth centuryand todayheld in Florence.This prestigiousensemble comprises eight large pieces featuringfine workmanshipand brightand lively colors,enhanced with gold and silver.1According to the Englishhisto- rian,William of Orange had thetapestries executed at themoment when Francois -Hercule d'Alençon-d Anjou, thelast son ofCatherine de Médi- cis and HenriII ofFrance (of theValois dynasty),overturned the power ofPhilip II ofSpain in Holland,took the title of the duc de Brabant,and made his entryinto Antwerp (1582). Yates assertedthat William then had the tapestriesdelivered to the queen motherby Dutch ambassadors whowere eager to renewtheir alliance with her third son, King Henri III. Yates'sstudy, regarded as thedefinitive work on thisset ofhangings, is a good exampleof an impressiveintellectual scaffolding resting on the mostfragile of hypotheses, which have been transformedsince their first writinginto certitudes. Objections expressed by Jean Coural (1972), Roy Strong(1973), and Léon de Groër (1989), amongothers, have done littleto weakenthis study's authority.2 Coural observeda fundamentalflaw in Yates's proposal,which claimsthat the serieswas woven in Antwerp,whereas the markof the cityof Brusselsis affixedto the edge of six of the eightpieces, and two of the unidentifiedweavers' monograms can also be seen there.3Strong remarkedthat the tapestries' originality lay in thepresence of identifiable portraitsin theirforegrounds, interpreted until then as simpleinterme- diariesbetween the festivalscenes represented in the backgroundsand theviewer. He addedthat the tapestries could not be laterthan 1581, the date ofthe "magnificent"wedding of Anne d'Arqués,duc de Joyeuse,to Margueritede Lorraine,half-sister of the wifeof Henri III, whichwas celebratedwith the famousBallet comique de la reinepublished in 1582, because no referenceto it is made in the festivalsrepresented in the weavings.De Groërmoved the datingback even further,believing that the tapestrieswere commissioned around 1575 by the queen motheror

Pascal-FrançoisBertrand is Professorof Art Historyat the UniversitéMichel de Mon- taigne,Bordeaux 3.

Studiesin theDecorative Arts/F all-Winter 2006-2007 27

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This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 29 bysomeone in herclose entouragebecause Catherine de Médicisappears in all ofthe tapestries except one (givenher superstitious nature and her interestin magic and astrology,to appear in all would have been inauspicious).De Groërpresented four observations in supportof this date: all of the membersof the royalfamily represented in the hanging wereliving when the tapestries were executed (none ofthe queen's dead childrenare shown);the facesof figuresrepresented in the foreground correspondto portraitsexecuted around 1575, such as thatof Louisede Vaudémont,who, in Februaryof thatyear, had just marriedHenri III;5 thecostumes reflect the fashions of the 1570s,in particularthe medium- sizedruff and the tall velvethat, decorated on the frontwith jewels and smallfeathers, worn tilted back to the rearof the head; and finally- a weightyargument - none of the figureswears the chain of the Orderof the Holy Spirit,founded by HenriIII in 1578.6 Fromthis initial overview of the critics, it seemsthat almost nothing is knownfor certain about this tapestry series, which was inventoriedin Florencein 1589 amongthe goodsbrought from France by Christine de Lorraine.It was Cecilia Lisi and Jean Ehrmannwho thoughtthey recognizedit in themention of a goldtapestry à figure, et fregio à grottesche et altro(with figures and a borderof grotesquesand more),presented by Catherinede Médiciswith two other luxurious ensembles to herfavorite granddaughter,Christine de Lorraine,perhaps on the occasion of her marriageto the grandduke of Tuscany, Ferdinand L7 While the dimen- sionsgiven in the inventorycorrespond with those of the Valois tapes- tries,the formulaused to describethe tapestryà figureis mostlaconic. Furthermore,if it is acceptedthat the seriesinventoried in 1589 is the sameas theone in Florencetoday, the description also indicatesthat the meaningof the set had been lostby the time this gift was recorded,a gift maderelatively quickly after the weavingof the ensemble(whether it is datedto 1575 or 1582-1585). There are two furtherquestions: what is the subjectof the Valois seriesand what is its meaning?In orderto respond,it is necessaryto investigatethe nature of the relationship between the motifs represented in the tapestries(the portraitsin the foregroundsand the festivalscenes in thebackgrounds), the initialfunction of the hangings, and finallythe conditionsin whichthis masterpiece was produced.

The Multivalent Subject of the Tapestries It is knownhow mucha work'stitle influences perception of it and orientsits meaning. In the secondhalf of the sixteenthcentury, a work

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of art could be intendedto have morethan one meaning-Since they arousedthe interestof historiansin the earlytwentieth century, the worksin Florencehave generallybeen called the "Valois tapestries,"or sometimesthe "Fêtesdes Valois."8These fairlyvague denominations, whichreflect the notionof a lost meaning,mark at the same timethe beginningof an interpretation,centered on the identityof the life-sized portraitsof the royal family in the earlyyears of Henri Ill's reign(figures representedlaterally across the foregroundof the hangings)and also on the identificationof the grandioseand costlyextravaganzas of the reign ofCharles IX representedin thebackground. (For a simplifiedgenealogy of the Valois dynasty,see p. 29.) Amongthe membersof the royalfamily, the queen mother,Cathe- rinede Medíeis,can be recognizedfirst of all, in mourning,a dwarf at her feet,in the Carrouseldes chevaliersbretons et irlandaisà Bayonne(Tour- nament)(Fig. 1; titlesin parenthesesare those used by Frances Yates). To her rightstands her daughterMarguerite de Valois and her daughter's spouse,Henri de Navarre,in profile.Catherine's daughter is also repre- sentedtwo more times in theseries. She appearswith her husband, to the leftin the Fêtenautique sur l'Adour (Whale) (Fig. 4), and there,between the two of them,stands Charles III, duc de Lorraineand widowerof Claude de Valois,second daughter of Catherine de Médicis,who died in 1575,several days before the weddingof HenriIII to Louisede Vaudé- mont.Marguerite de Valois also appearsa thirdtime, to theright in the Mascaradede ΐ éléphant(Elephant) (Fig. 5), betweenher brother François- Hercule d'Alençon and a young,unidentified man. Catherine'stwo livingsons each appeartwice. Henri III, herfavorite son, is shownalone, wearingantique costume,about to mount a horse in the Jeu de h quintaine(Quintain) (Fig. 2), and withhis wife,Louise de Vaudémont,in the rightforeground of the Attaquede l'îledevant le châteaude Fontaine- bleau(Fontainebleau) (Fig. 3). Louisede Vaudémontappears again, to the right,in theCarrousel des chevaliers bretons et irfondais à Bayonne (Fig. 1), acrossfrom the queen mother and her daughter Marguerite, accompanied bya man and twoother women. One ofthese last figures, seen fromthe FIGURE 1 (facing page) back, was identifiedas possiblyher half-sister,Marguerite de Lorraine, Carrousel des chevaliersbretons et irlandaisà who, in 1581, marriedAnne, duc de Joyeuse,whose wedding, as cited Bayonne (Tournament). Brussels tapestry, above,was theoccasion of the famous Ballet comique de la reinepublished unidentified c. 1575. atelier, Wool, silk, in 1582. FinallyFrançois-Hercule d'Alençon, who was alreadyseen with gold,and silver,391 χ 611 cm. Figs.1*8 his sisterMarguerite, stands holding a lance in his hand,to the rightin are all Galleriadegli Uffizi, on deposit the Combatà la barrière PalazzoPitti, Ministero dei Béni e le (Barriers)(Fig. 6).9 AttivitàCulturali, Florence. Photo: Casa The backgroundscenes recall the finest hours of the court of Cathe- EditriceSillabe, Livorno. rine de Médicis,attesting to the magnificenceand generosityof the

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FIGURE 2 queen mother,who had no equal otherthan "her great uncle Pope Leo de ία Brussels Jeu quintaine(Quintain). and LordLorenzo the Magnificent," according to Pierrede Bourdeillesde tapestry,unidentified atelier, c. 1575. Brantôme. Three of thesescenes evoke the festivitiesat Bayonnein Wool, silk,gold, and silver,387 χ 400 cm. the end of the tourof Francetaken Catherine Photo:Casa EditriceSillabe, Livorno. 1565, marking grand by and her youngson Charles IX, aftertheir meetingwith her older

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 33 daughterElisabeth (15464568), wifeof Philip II of Spain. A fourth episoderecalls a nauticalparty given at Fontainebleau,just beforethe departurein 1564 forthe above-mentionedtour of France.The fifth scene, Fete aux Tuileriesen l'honneurdes ambassadeurspolonais (Polish Ambassadors)(Fig. 7), depictsthe receptionof the Polish ambassadors whocame to theTuileries in 1573 to electCatherine's second son, Henri d'Anjou,to the Polishthrone. In thisgarden, "festivals, jousts, foot and horsecombats" were given, as well as a courtballet, "the most beautiful ballet that was ever producedin the world,"according to Brantôme, whereone couldsee Apollo on a rock,an allusionto Henri,and sixteen nymphssymbolizing the Frenchprovinces.11 A sixthfestivity was the Combatà la barrière(Fig. 6), a frequentperformance that could have been given at Fontainebleauin 1564, but also elsewhere.12It should be recalledthat Henri II died on July10, 1559,following a woundreceived duringa joust that pittedhim againstGabriel de Montgomery,the captainof his Scottish guards, on theoccasion of a tournamentorganized forJune 30 to markthe weddingby proxy of Elisabeth with Philip II of Spain on June22. A seventhscene, Mascarade à Γéléphant (Fig. 5), shows an extravagantmasquerade, with an automatedelephant under attack. There had been such a festivalwhen François-Herculed'Alençon- d'Anjou enteredAntwerp in 1582,which allowed Yates to deducethat the tapestrieswere produced for that event, as no mentionof a similar performanceis knownin the accountsof royalparties. This typeof masqueradecould have been givenon otheroccasions, however, if the associationis made to a paintingin the styleof Antoine Caron (c. 1520-c. 1579); collection Jean Ehrmann) apparentlydone around 1600.13Finally, an eighthscene, Départde la Cour du châteaud'Anet (Journey)(Fig. 8), representsthe royalretinue in processionbefore the Châteaud'Anet, where Queen Catherineis shownin a litter(an episode thataccording to Yates is an allusionto the journeyof the duc d'Anjou to his new kingdom,Poland), and the youngKing Charles IX (d. 1574) ridesat the head of the line (centerforeground, facing out). CharlesIX has the featuresof his brotherEdouard- Alexandre, duc d'Anjou,14who in 1574 succeededhim as HenriIII.15 The commonlyused titleof each of thesepieces has been deter- minedby the festivity represented (Yates's organization of the tapestries in the seriesonly partly follows the chronologicalorder of the events depicted),and thattitle completely ignores the figuresstanding in the foreground.16The primacyaccorded to the festivalsin the titleof each tapestryhas orientedthe readingof the compositions,which have generallybeen understoodas historiatedscenes, framed by life-sized

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This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The Vahis Tapestriesand Catherinede Médias 35 portraitsserving as mererepoussoirs, arranged in one or the otherof the twolower corners of each tapestry(Fig. 1). OnlyStrong speaks first of the portraits,which are placedlaterally in the foregroundson terracesover- lookingeach historiatedscene, therefore appearing to be superimposed on the scene itself-Neither he, nor anyone else, however,made a connectionbetween the foregroundand backgroundcompositions. These twotypes of approaches to themeaning of the series do notgo anyfurther than the mereobservation of a simplerelationship between thebackground scene and thefigures in theforeground, and thusmiss the deepermeaning of the tapestries.They offerno definitionof the rela- tionshipbetween the two levels of the image,which function as two juxtaposedspaces, held togetherby the surface of the tapestry itself. The "portraitspace" is constitutedby the illustriousmembers of the court, representedlife-size, standing in the foregroundin a clearlydefined space,a terracesometimes made concrete by the inclusionof a railingor marblesteps (Fig. 7).17 Gatheredinto small groups(from two to four people), the membersof the royalfamily are at once the attentive spectatorsof the festivitiesenacted in the backgroundand the viewer's "presenters"to the entertainmentsshown. The eventsfiguring in the backgroundsconstitute what can be called the "spaceof the historiated scene."This space is generallyclosed at the frontby the figureswho stand,sit, or are shownhalf-length, watching the spectacle.They some- timescomment on it or even directtheir gaze towardthe viewersand invite them to admirethe party,playing therefore the role of the Albertian"admonisher."18 A distancingis at work,which results from thedifference in scale ofthe figures belonging to one or the otherof the spaces:those of the "portrait space" are ofcourse larger than those of the "spaceof the historiatedscenes" (Fig. 4). The vieweris thusdoubly implicated in the tapestries.The tech- nique of takingthe spectatoraside is used to emphasizethe interaction betweenthe scenes. In thesetapestries, viewers see their"doubles," both in the figuresof the "portraitspace" and in the spectatorsof the "space of the historiatedscenes." This complexrepresentational game evokes the "invertedstill-life paintings" in Antwerpart of the 1550s,in which a stilllife in theforeground bears an ambiguousrelationship to a religious FIGURE 3 (facing page) de Vue devant le château de scenein thebackground.19 Whatever the direction of the reading - from Attaque Fontainebleau(Fontainebleau) . Brussels the to that of the of the historiatedscene" or "portraitspace" "space tapestry,unidentified atelier, c. 1575. - vice-versa the tapestriesput a similardevice into play, with a message Wool, silk,gold, and silver,404 χ 344 cm. thatcan be understoodas worthyof the royalfamily. Photo:Scala/Art Resource, New York.

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FIGURE 4 A Double AllegorizedImage of the Valois Fête nautique sur VAàour (Whale). Brussels tapestry,unidentified atelier, c. 1575. The originalityof the Valois hangingslies in theirplayful combi- Wool, silk,gold, and silver,355 χ 394 cm. nations,of famous people in theforeground, who link the series to woven Photo:Casa EditriceSillabe, Livorno. ensemblesof princelyportraits intended as dynasticpraise and as legit- imizingthe monarch or thereigning family,20 and ofprincely festivals in the backgroundthat have a politicalfunction or symbolicvalue. The

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 37 gold used in the weavingmakes the cloth productitself precious, and dignifieswhat is represented-The goldsupports de Groër'sidea thatthe tapestrieswere a commissionfrom royalty or fromthe entourageof the queen mother.It is the associationof thesefactors that permits a new readingof the series, which can be seenas a picture(not to saya portrait) of Catherinede Médicisin 15754576, a difficultperiod in her life. The queenmother was strongly affected by the death of her daughter Claude de Lorraineseveral days before the wedding of Henri III, and she did not findany comfort in hersurviving children who livedwith her at court,or in the king,the duc d'Alençon,her daughterMarguerite de Valois, or her son-in-lawHenri de Navarre.She had to contendwith theirconflicts, which had stirredup rebellionin a climateof national malaise.Slanderous tracts about Catherine, such as the Discoursmerveil- leux de 'a vie, actionset déportementsde h reine(appearing in the summer of 1574), and the Reveille-matindes Françaiset de leursvoisins composé par Eusèbe Philadelphe(1574; writtenin February1573), denouncedthe queen motheras primarilyresponsible for the country'swoes, censured heractions, and condemnedher private life. The tractswent so faras to demandthe replacement of the Valois monarchy,making a directappeal to the Guise family,and callingfor the executionof Catherine.22 Henri III criticizedhis sister for her libertinage - herreal or supposed lovers. He also had his brotherd'Alençon, whom the king's minionsenjoyed insultingwithout being reprimanded, placed under surveillance. In ven- geance,the queen mother'sdaughter Marguerite had no troublemaking allies of her husbandand her brother.The resultis known:d'Alençon fledto his propertiesin westernFrance in September1575; de Navarre withdrewto hisholdings in thesouthwest in early1576 and convertedto Protestantism;and Margueritewas imprisoned(and only freedon the interventionof her mother). The queen mothercontinued to negotiate withthe Protestants to signthe treaty of Beaulieu-lès-Loches, also called thepaix de Monsieur(May 7, 1576). The kingmade large concessions to the Protestants,and his brotherd'Alençon saw the largestprofits, re- ceivingenormous additional privileges from the Crownand takingthe titleof the duc d'Anjou.23 Catherinede Médiciswas the inspirationfor national reconciliation and unitythat drove the peace edictof 1576, and she can be seenas using the tapestryseries to politicalends. It presenteda dignifiedimage of the royalfamily, thereby glossing over the family discord and therumors that caused it, placingCatherine with her childrenat her side next to the festivalsof the previousreign, which symbolicallyrecalled the moral principlesin whichthe queen motherbelieved. Care was takennot to

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representthe kingin the companyof his brotherand his sister,while Margueriteis shownwith her brother François-Hercule, duc d'Alençon. In Figure1, Catherinede Médicis appearsin the companyof her daughterMarguerite and her son-in-lawHenri de Navarre,across from the spouse of the king,Louise de Vaudémont,a princesswithout a fortuneand withouta hope ofsuccession,24 apparently surrounded by her own relatives(the Guises,of whom she was a distantcousin), observing a performanceof the Carrouseldes chevaliersbretons et irlandaisà Bayonne. This courtballet, which was held in Bayonneon June25, 1565,involved a simulatedbattle of knightson horseback,the one side representing Virtueand the other,Love. In the backgroundappear, to the right,the chariotof the Cardinal Virtues, in whichPrudence, Valor (or Strength), Justice,and Temperancehave all takentheir places, and, to the left,the chariotof Love carryingVenus and Cupid, surroundedby a cortegeof putti as indicated by the Recueil des choses notablesqui ont été faitesà Bayonne(Paris, 1566). The messageis clear.It recallsthe Valois alliances concludedthrough marriages with the Bourbonsand the Guises,as well as the principalvirtues that Catherine's daughters had to possess. In Figure2, the imageof Henri III associatedwith the Jeude la quintaineevokes the skilland the valor of the king,represented as an ideal prince,in the costumeof the imperator,holding the commander's batonin hisright hand. This imageis strengthenedby the representation of costumedknights who, during the Bayonnefestivals on June19, had participatedin the jeu de bagues,played on horsebackwith galloping riderstrying to run a lance througha suspendedring. The Recueildes chosesnotables qui ont étéfaites à Bayonnedescribes the king,Charles IX, as theRoman Emperor Trajan, his brother Henri following him disguised as an Amazonand the "chevaliersMaure, Espagnol, Romain, Grec, et Albanais,accompagnés de damesde leurpays" and otherlords disguised as "femmesà l'antique"with masked faces (see, forexample, the small male figurein the backgroundscene holdinga maskin his righthand, justbehind the largefigure of Henri III in the leftcenter foreground).25 Henri III also appears,accompanied by his wife,in the tapestryof the Attaquede Viledevant le châteaude Fontainebleau(Fig. 3), a spectacle that includedthe freeing of women imprisoned on an enchantedisland by the king and his brothers.The meaningseems evident: the Monarchy liberatesits obedient subjects. Margueritede Valois is represented,as has been seen, with her mother.She also appearswith her husband de Navarreand herbrother d'Alençon.The Fêtenautique sur VAdour (Fig. 4), whereMarguerite and de Navarreare shownwith Charles de Lorraine,recalls the sumptuous

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 39 banquetgiven by Catherinede Médicis on June24, 1565, in a "large octagonalroom," set up on the island of Adour,surrounded by trees "wherethe queen mymother," wrote Marguerite in her memoirs,"ar- rangedsmall niches all around,and in each one a roundtable for twelve people."26During the crossingof the gueststo the island,a waterand musicspectacle was given,during which an attackon an artificialwhale took place. The theme was peace betweenFrance and Spain, with universalpeace representedby the gods of nature(Neptune, Tritons, sirens)around the king of France, following the defeatof the monsterof war (the whale). On the banks,shepherds (an allusionto the French provinces)danced to the sound of the Frenchhorn.27 Finally, after dinner,a balletof nymphs took place. Here againthe symbolism is clear: the celebrationof universalpeace and the commemorationof the festi- vals, includingthe "Paradisd'Amour," held in honorof Margueritede Valois's weddingto Henri de Navarre(1572). (This was the infamous "vermillionwedding," still in everyone'smemory, red with the blood of theSt. Bartholomew'sDay Massacre.)28Mascarade à Véléphant (Fig. 5), a kindof military ballet around a representationof an elephant,symbol of the royalperson, evokes the traditionalnotion of force,strength, and power.29The tapestryis a representationof the threeliving children of Catherinede Médicis,King Henri III (symbolizedby the ballet'sele- phant), with Margueritede Valois and François-Herculed'Alençon, standingin theforeground to the right.30D'Alençon is also represented in theforeground of the Combatà la barrière(Fig. 6), a frequentjoust in tournamentsand festivals,which emphasized the courageand valor of thearmed knights fighting with long spears. After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre,d'Alençon was advancedby the queen motherand the 1 kingin the hopes of bringingpeace back to the kingdom. The last two tapestriesno longershow the queen motherand her children,but people of uncertainor at leastdebated identity, who must have been close to the Crown,the favoritesof the king.Scholars have recognizedHenri de Guise or Anne de Joyeusein the foregroundof the Fête au Tuileriesen Vhonneur des ambassadeurspolonais (Fig. 7). Henri de Guise belongedto the privateCouncil and underCharles IX and Henri III wasgrand master or "firstservant" to thesekings, until he opposedthe king in 1578 and was distancedfrom royal affairs in 1585. Anne de Joyeuse,one ofthe principal favorites of Henri III, was raisedto the title of duke in 1581, the yearin whichhe marriedMarguerite de Lorraine, the king'shalf-sister. Wouldn't it be betterto seek the identityof the threefigures represented in the rightforeground of the Départde la cour du châteaud'Anet (Fig. 8) amongthe companionsof the tripto Poland

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FIGURE 5 (Pibrac,the maréchalde Bellegarde,Larchant, Villequier, and so forth) Mascarade à Brussels l'éléphant(Elephant). and the king'sfavorites (the duc d'Épernon,the comte de Quélus, tapestry,unidentified atelier, c. 1575. d'Entragues,Bussy d'Amboise, and so forth),since the royalretinue is Wool, silk,gold, and silver,387 χ 670 cm. shownin the It is the thatthe identification Photo:Scala/Art Resource, New York. background? case,however, ofundocumented portraits remains one ofthe most delicate tasks to carry FIGURE 6 (facing page) out.32 Combat à la barrière(Barriers). Brussels These examplesshould suffice to showthat the Valois tapestriescan tapestry,unidentified atelier, c. 1575. no be viewed,as Yates as a celebrationof Wool, silk,gold, and silver,386 χ 328 cm. longer thought, representing Photo:Casa EditriceSillabe, Livorno. the arrivalof d'Alençon-d'Anjou in Holland.They are insteada verita- ble Histoirede Catherinede Médias or a Histoiredes derniersValois. The queen motherappears in theweavings, as she appearedin the triumphal entriesinto towns, surrounded by the royal family, by her children whom she molded in her own image. Indeed, she imbuedthem with Neo-

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FIGURE 7 Platonicvalues and taughtthe princeshow to hold court.33Under the Fête aux Tuileriesen l'honneurdes guiseof representing festivals from the previous reign, the queen mother ambassadeurspolonais (Polish Ambassadors). made clear thatshe stillheld the reinsof powerduring the 15754576 Brusselstapestry, unidentified atelier, trucein thewars of religion. The seriestherefore offers a doubleimage of c. 1575. Wool, silk,gold, and silver,388 and her the the super- x 480 cm. Photo:Scala/Art Resource, Catherinede Médicis family: first,demonstrating New York. naturaland atemporalnature of the Valois dynasty;the second, showing the harmony,concord, and peace that the queen mothersought her

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 43 entirelife (though vainly), believing as she did in themerits of the peace edicts.These wouldinclude the Peace ofAmboise (1563), the Peace of St. Germain(1570) afterthe second and thirdwars of religion in France (1567-1568),and the Peace of Beaulieu(1576).

QuicklyExecuted Tapestries It is appropriateto maketwo additional observations to supportthe rereadingproposed here. The first,of a technicalorder, concerns the conditionsof weaving and theplace ofexecution. If the series was a royal commission,it could be askedwhy it was made in Brussels,given that Paris had ateliersfounded by Henri II in the middleof the century. Nevertheless,Parisian weaving activity was modestand slowerin deliv- erythan in Flanders,which had a largerwork force. The monarchy's need quicklyto producea forcefulimage of the Crownrequired a rapid productionthat the Brusselsworkshops were much better equipped to assume.34 The secondpoint is thatthe weavingof the Valois tapestriesmay explainwhy the seriescalled the Histoired'Artémise, planned earlier (in 1562),was only executed much later (beginning in 1600). This serieswas basedon a poemby the Parisianphilanthropist and apothecaryNicolas Houel, who wrotethat its purpose was the glorificationof Catherinede Médiciseducating her son, the future Charles IX, followingthe example ofthe ancient queen Artemisia, widow of King Mausolus (ruler of Caria, d. 353 B.C.; modernsouthwestern Turkey), who rearedher son Lygda- mis. This serieswas not wovenbefore the Valois tapestries,however, because therewas no reasonto: the Valois tapestriesprovided a clear imageof the queen motherand herfamily in place ofthe veiled allegory of Catherinede Médicisproposed in the Histoired! Artémise?6 It shouldbe pointedout, however, that these two series of tapestries wereexecuted twenty-five years apart, but from drawings by the painter AntoineCaron, who made all at the same time.It was also duringthis periodthat Caron drewthe illustrationsfor the Histoire française de notre temps,commonly called the Histoiredes rois de France,another poem by Houel intendedto glorifyCatherine de Médicis.37The drawingsof the Histoired'Artémise (Fig. 9) werespecifically executed to serveas models fortapestries,38 and so, it seems,were those for the Histoiredes roisde France(which were never woven). The drawingslinked to the Valois tapestriesrepresent only the festivals, however, and do not carryborders, whereasthe other two sets of drawings have extremelyelaborate borders. The Valois tapestrydrawings could perhapsbe the firstthoughts for a

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wovencycle or fora completelydifferent project (Fig. 10).39No study FIGURE 8 (facing page) de la Cour du châteaud'Anet drawingsfor the portraitshave been found.Could Caron, who was an Départ (Journey).Brussels tapestry, unidentified importantportraitist, have also been the authorof the portraitsin the atelier,c. 1575. Wool, silk,gold, and Valois This leads to the reconsiderationof the tapestries? question silver,390 χ 534 cm. Photo:Scala/Art attributionof the cartoonsthat Yates suggestedshould be givento the Resource,New York. Flemishpainter Lucas de Heere (1534-1584). The Englishhistorian basedher hypothesis on thefact that the Flemish painter was a confirmed FIGURE 9 AntoineCaron, Equitation, Paris, 1562- cartoonmaker and a portraitand costumespecialist, that he had known 1571. Brownink, brown wash, white Catherinede Medíeis(around 1560), and that,in theservice of William heightening,and black chalkon paper, ofOrange, he had workedfor the gloryof d'Alençon-d'Anjou in giving 39.7 χ 55.4 cm. BibliothèqueNationale de the drawingsfor the festivitiesaround the entryof thisprince to Ant- France,Paris. werp.40The argumentis weakand, as iftrying to reinforceit, Yates added thatshe thoughtshe recognizedthe emblemof Lucas de Heere in two tapestries(a sirenplaying a lyrewith a sailorhanging from her tail that thepainter used in libriamicorum). This motifcan be clearlyrecognized,

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FIGURE 10 but is it reallythe painter'semblem? The complicatedquestion of Antoine The WaterFestival at Caron, attributiongoes beyond the scope of thispaper, which is focusedon the Bayonne,June 24, 1565 (Whale),Paris, meaningof the Valois tapestries,but it seemsnecessary at leastto raise 1570-15 74. Black and brownink, and even iffor the momentanother name is not In it someblack ink,gray-brown wash, white it, proposed. anycase, heightening,on paper,34-9 χ 49.3 cm. wouldbe betterto returnthe work to an anonymousauthor rather than PierpontMorgan Library, Dept. of to persistin a highlydebatable attribution. Drawingsand Prints,New York. In conclusion,the queen mother'sshipment of the set of tapestries to Florencedid not occasiona slippageof itsmeaning, notwithstanding Yates'sargument.41 In offeringthe seriesto hergranddaughter Christine de Lorraine,Catherine de Medíeismust have wantedto remindher one lasttime of the values that she, Christine, had been taughtat theFrench courtafter the death of her mother,Claude. In the scenes,the young grandduchess could view a commemorationof the history of her grand- mother.42Moreover, the hangingsfrom France lost none of theirgran- deur next to the best pieces of the Medici collection,such as the luxurioussuite from Brussels of the Histoirede ίαCréation de VHomme

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(traditionallyattributed to JanC Vermeyen)or the famousHistoire de Josephdesigned by JacopoPontormo, Francesco Salviati, and Agnolo Bronzinowoven in Florencefrom 1546 to 1553 in the manufactory foundedby Cosimo I de' Medici. On the contrary,the seriesfound its rightfulplace amid the Florentineseries glorifying the memoryof the illustriousmembers of the Medicifamily, Cosimo the Elder,Lorenzo the Magnificent,and ClementVII, producedfrom cartoons by the Flemish GiovanniStradano (Jan van der Straet) and designedto decoratethe roomsat thePalazzo Vecchio named for these Medici family members. In offeringa tapestryseries telling her own historyto her granddaughter, Catherinede Médicistherefore inscribed herself in thewoven pantheon ofTuscany, the grandduchy that she had vainlycoveted her entire life.

- Transfotedby PamefoJ. Warner

Appendix

The identityof the figuresin the foregroundof the Valois tapestries.The titles in parenthesesare thoseused by Frances A. Yatesin The ValoisTapestries (London, 1959 and 1975). (When an identificationis uncertain or debated,the namesof the authorsof each propositionare givenin parentheses.)

Carrouseldes chevaliersbretons et irhndaisà Bayonne (Tournament)(Fig, 1)

On the left,Catherine de Médicis in mourning,one of her dwarfsat her feet.43Behind the queen mother, on herright, her daughter Marguerite de Valois and herhusband Henri de Navarre.On theright, Louise de Vaudémont(wife of HenriIII) accompaniedby a manand twowomen, one ofwhom is seen fromthe back. The womanseen fromthe back on the righthas been identifiedas Mar- gueritede Lorraine-Vaudémont (half-sister of the queen Louisede Vaudémont), who marriedAnne dArques, duc de Joyeuse,in 1581.44For the groupon the right,Gertrude T. Van Ysselsteynproposed the name of Louise de Vaudémont, herbrother-in-law, Charles de Lorraine,whom she callsFrançois by mistake, and his sister,the duchess of Bavaria.45 In thefigure of the dwarf, Van Ysselsteynalso thoughtshe recognizeda child,Henri, born in 1573 to Françoisde Bourbon- Montpensierand Renée d'Anjou,and thenthe presumedheir to the throne.46

Jeu de la quintaine(Quintain) (Fig. 2)

HenriIII, in antiquecostume, about to mounta horse.Behind him, to the right,one ofthe king's favorites, whom Ivanoff believes is the duc de Joyeuse.47

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Attaquede Viledevant le châteaude Fontainebleau (Fontainebleau)(Fig. 3)

On the right,Henri III and his wife,Louise de Vaudémont.

Fête nautiquesur l'Adour (Whale) (Fig. 4)

On the left,Marguerite de Valois (in three-quarterview), CharlesIII of Lorraine(full face), and Henride Navarre(three-quarter view fromthe back).

Mascarade à l'éléphant(Elephant) (Fig. 5)

On theright, Marguerite de Valois and heryoung brother François-Hercule, duc d'Alençon. Betweenthem, an unidentifiedyoung man, perhapsEdmund Sheffield,the stepsonand guardof the earlof Leicester,48 or theyoung James of Scotland,son of MaryStuart, whose motherbelonged to the Lorraine-Guise family.49

Combat à la barrière(Barriers) (Fig. 6)

On theright, François-Hercule, the duc d'Alençon.On theleft, the man in armorholding a helmet,the youngsquire, and the man holdinga lance are unidentified.Yates thought she recognizedin thesethree figures a groupportrait of the Nassau family,with William of Orange himselfas the man in armor holdinga helmetand his second son, the youngMaurice de Nassau.50Van Ysselsteyn,on the otherhand, identified the man in armoras JeanCasimir and theman with the lance as Guillaume-Louisde Nassau,the older son ofJean, elder brotherof the Orange family, and defenderof the northern provinces.51 It seems morelogical to me to see themas some of the duc d'Alençon'sfriends.

Fête aux Tuileriesen Vhonneur des ambassadeurspolonais (PolishAmbassadors) (Fig. 7)

On theleft, two figures, one facingout and theother seen from behind. The man facingout has been recognizedas Henri,duc de Guise,responsible for the receptionof the Polishambassadors (according to Ivanoff,52followed by Barbara A. Heezen-Stoll),53or (accordingto Yates)54Anne, duc de Joyeuse.The latter identificationwas rejected by Léon de Groër,55in spiteof the strong resemblance to Joyeuse,who shouldhave, if the reference to his marriageis correct,worn the chain of the Orderof the Holy Spirit.

Départ de h cour du châteaud'Anet (Journey)(Fig. 8)

On theright, three unidentified figures. Ivanoff stated that the man leaning on a swordwas Jean-Louis Nogaret de La Valette,one ofHenri Ill's minions,who in 1581 receivedthe duchyof Epernonand was namedcolonel generalof the infantry.56Behind him Ivanoffrecognized the famouschronicler Pierre de Bourdeillesde Brantôme.57According to Yates,the man leaningon thesword is

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Ludovic de Nassau (1538-1574), one of the youngerbrothers of William of Orange,who had persuadedJeanne d'Albret to consentto themarriage of her son to Margueritede Valois.58Yates also saysthat the twoothers are Christophede Palatinatand Henride Nassau. The formerwas withLudovic de Nassau at the end of November1573 at Blamont,in Lorraine,when Henri (futureking of Franceas Henri III) leftfor his new kingdomin Poland. Accordingto Van Ysselsteyn,these two men are Adolphede Nassau (d. 1568), his brotherLouis, and Philippede Marnixde Sainte Aldegonde,Henri Ill's ambassadorto Hol- land.59These identificationswere rejected by de Groër.60Heezen-Stoll proposes to identifythe man with the sword as Bussyd'Amboise, one ofFrançois-Hercule d'Alençon'smen, who distinguishedhimself in 1577 at the siegeof Maubeuge and neighboringplaces. This identification,if it could be confirmed,would have theadvantage of allowing the dating of the tapestry to before1579, the date of the assassinationof thisformidable duelist, given that all of the figureswith portraitsin the foregroundwere living at the momentthe tapestrieswere produced.In anycase, the identityof these three figures should in factbe sought amongHenri Ill's favorites,and not thoseof the House of Orange.

NOTES

This studybegan as a paperread at thesymposium 1973],rev. as Artand Power: Renaissance Festivals, Les Médias et la France,held at the château de 1450*1650[London, 1984]) (Le Méjan, France, Blois on September25, 1999,on the occasionof 1991), 186-90.Léon de Groër,"Les tapisseriesdes theexhibition Les Trésorsdes Médias. I wouldlike Valois du Muséedes Officesà Florence,"in Hom- to thankThierry Crépin-Leblond, Guy Delmar- mageà HubertLandais: Art, objets d'art, collections cel, and ThomasCampbell for their remarks and (Paris, 1989), 125-34. To these critiquesshould suggestionswhich helped shape the finalform of be addedthe doubtsrecently expressed by Robert this article. In memoriamFrançoise Bardon JeanKnecht in Catherinede Médias (1518*1589), (1925-2005). trans.Sarah Leclercq (Brussels,2003 [1st ed., 1998]), 281-83;and also thoseof Lisa Jardineand 1. FrancesAmelia Yates, The Valois Tapestries, JerryBrotton, Global Interests: Renaissance Art be- Studiesof the Warburg Institute, ed. G. Bing,vol. tweenEast and West(London, 2000), 122-31. 23 (London, 1959). The tapestries,long held in the Uffizi,are now in the tapestrycollection of 3. It is truethat counterfeitswere producedin the PalazzoPitti in Florence.For an understand- Antwerp.Weavers from that city purposely used of the of the tumultuous ing complexities family the Brusselsmark to fool clients.The weaver and politicalrelations of the last membersof the FrançoisSpiering, famous for having directed a Valoisdynasty represented in thesetapestries, see, workshopin Delft,formerly had a workshopin interalia, Leonie Frieda, Catherine de Medici (Lon- Antwerp,called "à l'écusson de Bruxelles,"a don, 2003); RobertJean Knecht,Catherine de badgethat he usedin his products.By associating Medíeis(1518*1589), trans. Sarah Leclercq (Brus- it withhis monogram,he introduceddoubts as to sels,2003 [1sted., 1998]); Ivan Cloulas,Catherine the place of executionof the tapestries;see Guy de Médias (Paris,1979); JanineGarrisson, Cathe- Delmarcel,La Tapisserieflamande du XVe au rinede Médias: L'impossible harmonie (Paris, 2002); XVUle siècle(Paris, 1999), 178. The formercura- PierreChevallier, Henri 111 (Paris, 1985); Jean- tor of the Royal Museumsof Brussels,Marthe PierreBabelon, Henri IV (Paris,1982); andJanine Crick-Kuntziger,therefore supposed that Spiering Garrisson,Les derniersValois (Paris, 2001). could have been the producerof the Valois tap- 2. JeanCoural, L'Ecole de Fontainebleau,exh. cat. estries,which Yates recalled (Yates, The Valois (Paris:Grand-Palais, 1972), cat. 462. RoyStrong, Tapestries,41-43), but Yates proposed instead that Les Fêtesde h Renaissance(1450- 1650): Art et the tapestrieshad been executedby Jossevan pouvoir,trans. Β. Coquio (firstpub. as Splendourat Herzeele and François Sweerts,because these Court:Renaissance Spectacle and Illusion[London, weavershad receiveda paymentin 1582 forthe

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 50 Studiesin theDecorative ArtsIF all-Winter 2006-2007 deliveryof two roomsof tapestriesdestined for m), which correspondsto the dimensionsof the 11. "Le plus beau ballet qui fût jamais fait au d'Alençon-d'Anjou at Middelbourg.Van Herzeele tapestriesin Florence:the averageheight is about monde."Cited in Yates,The ValoisTapestries, 67. was a weaverof Brusselswho lived in Antwerp 3.80 m and the widthis about 36 m. See Jean 12. De Groër,"Les des Valois," 126. between1580 and 1586, when he emigratedto Ehrmann,"Dessins d'Antoine Caron," Bulletin de la tapisseries wherehe died in 1589. His Hamburg, monogram Sociétéde l'Histoirede l'ArtFrançais (1956): 122-25 13. Ibid. (and thatof Sweerts)is differentfrom those seen (Ehrmannindicates that he owed thisdiscovery to on theValois tapestries; see Delmarcel,La tapisserie Cecilia Lisi). The objectscited in this inventory 14- CharlesIX died in 1574; thus,as thereis no flamande,177-78, 366. Yates'shypothesis has been (ofwhich three versions exist; see Yates,The Valois dead personrepresented in thesetapestries, he is long-lived:for instance, it was takenup again by Tapestries,142 nn. 4 and 6) are said to have been replacedhere by his brotherHenri III. GiovannaDamiani in Trésorsdes Médias, exh. cat. givenby Catherine de Médicisduring her lifetime, 15. Yates,The Valois 73. (Munich: Kunsthalle der Hypo-Kulturstiftung,which means before January 5, 1589,to hergrand- Tapestries, 1998), cat. 25. Coural'sopinion was, on the other Christinede Lorraine,whom she had daughter 16. The traditionaltitles for the tapestries are used hand, then Ehr- supportedby Roy Strong, byJean rearedafter the deathin 1575 ofthe girl'smother, here. mann,Antoine Caron: Peintredes fêtes et des mas- Claude de Valois. They are carefullydistinguished sacres (Paris, 1986), 190; Léon de Groër, "Les fromother objects, inventoried separately, and left 17. E.g., in the Carrouseldes chevaliersbretons et tapisseriesdes Valois,"128; AmauryLefébure, "Le as a bequestto Christinede Lorraineby Catherine irlandaisà Bayonne(steps) or again in the Fêteaux XVIe siècle: Une inspirationeuropéene," in His- de Médicis (thereare no tapestriesamong these Tuileriesen l'honneurdes ambassadeurspolonais (a toirede la Tapisserieen Europedu MoyenÂge à nos last objects).Jean Ehrmann and Cecilia Lisi de- borderparallel with the lower edge of the tapestry). jours,éd. FabienneJoubert, Amaury Lefébure; Pas- ducedthat the giftof objects noted in the firstlist 18. This compositionalprinciple already appears cal-FrançoisBertrand (Paris, 1995), 83-84, 128, was made at the conclusionof the marriagecon- in the drawingsby Antoine Caron thathave been 132; and mostrecently by Delmarcel,La tapisserie tractnegotiations between Christine de Lorraine linkedto thetapestries. See n. 39. In thehistory of flamande,127, 139; and lastlyby Lucia Meoni in a and FerdinandI ofTuscany, in October-December in Gli dei painting,it is Albertiwho inventedthe device of catalogueentry arazzi Granduchi:on 1588 at Blois (the contractwas signedon Decem- placingbetween the scene depictedand the spec- patrimónioda nondimenticare, exh. cat. (Florence: ber 8). Galleriadegli Uffizi, 2006), cat. 4. tatora linkingfigure who at the same timefaced theviewer and theinterior of the 8. In 1904, the tapestrieswere called the Fêtes designated paint- 4. Balthazarde and Nicolas Filleul, On this or admonisher,see Beaujoyeulx d'HenriIII (Henri Bouchot,Exposition des Primitifs ing. linkingfigure, Balletcomique de k reine. . ., Paris,by AdrienLe Pierre and Anne-Marie 18, français,exh. cat. [Paris1904], nos. 280-81). The Georgel Lecoq, chap. Roy,Robert Ballard, and MamertPâtisson, 1582; "Donner à voir,"in La dans la title"Valois tapestries" was given by Jean Ehrmann peinture peinture publishedby Paul Lacroix,Ballets et mascaradesde (Paris,1987), 179-81."J'aime ait les in "Dessinsd'Antoine Caron." On the questionof qu'il y parmi courde HenriIII à LouisXIV, 1516-1582(Geneva, protagonistesde la scène,un admoniteurqui nous the titlesof the hangings,see Ehrmann,Antoine 1868-1870; Geneva, 1988). montrece ce ou de la main,nous repr. Caron,189. qui passe qui, inviteà voir,ou une figuremenaçante, au visage 5. De Groëris referringto drawingno. 536 of the courroucéet au chercheà 9. On the variousidentifications, see Appendix. regardtourmenté, qui Cabinetdes Estampesof the BibliothèqueNation- nous d'allervers ou To the studiesalready cited, two othersshould be empêcher eux, quelqu'unqui ale, Paris,according to the numberingestablished added that concentrateon the identificationof nous révèleun dangerou une chose merveilleuse byJean Adhémar and ChristineMoulin, "Les por- dans la scène, ou t'inviteà ou à rire certainfigures: Gertrude T. van Ysselsteyn,"Wil- qui pleurer traitsdessinés du XVIe siècle au Cabinet des Es- avec eux." Leon BattistaAlberti, Deüa ed. helmus:Naar aanleidingvan FrancesA. Yates,The pittura, tampes,"Gazette des Beaux-Arts82 (September C. (Rome, 1975), 72 42). Valois Tapestries"(Wilhelmus: In Pursuanceof Grayson (chap. 1973): 121-98,and idem (December1973): 327- FrancisA. Yates, The Valois in De 50. Tapestries), 19. Victor I. Stoichita,L'instauration du tableau: Bloeitijd. . .: L'Age d'or de ίαtapisserie flamande. Métapeintureà l'aube des tempsmodernes (Paris, international1961 (Brussels,1969), 329-86 6. De Groër'sconclusions were timidly repeated by Colloque 1993; 2nd ed., Geneva, 1999: 17-34) calls "images (thisis not reliablebecause the authorseems WolfgangBrassât (Tapisserien und Politik:Funk- very dédoublées"(images divided into two, background unfamiliarwith the of the Valois); and tionen,Kontexte und Rezeption eines repräsentativen history and foreground). Mediums[Berlin, 1992], 106, 210-12, cat. 49), who BarbaraA. Heezen-Stoll,"Le prince infortune. mentionsthem without full support. Lucia Meoni Overwegingenmet betrekkingtot François-Her- 20. On the representationof royalty,see Brassât, ignoresthem in thefirst volume of her monumen- cule de Valois en de Valoistapijten,zijn relaties Tapisserienund Politik, 71-75. On the genealogical tal studyon tapestriesin Florentinemuseums (Gli met de Nederlandenen Engeland"(The unlucky series,such as theGénéalogie de L·maison de Nassau Arazzi nei museifiorentini. La collezionemedicea. prince:François-Hercule de Valois and the Valois deliveredbetween 1530 and 1533 to HenriIII de Catalogocompleto, vol. 1, La manifatturada Cosimo Tapestries:His Relationswith the Netherlands and Nassau (known throughwatercolor drawings at- I a CosimoII [1545-1621][Livorno, 1998], 95-96). England),De ZeventiendeEeuw 6, no. 2 (1990): tributedto Bernardvan Orley); the tapestriesof 1-46 (this is muchmore rigorous than the former the Ottheinrichfamily, Palatinate elector (around 7. The setof tapestries à figure , et fregio à grottesche essay,but it has been overlookedby most authors). 1535; Heimatmuseumin Neuburgan der Donau etaltro appears in an inventoryof furniture brought and BayerischesNationalmuseum in Munich);the fromFrance by Christine de Lorraineto Florence. 10. "De son grandoncle le Pape Léon, et du mag- so-called"des Croy" tapestry in whichthe dukes of Their dimensionswere 6V2 "braccie"tall by 60 nifiquele seigneurLaurens de Médicis."Cited in Saxony (includingJean-Frédéric the Magnani- wide,or about3.80 m by35 m (1 braccia= 0.584 Yates,The ValoisTapestries, 53, η. 1. mous,one of the leadersof the Leagueof Schmal-

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.204 on Wed, 21 Nov 2012 12:13:29 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The ValoisTapestries and Catherinede Médias 51 kalden)and the dukesof Pomeraniaappear at the à douze personnes."Cited in Yates, The Valois and EtienneVacquet, Actes des Journéesd'Etude footof a chairwhere Luther preaches (woven in Tapestries,58. de l'Associationdes Conservateursdes Antiquités 1554 at Stettinfor Philip I of Pomerania;Ernst- et Objets d'Art de France,Angers, May 18-20, 27. Yates,The ValoisTapestries, 57. Moritz-Universitätde Greifswald,Germany); and 2000 (Arles, 2002), 25-42; and idem, "Les the des roisdu Danemark flamandsen France aux XVe et XVIe Généalogie (1581-1585; 28. Ibid.,61. The marriageof Catherine'sdaugh- tapissiers Châteaude see Rotraud siècles,"in Flemish WeaversAbroad, ed. Kronborg,Denmark): esp. terMarguerite de Valois and the ProtestantHenri Tapestry "FlämischeWeber im 185-201.It shouldbe recalledthat it Bauer, deutschsprachigem de Navarreresulted in the end of the policyof Delmarcel, in Flemish WeaversAbroad: Emi- was under circumstancesthat a Brussels Raum," Tapestry reconciliationpursued since the Peace of Saint- analogous and the in was solicitedin the seventeenth gration Foundingof Manufactories Europe. Germain(1570). The weddingwas celebrated from workshop century of the InternationalConference held whenthe of the Vie de 'a destined Proceedings August18 to 21, 1572. Duringthe night of August weaving Vierge at October ed. Delmar- forthe choirof Notre-Damede Pariswas redone. Mechelen, 2-3,2000, Guy 23-24 (on the eve of St. Bartholomew'sDay, Au- cel Vibeke See La le roiet le ministre.Le décordu choeur (Louvain, 2002), 85-88; Woldbye, gust24), however,the assassinationof the Protes- Vierge, "Flemish Weaversin the Serviceof Nor- deNotre-Dame de Pansau XVlle exh.cat., ed. Tapestry tantleaders, including Gaspard II de Coligny,di- siècle, dic in Hanns Nicolas Sainte-Fare-Garnot Musée des Kings," ibid., 94-95; Hubach, rectedby the Guises and the royaltroops, led to (Arras: im Schloss. 1400-1700. Beaux-Arts, 1996). "Tapisserien Heidelberger generalrioting by the bourgeoisieand the fanati- Grundzüge einer Geschichte der ehemaligen cized lowerclasses which attacked all of the Prot- 35. BibliothèqueNationale de France, MS. Fr. Sammlungder PfälzerKurfürsten," in Carla Fon- estantsthen in Parisfor the The massa- wedding. 306. A largeextract was published by Adrien-Léon drey,et al., Tapisserien:Wandteppiche aus denstaat- which continued in the until cre, provinces Lacordaire[often misidentified as Antoine-Louis lichenSchlössern Baden-Württembergs (Schätze aus October,claimed an estimated3,000 in Paris,and Notice sur les unserenSchlössern. Eine Reihe der Staatlichen Lacordaire], historique manufactures 10,000 in all ofFrance, and the civilwar reignited impérialesde tapisseriesdes Gobelinset de tapisde la Schlösserund GärtenBaden-Württemberg, vol. 6, betweenCatholics and Protestants. Savonnerie(Paris, 1853), 23-25. Weinheim,Germany, 2002), 98-103; and Hanns " 'mit silberund er- 29. In the in the Mascarade, and Hubach, golt, seydkostlichst, elephant Jardine 36. ValérieAuclair ("De l'estampeà la chronique und Ott- Brotton(Global Interests, 128-31) see an haben, feyn lustiggemacht': Pfalzgraf expression contemporaine:L'histoire de la RoyneArthemise in of ancient and trium- heinrich und die Bildteppichproduktion militarypower imperial de l'inventionde Nicolas Houel," Journalde la in KaisersGnaden. inheritedfrom I. The is Neuburg1539-1544/45," Von phalism François elephant Renaissance1 [2000]: 155-88) showedthat Houel 500 exh. ed. Suzanne used to the of the FrenchCrown JahrePfalz-Neuburg, cat., suggest strength stillhad not offeredthe queen his manuscriptin Bäumler,Evamaria Brockhoff, and Michael Hen- in one of the frescoesin the GalerieFrançois I at 1580 and thereforethe set could not have been ker Schloss Fontainebleau.The Frenchmonarch had commis- (Neuburg-on-the-Danube: Neuburg) woven beforethat. The projectof the Histoire 174-78and cat. entries. sioned the of the (Augsburg,2005), conquest tapestry Historyof d'Artémisewas onlyput on the loom beginningin a work thatwas still used Scipio, featuringelephants 1600, the yearafter the deathof AntoineCaron, 21. On the programmingof Renaissancefestivals, the Valois forceremonies, festivals, and more by whohad providedthe models. It thusappears to be see JeanJacquot, ed., Les Fêtesde ίαRenaissance forthe festivalsat The Mas- specifically Bayonne. a posthumoushommage to thepainter, as werethe (Paris, 1956-1975); and Strong,Les Fêtes de h caradecould have been derivedfrom the Scipio engravingsmade afterhis drawingsthat illustrated Renaissance. Bataillede Zama. tapestry theImages de Philostrate,published in Parisin 1614. See Bertrand,Les des 22. Ivan Cloulas, Catherinede Médias (Paris, 30. L'Europehumaniste, exh. cat. (Brussels:Palais Pascal-François tapisseries Barberiniet la décorationd'intérieur dans la Rome 1979), 379-81. des Beaux-Arts,1955), no. 357. baroque(Turnhout, 2005), 103-12. 23. Ibid.,389-92. See also n. 31. 31. François-Herculed'Alençon, who dreamedof 37. Ehrmann,Antoine Caron, 84-104. a crown,was cruellymocked by his brotherHenri 24. Catherinede Médicishad triedto negotiatea III, and the princefled on September15, 1575. 38. Mostof the forthe Histoire d'Artémise marriagewith a daughterof the kingof Sweden, drawings Catherinede Médicisthought that d'Alençon was were attributedto Antoine and several whichwould perhaps have helpedto keep Poland. Caron, goingto revivethe troopsof the Malcontents,and sheetswere attributed to the Bellefontaineartists she triedto catch withhim. She reachedan 25. The man holdinga mask in his righthand, up Nicolò dell'Abate, his son Giulio Camillo, and theEdict of Beaulieu 7, 1576), called behind Henri III, is placed here to explain the accord, (May BaptistePellerin. See esp. the entryon Caron by the "Peace of becauseall clauseswere meaningof the disguisein the scene in the back- Monsieur," Cécile Scaillierez,in the AllgemeinesKünstlerlex- so favorableto and his allies. ground,where there is a cortegeof knights, includ- d'Alençon ikon,vol. 16 (Munich and Leipzig,1997), 511-14. ingat theleft foreground two disguised as Amazons The mostcommon dating of the drawings is thatof 32. See Appendixfor the variousidentifications as well as a barbarianwith a quiverfull of arrows. 1562-1571,but, to JeanEhrmann, "An- proposedfor the figuresin the foreground. according This disguisingas womenwas sometimespracticed toine Caron: Tapisserieet tableauinédits dans la duringfestivities. Brantôme was carefulto note 33. On the lessonsCatherine de Médicisgave to sériede la reineArtémise," Bulletin de h Sociétéde that the knights'faces were masked; cited by herchildren, see esp.Janine Garrisson, Catherine de l'ArtFrançais (1964): 31-32, theywere probably Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la cour des derniersValois," Médicis:L'impossible harmonie (Paris, 2002), 73-77. executedover a periodof aboutfifteen years. 102. 34- Pascal-FrançoisBertrand, "Les atelierssecon- 39. The six extantpreparatory drawings for the 26. "Où la Roynema mèredisposa tout à l'entour dairesde tapisserieen France:Méthode d'analyse," eighttapestries of the Fêtesdes Valois are generally de grandesniches, et danschacune une tableronde in Regardssur la tapisserie,ed. GuyMassim-Le Goff datedto theend ofthe reign of Charles IX, around

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1570-1574(Ehrmann, "Dessins d'Antoine Caron"; logical unlikelihoods,which are not out of the ofthe inventory of goods belonging to Christinede Yates,The ValoisTapestries, pls. IX-XI; Ehrmann, ordinary,will not be belabored,especially where Lorrainein Florence. AntoineCaron, 189-200). Are theyprojects for a the glorificationof a personor a familyis con- 43. Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la courdes derniersVal- paintedor wovencycle celebrating only the festi- cerned.The episode depictedmore likelycom- ois," 113. vals?Are theydrawings that were re-used and to memoratesthe 1567 arrivalof the king at the which someoneadded the portraitsin the fore- châteaud'Anet, which belonged at thetime to the 44. Ibid., 114. groundsat the last minute?Nothing permits a due d'Aumale,son-in-law of Diane de Poitiers, Van 331. more preciseaccount of the commission.As in governorof Burgundy,and GrandVeneur (chief 45. Ysselsteyn,"Wilhelmus," these of France "Les everyweaving commission, transpositions huntsman) (De Groër, tapisseries 46. Ibid. weresubject to moreor less majormodifications, des Valois," 126). Let it also be rememberedthat whichprevious authors have attemptedto detect. Catherinede Médicispassed through Anet in 1562 47. Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la cour des derniersVal- Take as an examplethe drawingsaid to represent on herway to the siegeof Rouen, without visiting ois," 103. theDépart pour la chasse(Louvre), but which shows Diane de Poitiers,disgraced after the death of 48. Yates,The ValoisTapestries, 96, 99-101. insteadthe Cour nomadede CharlesIX quittantle Henri II. It shouldbe added that it was at Anet châteaud'Anet (Monique Châtenetand Françoise thatFrançois I signedthe marriagecontract unit- 49. Van Ysselsteyn,"Wilhelmus," 331. Boudon, "Les logis du roi de France au XVIe ing the futureHenri II to Catherinede Médicis. 50. Yates,The Vabis Tapestries,96-98. siècle,"in Architectureet vie sociale:L'organisation The date was April24, 1531- and thereforelong beforethe castle was rebuilt Philibertde intérieuredes grandes demeures à h findu MoyenAge by l'Orme 51. Van Ysselsteyn,"Wilhelmus," 331. et à k Renaissance,éd. JeanGuillaume, Actes du beginningin 1546. colloque,Tours, June 6-10, 1988 [Paris,1994], 65, 52. Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la cour des derniersVal- 40. fromGhent, de Heere took his fig. I, a subjectthat can also be foundin the Coming ap- ois," 117. in thestudio of Frans Floris, where he tapestryentitled Départ en voyagede la Cour.) Ac- prenticeship himselfthe of cartoonsfor 53. Heezen-Stoll,"Le princeinfortune," 22. cordingto NicolasIvanoff, the subject of the draw- taught production windows and Around ingfor that tapestry would be thedeparture for the stained-glass tapestries. 54. Yates,The ValoisTapestries, 8-9. 1560, he came to workat Fontainebleau,where, "GrandVoyage de France"that Catherine under- linkedto the serviceof Catherinede Médicis,he 55. De Groër,"Les tapisseriesdes Valois," 130. took withher son in 1564-1565to appease ten- executed tapestrycartoons (now lost). Shortly sions,to introducethe youngking to his subjects, 56. Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la cour des derniersVal- thereafter,he returnedto his nativecity. A Prot- and to reaffirmthe monarchywhose authority had ois,"98-99. estantfleeing the of the tyrannical been weakenedby a firstreligious war (Nicolas persecutions in he found in 57. Ibid. Ivanoff,"Les fêtesà la cour des derniersValois Spanish regime Holland, refuge Englandbeginning in 1567. He finallyappeared as d'aprèsles tapisseriesflamandes du Musée des Of- 58. The Valois 76-78. a to the Stadtholderof Holland. Yates, Tapestries, ficesà Florence,"Revue du XVIe siècle19 [1932- painter 1933]: 96-122). Yates sees in thesefestivities the 59. Van Ysselsteyn,"Wilhelmus," 332. 41. Yates,The Vabis Tapestries,120, 126. departureof the duc d'Anjou (thefuture Henri III) 60. De Groër,"Les tapisseriesdes Valois," 129. forhis kingdomin Poland (1573). In both cases, 42. As mentionedin the text,the meaningof the theCourt did not leave fromAnet. These chrono- hangingswas lostby 1589,at leastfor the recorder 61. Heezen-Stoll,"Le princeinfortune," 27.

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