The Language of Advertising: an Analysis of a Technology Company Advertisements

MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

The language of advertising: An analysis of a technology company advertisements

Bc. Lucie Fialová

Diploma Thesis

Brno 2017

Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Olga Dontcheva-Navrátilová, Ph.D.

“Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people how they did something, they feel a little guilty because they didn’t really do it, they just saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while.” Steve Jobs

DECLARATION

Hereby I declare that I worked on this thesis on my own, using only the sources listed in the bibliography. I agree with the deposition of my thesis in the library of the Faculty of Education of Masaryk University in Brno where it will be available for further academic purposes.

PROHLÁŠENÍ

Tímto prohlašuji, že svou diplomovou práci jsem vypracovala samostatně, s použitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů. Souhlasím s tím, aby moje práce byla uložena na Masarykově Univerzitě v Brně v knihovně pedagogické fakulty k dalším akademickým účelům.

Brno, 23rd November 2017 Bc. Lucie Fialová

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FIALOVÁ, Lucie. The language of advertising: An analysis of a technology company advertisements. Brno: Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English language and literature. 2017. 97 pages. Supervisor of the diploma thesis: doc. Mgr. Olga Dontcheva-Navrátilová, Ph.D.

ANNOTATION

This thesis focuses on the stylistic analysis of advertising, specifically on slogans applied in advertisements of Apple Inc. The thesis is divided into two main parts. The theoretical part introduces advertising in general, its progressive development, types of advertising as well as its use of linguistics devices. The second part contains a corpus in which published slogans of this company have been included. The corpus includes analysed slogans from the phonological, syntactic, lexical and semantic point of view. The corpus is followed by a thorough analysis of data. The aim of the thesis is to analyse the use of the stylistic means utilized in the slogans. The outcomes of this analysis suggest the most frequent stylistic devices used in slogans which are aimed to impress the highest number of potential buyers.

KEY WORDS

Analysis, advertisement, stylistics, Apple Inc., corpus, slogans, influence, language of advertising, linguistics means

BIBLIOGRAFICKÝ ZÁZNAM

FIALOVÁ, Lucie. The language of advertising: An analysis of a technology company advertisements. Brno: Masarykova Univerzita, Pedagogická fakulta, Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury. 2017. 97 stran. Vedoucí bakalářské práce: doc. Mgr. Olga Dontcheva-Navrátilová, Ph.D.

ANOTACE

Tato práce se zabývá stylistickou analýzou reklamy, obzvláště slogany společnosti Apple Inc. Práce se skládá z teoretické a praktické části. Teoretická část se soustředí na reklamu obecně, její postupný vývoj, druhy reklamy a jazykové prostředky. Praktická část obsahuje korpus, ve kterém jsou nashromážděny slogany Apple Inc. V korpusu jsou zaznamenány rozebrané slogany na fonetické, syntaktické, lexikální a sémantické úrovni. Po korpusu následuje důkladná analýza těchto dat. Cílem této práce je analyzovat jazykové a stylistické prostředky, které jsou využity ve sloganech. Výsledek této analýzy poskytuje seznam nejčastěji užívaných stylistických prostředků, které se ve sloganech využívají k tomu, aby zaujali největší počet potenciálních zájemců.

KLÍČOVÁ SLOVA

Analýza, reklama, stylistika, Apple Inc., korpus, slogany, vliv, jazyk reklamy, jazykové prostředky

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to express honest thanks to my supervisor doc. Mgr. Olga Dontcheva-Navrátilová, Ph.D. for her valuable help, patience, inspiration and her guidance she provided me during the work on this thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank to my family and friends for their understanding and support.

TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT ...... 7 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 8 ABBREVIATIONS ...... 8 INTRODUCTION ...... 9 THEORETICAL PART ...... 11 1 ADVERTISING ...... 11 1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF ADVERTISING ...... 11 1.2 TYPES OF ADVERTISEMENT ...... 12 1.3 HISTORY OF ADVERTISING ...... 14 1.4 ADVERTISEMENT AS AN ACT OF COMMUNICATION ...... 17 1.5 FUNCTIONS AND EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING ...... 21 2 SLOGAN AS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF ADVERTISEMENTS ...... 23 2.1 WHAT MAKES SLOGANS SUCCESSFUL? ...... 24 3 VISUAL DEVICES USED IN ADVERTISING ...... 26 3.1 STUDY OF SIGNS OF FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE AND CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE ...... 26 4 LINGUISTIC MEANS USED IN ADVERTISING ...... 29 4.1 DISCOURSE ...... 29 4.1.1 ADVERTISING AS DISCOURSE ...... 30 4.2 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS ...... 31 4.2.1 PHONETIC / GRAPHETIC LEVEL ...... 31 4.2.2 PHONOLOGICAL / GRAPHOLOGICAL LEVEL ...... 31 4.2.3 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL LEVELS ...... 33 4.2.4 SEMANTIC LEVEL ...... 41 PRACTICAL PART ...... 48 5 COLLECTING THE DATA ...... 48 5.1 RESEARCH AND ITS AIM ...... 49 6 APPLE INC...... 49 7 ANALYSIS ...... 52 7.1 CORPUS ...... 52 7.2 RESULTS ...... 65 7.2.1 PHONOLOGICAL LEVEL ...... 66 7.2.2 GRAMMATICAL LEVEL ...... 68 7.2.3 VOCABULARY CHOICE ...... 74 7.2.4 SEMANTIC LEVEL ...... 82 CONCLUSION ...... 88 8 RESUMÉ ...... 90 9 LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 91 9.1 PRINTED LITERATURE ...... 91 9.2 DICTIONARIES ...... 93 9.3 ELECTRONIC SOURCES ...... 93

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Components of the act of communication ...... 17 Fig. 2: The classification of language functions by Jacobson ...... 18 Fig. 3: Model of the sign according to Saussure ...... 27 Fig. 4: Peirce’s theory of signs ...... 28 Fig. 5: A taxonomy of rhetorical figures in advertising ...... 42 Fig. 6: Sound techniques ...... 66 Fig. 7: Sentence functions ...... 68 Fig. 8: Tense ...... 70 Fig. 9: Polarity ...... 71 Fig. 10: Syntactical strategies ...... 72 Fig. 11: Product and company names ...... 74 Fig. 12: Numerals ...... 77 Fig. 13: Pronouns ...... 77 Fig. 14: Form of adjectives ...... 80 Fig. 15: Rhetorical figures ...... 82

ABBREVIATIONS

[PHL] – phonological level

[GRL] – grammatical level

[VOC] – vocabulary choice

[SEL] – semantic level

INTRODUCTION

Everybody knows what advertising means, however, not everyone thinks about what exactly advertising is and how manipulative it can be. Nowadays, we meet advertising everywhere we go – in the street, at home, at work, at the restaurant, even at hospitals and schools. Additionally, the Internet and media may be considered significant sources of advertising. It means that advertising overflows every single place where people live. In simple terms, it seems to be a part of the everyday reality. Advertising is aimed not only to inform about the product and service, but also to have persuasive effects. Today’s advertising may differ in many ways. Some advertisers rely on visual advertisements because it is said that pictures attract people the most; however, some use also verbal advertising which can accompany the visual one. There are advertisements which consist of a text, others may be created from either one sentence or a few words; however, there may appear only some letters in the ad. All these options are possible and it usually depends on the advertisers how they want to captivate the audience. This thesis discusses a topic related to advertising slogans of multinational technology company Apple Inc. and points out linguistic and stylistic features which are commonly used in their advertising. It also highlights their creativity and uniqueness which are necessary features in marketing as well as devices of persuasiveness which are the base of advertising in general. The thesis is divided into two main parts – theoretical and practical. The theoretical part focuses on introducing advertising in general and focuses on its definition from different points of view; it also presents classifications of advertisements and their functions. The theoretical part also gives a brief overview of the history of advertising and discusses the question of communication act in advertisement which is closely related to the functions of language. In addition, it must be pointed out from the beginning that the essential part of an advertisement is represented by slogans the aim of which is to persuade customers to buy a product. Persuasion is very important in business environment and the importance of advertising slogans is discussed in this section. Furthermore, the next section of the theoretical part focuses on linguistic characteristics of language of advertising. It deals with discourse, levels of language and the analysis of advertising.

The message of advertising can be direct, nevertheless the advertisement is usually created with a hidden meaning. It may be caused by the use of rhetorical devices which are frequently found in advertising. Therefore, these essential devices are discussed in this part. The practical part consists of a corpus in which 100 slogans of products of Apple Inc. have been gathered. It also deals with a more detailed analysis from phonological, grammatical, lexical and semantic point of view. The analysed slogans have been collected from the website Omics International1 and also from the official Apple’s website apple.com. The slogans are related only to two Apple products, iPhone and iPod, which were found the best-selling items. This part includes a detailed description of data collection, research, and a brief description of the world-wide known company Apple Inc. The aim of this thesis is to analyse linguistic and stylistic features and establish the frequency of occurrence of the most prominent devices which make their advertising unique. The analysis also points out the persuasive features which are used in slogans in order to influence people and induce them to buy or do something. Moreover, the thesis highlights how powerful the language is in advertising.

1 List of Apple Inc. slogans 10

THEORETICAL PART

The aim of the theoretical part is to introduce the advertisement in general and likewise to describe the history of advertising. Moreover, the question of communication act in advertisement and the necessity of slogans in advertising is discussed in this part. One of the most remarkable contribution in the linguistics and semiology can be considered the theory of signs of Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce which are important not only for linguistics, but also for the advertising. Therefore, this part gives a brief description of their theories. The last part of the theoretical part focuses on the linguistic characteristics, especially a description of discourse, levels of language and its analysis in advertising.

1 ADVERTISING

In the chapter that follows, the main aim is to present and explain an essence of advertising and advertisement which may be defined in several notions.

1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF ADVERTISING

What is the phenomenon called advertising which surrounds us every day and everywhere? “Advertising is so familiar to modern readers that it may seem odd to ask what an advertisement is. Although advertising is all around us - perhaps because it is all around us – we do not often pause to think about its nature as a form of discourse, as a system of language use whereby, on a daily basis, huge numbers of readers have fleeting ‘conversations’ with the writers of countless texts” (Goddard, 2002, p. 5). The statement of Goddard about advertising highlights the commonness of the nowadays advertisement. It is obvious that a common man is not taken back by the advertisement because of its enormous widening. People regard the advertisement as a part of a daily routine; however, there is a huge number of attempts to explain what the advertisement exactly is.

According to economictimes.indiatimes.com, the term advertisement stands for “a means of communication with the users of a product or service. Advertisements are messages paid for by those who send them and are intended to inform or influence people who receive them, as defined by Advertising Association of the UK” (Definition of 'Advertising'). Ogilvy (1983) describes advertising briefly but appositely “it is a medium of information” (p. 7). He claims that “the function of the advertisement is to induce a customer to buy a product” (Ogilvy, 1983, p. 7). Another meaningful characterization of the advertisement is stated in Cook’s The discourse of advertising (1996): In a world beset by social and ecological problems, advertising can be seen as an urging people to consume more by making them feel dissatisfied or inadequate, by appealing to greed, worry and ambition (p. 16). A website en.oxforddictionaries.com explains advertisement as “a notice or announcement in a public medium promoting a product, service, or event or publicizing a job vacancy” (Definition of advertisement in English). Leech (1966) says the following: When the word “advertising” is mentioned, most of us automatically think of what might be more accurately called “commercial consumer advertising”: advertising directed towards a mass audience with the aim of promoting sales of a commercial product or service (p. 25). Arens, Schaefer and Weigold (2009) describe advertising as “the structured and composed non-personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about products (goods, services, and ideas) by identified sponsors through various media” (p. 4). There is presented a higher amount of statements of advertisement but significant seems to be that all of them at least comprise the main intention of advertisement ‘to influence people in full measure’.

1.2 TYPES OF ADVERTISEMENT

In the section that follows, types of advertisement are presented. The classification of advertisement is based on various criteria. According to Hermeren (1999), one criterion relates to the geographical area for which an advertising message is intended. Thus, he lists these types of advertisement: local, national, international, and global (p. 14). He also provides the criterion which is related to a form and a medium of the advertisement. “Print advertising includes newspapers, magazines, brochures as well as 12 posters, hoardings and street signs, while electronic advertising involves both sound, typically represented by radio and television, and pictures, as on television” (Hermeren, 1999, p. 14). Vestergaard and Schrøder demonstrate in their The language of advertising (1994) a dominant classification of advertisement as commercial and non-commercial advertising (p. 1). These two major types are distinguished according to whether, or not the purpose is to make a profit as a result of advertising (Hermeren, 1999, p. 15). “The commercial division contains the consumer, the trade and the corporate advertising, whereas non-commercial division includes the government and the charity advertising” (Hermeren, 1999, p. 15). The following classification comes from smallbusiness.chron.com, where four types of advertising were distinguished by Ian Linton (2012). He says that “small businesses can use different types of advertising to achieve specific marketing communication objectives”. He asserts that advertising can be an excellent mean for an acquiring of the benefits of a product, can easily build the reputation of a company or draw a comparison between a company’s products and brands and another companies’ articles (Linton, 2012). The first type of advertising he discusses is presented as “the product advertising that communicates the features and benefits of a product to customers and prospects”. It can be understood that companies usually want to use an advertisement when the new product is presented to the public, when some changes connected to the product appear or when they want to inform public that increase sales of the product occurred. The product advertisements must reflect the interests of the target audience. (Linton, 2012). The second type of advertising mentioned in Linton’s article is a corporate advertising. “The corporate advertising campaigns play an important part in business-to- business marketing, particularly for companies trying to win a major sale or contract” (Linton, 2012). Linton introduces another type of advertising which is called a direct response advertising and as explained by Linton (2012) “it encourages prospects to register their details, typically in return for an incentive offer, such as a free gift, a special discount or a copy of a business report for business prospects”. In the advertisement, a response of an audience can be induced by a reply coupon, telephone number, email address or website address.

In his article, Linton (2012) also refers to “the financial advertising which can help a company attract funds if you are planning to grow your business or make a major investment”. The company’s name can become more familiar because the advertisement is published in the business sections of newspapers and magazines.

1.3 HISTORY OF ADVERTISING

When exactly did advertising arise? One would say advertising is a rather contemporary business; however, some claims that the first signs of advertising appeared at the very beginning of humanity. Tungate (2007) says that some admen claimed that the prehistoric cave paintings can be regarded as a form of advertising, but it is safe to say that advertising has been around for as long as there have occurred any kind of goods to sell and a medium to talk them up (p. 10). The first huge development of advertising was detected in 1447 when Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press was introduced. It is considered one of the most important developments in the history and can be attributed to the birth of modern advertising (Dean, 2010). In 1472, the first advertisement in English appeared in London. This advertisement was related to a sale of prayer’s book. Two hundred years later the first newspaper advertisement was published. It offered a reward for stolen horses. Soon, ads for coffee, chocolate, tea, real estate, medicines were seen in newspapers (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 12). Another famous name worth to mention is Theophraste Renaudot, a Frenchman, who established a clearing house which was focused on those seeking and offering a job, buying and selling goods, and publishing various announcements. In 1631, Renaudot founded the first French newspapers called La Gazette, and therefore he became the first French journalist and the inventor of the personal advertisement (Tungate, 2007, pp. 10–11). The first advertisements in the American colonies appeared in 1704 in the Boston Newsletter. Later, Benjamin Franklin, who is considered the father of advertising art, made advertisement more legible and enhanced it by using a white space, large headlines and even illustrations (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 12).

It is said that the most significant histories of advertising start later. The importance of advertising increased during The Industrial Revolution in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. Because of the technological development goods were produced and packaged on the unbelievable scale. The majority of ex-farmers, whose business was only to work on their backyards, began to open new markets and some of them established chains of retail outlets. They needed to make customers to remember their goods, and therefore the goods were branded and promoted. Thus, the advertisement widely spread out (Tungate, 2007, p. 11). In 1841, Volney B. Palmer became the first newspaper agent in America who enabled to advertisers to publish advertisements in newspapers even more frequently. Because of Volney B. Palmer advertising was on the increase (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 13). “In nineteenth century, during the industrial age, manufactures put an emphasis rather on a sales orientation than a production orientation. They were highly interested in the reinforcement of sales forces, branding products, and of course, they were involved in heavy national brand advertising” (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 14). The book Scientific Advertising written by legendary copywriter Claude Hopkins became the bible of salesmen (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 14). Hopkins is considered one of the greatest copywriters and his findings turned into fixed principles, like he stated in his Scientific Advertising, for many significant businessmen, such as David Ogilvy and the others (Scientific Advertising). In 1929 the Great Depression began and it fully affected advertising and its expansion. Therefore, advertising needed to enhance its effectiveness. The idea of a product differentiation appeared and an attempt to promote products as different from and better than the rival companies rose (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 14). After World War II, advertising published in television quickly increased and generally entered its golden era. This period is related to the experts in advertising, such as David Ogilvy and Bill Bernbach, who built advertising agencies from scratch and made huge changes in this field. In 1960s, the market segmentation appeared as a new strategy in advertising. The emphasis was put on the brand image and personality. It signifies that advertisers attempted to align their brands with profitable segments of the market. In other words, deluxe and expensive products became the image of luxury and success which were promoted for wealthy people where the benefits of advertisement were guaranteed. In 1970s, a new kind of advertising strategy fulfilled the marketing.

The most relevant seemed to be how the brand ranked against the rival companies in the consumer’s mind – how it was positioned. This approach was termed the positioning. Jack Trout and Al Ries are considered the founders of the positioning theory (Arens, et al., 2009, p. 15). Ten years later, in the post-industrial age, a new term demarketing was applied. The theory of demarketing was to discourage the demand for a product which a firm cannot supply in large-enough quantities, or does not want to supply in a certain region where the high costs of distribution or promotion allow only a too little profit margin (What is demarketing? definition and meaning). In 1980s, the emphasis was placed on advertising aiming at The ‘me’ generation2 (especially in the cosmetics industries: “L’Oreal. Because I’m worth it.”). Afterwards, many companies turned to more cost-effective sales promotions alternatives, such as coupons and direct e-mails. In 2001, a record decline in advertising was detected. 9/11 Attacks caused suddenly all marketing and advertising seemed to stop – not only in the United States. The economy recovered and marketers started to earn money in advertising a year later. The advertising business was extensively changed with the development of technology (especially the Internet expansion), evolving lifestyle and new fears over security (Arens, et al., 2009, pp. 15–18). There has been a huge rise in a use of mobile phones and laptops and the usage of these devices leads to the appearance of several campaigns and events which were created in order to promote brands. It encourages people to buy the products, thus it is believed that nowadays modern technology enabled marketers to promote their advertisements in a wider range of contexts than it used to be possible (Benady, 2014). It is necessary to point out that the modern technology induces us to download more and more applications into our electronic devices which are usually accompanied by a huge amount of advertisements that not only aim to inform people about a product, but also provide earnings for developers of these applications. To conclude, it is thought that the modern technology has caused advertisements surround us everywhere we go.

2The representatives of The ‘me’ generation are self-centred and young people who usually go against the tide and tradition and focus only on themselves. This cultural shift in attitudes took place in the U.S. between the end of World War II and the year 2000 (Grabianowski, 2011). 16

1.4 ADVERTISEMENT AS AN ACT OF COMMUNICATION

Advertising could be considered a form of communication, and thus this section deals with the act of communication components of which were defined by Roman Jacobson. These components of the act of communication influence the meanings of expressions people use in everyday life and the choice of language means used in specific situation (Dontcheva – Navratilova, 2012, p. 15).

Fig. 1: Components of the act of communication

As can be seen in Fig. 1, Jacobson’s scheme of the act of communication includes six components – addresser, addressee, contact, message, context, and code. Turning now to the brief description of these components, firstly let us consider the addresser as well as addressee which are considered the dominant participants of the act of communication. The relationship of these two components influences the choice of possible meanings and the range of language means which can be used only in specific communication situation (formal x informal, polite x impolite, etc.) (Dontcheva – Navratilova, 2012, p. 15). Another component, the message, can be defined, as follows: “the message is transmitted between the two above mentioned participants; however, message cannot be transmitted in the abstract; it must be embodied in some code” (Vestergaard and Schrøder, 1994, p. 15). Dontcheva – Navratilova (2012) sets out the definition of the contact as “the physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee” (p. 16). As reported by Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994) “any act of communication takes place in a situation, a context; this involves the situation in which addresser and addressee are placed” (p. 15). 17

It is necessary to point out that this Jacobson’s general model of communication may be applied on the real situation in advertising. Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994) claim following: “This situation seems to be obvious: the addresser is the advertiser, and the addressee is the reader, the message transmitted is about the product, the code is language and some sort of visual code, the contact consists of printed publications, and the context will include such features as the reader’s total situation, the publication in which the advertisement appears, and last but not least the knowledge that the text is an advert” (pp. 15–16). Roman Jacobson suggests also six language functions which are closely related to constitutive factors of the act of communication. In his theory, there are introduced following functions of language: referential, emotive, conative, poetic, phatic and metalingual (Dontcheva – Navratilova, 2012, p. 16).

Fig. 2: The classification of language functions by Jacobson

A brief description of functions of language by Jacobson is provided below (as illustrated in Fig. 2): 1. The most significant function of language which appears in advertising is the poetic function. This function is concentrated on the message and underlines the creativity and the form of message by using of features as rhyme, neologisms, repetition, and some irregular forms. For example: “tricky and picky” (Dontcheva – Navratilova, 2012, p. 17). 2. The target factor of the referential function is the context of the message. It usually involves reference to entities, events, states of affairs (Matthews, 2014, p. 338). It often is expressed by statements, for example: “Water boils at 100 degrees” (Hebert, n.d.).

3. According to Wales (2001), “the emotive function describes the set of language towards the addresser” (p. 124). It represents his mind, emotions as well as his attitudes. Typically, the interjections, exclamations, expressive and intonation patterns are used, for example: “Gosh!” (Hebert, n.d.) These indicators of emotive function can also be found in advertising in case the advertiser wants to highlight the specific part of the advertisement, for example: “Sale!” or “Brilliant offer!”. 4. The conative function’s target is the addressee, especially focuses on influencing his behaviour. Thus, it mainly deals with persuasion (Conative Function, 2017). Dontcheva - Navratilova (2012) states that “the conative function is most typically expressed by the vocative and the imperative” (p. 17). The conative function can be regarded as predominant in advertising, as the main aim of the advertisement is to persuade the reader to buy or use goods or services. It is a common state when the adman makes a direct spur towards the potential client and always tries to persuade someone to buy something. The example of the conative function may be illustrated by an imperative sentence: “Just buy it!” or “Don’t hesitate and come!”. 5. The main aim of the phatic function is to establish, prolong or end the communication between the addresser and the addressee (Hebert, n.d.). It was explained in terms of focus on the physical and psychological contact between the addresser and the addressee (Matthews, 2014, p. 305). It is believed that the phatic function aims to draw attention of receiver as advertiser aims to draw attention of the audience. As an example may be used following: “Hi, how are you? – Fine, thanks. And you?”. 6. The last function is presented as metalingual. This function deals with the code itself. In other words, the metalingual function represents a sign-system which is created to talk about another sign-system as context (Wales, 2001, p. 249). It may be, for example, a definition of some linguistic elements.

It is necessary to mention that when we communicate we do not use only one function. All of them are essential; nevertheless, one function may be more dominant that the others. As previously stated, the poetic function is deemed an important factor not only in the study of literature, but also in the study of advertising. Similarly, the

19 conative function plays a significant role in conviction of people to buy a product which is presented in the advertisement (Cook, 1996, p. 130).

According to Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994), advertising as a communication can be divided into three major distinctions: • verbal and non-verbal communication, • public and private communication, • one-way and two-way communication (pp. 13–14).

Turning now to a brief explanation of verbal and non-verbal communication, mainly, it is necessary to highlight that “verbal and non-verbal communication deals with whether, or not the language is used”. It is widely held view that language is the most significant mean of communication; nevertheless, when we speak, we use not only language, but also gestures and poses by which we communicate non-verbally (Vestergaard and Schrøder, 1994, p. 13). Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994) describe private communication as “a process which involves a known number of persons who are all known to each other, as in a conversation between friends or in letter writing, whereas in public communication the situation is more complicated: one type is addressed simply to an anonymous public (newspaper articles, novels, plays, films, advertising) but in another type a known number of persons are at the same time communication with each other and to an anonymous public (parliamentary debates, radio or TV discussions)” (pp. 13–14). The one-way and two-way communication is defined by Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994), as follows: “There is a strong tendency to be identical with the private and public communication. In private communication participants take turns at being speaker and listener, writer and reader, whereas in most types of public communication there is one speaker / writer addressing an anonymous public who cannot answer him back. Public two-way communication occurs typically, and normally, in public debates, whereas private one-way communication, although it may occur, is always regarded as abnormal and socially unacceptable. Advertising, then, is verbal / non-verbal, public one-way communication” (p. 14).

1.5 FUNCTIONS AND EFFECTS OF ADVERTISING

The aim of this section is to consider functions and effects of advertising in everyday life. People in most cases do not deeply wonder about the aim of publishing of advertisements and regard it as a routine act, and therefore let now turn to its pragmatic sense. Lund (1947) summarizes the aim of advertising clearly and briefly. He reports that “the task of adman is to: attract attention, arouse interest, stimulate desire, create conviction and get action” (p. 83). In the article 7 Functions and Effects of Advertising Stefan (2011) puts forward expressive functions that he titled as: • identifying brands, • information, • persuasion, • previewing new trends, • demand, • customer base, • pricing.

Stefan (2011) states that “the advertising permeates the Internet, network television, daily newspapers and roadside billboards. Products, services and ideas are sold through advertising, enabling businesses to attract customers for their wares”. The first function of advertising - identifying brands is connected to the fact that “products, services and ideas are sold through businesses that are differentiated by their brand identities. Brand identity is communicated to the public via advertising. Consumers build emotional relationships with certain brands with which they become increasingly familiar through the years, thanks to advertising” (Stefan, 2011). The second function (titled information) aims to inform possible clients about the offered product as advertising supplies the necessary information to consumers so that they know what is available and where to buy it. It broadcasts information about products, services and ideas sold on the open market through a variety of media portals. It reveals the special features being sold, what colour and size the product is and which stores carry it (Stefan 2011).

The third function is closely related to persuasion. Stefan (2011) holds the view that the most important function of advertising is to convince people to do something, to go somewhere, or to buy something. He writes that “persuasion is the core mission of advertising. Advertising tells you how the product, service or idea you are considering will improve your life” (Stefan, 2011). Next, there is a question of previewing new trends. As reported by Stefan (2011) “previews about the virtues of new products, services and ideas motivate consumers to obtain them because they do not want to be left out. Advertising lets consumers in on up-and-coming trends and new markets. They offer coupons, rebates and trial offers on new products, services or ideas to recruit new customers and induce existing customers to try things. Advertisers preview new or improved products, services and ideas to consumers in order to appeal to their sense of wanting to be in the know about leading edge trends”. ‘Demand’ is the title of one of the powerful functions of advertising, as defined by Stefan (2011). According to him, “products, services and concepts are sold in volume, according to the consumer demand for them”. He states that “another relevant goal of advertising is to build and reinforce relationships with customers, prospects, retailers and important stakeholders. Advertising seeks to maintain the current customer base by reinforcing purchasing behaviour with additional information about the benefits of brands” (Stefan, 2011). The last presented and also the essential function of advertising is a pricing. Advertising displays a consumer goods with competitive prices relative to the current market, thus educating consumers about what things should cost. Advertising lets you know what the competition is doing, when the next sale is, and how you can receive the latest coupon or rebate and seeks to assure you that you are receiving the best value for your money (Stefan 2011).

2 SLOGAN AS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF ADVERTISEMENTS

Before the study of specific slogans of Apple Inc., it is necessary to discuss what exactly slogans are. Every day we meet with millions of pieces of advertisements everywhere we move. Some slogans seem to be as well-known as we know them by heart; however, millions of them we hardly notice. What exactly slogans are? Why are advertising slogans so important for advertisers? According to Merriam-Webster online, a slogan is “a word or phrase that is easy to remember and is used by a group or business to attract attention” (Definition of slogan). As reported by Gatbonton (n.d.) it is thought that “slogans are the advertising tag-lines or phrases that advertisers create to visually express the importance and benefits of their product”. It is a profusely held view that slogans are familiar features of advertising and Millward Brown (a leading global research agency specializing in advertising effectiveness, strategic communication, media and brand equity research) carried out an exploration in which various findings related to slogans were set out. They point out that about two-thirds of all the advertisements in their global Link database include slogans. However, a great deal of variety of ways of use of slogans was observed. For example, the brand name may or may not be included, the slogan may be set to music, the slogan may be a new phrase or it may have been used before (Millward Brown, 2011). Once a slogan become impressive and catchy, it usually leads to its longer shelf life. Thus, some great slogans last for many years, even decades. Still, some of the most popular brands change their slogans annually. However, there are also used slogans that seem to be, for example, meaningless, thereby, they do not last very long in the advertisement environment and they must be substituted. The slogans are only useful as long as they still convey something meaningful about the brand. Many companies frequently change their slogans, even each year (Hollis, 2011). Millard Brown Agency (2011) puts forward the view that: “A slogan that is merely an end-line or sign-off to an advertisement is unlikely to make a contribution to the success of either advertising or the brand; the creative must integrate the brand and slogan in such a way that the slogan can strengthen branding, or have some other

23 effect”. This can be demonstrated, for example, by the advertisement of McDonald’s Corporation, in which the powerful slogan ‘I’m Lovin’ It’ persists in its advertisement because everybody is aware of the fact that this slogan undoubtedly belongs to this corporation.

2.1 WHAT MAKES SLOGANS SUCCESSFUL?

Advertisers attempt to create slogans to gain the customer’s attention as much as possible, promote and represent their products and bring benefits to their business; nevertheless, some of them do not obey simple and useful guidelines to design their slogans in efficient way and thus, their advertising may be considered unproductive. There are provided some recommendations which lead to the possible success of the slogan. As previously mentioned, slogans are supposed to be attractive to people. A much debated issue is related to a question why people like certain slogans. What exactly attracts them? There are several notions about creating successful slogans. For example, according to a study undertaken by researchers at the Texas Tech University, there are three main factors that determine whether people like a given slogan. The creativity, the clarity of message and the identification with the brand are deemed the most significant factors of successful slogan (Kolowich, n.d.). There is no doubt the slogan must be extraordinary in order to impress the clients; therefore, advertisers should concentrate on its uniqueness. The message of the slogan should be obvious so as its the main idea would be surely highlighted. And the last condition is related to the familiarity of the slogan with the brand. Gatbonton (n.d.) says that “a good slogan must stay consistent with the brand name either obviously stated or strongly implied. It is highly recommended to include the name of your business to it”. Excluding the previously mentioned factors, it is absolutely necessary to present another significant means which makes slogans famed. One of the most useful principles is to keep slogans short and simple. Cook (n.d.) says that slogans usually consist of five words and because of its shortness they seem to be easier for people to remember. There is propounded the limit for the length of slogan to the maximum of ten words (7 Tips to Creating a Memorable Slogan, 2015).

Another principle refers to differentiation which could be clarified, as follows: Nowadays the market is overflowing with companies of the same industry; therefore, companies are supposed to create unique taglines and slogans which may cause differentiation in a field of their output (Gatbonton, n.d.). Therefore, it is recommended to figure out the unique selling proposition and utilize it (7 Tips to Creating a Memorable Slogan, 2015). Cook (n.d.) states that jargon language, especially industry specific jargon words, should be avoided in slogans since it makes people to speculate about its real meaning. The matter of time is connected to the importance of longevity of slogans. Slogans are changing with the times, and therefore advertisers attempt to preclude a repetitive modification of slogans by using words that ensure timeless existence of slogans (7 Tips to Creating a Memorable Slogan, 2015). As to the target market, it is recommended to create a slogan which will be comprehensible to the specific target market. In other words, advertisers should consider whether their customers are local, national or international and modify slogans according to their disposition (7 Tips to Creating a Memorable Slogan, 2015). Many marketers hold the view that a key factor of slogans is memorability and excellency, and, as a result of this, some of the best slogans are still being used nowadays, even though they were launched long time ago (7 Tips to Creating a Memorable Slogan, 2015).

3 VISUAL DEVICES USED IN ADVERTISING

According to the majority of scholars in the field, among the most significant features of advertisement is not only verbal text, but also image. It is thought that these attention-seeking devices are closely linked. Goddard (2002) highlights that “readers do not simply read images in isolation from the verbal text that accompanies them; nor do they read the verbal text without reference to accompanying images” (p. 13). For Hermeren (1999), visual devices are recently on the remarkable increase in contrast to verbal expressions used in advertising. Nowadays posters and billboards tend to be larger and larger in size, their colours become brighter and more dazzling; however, at the same time, the decrease of the amount of words introducing a subject of advertisement is evident (p. 71). Why is this happening? A probable explanation is that people are surrounded by a flow of messages of all kinds every day and this specific kind of attention-seeking device turned into a tedious phenomenon. Thus, advertisers were obliged to come up with new means of attracting people’s attention. Therefore, the visual strategy became significantly important in design of the advertisement (Hermeren, 1999, p. 71).

3.1 STUDY OF SIGNS OF FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE AND CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE

Chandler (2017) claims that we may be presented as Homo Significans (meaning- makers) because of our deep desire to make meanings and he states that “we make meanings through our creation and interpretation of signs”. It is necessary to point out that the sign is undoubtedly connected to the semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation. The word semiotics was for the first time used by the American philosopher Peirce who is regarded as one of the key figures in the development of semiotic studies (Chandler, 2017). His impressive study of sign will be discussed subsequently. The most important representative of linguistics of 20th century is considered Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure and his study of signs. He is deemed not only excellent

26 linguist, but also the founder of the semiology. Cook (1996) states that “both, the semiotics and the semiology, refer to the study of signs (as stated above), but a difference is sometimes drawn between the approaches of these two leading theories”. As presented in Cook’s The Discourse of Advertising (1996) the Saussurean theory of semiology plays important role in linguistics as well as in advertising (p. 60). Consequently, let us now consider Saussure’s theory of signs. Saussure provides the study of signs in which the language is presented as a system of signs. As shown in Fig. 3, each sign of the system is composed of a signifier (signifiant)3, the form the sign takes, and signified (signifié)4, the subject it represents (Cook, 1996).

Fig. 3: Model of the sign according to Saussure

Each sign must consist of signifier and signified. Chandler (2017) claims that “you cannot have a totally meaningless signifier or a completely formless signified. The relationship between the signifier and the signified is referred to as signification”, and this is represented by the arrows in Fig. 3. Turning now to the Peirce’s theory, it should be highlighted that he provides categories which supplement Saussure’s theory of sign (Cook, 1996). Peirce defines a sign as “something which stands to somebody for something else, in some respect or capacity” (Cook, 1996, p. 69). In his theory of signs, Peirce distinguishes three important signs: symbol, icon and index as shown in Fig. 4 (Hermeren, 1999, p. 72).

3 French expression used by Saussure 4 French expression used by Saussure

Fig. 4: Peirce’s theory of signs

According to Cook (1996), icon as well as index are substantially useful in analyses of advertising (p. 69). Nevertheless, firstly, the meaning of the symbol must be briefly introduced, afterwards the icon and the index will be discussed. The symbol is regarded as a sign that signifies something else within a speech community (Hermeren, 1999, p. 72). The symbol is explained as basically arbitrary and conventional, thus the relationship between signifier and signified must be learnt (traffic signs) (Chandler, 2017). The main characteristic of icon is based on the natural resemblance of the signifier and the signified (Hermeren, 1999, p. 72). In other words, the signifier always tries to imitate the reality – the signified (Chandler, 2017). Hermeren (1999) states that “iconic signs are motivated and non-arbitrary, the iconity is often a matter of degree and it is partly based on cultural conventions” (p. 72). A notable example of icon may be either a portrait or imitative gestures. Cook (1996) points out that “an index is a sign which points to something else by virtue of a casual relationship” (p. 69). For example, dark clouds signify a heavy raining, a smoke signifies a fire and an apple may signify the Garden of Eden as represented in Fig. 3. Turning to the advertisement in a magazine or a television programme, it is understood as an index which stands for the fact that a product of the advertisement exists and is available for potential customers (Cook, 1996, p. 69).

4 LINGUISTIC MEANS USED IN ADVERTISING

As stated in the preceding chapter, not only the use of visual devices plays important role in advertising, but also linguistic means are assumed as significant as images. It is thought that advertisers aim to sell their product promptly and in a huge amount; therefore, they are supposed to create as much attractive advertisement as possible. The uncommon way, from linguistic point of view, is usually used to reach the creativity in advertising and this use of linguistic means is discussed in the following section.

4.1 DISCOURSE

The discourse is considered one of the most discussed and analysed phenomenon of linguistics. Breeze (2015) assimilates the term ‘discourse’ with language in action. The language is considered a principal feature of communication in a social life, therefore, the notion of discourse seems to be enormously wide, and hence it may be used in several ways. The discourse is defined by Cook (1989) as “the language in use and the language for communication” (p. 6). He states that discourse consists of the text and the context which interact in a meaningful way and link the participants (Cook, 1996, p. 2). Likewise, Widdowson (2007) claims that people produce text in order to express their ideas and beliefs, to explain anything, to command others to do something. In other words, people produce the text to communicate and this set of communicative features can be defined as the discourse (p. 6). “To put it differently, contextualization of a text is actually the reader’s reconstruction of the writer’s intended message, that is, his or her communicative act or discourse” (Verdonk, 2003, p. 18). It is important to explain that discourse refers to what an addresser meant by a text as well as what a text means to the addressee (Widdowson, 2007, p. 7).

4.1.1 ADVERTISING AS DISCOURSE

Cook (1996) points out that hundreds of discourse types may be distinguished. For example, some of them might be aimed to be conversations, some of them may be perceived to be lessons, brochures, gossip, handouts, etc. Discourses may be divided into categories by situation, by function, by participants, by substance or by text (p. 4). “Consequently, a given discourse may be several types once” (Cook, 1996, p. 4). Advertising is regarded as a significant discourse type essentially in all societies all over the world. Because of its prominence, it is believed that advertising is a good indicator of the condition of our society and psychology. There were several attempts to distinguish advertisement from discourse type and the most relevant feature for its classification is a function (Cook, 1996, p. 5). Cook (1996) concludes that “firstly, there are discourses described as ‘ad’, which do not sell anything, but plead or warn or seek support. Secondly, there are discourses such as poems or songs, which become ads by being used in a particular way. Thirdly, even if the majority of ads have the function of persuading their addressees to buy, this is not their only function. They may also amuse, inform, misinform, worry or warn” (p. 5). It seems that nowadays advertising focuses especially on benefits and all marketers aim to manage earnings. The question is – what exactly compels people to buy the product or service promoted in the advertisement? It is interesting how powerful advertising may be and how can influence our decision. Therefore, it is believed that advertisers should extensively concentrate on persuasive effects which are recommended to integrate into their advertisement in order to gain significant success. The analysis of slogans in the practical part will show which linguistic and stylistic features seem to be the most frequent means of persuasion in advertising slogans of Apple Inc.

4.2 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS

As previously stated, advertising is regarded as a specific type of discourse and an analysis of linguistic and stylistic features used in advertisements may lead to more accurate understanding how advertising discourse exactly works. Stylistic analysis involves the study of a particular piece of language or text. In this case, several levels of language may be analysed: phonetic/graphetic, phonological/graphological, grammatical, lexical and semantic levels (Crystal and Davy, 1969, p. 15). There is no only one dominant level in language structure, thus, it is important to point out that there is a significant inter-level linguistic relationship which cannot be ignored in linguistic analysis. “Features at one level may reinforce or explain features at another, and a text may be characterised stylistically as much by the way inter-level features exist as by the features which operate within levels” (Crystal and Davy, 1969, p. 20). This thesis deals with the linguistic analysis of advertising slogans, and hence those levels of language are explored in following subsections.

4.2.1 PHONETIC / GRAPHETIC LEVEL

“The study of the production, transmission and receptions of speech sounds is called phonetics” (Crystal, 1992, p. 55). This study is devoted to human vocal noise and its utilization and plays an important role primarily in spoken advertising which is usually provided via a television spot or a radio. Unlike the phonetic level, the graphetic level deals with written or printed aspects of language, in other words, it focuses on visual features of language which are regarded as non-linguistic (for example: type-size, colours in a text, fount, etc.) (Crystal and Davy, 1996, p. 16).

4.2.2 PHONOLOGICAL / GRAPHOLOGICAL LEVEL

According to Kenworthy (1991) phonology studies the patterns of sounds of a language and how they function as a system (p. 44). “The term ‘graphology’ refers to the whole writing system: punctuation and paragraphing as well as spelling. To a great 31 extent, English graphology imitates phonology – the written version of the language is a visual coding of its spoken version” (Leech, 1969, p. 39). In advertising, phonological (as well as graphological5) aspects on the most basic level of sounds and letters are displayed especially in the following literary devices: rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance, etc. Some of them can be also assigned to the rhetorical figures, specifically to the schemes. The following section focuses on the most known and utilized phonological components which are presently distinctive to advertising.

4.2.2.1 RHYME

Myers (1994) describes rhyme as “the repetition of ending sounds; technically it is the similarity of all the last sounds of two words, from the ending of the last stressed syllable on” (p. 34). Rhyme was used in advertising from the beginning of its history and was regarded as its inseparable part. It became also the major feature of the jingle in the advertisements broadcasted in a radio. It is necessary to mention that rhyme does not refer to the spelling of the word, but to the sounds (Myers, 1994, pp. 34–36). Rhyme can be presented as one of the most used rhetorical figures in advertising. Xiaosong (n.d.) writes that the best way to highlight the brand name is to rhyme it with other words in the slogan. It leads to differentiation and the uniqueness of the slogan.

Example: “Teeny doesn't mean weeny.” (iPod mini)

4.2.2.2 RHYTHM

“Rhythm refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech. We often associate rhythm with a degree of regularity in this pattern in contrast to arrhythmic speech where the pattern is irregular” (Ballard, 2010, p. 273). Myers (1994) holds the view that rhythm can be considered a good device for better remembering an advertising slogan (p. 36).

Example: “iTunes, we’ve just turned on the radio.” (iTunes Radio)

5 Graphology is the analogous study of a language’s writing system (Crystal and Davy, 1996, p. 18). 32

4.2.2.3 ALLITERATION

Alliteration is considered one of the rhetorical operations which belongs to the group of repetition schemes. It is an operation when the same consonant sounds are repeated either in the initial position in three or more subsequent words or the majority of the words with alliteration or in the key words with alliteration (McQuarrie and Phillips, 2008, p. 87). Alliteration usually leads to the slogans’ rhythmicity and can be easily remembered (Xiaosong, n.d.).

Example: “Redesigned. Reengineered. Re-everythinged.” (MacBook)

4.2.2.4 ASSONANCE

Assonance is comprehended as a type of repetition of vowel sounds in contrast to alliteration which is connected to the repetition of consonant sounds. Assonance in slogans usually seems to be subtler because assonance only deals with the stressed syllables, therefore it is necessary to distinguish the difference between stressed e and unstressed e in a word (Myers, 1994, pp. 33–34).

Example: “Think different.” (Apple slogan till 2002)

4.2.3 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL LEVELS

Turning now to the description of the grammatical and lexical levels, it is important to mention that they do not work separately because of the existence of a grammatical-lexical interdependence. In other words, they are closely connected to each other. Grammar may be divided into morphology, which focuses on the study of the internal structure of words or classes of words, and syntax, the study of the rules governing the way words are arranged in sentences (Crystal and Davy, 1996, pp. 18-19). It is believed that units of grammatical and lexical levels are the most essential part of the slogans and thus succeeding section is dedicated to a brief description of these units.

4.2.3.1 MORPHOLOGY

From morphological point of view, the following parts of speech may be considered vital in formation of slogans: verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs.

4.2.3.1.1 VERBS

The verb is defined by Vogel (2012) in terms of a word class which expresses an action (play, ride), event (blink, slide) or state (concern, remember). Verbs express contrasts of tense, aspect, voice, mood, person and number. The verb can be used not only as a single word (Run!), but also as a verb phrase (He will run in the race.) (p. 36).

Several types of mood may be applied, for example: • Indicative – it expresses objective statements, • Imperative – it expresses command, • Conditional – it expresses hypothesis or condition, • Subjunctive – it expresses doubt, tentativeness, • Interrogative – it is a verb form expressing a question (Vogel, 2012, p. 39).

It is necessary to distinguish terms ‘time’ and ‘tense’. Quirk and Greenbaum (1990) describes time as “a line on which is located, as a continuously moving point, the present moment. Anything ahead of the present moment is in the future, and anything behind it is the past” (p. 47). According to Vogel (2012), tense can be presented as a grammatical category which classifies the objective time, realized by inflection. There are three main categories of tense: the present tense, the past/preterite tense, and also the future tense which may be expressed in many ways. There are also pre-tenses in English: the past perfect, the present perfect, the future perfect and progressive forms, which are used to express aspect (p. 38).

4.2.3.1.2 NOUNS Nouns name living creature (people, animals) objects (things, plants, products etc.), places, abstract quality (strength), concept (morpheme) or action (a run) (Vogel, 2012, p. 28). They can be divided into two main categories: common and proper nouns. Common nouns can be subdivided into concrete (stone) and abstract (love) nouns, and furthermore into countable (table) and uncountable (advice) nouns. Proper nouns name something or someone unique (Jane, London) (Ballard, 2007, pp. 24–25). In advertising, it is more apposite to examine a noun group, in which the main head is certainly a noun. Leech (1966) highlights that a nominal group, a broad class including structures which have nouns, pronouns, adjectives, determiners or numerals, is more complex than the verbal one. “In advertising language, the interesting part of the noun group is the pre-modifying part, which is sometimes marked not only by outstanding complexity, but by certain unusual features of structure” (Leech, 1966, p. 127). The pre-modification is commonly used in advertising language, especially with a reference to a product name, which provides not only useful information about the product, but also an appealing description (Leech, 1996, pp. 130–134).

4.2.3.1.3 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS “Adjectives typically refer to properties which people or things possess and they are used to modify nouns” (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen and Spencer, 2009, p. 130). They can be divided into three categories: • Attributive – they stand before a noun or pronoun which they (pre)modify (good life), • Predicative – their function is work as subject or object complements after a verb (It seems reasonable), • Postpositive – they follow a modified noun or pronoun (somewhere cheaper).

Typical feature of adjectives is their gradability (useful – more useful – the most useful, hard - harder – the hardest) (Vogel, 2012, p. 34). “Adverbs are elements of clause structure which mostly contribute to the meaning of the verb (He went abroad), but also to some other adjacent element (hardly anyone) or to the clause as a whole” (Vogel, 2012, p. 39). Most of them are formed by

35 use of suffix -ly to an adjective (clearly) which is characterised for open-class adverbs. The second group of adverbs is called closed-class because they are not formed by the adding a specific suffix (in contrast to open-class adverbs) (no, soon, very). The third group of adverbs is connected to compounds (sometimes) and the last group is represented by adverbs which are derived by other suffixes (backwards). Adverbs can function as adverbials (Surprisingly, he didn’t remember our faces.) or they can act as modifiers of verbs and adjectives (very useful) (Vogel, 2012, pp. 39–40).

4.2.3.1.4 PRONOUNS Radford et al. (2009) writes that pronouns stand for a noun expression (p. 134). Vogel (2012) defines several subclasses of pronouns: • Personal (I, you, she, he, they, we), • Reflexive (yourselves, myself), • Possessive (my, your, their, her), • Demonstrative (this/these, that/those), • Interrogative (which? whose? what?), • Relative (He’s the man who supported her.), • Reciprocal (each other, one another), • Indefinite (some, any, anybody, something) (pp. 35–36).

In the sphere of advertising, it is highly-valued to use names of people and personal pronouns that usually focus on people. Especially the pronoun ‘you‘ can be considered the most powerful word in advertising for a reason - it is personal (Suggett, 2016). Myers (1994) claims that use of ‘you’ in advertisement is powerful because it is tricky, not because it points to just one person (p. 79). The ‘you’ usually provides so called one-to-one relationship and the ‘you’ in advertisement can be aimed to anyone who is standing in front of the advertisement. It can be thought that the ‘you’ is supposed to make you to feel the advertisement is addressing primarily to you, to the viewer. By contrast, another ‘you’ can signify the concrete person in the ad, not the reader. Other important pronouns for marketing, such as ‘we’ and ‘I’ cannot be omitted. At first, turning to the pronoun ‘we’, it is necessary to distinguish two types of ‘we’. There is a difference between the inclusive and exclusive sense of ‘we’ because it either

36 includes or does not include the person who is spoken to (Myers, 1994, p. 81). Advertisers either can present themselves as a part, for example, of the nation by using ‘we’ in the inclusive sense or ‘we’ can be used to refer to advertisers themselves, which is the most common use of this pronoun in the exclusive sense. The use of pronoun ‘I’ in the advertisement incites viewers to be more individual. It may be considered a paradox because the adman always addresses to the audience which consists of millions of people but at the same time attempts to appeal to one person because the advertiser believes at least one person will be attracted by the advertisement (Myers, 1994, pp. 79–84).

4.2.3.1.5 WORD FORMATION It is important to mention a morphological term a ‘word formation’ because it is deemed very useful for a discussion of morphology of words. Cowie (2013) describes word formation as a process of creating of new words which can be accomplished by various methods. The first method, known as affixation, is connected to the addition of bound morphemes either to the initial, or to the final part of the word (for example, common – uncommon, build – builder). The second productive method is called compounding, which is based on a connection of two roots (snowman), and also conversion, the method for building new words by a change of the word class without the visible addition of a suffix or prefix (paper – adjective, paper – verb) (p. 15). Those mentioned processes are regarded as the most productive in the word formation; however, other methods exist in English, for example, abbreviation, which nowadays advertising may often contain. This process consists of shortening of naming units and can be divided into several subcategories, such as acronyms (AIDS – acquired immune deficiency syndrome), initialism – pronounced as a group of letters (BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation), clipping (mobile phone – mobile), blending (smoke and fog – smog). There are also onomatopoeic words that usually appear in advertising. These words imitate sounds (miaow). English language adopted a range of words from another language that are called borrowings (sushi – from Japanese), most of these have been anglicised (Ballard, 2007, pp. 63–34).

One of the word formation methods may be obviously considered an invention of new words, of neologisms. “Neologisms can be completely new words, new meanings for existing words or new semes in existing words“ (54 Great Examples of Modern-Day Neologisms, 2017). Leech (1969) states that production of neologism is characteristic not only for poets, but also for journalists, copywriters and scientists, even ordinary people sometimes devise new words during regular conversations. Neologisms appear in advertising very often because they represent some specific way of creativity which is essential in advertising sphere. Some of neologism, especially poetic neologisms, have become more temporary because people meet them over and over again, for example Shakespeare’s ‘assassination‘ (p. 42).

4.2.3.2 VOCABULARY CHOICE

This subsection provides remarkable findings related to advertising lexicology. As previously mentioned, nouns, verbs and adjectives belong to the most important pieces of the slogan formation. From lexical point of view, the most frequent nouns, verbs and adjectives used in advertisements are discussed in the following subsection. The most frequent verbs used in slogans were introduced by Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994). They suggested following: try, ask for, get, take, let, send for, use, call, make, come on, hurry, come, see, give, remember, discover, serve, introduce, choose and look for. They claim that these mentioned verbs can be synonyms for a word ‘buy’. The word ‘buy’ in advertising represents the most direct exhortation to action, and therefore it is recommended to avoid its use in advertisement because its intrusion can cause a negative reaction of an audience (pp. 67–68). Turning now to the adjectives, especially adjectives used in advertising language, Crystal’s study (1997) shows that the most common adjectives in advertising slogans are: new, crisp, good / better / the best, fine, big, fresh, great, delicious, real, full, sure, easy, bright, clean, extra, safe, special and free. As shown in Crystal’s study (1997) word ‘free’ was considered one of the most common adjectives; however, the Suggett’s article (2016), which was published almost 20 years after Crystal’s study, demonstrates that nowadays the adjective ‘free’ has started to be unpopular with customers because of its excessive usage and a potential untruthful concept – nothing was never for free without any conditions. Therefore, it has disappeared from marketing

38 sphere. Harbeck (2014) writes that in nowadays advertising, it has become popular to use an adjective as a noun. Copywriters transform a word into an unexpected grammatical form only for a noteworthy effect. This conversion is called anthimeria. For example, Spread the happy (Nutella). As mentioned above, nouns play an important role in forming of slogans, as well. These listed nouns can be regarded as the most common nouns used in advertising: bargain, beauty, benefits, bonanza, bonus, breakthrough, commission, discount, ease, expert, fortune, gift, growth, holiday sale, holiday price, health, innovation, money, a must, opportunity, possibilities, profit, results, sale, savings, spotlight, testimonials, time, total, value, variety and wealth (Effective Advertising Words).

4.2.3.3 SYNTAX

Firstly, it should be explained what syntax deals with. “Syntax, in contrast to morphology, operates on a level higher than the word since it is concerned with the rules by which words are combined into lager units” (Ballard, 2007, p. 93). Three main units of syntactic construction may be classified, as follows: phrases, clauses and sentences.

4.2.3.3.1 PHRASE STRUCTURE A phrase is the smallest syntactic unit. There are five types of phrases: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb and prepositional phrases, all of which consist of two main parts, a head and modifiers. In advertising, noun and verb phrases are used the most, therefore a brief survey is necessary. Firstly, a definition of the noun phrase is provided by Leech (1990). According to him, “noun phrases consist of a head word preceded optionally by one or more pre- qualifiers and followed optionally by one or more post-qualifiers”, for example a leather suitcase. The head word must be represented by a noun in this type of phrases. The noun phrase can be deemed one of the most common feature of advertising slogan. Secondly, the verb phrase can be presented, as follows: “Verb phrases are either finite (i.e. contain a finite verb form, or are non-finite, which consist simply of non- finite forms (participles or infinitives)”, for example have, is going to. The head word must be represented by a verb (Leech, 1990, p. 181). As mentioned above, the noun

39 phrases are more complex than the verb phrases. Copywriters attempt to use verb phrases in slogans in simple way because it leads to higher memorability of advertisement by the audience.

4.2.3.3.2 CLAUSE STRUCTURE A clause is a unit of the syntactic construction and is formed from phrases. It is larger unit than phrases. Clauses are structural components of sentences. They are formed from elements which play important role in the clause (subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial) (Ballard, 2007, pp. 119–120).

4.2.3.3.3 SENTENCE TYPES A sentence is the largest unit of syntactic structure. The sentence usually consists of several clauses but it can be formed by only one clause. It is possible to divide sentences into four sentence types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990, pp. 231–232).

• Declaratives – are sentences in which is normal for the subject to be present and to precede the verb (Pauline gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday.) • Interrogatives – are sentences which formally used in either yes-no interrogatives or wh-interrogatives (Did Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday?, What did Pauline give Tom for his birthday?) • Imperatives - are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form (Give Tom a digital watch for his birthday.) • Exclamatives – are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order (What a fine watch he received for his birthday!)

It is necessary to point out that these four sentence types are narrowly related to discourse functions. Declarative sentences are aimed to make statements, in other words to convey information. Interrogative sentences are used for asking questions, for seeking information (Lyons, 1995, p. 38). Imperative sentences are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something and the exclamative sentences are used for

expressing the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990, p. 231). The most frequent sentence types used in advertising are imperatives, interrogatives as well as exclamatives. Copywriters use imperative forms in advertising slogans not only to command consumers to do something, but also because this way create a personal effect. They usually try to make direct exhortation which is mostly positive. Negative forms of exhortation are seldom used (Leech, 1966, p. 110). For example: “Meet the next generation of notebooks.” (MacBook Pro). Similarly, questions indicate a direct addressing to the audience. The characteristic for questions in advertising is that they are mostly rhetorical and can contain presuppositions. For example: “Where did the computer go?” (iMac). Exclamations are used more frequently in advertisements than in other types of discourse. Exclamations depend on the complex interpretation. The exclamation mark and introducing by what and how are important in exclamative expressions because these features point out that these expressions must be read with exaggerated intonation and with empathy (Myers, 1994, pp. 47–51).

4.2.4 SEMANTIC LEVEL

This part of the thesis is devoted to the semantic level, specifically to rhetorical figures used in advertisements. The first necessary move is to explain what semantics is. Palmer (1995) defines semantics, as follows: ”The term ‘semantics’ is used to refer to the study of meaning, and, since meaning is a part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics” (p. 1). The study of meaning is closely connected with two terms: denotation and connotation, which plays more important role in advertising than denotation. Denotation can be explained as a strict literal meaning which can be found in a dictionary. By contrast, connotation refers to emotional, either positive or negative associations which are related to the word. According to Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994), connotations of the same word can differ between individuals and the words with the same denotations may have diverse connotations in different context (p. 43). Connotation used in advertisement connects the advertisement to a larger cultural context, therefore

41 advertisers must realize that the meaning of their advertisement may be understood in different ways, in accordance with the cultural overtones.

Creativity and extraordinariness are considered an inseparable part of advertising, and thus the rhetorical figures are deemed important components of the language of advertising. Cuddon (1992) defines the term ‘figurative language’ as “a language, which uses figures of speech and must be distinguished from literal language” (p. 149). Advertising uses the figurative language in order to achieve either special effects or specials meanings which can lead to the superior persuasion of the advertisement. All rhetorical figures may be divided into two main categories: schemes and tropes, as illustrated in Fig. 56. Schemes can be described as segmental phonemic effects which deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words, which involves tropes, defined as stylistic effects (Malmkjaer, 2004, p. 515).

Fig. 5: A taxonomy of rhetorical figures in advertising

McQuarrie and Phillips (2008) explain that “schemes change the arrangement of elements (e.g. sounds, words, clauses) to create repeating or reversed patterns (repetition schemes and reversed schemes)”. They claim that “tropes have literally false meaning, from which the intended meaning must be interpreted through simple

6 A Taxonomy of Rhetorical Figures in Advertising of McQuarrie, E. F., and Phillips, B. J. 42 substitution of intended for literal meaning or deciphered through greater cognitive effort (substitution tropes and destabilization tropes)” (pp. 86–90). This part of the paper deals with the description of rhetorical tropes which are discussed in the succeeding subsection.

4.2.4.1 SUBSTITUTION TROPES

Beginning with the substitution tropes, it should be mentioned that they are less complex and have the low gradient deviation, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

4.2.4.1.1 HYPERBOLE In Bußmann’s dictionary (2004), this trope is defined, as follows: “Hyperbole is an exaggerated description intended to elicit alienation, revaluation, or any kind of emotional reaction” (p. 212). Hanks (n.d.) notes that admen use hyperbole in their advertising to attract people, not with the facts about the product but with profuse exaggeration which does not intend to show the truth.

Example: “Millions of songs. Thousands of videos. Hundreds of games.” (iPod touch)

4.2.4.1.2 ELLIPSIS One of the way of unexpected irregularity used by advertisers can be considered ellipsis. It is defined as an omitting of elements of language which is usually used for reasons of economy. This kind of irregularity is typical in advertising as Goddard (2002) notes: “Advertising language often attempts to reproduce the elliptical nature of spoken language in order to establish closeness with the reader” (p. 125).

Example: “The first phone to beat the iPhone.” (iPhone 3G)

4.2.4.1.3 EPANORTHOSIS Epanorthosis is a rhetorical figure by which something is retracted or recalled for the sake of substituting something stronger or more suitable in its place (Nordquist, 2017). Advertisers often use this figure to correct or comment on something they at first mentioned in the advertisement.

4.2.4.1.4 RHETORICAL QUESTION Questions may be regarded as one of several rhetorical devices which are often used in advertising. Advertisers use this kind of question to force people to think about the conclusion on their own which has greater effect (Should You Use Rhetorical Questions in Advertising?).

Example: “What kind of man owns his own computer?” (Apple II)

4.2.4.1.5 METONYMY Metonymy is another important rhetorical device which is frequently used in advertising. McQuarrie and Phillips (2008) says that “metonymy designates an object by something closely associated with it – a particular instance, property, characteristic, or association” (p. 88).

Example: “Things go better with an apple.“ (iPhone 4)

4.2.4.2 DESTABILIZATION TROPES

In contrast to substitution tropes, destabilization tropes are more complex and with a high gradient of deviation.

4.2.4.2.1 METAPHOR First of the most important advertising tropes can be deemed metaphor. Metaphor was defined by Malmkjaer (2004) as: “a kind of semantic analogy which appear to be one be one of the most important aspects of linguistic behaviour. It involves a semantic transfer through a similarity in sense perceptions“ (p. 237).

Likewise, Levinson (1995) notes that “metaphors are special uses of linguistic expressions where one ‘metaphorical’ expression (or focus) is embedded in another ‘literal’ expression (or frame), such that the meaning of the focus interacts with and changes the meaning of the frame, and vice versa (p. 148). The use of metaphoric expression (words or pictures) is extremely frequent in advertising. Marketers use this rhetorical figure in order to convey not direct message about their product but compel customers to make their own conclusion about the product.

Example: “One thousand songs in your pocket.” (iPod classic)

4.2.4.2.2 PUN Pun is a rhetorical figure which is very common especially in advertising language. Pun was defined by Wales (2001) in terms of ambiguity, specifically a foreground lexical ambiguity which deals with the use of polysemous words carrying two or more meanings or with the use of homonyms7 (pp. 326–327). Puns are considered a play on words and appear in advertising to not only make it entertaining but also advertisers want customers to think deeper about the meaning of advertisement (Myers, 1994, pp. 62–67).

Example: ”Enjoy uncertainty.” (iPod shuffle)

4.2.4.2.3 IRONY Irony belongs to the category of rhetorical figures and according to Wales (2001) “irony is found when the words actually used appear to contradict the sense actually required in the context and presumably intended by the speaker” (p. 224). The ironic expressions cannot be taken literally. In advertisements where irony appears, the misunderstanding is more probable and then the dislike of the advertisement may be followed. However, Lagerwerf (2007) claims that “if well-interpreted, destabilizing tropes may lead to a heightened appreciation of advertisements”.

7 “Homonyms are words which are identical in both spelling and sound.” (Wales, 2001, p. 188). 45

4.2.4.2.4 PARADOX Paradox can be understood as a kind of expanded oxymoron8. “It is a statement which is apparently self-contradictory” (Wales, 2001, p. 282). Moreover, despite paradox appears to be contradictory, it may contain some truth. This kind of rhetorical figure is used not only in the riddles but also in advertising to attract attention.

Example: “The only thing that’s changed is everything.” (iPhone 6s and iPhone 6s Plus)

4.2.4.3 OTHER RHETORICAL FIGURES USED IN ADVERTISING

4.2.4.3.1 PERSONIFICATION This rhetorical figure may be described in these words: “It is a figure of speech or trope in which an inanimate object, animate non-human, or abstract quality is given human attributes” (Wales. 2001, p. 294). In other words, “personification attributes human qualities to an inanimate object” (McQuarrie and Phillips, 2008, p. 89).

Example: “Touch comes to iPod.” (iPod touch)

4.2.4.3.2 PARALLELISM According to Wales (2001), parallelism is one of the common and important rhetorical devices which are used in advertising. “Parallelism depends on the principles of equivalence or repetition of the same structural pattern: commonly between phrases or clauses” (p. 283). Mack (n.d.) notes that the parallel structures in advertising can lead to maximization of its effectiveness.

Example: “It’s small. It talks. And it’s in color.” (iPod shuffle)

8 Oxymoron is a figure of rhetoric which juxtaposes apparently contradictory expressions for witty or striking effects. (Wales, 2001, p. 280) 46

4.2.4.3.3 ASYNDETON Asyndeton is another common rhetorical figure used in advertising. “Asyndeton in rhetoric refers to co-ordinated clauses or phrases without explicit conjunctions or connectives” (Wales, 2001, p. 33).

Example: “15,000 songs. 25,000 photos. 80 hours of video.“ (iPod 5th generation with video)

4.2.4.3.4 POLYSYNDETON In contradiction to asyndeton, polysyndeton is defined as “a repetition of conjunctions in close succession” (Polysyndeton).

To conclude the theoretical part, it is important to mention that the most essential terms which are related to advertising language have been introduced in this part of the thesis. This theory has been connected not only to each level of advertising language (phonological, grammatical, lexical as well as semantic) but it also focuses on the concept of advertising in general. The discussed theory may be considered a support for the practical part in which this theory will be studied repetitively during an analysis and will be applied on assembled slogans.

PRACTICAL PART

The previous part provided an overview in which the essential theory related to advertising as well as its linguistic features is discussed. Turning now to the practical part, the main aim of this part is to analyse advertising slogans of Apple Inc. that have been gathered into a corpus.

5 COLLECTING THE DATA

It is said that Apple Inc. (‘Apple’) has had the outstanding advertisements since the 1980s. Thus, this paper focuses on the analysis of the Apple advertising slogans from the linguistic and stylistic point of view and the results show why their advertisement is deemed so unique. The practical part contains the corpus which is divided into three major columns where slogans, the main information about the purpose of slogans and the analysis have been included. The corpus deals with 100 slogans of advertisement of Apple products, specifically slogans of iPhone and iPod. The criterion of the selection of these slogans depends on two requirements: firstly, the slogans connected to the hardware and secondly, this hardware has been selected according to Apple statistics9 in which total sold units are presented. As the statistics show, the two products with the highest total sold units and the most favourite products of Apple are iPhone (595 000 000 units sold) and the second one, iPod (370 000 000 units sold). These two items have been selected for the analysis; nevertheless, other slogans which are not fully related to the hardware, as previously said, have been included in the corpus as well (for example advertising slogan for Apple till 2002 ‘Think different’ and others). The slogans of these products have been gathered from the website Omics International10 as well as from the official Apple’s website www.apple.com.

9 Apple Computer Company Sales Statistics 2017 (Data research was conducted: April 17, 2017) 10 List of Apple Inc. slogans 48

5.1 RESEARCH AND ITS AIM

The practical part of this thesis discovers an occurrence and a frequency of specific stylistic and linguistic devices used in slogans which are assembled in the corpus. The first stage of the analysis has been carried out from phonological, grammatical, lexical and semantic point of view based on discussed theory in chapter 4 Linguistic means used in advertising. All slogans are successively analysed on each level separately and if accessible, a specific linguistic device has been identified and entered into the corpus. In the second stage, both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used to detect the regularity and irregularity of linguistic devices used in the slogans. The abbreviations of language levels have been utilized in the corpus, therefore the necessary interpretation of these abbreviations is provided at the beginning of the thesis. The aim of the research is to identify typical linguistic and stylistic features, demonstrate its regularity, irregularity and frequency and explore the main possible way Apple attract people in their advertisement.

6 APPLE INC.

This chapter of the thesis provides a brief familiarization with Apple of which slogans have been analysed in the practical part. From my point of view, it is important to have a certain cognizance about this company, their products (especially the products of which slogans have been explored) and their advertising before the introducing the research in the practical part. Apple is an American technology company that develops and designs consumer electronics and computer hardware and software. It is a corporation based in Cupertino, California and was established on April 1st 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. From 1976, there were seven CEOs11 who helped to achieve the growth of the company; however, undoubtedly the most significant CEO was Steve Jobs who was the head of Apple from 1997 till 2011 when he announced his resignation owing to

11 chief executive officer 49 the state of health and named Tim Cook as his successor as CEO (2011 – up to the present). “Apple is largely responsible for the enormous growth of the personal computer industry in the 20th century“ (Apple Computer, Inc., n.d.). Apple ignited the personal computer revolution in the 1970s with their first significant product, personal computer, called Apple II and then introduced the Macintosh, a huge reinvention, in the 1980s. They were not slow to innovate and nowadays personal computers and laptops are regarded as one of the top-selling electronics all around the world (among these products belong, for example: MacBook, MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, iMac, etc.). In 2001, they announced the 1st generation iPod, the portable handheld media player (Dougherty, 2010). “One of the most exciting advancements of Apple in 2004 was the opening of the iTunes store, a software-based online digital media store which provides millions of songs, millions of applications and films“ (Apple Computer, Inc., n.d.). The company achieved another success with the announcement of a mobile device iPhone and Apple TV in 2007, therefore the official name has changed from Apple Computer Inc. to Apple Inc. (Rawlinson, 2017). Another announcement of Apple’s new product came in 2010, when iPad12 was introduced to the public. It should be mentioned that they focus an attention also on accessories such as headphones and watches. The company produces these products with their own operating system either iOS13 for iPhones or macOS14 for computers. They also offer online services as above mentioned iTunes store, App Store15, Apple music16 and iCloud17. Turning now to the advertising of Apple, this should begin with the release of their ‘1984’ Super Bowl commercial which announced arrival of the Macintosh computer. “Its tagline, ‘Why 1984 Won't Be Like 1984’ plays on George Orwell's dystopian novel and reassures viewers that Apple's new technology would be used for freedom, not control” (Taube, 2014). Apple advertising agency, BBDO, had focused the advertisements on products of this company and the technological features of Apple computers; nevertheless, in 1997 a new slogan for Apple’s advertisements was introduced: ‘Think different’. Steve Jobs had a liking for black and white portraits as

12 a tablet computer developed by Apple 13 Operating System for iPhone and iPad 14 Macintosh Operating System 15 a digital distribution platform either for mobile devices or computers 16 a music and video streaming service 17 a cloud storage and cloud computing service 50 well as he wanted to connect this new slogan with famous thinkers and celebrities, such as Albert Einstein, Bob Dylan, Martin Luther King and others. Apple’s new commercial consisted of the black and white portrait with the slogan ‘Think different’ and the logo of Apple. “The ‘Think different’ ads stressed that Apple was an innovative company that, with its creative users, could change the world” (Apple – Think Different, 2011). The company advertisements used to be text-heavy and light on images, whereas nowadays advertisements seem to be more artistic with use of very little text compared with earlier ones. The linguistic and stylistic analysis of this paper is related only to slogans of products of iPhone and iPod, thus a short list is provided below:

• iPhone (3G, 3GS, 4, 4s, 5, 5c, 5s, 6, 6 Plus, 6s, 6s Plus, SE, 7, 7 Plus, 8, 8 Plus and X) • iPod (Classic: 1st – 6th generation, Mini: 1st – 2nd generation, Nano18: 1st – 7th generation, Shuffle19: 1st – 4th generation, Touch20: 1st – 6th generation, Miscellaneous iPod, Nike+iPod)

18 “A small portable music player that fits in between the smaller iPod Shuffle and the larger iPod touch in Apple’s line-up of iPod devices” (Stroud, n.d.). 19 “The smallest and most basic iPod and the only iPod with no screen. It was designed to play songs in random order.” (Stroud, n.d.). 20 “A mobile device that combines wireless Internet connectivity with the company's ubiquitous iPod music player functionality.” (Beal, n.d.). 51

7 ANALYSIS

7.1 CORPUS

PURPOSE OF SLOGAN ANALYSIS THE SLOGAN 1. Think different. an advertising [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ slogan for Apple, Inc. [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, till 2002 present, enallage (different instead of differently) [VOC]: adjective 2. The word ‘Hello‘ used in the iPhone's [GRL]: exclamation advertisement [VOC]: interjection 3. Touching is believing. as seen in print [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /ɪ/ advertisements [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present 4. iPhone Apple reinvents used at apple.com [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /əʊ/ the phone. [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: product name – iPhone, company name – Apple [SEL]: metaphor 5. Say Hello to iPhone. used at apple.com [PHL]: assonance /e/ [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present [VOC]: product name – iPhone [SEL]: metaphor 6. The iPhone you've been used to promote [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ waiting for. the iPhone 3G (2008) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, ellipsis, present [VOC]: product name – iPhone, personal pronoun – ‘you‘

7. Talk about big. iPhone used to market the [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ now in 16GB. More new iPhone in 16GB [GRL]: 1x directive, simple music. More video. More (2008) sentence, present, 4x exclamation, iPhone. 4x minor sentence, 4x ellipsis, 3x parallelism, anaphora [VOC]: product name – 2x iPhone, cardinal numeral, adjective – ‘big‘ 8. There's an app for that. used in the [PHL]: alliteration /ð/ That's the iPhone. advertisement for [GRL]: 2x statement, 2x simple Solving life's dilemma the iPhone 3G sentence, 2x present, 1x one app at a time. exclamation, 1x ellipsis, 1x minor sentence [VOC]: product name – iPhone [SEL]: metaphor 9. The first phone to beat used in the [PHL]: rhyme, alliteration /f/ the iPhone. advertisement for the [GRL]: exclamation, minor iPhone 3G (2008) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: product name – iPhone, ordinal numeral [SEL]: metaphor 10. Twice as fast, for half the used in the [PHL]: alliteration /f/, assonance price. advertisement for /aɪ/ the iPhone 3G (2008) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: noun – ‘price‘, adjective 11. The most advanced used for the [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor mobile OS. Now even presentation of the sentence, present (now), 2x ellipsis more advanced. blueprint for iPhone [VOC]: 2x adjective – OS 3.0 (2009) comparative, superlative [SEL]: hyperbole 12. 25,000 apps. And used to market [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor counting. the iPhone 3G (2009) sentence, 2x ellipsis [VOC]: cardinal numeral 13. The fastest, most used to advertise the [GRL]: exclamation, minor powerful iPhone yet. new iPhone 3GS sentence, ellipsis (2009) [VOC]: product name – iPhone, 2x adjective – 2x superlative [SEL]: hyperbole

14. There's an app for used to advertise the [PHL]: assonance /e/ everything. iPhone, iPod touch, [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, and iPad with its iOS present App Store (2010) [SEL]: hyperbole 15. More to love, less to pay. used to advertise the [PHL]: allitertion /l/, assonance /e/ 8GB iPhone 3GS [GRL]: exclamation, minor (2010) sentence, parallelism [SEL]: contrast

16. This changes everything. iPhone 4 (2010) [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ Again. [GRL]: 1x statement, 1x simple sentence, present, 1x exclamation, 1x minor sentence [SEL]: hyperbole

17. Things go better with an iPhone 4 (2011) [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /ɪ/ apple. [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: adjective – comparative ‘better‘ [SEL]: metonymy 18. If you don't have an used in the [GRL]: statement, negative, iPhone, well, you don't advertisement for present, simple sentence, have an iPhone. the iPhone 4 parallelism, anaphora [VOC]: product name – 2x iPhone, 2x personal pronoun – ‘you‘ [SEL]: pun 19. The world's thinnest used in the [GRL]: exclamation, minor smartphone. advertisement for sentence, ellipsis the iPhone 4 [VOC]: adjective – superlative [SEL]: hyperbole 20. Finally. used to promote the [GRL]: exclamation, minor white iPhone 4 sentence 21. It's the most amazing used on the Apple [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ iPhone yet. website to advertise [GRL]: statement, present, simple the new iPhone 4S sentence (2011) [VOC]: product name – iPhone, adjective – superlative, ‘amazing‘, personal pronoun - ‘it‘ [SEL]: hyperbole

22. It’s not just bigger. It’s about the new 4 inch [PHL]: alliteration /dʒ/, assonance just right. display in the /ɪ/ new iPhone 5 [GRL]: 2x statement, 1x negative, 2x present, 2x simple sentence, parallelism, anaphora [VOC]: 2x adjective comparative – ‘bigger‘, 2x personal pronoun – ‘it‘ 23. The biggest thing to iPhone 5 (2012) [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ happen to iPhone since [GRL]: exclamation, minor iPhone. sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: product name – 2x iPhone, adjective: superlative – ‘biggest‘ 24. Loving it is easy. That's used to promote [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ why so many people do. the iPhone 5 (2012) [GRL]: 2x statement, 2x simple sentence, 2x present [VOC]: adjective – ‘easy‘, personal pronoun – ‘it‘ 25. For the colorful. used to promote [GRL]: exclamation, minor the iPhone 5c (2013) sentence [VOC]: adjective 26. Forward thinking. used to promote [GRL]: exclamation, minor the iPhone 5s (2013) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective

27. Progress is a beautiful iPhone 5s (2013) [PHL]: asonnance /ɪ/ thing. [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: adjective 28. Bigger than bigger. used to promote [PHL]: alliteration /b/, assonance the iPhone 6 and /ɪ/ iPhone 6 Plus (2014) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective 2x ‘bigger‘ – 2x comparative [SEL]: pun 29. The only thing that’s iPhone 6s and iPhone [PHL]: alliteration /ð/, asonnance changed is everything. 6s Plus (2015) /ɪ/ [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, past reference [SEL]: paradox

30. A big step for small. iPhone SE (2016) [PHL]: alliteration /s/ [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: 2x adjectives – ‘big‘ [SEL]: intertextuality 31. This is 7. iPhone 7 and iPhone [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ 7 Plus (2016) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: cardinal numeral 32. A beautiful mind. iPhone 8 and iPhone [GRL]: exclamation, minor 8 Plus (2017) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective [SEL]: intertextuality

33. Say Hello to the future. iPhone X (2017) [PHL]: assonance /e/ [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present [SEL]: metaphor 34. One thousand songs in used to promote [PHL]: assonance /ɒ/ your pocket. the 1st generation [GRL]: exclamation, minor iPod's large storage sentence, ellipsis capacity and compact [VOC]: possesive pronoun – design (2001) ‘your‘, cardinal numeral [SEL]: metaphor 35. Introducing the new iPod used on apple.com [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ family. (2002) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: product name – iPod, adjective – ‘new‘ 36. 7,500 songs in your used on apple.com [PHL]: assonance /ɒ/ pocket. (2003) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘, cardinal numeral [SEL]: metaphor

37. The best keeps getting used to market iPod [PHL]: alliteration /b/, assonance better. 4th generation (2004) /e/ [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: adjectives: comparative, superlative – ‘better‘, ‘best‘ [SEL]: hyperbole 38. 10,000 songs in your used to market iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɒ/ pocket. 4th generation (2004) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: possesive pronoun - ‘your‘, cardinal numeral [SEL]: metaphor 39. Paint it black. used to market [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ iPod U2 Special [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, Edition 4th generation present (2004) [VOC]: personal pronoun – ‘it‘, adjective [SEL]: intertextuality 40. One more thing... used to market iPod [GRL]: exclamation, minor 5th generation with sentence, ellipsis video (2005) [VOC]: cardinal numeral 41. Watch your music. used to market iPod [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, 5th generation with present video (2005) [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘ [SEL]: metaphor 42. 15,000 songs. 25,000 used to market iPod [GRL]: 3x exclamation, 3x minor photos. 80 hours of 5th generation with sentence, 3x ellipsis, asyndeton video. video (2005) [VOC]: 3x cardinal numeral 43. Movies, TV shows, used to market [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ games, and music. Now enhanced iPod 5th [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor playing on an iPod near generation (2006) sentence, 2x ellipsis you. [VOC]: personal pronoun – ‘you‘ 44. Home stereo. used to market iPod [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor Reinvented. Hi-Fi (2006) sentence, 2x ellipsis 45. Back for an encore. used to market iPod [GRL]: exclamation U2 Special Edition 5th generation with video (2006)

46. Give the gift of iPod. used to market the [PHL]: alliteration /g/, assonance iPod for Valentine's /ɪ/ Day (2006) [GRL]: directive, present [VOC]: verb – ‘give‘, noun – ‘gift‘, product name – iPod 47. Hold everything. used to market the 6th [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, generation iPod, the present iPod classic (2007) [SEL]: hyperbole 48. Your top 40,000. used to market the [GRL]: exclamation, minor iPod classic (2009) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘, cardinal numeral 49. One size fits all. used on their website [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, to promote the new present single sized iPod [VOC]: cardinal numeral classic (2009) [SEL]: hyperbole 50. Mini. The next big thing. used to market iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ mini (2004) [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor sentence, 2x ellipsis [VOC]: 3x adjective – ‘ big‘ [SEL]: pun 51. Teeny doesn't mean used to market iPod [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /ɪ/ weeny. mini (2004) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: adjective 52. Life is random. used to market iPod [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, shuffle (2005) present [VOC]: adjective [SEL]: metaphor 53. Do not eat iPod shuffle. An Easter egg slogan [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, attached as a footnote present, negative to claim that the [VOC]: product name – iPod shuffle was about the [SEL]: pun size of a pack of gum (2005)

54. Give chance a chance. used to market iPod [PHL]: alliteration /tʃ / shuffle pro (2005) [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present [VOC]: verb – ‘give‘ [SEL]: pun 55. Random is the new used to market iPod [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, order. shuffle (2005) present [VOC]: adjective – ‘new‘ [SEL]: pun, paradox 56. Enjoy uncertainty. used to market iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ shuffle (2005) [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present [SEL]: pun 57. Clip and go. used to market the 2nd [GRL]: directive, compound generation iPod sentence, present shuffle (2006)

58. Put some music on. used to market the 2nd [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, generation iPod present shuffle (2006) 59. Put some color on. used to market the 4 [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, new colors for the 2nd present generation iPod [SEL]: metaphor shuffle (2006)

60. A new gig for iPod used to market iPod [GRL]: exclamation, minor shuffle. shuffle 2GB (2008) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: product name – iPod, adjective ‘new‘

61. Get your groove on. In used on the website [PHL]: alliteration /g/ four new colors. to advertise the [GRL]: 1x directive, simple refresh of the iPod sentence, present, 1x exclamation, shuffle (2008) 1x minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘, adjective – ‘new‘, cardinal numeral 62. Small talk. used on their website [PHL]: assonance /ɔː/ to promote the new [GRL]: exclamation, minor iPod shuffle (2009) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective

63. It's small. It talks. And used to market iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɔː/ and /ɪ/ it's in color. shuffle (2009) [GRL]: 3x statement, 3x simple sentence, 3x present, parallelism [VOC]: adjective, 3x personal pronoun – ‘it‘ [SEL]: personification 64. The first music player used to market iPod [PHL]: alliteration /ð/ and /t/ that talks to you. Now in shuffle (2010) [GRL]: 1x statement, present, 1x five colors. exclamation, 2x ellipsis, 1x minor sentence [VOC]: ordinal numeral, cardinal numeral, personal pronoun – ‘you‘ [SEL]: personification 65. It's big on color. used to promote the [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ iPod shuffle (2012) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: adjective – ‘big‘, personal pronoun – ‘it‘ 66. The perfect mix. used to promote the [GRL]: exclamation, minor new iPod shuffle sentence, ellipsis (2010) [VOC]: adjective 67. Small, but big on music. used to promote iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ shuffle 7th generation [GRL]: exclamation, minor (2012) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: 2x adjective – ‘big‘ 68. 1,000 songs. Impossibly used to market iPod [PHL]: assonance /ɒ/ small. nano (2005) [GRL]: 2x exlamation, 2x minor sentence, 2x ellipsis [VOC]: cardinal numeral, adjective 69. Completely remastered. used to market the 2nd [GRL]: exclamation, minor generation iPod nano sentence, ellipsis (2006) [VOC]: adjective

70. Put a different kind of used to market iPod [PHL]: alliteration /p/, assonance change in your pocket. nano (PRODUCT)RED /ɪ/ (2006) [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘, adjective [SEL]: metaphor

71. A little video for used to market the 3rd [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ everyone. generation iPod nano [GRL]: exlamation, minor (2007) sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective [SEL]: hyperbole 72. ‘nano -chromatic’ and used on the website [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ ‘Rockalicious’ to advertise the new [GRL]: exclamation, minor 4th generation iPod sentence, ellipsis nano's colours as well [VOC]: 2x adjective, neologism – as new features ‘nano-chromatic‘ (2008) 73. Nano shoots video. used on US and UK [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, ads promoting the present iPod nano 5th [SEL]: personification generation with video (2009) 74. A new way to nano. used to promote the [GRL]: exclamation, minor new iPod nano (2010) sentence [VOC]: adjective – ‘new‘, product name – nano 75. Multi -touch. And multi- used to promote 6th [PHL]: assonance /ʌ/ talented. generation iPod nano [GRL]: 2x exclamation, 2x minor (2011) sentence, 2x ellipsis [VOC]: adjective [SEL]: hyperbole, personification 76. Completely renanoed. used to promote 7th [GRL]: exclamation, minor generation iPod nano sentence, ellipsis (2012) [VOC]: adjective, neologism – ‘renanoed‘ 77. Tap play. Then go play. used to promote 7th [PHL]: alliteration /p/, assonance generation iPod nano /e/ on its commercial [GRL]: 2x directive, 2x simple website (2012) sentence, 2x present 78. Touch comes to iPod. the original iPod [PHL]: assonance /ʌ/ touch slogan. (2007) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: verb – ‘come‘, product name – iPod [SEL]: personification

79. Now there's even more used to market [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, to touch. the iPod present touch firmware 1.1.3. (2008) 80. Everybody touch. used in the new iPod [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, touch commercial present, enallage (touch instead of (2008) touches) [SEL]: pun 81. What's new to touch. used in the January [GRL]: question (without question '08 software update mark), simple sentence, present of the iPod touch [VOC]: adjective – ‘new‘ (2008) [SEL]: metaphor 82. Tap into what's new. also used in the [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /uː/ January '08 software [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, update of the iPod present touch (2008) [VOC]: adjective – ‘new‘ [SEL]: metaphor 83. Pump up the volume. used to market the [PHL]: assonance /ʌ/ iPod touch now in 32GB. 32GB iPod touch. [GRL]: 1x directive, simple sentence, present, 1x exclamation, 1x minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: cardinal numeral, product name – iPod 84. So much to touch. used to advertise [PHL]: rhyme, assonance /ʌ/ the iPod touch 8GB, [GRL]: exclamation, minor 16GB, and 32GB sentence, ellipsis models (2008) 85. Play more than music. used to market the [PHL]: alliteration /m/ and /p/ Play a part. iPod (PRODUCT)RED [GRL]: 2x directive, 2x simple (2008) sentence, 2x present, parallelism, anaphora 86. The funnest iPod ever. used on their website [GRL]: exclamation, minor to promote the 2nd sentence, ellipsis generation (8GB) and [VOC]: adjective – superlative, 3rd generation (32, 64 product name – iPod GB) iPod touch [SEL]: hyperbole (2009)

87. Millions of songs. used on the website [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ Thousands of videos. to promote the 2nd [GRL]: 3x exlamation, 3x minor Hundreds of games. generation iPod touch sentence, 3x ellipsis [VOC]: 3x cardinal numeral [SEL]: hyperbole 88. Next level fun. used to market [PHL]: assonance /e/ the iPod touch (2009) [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis [VOC]: adjective 89. Game on. And on. And used to market [PHL]: assonance /ɒ/ and /æ/ on. the iPod touch (2010) [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, present 90. It has fun written all over used to market [PHL]: assonance /ɪ/ it. the iPod touch (2011) [GRL]: statement, simple sentence, present [VOC]: 2x personal pronoun – ‘it‘ 91. Share the fun. used in latest iPod [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, touch advert, present promoting Social Networking features in iOS 5 (2011) 92. Engineered for used to promote 5th [PHL]: alliteration /f/, assonance /ɪ/ maximum funness. generation iPod touch [GRL]: exclamation, minor (2012) sentence, ellipsis [SEL]: hyperbole

93. Your music. Wherever iPod touch music [PHL]: alliteration /j/ you go. [GRL]: 1x exclamation, 1x minor sentence, 1x ellipsis, 1x statement, 1x simple sentence, present [VOC]: possesive pronoun - ‘your‘, personal pronoun - ‘you‘ 94. Know what’s next. Now. Apple Music [PHL]: alliteration /n/ [GRL]: 1x directive, 1x simple sentence, 2x present, 1x exclamation, 1x minor sentence [VOC]: adjective

95. More power to play with. iPod touch gaming [PHL]: alliteration /p/ [GRL]: exclamation, minor sentence, ellipsis

96. Which iPod are you? used to market the [GRL]: question, simple sentence, iPod family (2006) present [VOC]: personal pronoun – ‘you‘, product name – iPod, interrogative pronoun – ‘which‘ [SEL]: pun 97. Put a thousand thanks in used to market iPod [PHL]: alliteration /θ/ and /p/ their pocket. Corporate Gifting [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, Program (2006) present [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘their‘, cardinal numeral [SEL]: hyperbole, metaphor

98. Meet the best iPods ever. used to market the [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, redesigned (2007) present [VOC]: adjective – ‘best‘ superlative, product name - iPod [SEL]: hyperbole, metaphor

99. Tune your run. used to [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, market Nike+iPod present (2006) [VOC]: possesive pronoun – ‘your‘ [SEL]: metaphor

100. Meet your new personal used to [GRL]: directive, simple sentence, trainer. market Nike+iPod present (2010) [VOC]: 2x adjective – ‘new‘, possesive pronoun – ‘your‘ [SEL]: metaphor

7.2 RESULTS

The analysed corpus shows which linguistic and stylistic features either predominate in Apple advertising slogans or seem to be rare. These findings of the research are discussed in the following section of the practical part. As it is seen in the corpus, the research has been held on phonological [PHL], grammatical [GRL], lexical [VOC]21 and semantic [SEL] levels. It must be highlighted from the beginning that there are 100 slogans in the corpus; however, they consist of 129 utterances which have been analysed. It means that one slogan may contain two or more sentences or phrases. This may be illustrated by following slogans:

[8] There's an app for that. That's the iPhone. Solving life's dilemma one app at a time. [43] Movies, TV shows, games, and music. Now playing on an iPod near you. [61] Get your groove on. In four new colors.

From the phonological point of view, sound techniques are exceedingly essential in advertising and their occurrence has been identified in the corpus. Turning to the grammatical level, firstly the focus has been given to sentence functions, secondly to tense and polarity and thirdly the structure of slogans has been examined. Slogans have been explored from the lexical point of view, too. The occurrence of product and company names in Apple advertising has been found as well as the use of cardinal and ordinal numerals. The most common word classes used in advertising are discussed by Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994). They introduced the most frequent verbs, on the other side Crystal’s study (1997) shows the use of adjectives in advertising and also, the most common advertising nouns are described on the website Effective Advertising Words. These findings have been taken into consideration during the analysis and specific adjectives, verbs and nouns have been highlighted in the corpus, if possible. The use of pronouns has been identified in Apple advertising and therefore, one subsection deals with the findings related to this issue. Also, three forms of adjectives can be found in the corpus as well (comparative, superlative and basic). The analysis of semantic level

21 vocabulary choice 65 seems to be essential, too. From this point of view, several types of tropes used in advertising have been explored as well as other semantic features which occur in Apple advertising.

7.2.1 PHONOLOGICAL LEVEL

Advertisers are aimed at making slogans memorable because it leads to a success in marketing, therefore many sound techniques are applied in advertising. This may be seen in the analysis of slogans of Apple, in which alliteration, assonance and rhyme have been found. Fig. 6 illustrates that the most frequent device is assonance which appears in 50 cases. It is important to mention that assonance has been found in the concrete slogans not only as one sound technique, but it also appears simultaneously with alliteration or rhyme. It means that one sound technique does not belong to one specific slogan, but it may be present in the slogan together with another sound technique. For example: alliteration /f/ + assonance /aɪ/ in slogan number [43] or rhyme + assonance /ɪ/ in [51]: [43] Twice as fast, for half the price. [51] Teeny doesn't mean weeny.

There are also 31 slogans in which the occurrence of any kind of sound techniques has not been ascertained.

Fig. 6: Sound techniques

Turning to assonance, some repetitions of vowel sounds stand out more than the others; however, the most common assonance is related to the sound /ɪ/. Also, another occurrence of assonance has been found, for example, the sounds /e/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/, etc. The following examples may be used as an illustration of the most frequent repetition of vowel sounds:

[1] Think different. – /ɪ/ [3] Touching is believing. – /ɪ/ [33] Say Hello to the future. – /e/

Alliteration is one of the schemes which is deemed a basic move to make slogans memorable. It is said that alliteration is the most frequent sound technique in advertising; however, it is not that prominent in Apple advertising as assonance. It appears 23 times and the sound /p/ is regarded as the most repeated consonant; it has been used five times. Many other consonants have been ascertained in case of alliteration, for example, /m/, /b/, /ð/, /t/, /g/, etc.

[28] Bigger than bigger. [85] Play more than music. Play a part. [46] Give the gift of iPod.

There are scarcely slogans in which rhyme appears. The occurrence of rhyme in Apple advertising is very low, as shown in Fig. 6. because only seven examples of rhyme have been identified in the corpus. It can be illustrated by the following slogans:

[17] Things go better with an apple. [51] Teeny doesn't mean weeny. [84] So much to touch.

From the phonological point of view, contrary to the expectations, it is evident that Apple does not place the major emphasis on sound techniques in their advertising owing to their low frequency.

7.2.2 GRAMMATICAL LEVEL

7.2.2.1 SENTENCE FUNCTIONS

One of the most important stylistic features in advertising may be considered a sentence construction. Sentences may function as statements, directives, questions, or exclamations and it is said that the basic functions in advertising in general are directives and exclamations (Myers, 1994, p. 47). Besides providing information, advertising aims to be persuasive, as discussed in the theoretical part. These features are highly important functions of advertising in general. Information is usually provided by use of declarative and exclamative sentences and moreover, exclamative sentences attempt to impress and convince customers to either buy or do something. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the most frequent sentence function in the Apple advertising slogans is exclamation represented 65 times.

Fig. 7: Sentence functions

The Apple slogans with a function of an exclamation are specific since advertisers emphasize an importance of information even with no exclamation marks. They use either the full stop or no punctuation mark instead of exclamation mark to establish a distinction from rival advertisements where the use of the exclamation mark in exclamations seems to be common. These utterances have the form of a declarative

68 sentence type; however, the main idea and information are emphasized in these slogans, therefore their function is exclamative. [20] Finally. [25] For the colourful. [68] 1,000 songs. Impossibly small.

Fig. 7 illustrates that statement is the second most common sentence function which appears in the corpus 33 times.

[37] The best keeps getting better. [21] It's the most amazing iPhone yet. [65] It's big on color.

Imperative sentence type is deemed the characteristic feature in advertising because advertisers aim to urge people to buy or do something (Myers, 1994, p. 47). However, the analysis shows that the command22 does not seem to be so essential for Apple advertisers because this function appears in the corpus only in 29 cases. These commands are usually associated with verbs which are closely related to concrete products of Apple (see section 7.2.3.4 Common word classes in advertising).

[41] Watch your music. [99] Tune your run. [98] Meet your new personal trainer.

The last function which signifies a direct address to the customer is a question. It is the least used function of the sentence in the analysis in which only two occurrences have been found. Apple advertisers attempt to play a language game with customers since they do not use a question mark in one slogan and simply end the question with the full stop. [81] What's new to touch.

22 Or ‘directive‘, as used in the corpus 69

The second question contains the question mark and may be classified as wh-question: [81] Which iPod are you?

7.2.2.2 TENSE AND POLARITY

Turning now to the tense of analysed slogans, Fig. 8 shows that the advertisers communicate with the audience predominately in the present. It has been represented by the present simple tense and identified 64 times in the analysis. On the other hand, a slogan with the past reference appears in the corpus only once. This slogan with the past reference has been represented by the present perfect tense. There has been identified no occurrence of the future reference in the analysed slogans. It was impossible to analyse the tense in 64 cases because they are deemed minor sentences where verbs have been missing.

Fig. 8: Tense

PRESENT: [51] Teeny doesn't mean weeny. [73] Nano shoots video. PAST: [29] The only thing that’s changed is everything.

As expected, 97 per cent of utterances are in affirmative23 form. Leech (1966) highlights that the negative form is hardly used in advertising (it is used especially in commands) (p. 111). From Fig. 9 it is obvious that Leech’s statement about the use of negative forms is true because Apple advertisers rarely used it in their advertising (only 3%).

Fig. 9: Polarity

AFFIRMATIVE: [82] Tap into what's new. [79] Now there's even more to touch.

NEGATIVE: [18] If you don't have an iPhone, well, you don't have an iPhone. [22] It’s not just bigger. It’s just right. [53] Do not eat iPod shuffle.

7.2.2.3 SYNTACTICAL STRATEGY

In the subsection 7.2.2.1 Sentence functions, the results of the analysis of sentence functions have been discussed. On the other hand, this chapter deals with the structure within the sentence and provides findings related to this issue.

23 positive 71

Fig. 10: Syntactical strategies

Fig. 10 shows which syntactic features have been found in Apple advertising and which syntactical strategies they apply to make their slogans memorable. The first syntactical structure which occurs in the corpus is a simple sentence (occurs 61 times) and similarly, a minor sentence has been identified 63 times, as shown in Fig. 10. Myers (1994) says that the use of minor sentences in advertising is highly frequent and therefore, findings are not surprising. The occurrence of a compound and complex sentences has not been found in any case since there is an attempt of advertisers to make the advertisement as brief as possible. It is obvious from the corpus that the use of one, two or three words in the advertisement is not rare in Apple advertising. The occurrence of the sentences or phrases which consist of one, two or three words has been identified in 29 cases, for example:

[62] Small talk. [52] Life is random. [48] Your top 40,000. [20] Finally.

Ellipsis is an important device which causes an unexpected irregularity and has the economical function in advertising. There has been analysed 59 occurrences of

72 ellipsis in Apple advertising. The most frequent elliptical parts are, for example, ‘it is’, ‘there is’, ‘it has’. It is illustrated by the following examples:

[6] (It’s) The iPhone you’ve been waiting for. [19] (There’s) The world's thinnest smartphone. [23] (It’s) The biggest thing to happen to iPhone since iPhone. [32] (It has) A beautiful mind.

Another linguistic device which is common in advertising slogans, parallelism, may be considered a syntactical feature as well as a sound technique; however, now it will be discussed from syntactical point of view. As shown in Fig. 10, the occurrence of parallelism is not so high. It has been found in eight slogans.

[63] It's small. It talks. And it's in color. [15] More to love, less to pay. [22] It’s not just bigger. It’s just right.

Fig. 10 illustrates that there are also other figures of speech that deal with the word order and syntax. Anaphora, asyndeton and enallage are not prominent features but they have been identified in the analysis, too. Anaphora has been found in four slogans: [7] Talk about big. iPhone now in 16GB. More music. More video. More iPhone. 22] It’s not just bigger. It’s just right. [18] If you don't have an iPhone, well, you don't have an iPhone. [85] Play more than music. Play a part.

Asyndeton is another common rhetorical figure used in advertising when no conjunctions are used. Advertisers use it to create an effect of speed and simplicity. This rhetorical device has been identified in the analysis only one time.

[42] 15,000 songs. 25,000 photos. 80 hours of video.

Another rhetorical device which appears in the analysis is enallage. It intentionally misuses grammar and breaks grammar rules to create a memorable phrase. It has been found in the corpus two times. The first slogan was important for the Apple’s advertisement till 2002. They wanted to show they were creative and innovative and their aim was to make slogan memorable, therefore they used the adjective (different) instead of adverb (differently). The second slogan shows that the grammar rule was not observed and the ending of the verb is missing (touch instead of touches). [1] Think different. [80] Everybody touch.

7.2.3 VOCABULARY CHOICE

7.2.3.1 PRODUCT AND COMPANY NAMES

The product names (iPod, iPhone) and the name of the company (Apple) have been mentioned in slogans for several times, as seen in the Fig. 11. It is necessary to point out that the analysis focuses only on advertising slogans of iPhone and iPod, therefore, other product names have not been taken in consideration and the results cannot be applied on Apple advertising as a whole.

Fig. 11: Product and company names

In general, advertisers attempt to increase the awareness of their company by using of company or products names in advertising. Surprisingly, advertisers of Apple do not highly apply the company name because the only one of 100 slogans comprises the name ‘Apple’.

[4] iPhone Apple reinvents the phone.

They rather focus on the presentation of the products not the whole company, and therefore, the reference to the product names in slogans is more common. The most frequent product name used in Apple advertising is ‘iPhone’ which appears in analysis 13 times. The occurrence of the product names ‘iPhone’ is more frequent than references to ‘iPod’ which is used less in the advertising slogans. As illustrated in the slogan number [7], for example, the product name may appear more than once in one slogan.

[5] Say Hello to iPhone. [7] Talk about big. iPhone now in 16GB. More music. More video. More iPhone. [9] The first phone to beat the iPhone. [13] The fastest, most powerful iPhone yet.

The product name ‘iPod‘ is not so frequent as ‘iPhone’ is. It has been found ten times. It can be said that slogans in ‘iPod’ category deal more with functions and characteristic of products than with the name of the product. The following slogans present the occurrence of product name ‘iPod’ in Apple advertising:

[35] Introducing the new iPod family. [43] Movies, TV shows, games, and music. Now playing on an iPod near you. [53] Do not eat iPod shuffle.

7.2.3.2 NUMERALS

The findings from the research show that Apple advertising contains cardinal as well as ordinal numerals, ten times and two times, respectively. The cardinal numerals have been used in slogans especially for a description of products storage, for example:

[7] Talk about big. iPhone now in 16GB. More music. More video. More iPhone. [83] Pump up the volume. iPod touch now in 32GB.

Apple advertisers emphasize by cardinal numerals how many songs, videos, pictures and games consumers may download into their devices:

[87] Millions of songs. Thousands of videos. Hundreds of games. [42] 15,000 songs. 25,000 photos. 80 hours of video. [38] 10,000 songs in your pocket.

Moreover, the brief slogan with cardinal numeral was used for an introduction of the new iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus. Apple advertisers put an emphasis on the numeral ‘7’ in their slogan because it is obvious that people who are acquainted with a product line of iPhone are aware of new releases.

[38] This is 7.

Turning now to ordinal numerals, its occurrence is not significant. There has been found only two slogans in which ordinal numerals have been applied. The ordinal numerals are used in the description of new devices which are introduced as something new with some special features and anything else cannot be compared with these devices. [9] The first phone to beat the iPhone. [64] The first music player that talks to you. Now in five colors.

Fig. 12: Numerals

7.2.3.3 PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns in advertising are significantly important since they establish a personal relationship between advertisers and customers. The most frequent personal pronouns in advertising are deemed ‘you’, ‘I’ and ‘we’, as discussed in the theoretical part. Apart from personal pronouns, there have been found possessive pronouns in Apple slogans, too, as seen in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13: Pronouns

The findings of the research show that a group of personal pronouns has been represented by pronoun ‘you’ which appears seven times and furthermore, there has been found personal pronoun ‘it’, eleven times. Surprisingly, pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’ have not been identified in the corpus. The pronoun ‘you’ provides a connection between you, customer, and a newly released product. It describes possible relationship between the device and the consumer. The pronoun ‘it’ in the analysed slogans mostly refers to the product which is recently introduced to an audience.

[6] The iPhone you've been waiting for. [43] Movies, TV shows, games, and music. Now playing on an iPod near you.

[65] It's big on color. [21] It's the most amazing iPhone yet.

Another type of pronouns, possessive pronouns, has been found in the analysis. The occurrence of the pronoun ‘your’ has been identified ten times and it mostly refers to music and songs which are available in iPod (see slogans number [48] and [93]), and furthermore to devices in figurative sense of the word is applied, as seen in the slogan number [34], [36] and [38]. The ‘your’ is not the only one possessive pronoun which appears in Apple advertising. Pronoun ‘their’ occurs in the corpus in one slogan [97].

[48] Your top 40,000. [93] Your music. Wherever you go. [34] One thousand songs in your pocket. [36] 7,500 songs in your pocket. [38] 10,000 songs in your pocket. [38] Put a thousand thanks in their pocket.

7.2.3.4 COMMON WORD CLASSES IN ADVERTISING

Findings related to the most frequent verbs, nouns and adjectives in Apple advertising are thoroughly described in this section. As discussed in the theoretical part (4.2.3.2 Vocabulary choice), these three mentioned word classes are the most essential in the advertising language. Vestergaard and Schrøder (1994) suggested the most frequent verbs used in advertising and the research shows that some of them have been applied in Apple advertising, for example, verbs ‘give’ and ‘come’, two times and once, respectively. [46] Give the gift of iPod. [54] Give chance a chance. [78] Touch comes to iPod.

The frequent verb that appears in Apple advertising is verb ‘to be’ usually presented in the present simple tense and verbs which are often connected to the device and the activity you are able to do with it. For example, ‘tune’, ‘share’, ‘play’, ‘enjoy’, ‘pump up’, ‘watch’, etc. [41] Watch your music. [83] Pump up the volume. iPod touch now in 32GB. [85] Play more than music. Play a part.

As mentioned in the theoretical part, nouns play an important role in forming of slogans, too. The analysed corpus contains two of the most frequently used nouns in advertising according to website Effective Advertising Words. These mentioned nouns are ‘price’ and ‘gift’ and both of them occur in the corpus once.

[10] Twice as fast, for half the price. [46] Give the gift of iPod.

Crystal’s study (1997) demonstrates adjectives which are regarded as the most common adjectives in advertising language. Many of them have been found in the analysis, for example, ‘big‘, ‘the biggest’, five times and once, respectively. Then, adjectives ‘better’ and ‘the best’ (two times both of them), and adjectives, such as ‘amazing’, ‘easy’, ‘new’, have been investigated in the corpus, too. The highest

79 occurrence has been identified with the adjective ‘new‘ (six times). The examples illustrating the occurrence of adjectives in Apple advertising are provided below:

[30] A big step for small. [23] The biggest thing to happen to iPhone since iPhone. [37] The best keeps getting better. [98] Meet the best iPods ever.

[74] A new way to nano. [81] What's new to touch. [98] Meet your new personal trainer.

7.2.3.5 FORM OF ADJECTIVES

As discussed above, adjectives are considered a word class which is frequently used and highly essential in advertising language. The function of adjectives in sentences and phrases is to supplement nouns and add them some specific characteristic. Adjectives in advertising usually make slogans more effective and thoroughly describe the product. Fig. 14 illustrates the occurrence of comparative, superlative and basic forms of adjectives in the analysed slogans.

11% comparative 16%

superlative 73% basic

Fig. 14: Form of adjectives

From Fig. 14 is obvious that the most common form of adjectives is a basic form (73%). The second most common form is superlative with 16 per cent and the least used form of adjectives is a comparative form (11%). As said above, adjectives are usually used in order to enhance a description of products and show their specific features. Apple advertising uses as explicit adjectives as possible to describe the quality of their newly released products.

[50] Mini. The next big thing. [25] For the colorful. [26] Forward thinking. [32] A beautiful mind.

Comparative adjectives often suggest that products have higher quality than older products or products of a rival company. It usually depicts their new features and stresses better condition. In slogan [17], Apple advertisers aim to highlight that people will be happier with the products of Apple, not with products of a rival company. Similarly, in the example [28], they suggest that the new iPhone 5 that has been released with the new 4 inch display is not only bigger than iPhone 4 and 4s but also the most suitable. [17] Things go better with an apple. [28] Bigger than bigger. [11] The most advanced mobile OS. Now even more advanced. [22] It’s not just bigger. It’s just right.

Adjectives in a superlative form always signify that there is nothing at the same or better level and quality. It can be illustrated in Apple advertising since advertisers are aimed to promote their products as the best ones.

[17] It's the most amazing iPhone yet. [11] The most advanced mobile OS. Now even more advanced. [98] Meet the best iPods ever. [86] The funnest iPod ever.

7.2.4 SEMANTIC LEVEL

7.2.4.1 RHETORICAL FIGURES

As is well known, the use of rhetorical strategies is extensively used in advertising environment because these figures enhance an effectiveness of advertisements in general. A major goal of advertising is not only to inform but also persuasive and it is may be caused by the rhetorical language. As expected, several types of rhetorical figures have been identified in Apple advertising, such as metaphor, pun, paradox, metonymy, hyperbole and personification. The findings indicate that the most frequent rhetorical device used in analysed slogans is a metaphor with 35 per cent, as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15: Rhetorical figures

As said above, metaphor is the most common rhetorical device in Apple advertising. There are several slogans related to iPod advertising which comprise a phrase ‘songs in your pocket’. In these slogans, the pocket may be understood as the iPod that consumers bought and in which some songs are available for them to listen. Another important fact to emphasize is that these slogans highlight that this company is an innovator in a production of music players of a small size which are able to store a huge amount of data. The slogans point out how many songs may be download to their mini-player which may be easily carried in a pocket. Some of these slogans are listed below.

[34] One thousand songs in your pocket. [36] 7,500 songs in your pocket. [38] 10,000 songs in your pocket. [70] Put a different kind of change in your pocket.

Other slogans in which metaphor appears are related to the Nike+iPod. The slogan number [99] says that it is possible to improve customer’s jogging by the use of Nike+iPod in which music may be tuned, not the run. In the second slogan, there is described the relationship between the consumer and the iPod which symbolizes a new personal trainer. [99] Tune your run. [100] Meet your new personal trainer.

Hyperbole is the rhetorical figure which may be defined as a high exaggeration thus this kind of rhetorical figure cannot be taken literally (Wales, 2001, p. 190). The occurrence of hyperbole in slogans of Apple is 33 per cent and some examples are listed below:

[14] There's an app for everything. [87] Millions of songs. Thousands of videos. Hundreds of games. [21] It's the most amazing iPhone yet. [49] One size fits all.

The slogan number [14] demonstrates that an application for everything exists, according to Apple developers. This application is called iOS App Store where people can buy what they need but it is impossible to provide literally ‘everything’ there. It may be regarded as a word play of advertisers with customers that leads to making an impact in customers’ mind. Advertisers aimed to show how efficient their iOS App Store was in comparison with the business rivals which provided less application to download than Apple did in 2010. Another slogan comprising hyperbole is the slogan [87] in which excessive numbers have been presented for a description of the probable amount of songs, videos and games in the iPod. They emphasize how large the storage of the music player is in comparison with the rival products and highlight their

83 dominant position on the market. Hyperbolic utterances are usually used with strong effects, as can be noticed in these two examples. To move to another rhetorical figure, pun is a play on words frequently used in advertising. It can be described as humorous use of words or phrases in order to highlight different meaning. However, not everybody has the same sense of humour as an advertiser who created the specific advertisement with pun, and so there are people who do not appreciate this kind of humour. As illustrated in Fig. 15, puns have been used in analysed slogans, too (17%). For example:

[53] Do not eat iPod shuffle. [18] If you don't have an iPhone, well, you don't have an iPhone. [56] Enjoy uncertainty.

The use of pun may be illustrated in the slogan [53] which is also called ‘an Easter egg slogan‘ and claims that the iPod shuffle was about the size of a pack of gum, therefore advertisers used the funny slogan to promote the device in which they forbid to eat this iPod (because the size resembled a pack of gum). This slogan repetitively highlights that music players created by Apple are very compact. The example number [18] begins with a sentence ‘If you don’t have an iPhone’ and many people would expect that the rest of sentence would contain some kind of insinuating remarks; however, advertisers end it with the repetition of the first sentence by which they emphasize that they actually do not care you do not have their iPhone. Other rhetorical devices, personification, metonymy and paradox, have been recognized in Apple advertising slogans, too (9%, 2% and 4%, respectively). Personification seems to be so common not only in advertising but also in an everyday language that people hardly notice they ordinarly use it in their utterances. This type of the rhetorical device assigns human qualities to non-human objects and is usually used as a method of description. It can be demonstrated by following examples:

[64] The first music player that talks to you. Now in five colors. [78] Touch comes to iPod. [73] Nano shoots video.

Turning to the example [64], iPod shuffle obtained human attributes in this slogan and it is able to ‘talk’ to customers. It means that the operating system of iPod shuffle was designed to be as simple as possible for everyone. In the second slogan [78], a touch is able to ‘walk’ and comes to the iPod. In other words, this slogan presents that a new family of iPods with a touchscreen-controlled user interface was introduced on the market. While reading these mentioned slogans, it does not seem as it is something unusual because as highlighted above, it is common that people paint a picture in their mind with help of personification while describing something. Paradox has been found in the Apple advertising, and therefore must be mentioned in the analysis, too. It is defined as a statement which is considered absurd and contradictory and makes people to intensively think about the real meaning. Slogans number [29] and [78] represent paradox used in Apple advertising.

[29] The only thing that’s changed is everything. [55] Random is the new order.

Both of these slogans contain contradictory utterances. The slogan [29] describes that only one specific thing has transformed; however according to advertisers, the specific thing is everything. This slogan refers to the new release of iPhone 6s / iPhone 6s Plus the visual aspects of which do not differ from iPhone 6 / iPhone 6 Plus (forerunner); however the hardware and software equipment of iPhone 6s / 6s Plus has changed a lot. The example number [55] introduces the new order or some given system; however, this order does not seem to be the typical order that people observe because this order, created by Apple advertisers, is irregular. In this case, Apple advertisers allude to the iPod which is able to play songs in random order and it is a new important feature established in this music player. Metonymy, rhetorical device, which stands for another word, is represented in the corpus with the very low occurrence, with two per cent. It appears only in one slogan [17] in which it is used to compare an apple to Apple products. These products of Apple may be considered apples due to the major logo of this company, the apple with a bite taken out of it.

[17] Things go better with an apple.

7.2.4.2 INTERTEXTUALITY

“Intertextuality is a sophisticated literary device making use of a textual reference within some body of text, which reflects again the text used as a reference” (Intertextuality-Examples and Definition of Intertextuality, 2017). It means that people need to have some background knowledge to properly understand intertextuality. The occurrence of this literary device has been identified three times in the corpus and these slogans are provided below.

[30] A big step for small. [39] Paint it black. [32] A beautiful mind.

The first example of intertextuality refers to the quote of the American astronaut Neil Armstrong ‘That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind’. The first Moon landing mission was a big step for Armstrong (and mankind in general, as he said) as a release of new iPhone (again in small version) for Apple. Without knowing Armstrong’s utterance, we would not see the reference of Apple slogan ‘A big step for small’ to Armstrong’s quote. In my opinion, nowadays there is an upward trend to sell mobile devices with a larger screen and Apple goes against the tide because they decided to design iPhone SE with a small screen but with the excellent performance (in comparison with other mobile devices of the same size screen). The second example, the slogan number [39], was used to promote the new black/red edition of iPod classic. The relationship of Steve Jobs to The Rolling Stones should be taken in consideration while talking about this slogan because there may be seen a reference to the song of The Rolling Stones ‘Paint it black‘ lyrics of which is connected with red/black colours as the new edition of iPod are. The last example of intertextuality is demonstrated by the slogan [32]. The new iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus were introduced and Apple advertisers use this slogan ‘A beautiful mind‘ to point out a new processor which contains a special computing neural network engine. This system is so innovative and excellent, therefore, it can be closely connected to the film ‘A beautiful mind‘ which is based on an autobiography of an American mathematician John Nash who was a genius as this mentioned system may be considered, too.

To conclude the analysis, the most prominent features of Apple advertising has been analysed. From my point of view, Apple advertising aims to attract customers by plays on words since their advertising cannot be perceived a word for word. Apple advertisers create their slogans as brief as possible to provide especially the basic information related to products. Their advertising mostly refers to the quality and features which are prominent and show people how easy and elegant their products are. They point out on products with short and brief slogans where the knowledge of some background is sometimes necessary. The occurrence of rhetorical devices is high and therefore Apple slogans are memorable, afterwards, people may simply spread it among the others.

CONCLUSION

Advertising and advertisements surround us wherever we go. It may be said that it has become an inseparable part of our everyday life. Advertisements appear everywhere we look – on the street, in metro, at the doctor, at the bus stop, at university and on a daily basis it accompanies our work on the Internet where the expansion of advertisement has been intensified. Advertisements are published in order to provide some information about a product or service; however, they also have persuasive effects. This thesis deals with stylistic and linguistic analysis of advertising slogans of the technology company Apple Inc. It focuses on linguistic features and manipulative strategies which appear in analysed slogans. These slogans are related to the best selling and the most favourite products of Apple Inc. iPhone and iPod. The major aim of the theoretical part is to introduce the concept of advertising in general, discuss advertising as an act of communication and provide a brief history of advertising where turning points of development of advertising have been mentioned. This part of the thesis ends with a characterization of linguistic features which have been taken in consideration during the analysis. The beginning of the practical part is introduced by the description of data collection and techniques used during the analysis. This part contains a corpus in which 100 slogans of iPhone and iPod have been gathered. The research has been held on phonological, grammatical, lexical as well as semantic levels and both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used during the analysis to determine regularity or irregularity of linguistic and stylistic devices. The aim of the thesis was to identify which features of slogans are the most frequent and which ones are hardly used, although considered significant in Apple advertising. From the research it is obvious that rhetorical devices have been frequently applied on slogans. Figurative language causes that advertising has persuasive effects and therefore, advertising may easily influence an audience. The rhetorical figures which predominate in Apple advertising are metaphor and hyperbole. Sound techniques have been found in more than half of the slogans. Rhyme, assonance and alliteration have also been identified in the corpus. However, from my point of view, sound techniques have not been the fundamental strategy in Apple advertising. Apple advertisers put a forcible emphasis rather on the syntactical structure of their slogans.

Before providing results related to the structure, sentence functions of analysed slogans should be mentioned. The majority of slogans have the function of exclamation, although no exclamation marks have been used in utterances. The fact that all slogans end with a full stop seems to be one of the specific features of Apple advertising. From my point of view, their strategy is to use full stops all the time which differentiates their advertising from competitive companies. These utterances are mostly simple sentences with the functions of statements and commands. Minor sentences and elliptical sentences are common in Apple advertising, too. Apple advertisers make a direct address to customers not only by imperative sentences but also by the personal pronoun ‘you’. It is not frequent in the analysed slogans, but it is interesting enough to mention here that Apple advertising contains a few intentional grammar misuses which is another specific strategy of Apple - to be diverse and create memorable slogans. From the lexical point of view, the research shows that common words for advertising have been used in Apple advertising, such as give, come, price, gift, big, the biggest, better, the best, etc. Names of products (iPhone and iPod) have been used in slogans as well. Their use is not so prominent because advertisers focus rather on description of quality and characteristic features of products. The above discussed results seem to be the most important findings of the analysis. I think that Apple advertising slogans are as brief as possible but full of necessary information. In the analysed slogans, advertisers mostly describe quality and significant features of products and show how unique and ellegant these products are. The overall results show that Apple advertising follows common methods to persuade potential customers; however they also point out that Apple is one of the world companies which tries to be innovative and goes against the tide all the time and can give a unique account of themselves which leads to their success all over the world. To conclude, I believe to the findings of this analysis which may be deemed a supportive source in further studies in this field.

8 RESUMÉ

Cílem této práce byla ligvistická a stylistická analýza vybraných sloganů americké společnosti Apple Inc. Práce se skládá ze dvou částí. První z nich se zabývá teorií, která je úzce spjata s reklamou obecně a lingvistickými prvky, které se v ní často vyskytují. Praktická část obsahuje koprus, ve kterém bylo shromážděno 100 sloganů týkajících se pouze dvou nejprodávanějších produktů, a to iPhonů a iPodů. Tato analýza probíhala na fonologické, gramatické, lexikální a sémantické úrovni, při níž byl aplikován jak kvalitativní, tak i kvantitativní výzkum.

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