Die Formierung Einer Idee Auch Alan C. Kay Gehört Zu Dem Typus

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Die Formierung Einer Idee Auch Alan C. Kay Gehört Zu Dem Typus 6.3 Das Dynabook: Ein Computer für Kinder in jedem Alter Die Formierung einer Idee Auch Alan C. Kay gehört zu dem Typus Wissenschaftler, dem es immer wieder gelingt, Ideen aus unterschiedlichsten Bereichen aufzunehmen und für seine ei- gene, von einer Vision geleiteten Arbeit fruchtbar zu machen. Als hochbegabter Sohn eines Physiologen und einer Musikerin war er in einem Umfeld aufgewach- sen, in dem Wissenschaft und Kunst zum Alltag gehörten. So entwickelte er ein umfassendes Interesse für Wissenschaft, Kultur und Technik und eignete sich eine Vielzahl von Techniken an, seine Ideen ausdrücken.1 Kay begann Anfang der sechziger Jahre ein Studium in Mathematik und Bio- logie am Bethany College in West Virginia, das er allerdings unterbrechen mußte, als er zur Luftwaffe eingezogen wurde. Er wurde zum Programmierer ausgebildet und arbeitete in den folgenden zwei Jahren unter anderem mit einem Burroughs B220 Computer. Nach eigener Darstellung wurde Kay dabei 1961 auf das Pro- gramm eines unbekannten Programmierers aufmerksam, das für ihn zum Aus- gangspunkt eines neuen Programmierkonzepts wurde, das heute als Objektorien- tierung bekannt ist. Es handelte sich um ein Programm zur Übertragung eines Programms und der zugehörigen Daten von einem Rechner zum anderen. Da ei- ne Unterscheidung wegen eines fehlenden Standards häufig problematisch war, hatte der Programmierer die Programmroutinen von den Daten getrennt und die Verknüpfung in Form einer Tabelle mit Verweisen am Beginn der Übertragung festgelegt. So konnte das Programm auf dem Zielcomputer verwendet werden, selbst wenn das Format der Daten nicht vorher bekannt war.2 Nach dem Ende seiner Militärzeit schloß Kay 1966 sein Studium an der Uni- versity of Colorado ab. Er wechselte als Doktorand an die University of Utah in Salt Lake City, die seit Mitte der sechziger Jahre unter der Leitung von David Evans und Ivan Sutherland führend bei der Entwicklung der Computergrafikwar und zu den von der ARPA geförderten Centers of Excellence gehörte.3 Bereits zu Beginn seiner dortigen Tätigkeit beschäftigte sich Kay mit zwei wichtigen Softwareentwicklungen, deren Konzepte ihn stark beeinflussen sollten. Das erste dieser Programme war das von Ivan Sutherland 1962 am MIT entwi- ckelte interaktive Grafikprogramm Sketchpad. Jedes mit Sketchpad gezeichnete Objekt war eine Instanz einer »Urzeichnung« oder Klasse, in der die grundlegen- den Eigenschaften festgelegt sind. So legt beispielsweise die Klasse Kreis fest, daß alle Punkte des Objekts den gleichen Abstand vom Mittelpunkt haben müs- sen. Alle Instanzen haben zusätzliche Werte, im Falle des Kreises für die Koor- dinaten des Mittelpunkts und den Radius. Zeichnungen wurden direkt am Bild- schirm erstellt und bearbeitet, wobei der Benutzer Objekte mit Hilfe des Lichtgrif- 1 Shasha and Lazere 1995, S. 39f. 2 Shasha and Lazere 1995, S. 41; Kay 1996, S. 514f. 3 Shasha and Lazere 1995, S. 42; Kay 1996, S. 515f. 251 6. Xerox PARC und die Architektur der Information Abbildung 71. Alan C. Kay um 1984 fels direkt manipulieren konnte und die Zeichnung entsprechend der Einschrän- kungen vom Computer verändert wurde.1 Zum anderen war es eine von Kays ersten Aufgaben gewesen, einen Compiler für die Programmiersprache SIMULA auf der UNIVAC 108 lauffähig zu machen. SIMULA hatte das Konzept der Klassen und Instanzen auch im Bereich der Pro- grammiersprachen eingeführt, wenngleich es sich noch um eine herkömmliche prozedurale Sprache handelte.2 Nach seiner eigenen Schilderung erkannte Kay, daß er es mit einem universa- len Konzept zu tun hatte, dessen geistige Wurzeln bis auf Leibniz’ Monadenlehre zurückzuführen war und das auch in der Biologie zu beobachten ist.3 Insbeson- dere sah er eine Parallele zur Funktion vielzelliger Organismen, die sich eben- falls aus gleichartigen und dennoch verschieden spezialisierten Zellen zusam- mensetzen. Und ebenso wie Zellen über bestimmte Botensubstanzen miteinander kommunizieren, müßten auch die Objekte eines Computerprogramms Botschaf- 1 Sutherland 1963. 2 Dahl and Nygaard 1966; Dahl and Nygaard 1967; Kay 1996, S. 516f. 3 Nicht nur Alan Kay bezieht sich in seiner Argumentation gern auf Leibniz, sondern auch Norbert Wiener bei seiner Darstellung der Grundlagen der Kybernetik. Vgl. Wiener 1948, S. 52f. Zum Zusammenhang zwischen Leibniz’ Monadenlehre und programmierbaren Automaten siehe Künzel und Bexte 1993, S. 156ff. 252 6.3 Das Dynabook: Ein Computer für Kinder in jedem Alter Abbildung 72. Selbst- porträt des Flex, ca. 1968 ten austauschen können. Zunächst waren dies alles nur Ideen, für die Kay noch keine Verwendung hatte, obwohl er sie für wichtig hielt.1 FLEX Konkreter waren die Arbeiten, die Kay 1967–69 zusammen mit Edward Cheadle durchführte. Cheadle war Mitarbeiter in einem Unternehmen der Flugzeugindu- strie, für das Kay durch die Vermittlung von David Evans als Berater tätig war. Sie entwickelten einen kleinen Computer namens FLEX (Abb. 72), den auch Compu- terlaien, z. B. Ärzte, Anwälte und Ingenieure bedienen können sollten.2 Es stellte sich allerdings heraus, daß es schwierig war, für eine so diffus umrissene Nut- zergruppe eine geeignete Programmiersprache auszuwählen. Aus diesem Grund begann sich Kay für die Möglichkeiten von erweiterbaren Programmiersprachen zu interessieren, mit denen es –ähnlich wie bei Engelbarts NLS – möglich wä- re, die Funktionalität an unterschiedliche Anwendungen anzupassen. Kay begann deshalb mit der Entwicklung einer eigenen Programmiersprache, die sich an Ni- klaus Wirths EULER und an SIMULA orientierte. Trotz des beschränkten Bud- gets wurde der FLEX mit einem Grafikbildschirm ausgestattet, auch wenn die Leistung von Sketchpad bei weitem nicht erreicht werden konnte.3 Obwohl eine Vielzahl moderner Komponenten verwendet wurde, ergab der FLEX Computer kein einheitliches Ganzes. Das mit mehr als 160 kg immer noch sehr unhandliche Gerät schien trotz seiner Flexibilität und einer grafischen Benut- zungsschnittstelle die potentiellen Benutzer eher abzuschrecken.4 1 Shasha and Lazere 1995, S. 43; Kay 1996, S. 517. 2 Kay 1977, S. 232. 3 Kay 1968; Kay 1969; Kay 1990, S. 192. 4 Kay 1990, S. 192. 253 6. Xerox PARC und die Architektur der Information Wichtig für die Entwicklung von Kays Idee eines persönlichen Computers war auch, daß er als Mitglied der ARPA-Gemeinschaft Einblick in eine Reihe anderer Forschungsprojekte erhielt. Auf einem Treffen der in den ARPA-Projekten be- schäftigten Studenten1 im Sommer 1967 wurde ein kleiner Prototyp eines flachen Plasmabildschirms vorgeführt, der an der University of Illinois entwickelt worden war.2 Kay erkannte unmittelbar den Wert, den ein solcher Bildschirm für einen wirklich persönlichen Computer haben konnte. Auf der Grundlage von Moores Gesetz stellte er Berechnungen an, wann es die Fortschritte in der Mikroelektro- nik erlauben würden, die komplette Elektronik seines FLEX Computers auf der Rückseite eines Plasmabildschirm unterbringen zu können. Er kam zu dem Ergeb- nis, daß ein solcher (tragbarer) Computer etwa 1980 realisierbar wäre – zunächst eine zu lange Zeit, um dem Gedanken weiter nachzugehen.3 Ebenfalls 1968 lernte Kay Seymour Papert (* 1928) kennen, der am MIT ein Projekt leitete, in dem die Möglichkeiten des Computers für die Erziehung von Kindern untersucht wurde. Dazu hatten Papert und seine Mitarbeiter die Pro- grammiersprache LOGO entwickelt, mit der Kinder einer Grundschule in Le- xington das Programmieren erlernten. Sie entwickelten Programme, mit denen man zeichnen oder Englisch in »Küchenlatein«übersetzen konnte. Kay war tief beeindruckt, wie mühelos sich die Kinder Computerkenntnisse aneignen konnten und wie kreativ sie bei der Entwicklung von Programmen und deren Verwendung waren. Noch während der Entwicklung des FLEX hatte er angenommen, daß ein Computernutzer wirklich programmieren können müßte, bevor er die Maschine als sein persönliches Werkzeug verwenden könnte. Paperts Arbeiten schienen das Gegenteil zu beweisen, denn die Kinder verwendeten mit Freude und Kreativität auch die Programme, die sie nicht selbst geschrieben hatten, sie waren ebenso begeisterte und kreative Anwender wie Entwickler. All dies schien darauf hin- zudeuten, daß der Computer vielleicht doch nicht nur die Eigenschaften eines Werkzeugs hatte, sondern auch ein Medium war, mit dessen Hilfe sich sein Be- nutzer ausdrücken konnte.4 Kay kam so zu der Überzeugung, daß die Metapher des Computers als »Fahrzeug in der Informationslandschaft«, die von Douglas Engelbart verwendet wurde, unzutreffend ist. Der Computer sei vielmehr ein per- 1 Diese Treffen waren 1967 auf Anregung von John Warnock als Ergänzung zu den regelmäßigen Treffen der Projektleiter eingeführt worden. 2 Bitzer and Slottow 1966; Slottow 1976. 3 Kay 1972b; Kay 1996, S. 522. Tatsächlich erreichte die Technologie der flachen Bildschirme erst nach 1980 die Produktionsreife. Obwohl Xerox auch bei der Grundlagenforschung in diesem Be- reich führend war, wurden keine Anstrengungen unternommen, die Technologie der flachen Bild- schirme in kommerzielle Produkte zu überführen. Alan Kay war sich zu Beginn der siebziger Jahre dieser Tatsache sehr wohl bewußt und regte erfolglos mehrfach eine Verstärkung der Produktent- wicklungsaktivitäten an. Vgl. Email von Alan C. Kay an den Autor, 15. Mai 1998. 4 Papert 1993; Brand 1990, S. 152ff.; Kay 1977, S. 232; Kay 1990, S. 193. 254 6.3 Das Dynabook: Ein Computer für Kinder in jedem Alter Abbildung 73. Dyna- books in Gebrauch. Jimmy und Beth spielen »Spacewar«. Zeichnung von Alan Kay aus dem Jahre 1972 sönliches, dynamisches Medium. Da ein solcher Computer nicht
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