Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service

Home , Andean flamingo, Chilean woodstar, Laguna Vilama, Phoenicoparrus, Vilama (caldera)

Tuesday, August 17, 2010

Part II

50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Three Foreign Bird Species From Latin America and the Caribbean as Endangered Throughout Their Range; Final Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Previous Federal Actions petition and 1991 petition). In that On November 24, 1980, we received document, we announced our finding Fish and Wildlife Service a petition (1980 petition) from Dr. that listing the remaining 38 species Warren B. King, Chairman of the from the 1991 petition, including 50 CFR Part 17 International Council for Bird Andean flamingo, was warranted but Preservation (ICBP), to add 60 foreign precluded by higher priority listing [Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2009–0092; bird species to the List of Threatened actions. On January 12, 1995 (60 FR 90100–16601–FLA–B6] and Endangered Wildlife (50 CFR 2899), we published the final rule to list 17.11(h)), including two species (the the 30 African birds and reiterated the RIN 1018–AV76 Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia warranted-but-precluded status of the forest thrush) that are the subject of this remaining species from the 1991 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife final rule. In response to the 1980 petition. We made subsequent and Plants; Listing Three Foreign Bird petition, we published a positive 90-day warranted-but-precluded findings for all Species From Latin America and the finding on May 12, 1981 (46 FR 26464) outstanding foreign species from the Caribbean as Endangered Throughout for 58 foreign species, noting that 2 of 1980 and 1991 petitions, including the Their Range the foreign species identified in the three species that are the subject of this petition were already listed under the final rule, as published in our annual AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, notice of review (ANOR) on May 21, Act, and initiated a status review. On Interior. 2004 (69 FR 29354), and April 23, 2007 January 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485), we ACTION: Final rule. (72 FR 20184). published a 12-month finding within an Per the Service’s listing priority SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and annual review on pending petitions and guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR Wildlife Service (Service), determine description of progress on all species 43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the endangered status for three species of petition findings addressed therein. In listing priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging birds from Latin America and the that notice, we found that all 58 foreign from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign Caribbean—the Andean flamingo bird species from the 1980 petition were species. The LPNs for the three species (Phoenicoparrus andinus), the Chilean warranted but precluded by higher of birds in this final rule were as woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and the St. priority listing actions. On May 10, follows: Andean flamingo (LPN 2), Lucia forest thrush (Cichlherminia 1985, we published the first annual Chilean woodstar (LPN 4), and St. Lucia lherminieri sanctaeluciae)—under the notice (50 FR 19761), in which we forest thrush (LPN 3). Endangered Species Act of 1973, as continued to find that listing all 58 On January 23, 2008, the United amended (Act). foreign bird species from the 1980 States District Court for the Northern petition was warranted but precluded. DATES: This final rule is effective District of California ordered the Service September 16, 2010. In our next annual notice, published on to issue proposed listing rules for five January 9, 1986 (51 FR 996), we found ADDRESSES: This final rule is available foreign bird species, actions which had that listing 54 species from the 1980 been previously determined to be on the Internet at http:// petition, including the 2 species that are www.regulations.gov. Comments and warranted but precluded: Andean the subject of this final rule, continued flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus), materials received, as well as supporting to be warranted but precluded, whereas documentation used in the preparation black-breasted puffleg (Eriocnemis new information caused us to find that nigrivestis), Chilean woodstar (Eulidia of this rule, are available for public listing 4 other species in the 1980 inspection, by appointment, during yarrellii), medium tree finch petition was no longer warranted. We (Camarhynchus pauper), and St. Lucia normal business hours at: U.S. Fish and published additional annual notices on forest thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri Wildlife Service, Branch of Foreign the remaining 54 species included in sanctaeluciae). The court ordered the Species, Endangered Species Program, the 1980 petition on July 7, 1988 (53 FR Service to issue proposed listing rules 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, 25511); December 29, 1988 (53 FR for these species by the end of 2008. Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– 52746); and November 21, 1991 (56 FR On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we 358–2171. 58664), in which we indicated that published in the Federal Register a FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: listing the Chilean woodstar and the St. notice announcing our annual petition Janine VanNorman, Chief, Branch of Lucia forest thrush, along with the findings for foreign species. In that Foreign Species, Endangered Species remaining species in the 1980 petition, notice, we announced listing to be Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, continued to be warranted but warranted for 30 foreign bird species, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, precluded. including the 5 species that are subject Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– On May 6, 1991, we received a to the January 23, 2008, court order, of 358–2171; facsimile 703–358–1735. If petition (hereafter referred to as the which 3 species are the subject of this you use a telecommunications device 1991 petition) from ICBP, to add 53 final rule. The medium tree finch and for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal species of foreign birds to the List of black-breasted puffleg are the subjects of Information Relay Service (FIRS) at Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, separate rules. The proposed rules for 800–877–8339. including the Andean flamingo, also the the medium tree finch and black- SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: subject of this final rule. In response to breasted puffleg published in the the 1991 petition, we published a Federal Register on December 8, 2008 Background positive 90-day finding on December 16, (73 FR 74434 and 73 FR 74427, In this final rule, we determine 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 53 species, respectively). The final rule for the endangered status for the Andean and announced the initiation of a status black-breasted puffleg published on July flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus), the review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR 27, 2010 (75 FR 43844). Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), and 14496), we published a 12-month On December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226), the St. Lucia forest thrush finding on the 1991 petition, along with we published a Federal Register notice (Cichlherminia lherminieri a proposed rule to list 30 African birds proposing endangered status for the sanctaeluciae). under the Act (15 each from the 1980 Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus

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andinus), the Chilean woodstar (Eulidia recreational, scientific, or educational Taxonomy yarrellii), and the St. Lucia forest thrush purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) (Cichlherminia lherminieri the inadequacy of existing regulatory The Andean flamingo was first sanctaeluciae). We implemented the mechanisms; and (E) other natural or taxonomically described as Service’s peer review process and manmade factors affecting its continued Phoenicopterus andinus opened a 60-day comment period to existence. (Phoenicopteridae family), by Rodulfo solicit scientific and commercial Below is a species-by-species analysis Philippi in 1854 (Philippi 1860, p. 164; information on the species from all of these five factors. The species are Hellmayr 1932, p. 448). In 1856, interested parties following publication considered in alphabetical order, Bonaparte split the genus of the proposed rule. beginning with the Andean flamingo, Phoenicopterus, placing the Andean flamingo in a separate genus, as Summary of Comments and and followed by the Chilean woodstar and the St. Lucia forest thrush. Phoenicoparrus andinus, along with the Recommendations sympatric (species inhabiting the same In the proposed rule published on I. Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus or overlapping geographical areas) December 24, 2008 (73 FR 79226), we andinus) James’ flamingos (P. jamesi) (Hellmayr requested that all interested parties Species Description and Conover 1948, pp. 273–278; Jenkin submit written comments on the Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) are 1957, p. 405). In 1990, Sibley and proposal by February 23, 2009. We Monroe (1990, p. 311) suggested the received one comment on the proposed gregarious, long-lived birds that inhabit saline wetlands and breed in colonies Andean flamingo should be returned to rule from the public that did not the genus Phoenicopterus, based on the support the proposal and one comment (del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 277). The Andean flamingo close genetic relatedness among all that supported the proposal; neither flamingo species (Sibley and Ahlquist comment contained substantive is the largest member of the Phoenicopteridae family in South 1989, as cited in Ramsen et al. 2007, p. information. We did not receive any 18). However, many contemporary requests for a public hearing. America, reaching an adult height of 3.5 feet (ft) (110 centimeters (cm)) (Fjeldsa˚ researchers maintain that the Andean Peer Review and Krabbe 1990, p. 86). This waterbird flamingo should remain within the genus Phoenicoparrus, based on bill In accordance with our peer review is native to low-, medium-, and high- altitude wetlands in the Andean regions morphology and the lack of a hind toe policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR (BLI 2008, p. 1; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 34270), we solicited expert opinion of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru (BirdLife International (BLI) 2008, p. 1; 276; del Hoyo et al. 1992, pp. 508–509; from 12 knowledgeable individuals with ˚ del Hoyo 1992, p. 526), where it is Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Mascitti scientific expertise that included and Kravetz 2002, pp. 73–83; Valqui et familiarity with the Andean flamingo, locally known as ‘‘flamenco andino,’’ ‘‘parina grande,’’ ‘‘pariguana,’’ al. 2000, p. 110). Therefore, we accept Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest the species as Phoenicoparrus andinus, thrush and their habitats, biological ‘‘pariwana,’’ and ‘‘chururu’’ (BLI 2006, p. 1; Castro and Varela 1992, p. 26; which is also consistent with the needs, and threats. We received Convention on International Trade in responses from three of the peer Davison 2007, p. 2; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526; Sa´enz 2006, p. 185). Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and reviewers, one for each of the species. Flora (CITES) species database (UNEP– We reviewed all comments we An adult Andean flamingo has a pale WCMC 2008b, p. 1). received from the peer reviewers for yellow face and pale pink coloring substantive issues and clarifying overall. Its upper plumage is brighter Habitat and Life History information regarding the listing of the pink, with a deeper pink to wine red- Andean flamingo, Chilean woodstar, colored neck, breast, and wing-coverts Andean flamingos are native to the and St. Lucia forest thrush. The peer (feathers on the upper wing), and Andes Mountains, from southern Peru reviewers generally concurred with our prominent black tertial feathers (feathers and southwestern Bolivia to northern methods and conclusions and provided on the posterior portion of the wing). Chile and northwestern Argentina. They additional clarifications and suggestions The bill is pale yellow with a black tip, occupy shallow wetlands, collectively to improve the final rule. Peer reviewer and the legs and feet are yellow (BLI called salars, which are characterized as comments and information are 2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526). shallow, often saline, lakes (known addressed and incorporated into the Young Andean flamingos are grayish in locally as ‘‘lagos’’ or ‘‘lagunas’’) with final rule as appropriate. color and achieve full adult plumage in exposed salt-flats or mudflats (Boyle et their third year (del Hoyo 1992, p. 526). al. 2004, pp. 563–564; Caziani et al. Species Information and Factors Andean flamingo is one of three 2007, pp. 277; Hurlbert and Keith 1979, Affecting the Species flamingo species that are endemic to the pp. 328). Andean flamingos also inhabit Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), high Andes of South America (Johnson ‘‘bofedales,’’ which are described as wet, and its implementing regulations in the et al. 1958, p. 299; Johnson 1967, p. 404; marshy, perennial meadowlands (de la Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) at 50 del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 508; Line 2004, Fuente 2002, p. 1; Ducks Unlimited CFR part 424, set forth the procedures pp. 1–2; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; 2007c, p. 1). These wetlands are found for adding species to the Federal Lists Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2). All flamingos at various elevations, including: (1) The of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife have pink plumage to varying degrees high Andes, referred to as ‘‘altiplano’’ and Plants. A species may be (del Hoyo 1992, p. 508). The Andean (Spanish for ‘‘high plains’’), generally determined to be an endangered or flamingo is distinguished from other above 13,123 ft (4,000 meters (m)); (2) threatened species due to one or more South American flamingos by its size (it the ‘‘puna’’ (Spanish for ‘‘highlands’’), of the five factors described in section is the largest in the area), leg coloring (it between 9,843 and 13,123 ft (3,000 and 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five factors are: is the only flamingo with yellow legs), 4,000 m); and (3) the lowlands, below (A) The present or threatened and wing coloring (it has prominent 9,843 ft (3,000 m) (Caziani et al. 2001, destruction, modification, or black tertial feathers that form a ‘‘V’’ p. 103; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 278). curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) when the flamingo is not in flight) (BLI Andean flamingos generally occupy overutilization for commercial, 2008, p. 1; del Hoyo 1992, p. 526). wetlands that are less than 3 ft (1 m)

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deep (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; However, studies on greater flamingos and adult survival is considered to be Mascitti and Casten˜ era 2006, p. 331). (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) show that ‘‘very high’’ (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. Most of the wetlands in which mate-switching is common and they are 85). Andean flamingos are long-lived, Andean flamingos are found are only seasonally monogamous (Cezilly with an average lifespan of 20 to 30 ‘‘endoreic,’’ ‘‘endorheic,’’ or closed. and Johnson 2005, p. 545). Andean years. Some wild adults live up to 50 These terms refer to internally-draining flamingos nest at high densities, with years (BLI 2008, p. 2; del Hoyo et al. water networks prevalent in the Andes breeding colonies consisting of up to 1992, p. 517). Recent trends in breeding that are characterized by rivers or bodies thousands of pairs (del Hoyo 1992, p. success are further discussed under of water that do not drain into the sea, 526). Andean flamingos reach sexual Population Estimates, below. but either dry up or terminate in a basin maturity between 3 and 5 years of age Andean flamingos are wading filter- (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103; Hurlbert and (Bucher 1992, p. 183). Breeding season feeders, often forming large feeding Keith 1979, p. 328). The water levels at for the Andean flamingo occurs in the flocks at wetlands alongside sympatric these basins expand and contract summer, generally from December flamingos, Chilean flamingos seasonally and depend in large part on through February (BLI 2008, p. 2; del (Phoenicopterus chilensis), and James’ summer rains to ‘‘recharge’’ or refill Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjeldsa˚ and flamingos (del Hoyo 1992, p. 512; them (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Hurlbert and Keith Mascitti and Castan˜ era 2006, pp. 328– Derlindati 2000, pp. 124–125; Caziani et 1979, pp. 328), although the breeding 329). Andean flamingos feed principally al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti and Caziani season may begin as early as October on diatoms (microscopic one-celled or 1997, p. 328). and continue through April (Goldfeder colonial algae) (Mascitti and Kravetz Andean flamingos are altitudinal and and Blanco 2007, p. 190). Both sexes 2002, p. 78), especially those in the opportunistic migrants (Goldfeder and share in nest-building and nesting genus Surirella (no common name), Blanco 2007, p. 190). During the (Bucher 1992, p. 182). Nests are built on which is a dominant component of summer (December to January), Andean the miry clay or transient islands of surface sediments at the bottom of many flamingos generally reside in the puna shallow lakes (del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514, altiplano lakes in the Andes (Fjeldsa˚ and altiplano regions of the Andes, at 516). Each nest consists of a clay and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Hurlbert and elevations between 11,483 and 14,764 ft mound, up to 16 inches (in) (40 cm) Chang 1983, p. 4768). (3,500 and 4,500 m). In the winter, they high, with a small depression on top may move to lower elevations—down to (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516; Fjeldsa˚ Historical Range and Distribution 210 ft (64 m) above sea level—along the and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Flamingos lay The Andean flamingo type specimen Peruvian coast and inland primarily to a single white egg, usually in December (the specimen that was first described the central plains of Argentina, or January, and incubation lasts about by Philippi in 1854) was collected from occasionally to Bolivia, and rarely to 28 days (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 526). Paraguay (Blake 1977, p. 207; BLI 2008, Salar de Atacama, in Antofagasta If the egg is destroyed from flooding or Province (Chile) (Hellmayr 1932, p. pp. 1 and 6; Boyle et al. 2004, pp. 563– predation, the pair may re-clutch (lay a 564, 570–571; Bucher 1992, p. 182; 312). Salar de Atacama is, therefore, replacement egg), but only if the loss ‘‘ ’’ Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. referred to as the type locality. The occurs within a few days of the first egg species was subsequently reported in 2006. p. 17; Caziani et al. 2007, pp. 277, being laid (del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 516). Argentina in 1872 (Provinces of Jujuy 279, 281; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514, 519; Chicks remain in the nest 5–12 days, and Tucuma´n) (Burmeister 1872, p. 364; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Hurlbert during which time both the parents feed and Keith 1979, pp. 330; Kahl 1975, pp. the chick with ‘‘milk’’ secretions formed Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. 277), 99–101; Mascitti and Bonaventura 2002, by glands in their upper digestive tracts Peru (Departments of Salinas and p. 360; Mascitti and Castan˜ era 2006, p. (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; del Arequipa) in 1886 (Hellmayr 1932, p. 328; Romano et al. 2006, p. 17; Romano Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 513). Feeding is 312; Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. et al. 2008, pp. 45–47). shared by parents, in approximately 24- 277; Weberbauer 1911, p. 27), and They disperse widely, even while hour shifts (Bucher 1992, p. 182). When Bolivia in 1902 (Department of Oruru) nesting, and can travel long distances, flamingo chicks leave the nest, they (Hellmayr and Conover 1948, p. 277; flying from 249 mi (400 km) to 715 mi form large nursery cre`ches (groups) of Johnson et al. 1958, p. 289). (1,150 km) daily (Caziani et al. 2003, p. hundreds or thousands of birds that are The species’ movements and 11; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 277; Conway tended by a few adults (del Hoyo et al. distribution within its range were not 2000, p. 212; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509– 1992, p. 516). understood throughout much of the 519; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Flamingo breeding habits can vary 20th century. Early researchers Their movements are unpredictable and widely from year to year. Flamingos considered the Andean flamingo to be appear to be influenced by varying may breed in large numbers for 2 or relatively sedentary (Jenkin 1957, p. environmental conditions affecting the more successive years, followed by 405; Johnson et al. 1958, pp. 297–298), availability of wetlands (Bucher et al. other years in which there is no known with a distribution that did not extend 2000, p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514 and breeding. Not all sexually mature adults below 10,000 ft (3,048 m) (Hellmayr 516; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). breed every year and, even in years of 1932, p. 25; Johnson 1967, p. 405). Later When climatic conditions are favorable, breeding, not all sexually mature adults researchers remarked on the nomadic breeding takes place, and when climatic will participate (Bucher 1992, p. 183). nature of the species (McFarlane 1975, conditions are unfavorable, breeding is Flamingos are generally considered to p. 88) and reported lower limits to the abandoned, very limited, or takes place have poor breeding success (Fjeldsa˚ and species’ distribution (i.e., 8,200 ft (2,500 at alternative, less-productive breeding Krabbe 1990, p. 85), and Andean m) (Kahl 1975; pp. 99–100)). Hurlbert grounds (e.g., Bucher et al. 2000, pp. flamingos, in particular, have and Keith (1979, pp. 334, 336) noted a 119–120). experienced periods of very low seasonal variance in the species’ All flamingos were believed to be breeding success over the past 20 years altitudinal distribution, and Bucher monogamous, with a strong pair- (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2) (See (1992, p. 182) noted that migration bonding tendency that may be Population Estimates, below). Juvenile might take place between Chilean maintained from one breeding season to mortality rates during dispersal are breeding grounds and Argentinian the next (del Hoyo 1992, p. 514). unknown (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 284), wetlands.

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Current Range and Distribution to be the primary breeding grounds for wetlands frequented by Andean the species (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; flamingos (Derlindati 2008, p. 10). The current range of the Andean Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4; Fjeldsa˚ Research in Argentina at highland flamingo extends from Peru, through and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. Chile and Bolivia, to Argentina, in (breeding) and lowland (non-breeding) 1958, p. 296; Kahl 1975 p. 100), wetlands at elevations ranging from sea sites indicated that, regardless of season, although between 2005 and 2008, level (in southern Peru) to 14,764 ft (64 Andean flamingos spend the majority of Andean flamingos bred in significant to 4,500 m) (Arengo 2009, p. 16; BLI their time eating (Derlindati 2008, p. numbers in Bolivia (Laguna Colorada, 2008, pp. 1, 6; Bucher 1992, p. 192; 10). They will travel to different Laguna Khara) and smaller colonies wetlands to feed, even while nesting Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; del Hoyo have been observed in Argentina ˚ (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani et al. 1992, pp. 514; Fjeldsa and Krabbe 1990, (Laguna de Vilama, Laguna Grande) p. 85). In 1989, an immature Andean 2007, p. 277; Conway 2000, p. 212; del (Arengo 2009, p. 17). Researchers have Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519). Research in flamingo—that had been banded in only recently confirmed that the species Chile earlier that year—was captured in Argentina at high-elevation breeding is an altitudinal and opportunistic sites and low-elevation nonbreeding Brazil (Sick 1993, p. 154). There were migrant (Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. additional sightings of the Andean sites indicated that given the timing of 190). Simultaneous censuses courtship in the annual cycle, lowland flamingo in Brazil in the 1990s undertaken since 1997 confirmed that (Bornschein and Reinert 1996, pp. 807– sites were important in providing Andean flamingos migrate altitudinally. foraging and courtship habitat necessary 808). However, the species is considered In the summer, most of the population a nonbreeding ‘‘vagrant’’ in Brazil (BLI for successful breeding at high-altitude is concentrated primarily in Chile, and sites (Derlindati 2008, p. 10). 2008, p. 5). to a lesser extent in Argentina and Its total extent of occurrence Bolivia. In winter, the species may Several Andean flamingo localities in (including sites where breeding does not converge in certain Chilean and each range country are described below occur) is estimated as 124,711 square Peruvian wetlands (Valqui et al. 2000, and in Table 1, organized in miles (mi2) (323,000 square kilometers p. 111), with relatively large numbers of alphabetical order by country and name (km2)). The estimated area in which the birds overwintering in Bolivia and of wetland. This is not an exhaustive species is known to breed and reside Argentina in some years (Caziani et al. accounting of all known wetlands year-round is 72,973 square miles (mi2) 2007, pp. 279, 281; Romano et al. 2008, occupied by the species, but includes (189,000 square kilometers (km2)) (BLI pp. 45–47). Recent banding studies sites that are frequented by the species 2008, p. 4). confirmed that Andean flamingos at or are otherwise notable, such as The species’ seemingly erratic high-altitude wetlands move to lower recently discovered breeding sites. In movements and ability to disperse altitude lakes, where weather conditions Table 1, ‘‘Type’’ indicates whether the widely, combined with the harsh are less severe (Rocha and Rodriguez site is known as a breeding (B) or non- climatic conditions and the 2006, p. 12). breeding (NB) wetland. In most cases, inaccessibility of flamingo habitat, have Andean flamingos occupy some NB indicates that the species made it difficult for researchers to fully wetlands year round (where they may or overwinters at the wetland. However, in understand their seasonal movements may not breed), some wetlands only some cases, Andean flamingos occupy a and breeding habits (Bucher et al. 2000, during the summer breeding season, and wetland year-round, but no breeding p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, p. 514; Fjeldsa˚ other wetlands only in winter (see Table occurs there. Habitat information was and Krabbe 1990, p. 85) (see also Habitat 1). Recent research established that obtained primarily from Ducks and Life History, above). Researchers there is an important, complementary Unlimited (2007a–d) and BirdLife have long considered Chilean wetlands link between breeding and nonbreeding International (2008).

TABLE 1—SELECTED ANDEAN FLAMINGO NESTING AND OVERWINTERING WETLANDS IN ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND PERU

Elevation in feet/ Area in acres/ Country Wetland Department meters hectares Type Description/comments

Argentina ..... Laguna Brava ...... La Rioja ...... 13,780 ft/4,200 m 1,977 ac/800 ha ... B/NB ..... Large lake associated with an endoreic (closed) river basin that includes Laguna de Mulas Muertas. Argentina ..... Laguna de Santa Fe ..... 276–295 ft/84–90 29,653 ac/12,000 NB ...... One of two lowest-elevation endoreic Melincue´. m. ha. wetlands used by Andean flamingos. Argentina ..... Lagunas de los Catamarca ... 13,911 ft/4,240 m 343 ac/139 ha...... B/NB ..... Shallow lagoon in a larger lagoon Aparejos. system that is lacking in aquatic vegetation. Argentina ..... Laguna de Mar Co´rdoba ...... 210–230 ft/64–70 494,211 ac/ B/NB ..... Large, permanent, hypersaline, sea- Chiquita. m. 200,000 ha. sonally fluctuating lake is the lowest-elevation locality. Argentina ..... Laguna de Mulas La Rioja ...... 13,123 ft/4,000 m 1730 ac/700 ha .... NB ...... Located near and part of the same Muertas. endoreic river basin as Laguna Brava. Argentina ..... Laguna de Jujuy ...... 11,483 ft/3,500 m 24,710 ac/10,000 B/NB ..... Central lake within endoreic basin Pozuelos. ha. with lower water levels and extensive mudflats in winter. Argentina ..... Laguna Jujuy ...... 12,008 ft/3,660 m 247,104 ac/ NB ...... Part of large salt basin where Guayatayoc. 100,000 ha. endoreic waters form shallow, brackish-to-hypersaline lakes.

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TABLE 1—SELECTED ANDEAN FLAMINGO NESTING AND OVERWINTERING WETLANDS IN ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CHILE, AND PERU—Continued

Elevation in feet/ Area in acres/ Country Wetland Department meters hectares Type Description/comments

Argentina ..... Laguna Vilama ..... Jujuy ...... 14,436 ft/4,400 m 19,768 ac/8,000 B/NB ..... Large, permanent endoreic lake, ha. prone to wide water fluctuations and winter freezes. Bolivia ...... Lago Poopo´ ...... Oruro ...... 12,090 ft/3,685 m 330,380 ac/ NB ...... Large, shallow saline lake in same 133,700 ha. ancient endoreic river basin as Lago Uru Uru. Bolivia ...... Lago Uru Uru ...... Oruro ...... 12,126 ft/3,696 m 69,190 ac/28,000 NB ...... Along with Lago Poopo´, experiences ha. wide fluctuations in water level. Bolivia ...... Laguna Colorada Potosı´ ...... 13,944 ft/4,250 m 12,948 ac/5,240 B/NB ..... Hypersaline endoreic lake fed by ha. streams and thermal springs, with shores that freeze at night. Bolivia ...... Laguna Kalina or Potosı´ ...... 14,862 ft/4,530 m 3,954 ac/1,600 ha B/NB ..... Hypersaline lake associated with the Busch. same endoreic water basin as La- guna Colorada. Bolivia ...... Laguna de Pastos Oruro ...... 13–15,000 ft/4– 37,066 ac/15,000 B/NB ..... Group of small, permanent saline Grandes. 4,500 m. ha. lakes in an ancient caldera fed by underground sources. Bolivia ...... Salar de Chalviri .. Potosı´ ...... 14,396 ft/4,388 m 28,417 ac/11,500 NB ...... Basin of many small lakes separated ha. by saltflats, fed by small streams and thermal springs. Bolivia ...... Salar de Coipasa Oruro ...... 12,112 ft/3,692 m 548,077 ac/ B/NB ..... Large salt basin and shallow 221,800 ha. hypersaline lake, receiving water from Rı´o Lauca. Bolivia ...... Laguna de Oruro ...... 13,123 ft/4000 m ...... NB ...... Hypersaline lake associated with Rio Saquewa. Lauca system, receives input from external afluents and underground waters. Chile ...... Lago del Negro Atacama ...... 13,123 ft/4,000 m 6,919 ac/2,800 ha B/NB ..... Large high-altitude permanent lake Francisco. surrounded by bofedales. Chile ...... Salar de ...... Antofagasta 12,211 ft/3,722 m 93,406 ac/37,800 B/NB ..... High-altitude salt basin with many sa- Ascota´n ...... ha. line lakes on perimeter, fed by several freshwater springs. Chile ...... Salar de Atacama Antofagasta 7,546 ft/2,300 m ... 691,895 ac/ B/NB ..... Endoreic salt basin with fluctuating 280,000 ha. water levels from summer storms and snowmelt. Chile ...... Salar de Coposa .. Tarapaca´ ..... 12,376 ft/3,730 m 21,003 ac/8,500 B/NB ..... Endoreic salt with small lagoon that ha. fluctuates greatly in size. Chile ...... Salar de Huasco .. Tarapaca´ ..... 13,123 ft/4,000 m 14,826 ac/6,000 B/NB ..... Salt basin receiving summer rains ha. and fed by snow melt bogs and bofedales. Chile ...... Salar de Surire ..... Tarapaca´ ..... 13,583 ft/4,140 m 61,776 ac/25,000 B/NB ..... Permanent saline lake. ha. Peru ...... Lago Ayacucho .... 10,738 ft/3,273 m 16,556 ac/6,700 NB ...... Shallow, large, brackish endoreic lake Parinacochas. ha. and marshes with exposed salt flats in dry season. Peru ...... Laguna de Puno ...... 15,299 ft/4,663 m 8525 ac/3,450 ha NB ...... Permanent, shallow hypersaline lake Loriscota. surrounded by bofedales. Peru ...... Laguna Salinas .... Arequipa ...... 14,091 ft/4,295 m 17,544 ac/7,100 NB ...... Semipermanent, shallow hypersaline ha. lake with freshwater springs and bofedales on perimeter.

Argentina: Several wetlands in Caziani et al. 2001, p. 103). During a 3- relationships between wetlands exist, Argentina provide year-round habitat year study, Andean flamingos occupied even when the wetlands are not located for the Andean flamingo (see Table 1). eight of the nine lakes, but were within the same basin (Caziani et al. The species breeds and overwinters especially concentrated on Laguna 2001, p. 110). The Lagunas de Vilama regularly at Laguna de Pozuelos and Vilama and Laguna Catal (Caziani and wetland has harbored up to 30 percent Lagunas de Vilama (Caziani & Derlindati Derlindati 2000, p. 125). Caziani et al. of Andean flamingos during the 2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 113; 2001 (p. 104) determined that the breeding season (Caziani & Derlindati Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. Vilama wetland system provided a 2000, p. 121; Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). 2007, p. 279; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, variety of spatial and seasonal In recent decades, the species has pp. 1–4). The Vilama wetlands system ecological conditions on the landscape nested or overwintered in locations not (Lagunas de Vilama) is comprised of 12 level, such that a range of options previously recorded. In January 1998, lakes: Arenal, Blanca, Caiti, Catal, Cerro existed from which Andean flamingos the first account of Andean flamingos Negro, Colpayoc, Guinda, Honda, Isla could select habitat at any given time nesting was reported at Laguna Brava Grande, Palar, Pululos, and Vilama during the year. They further suggest (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119), which was (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122; that similar landscape-level long known as an overwintering site for

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the species (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). Bolivia: There are at least 10 flamingo Andean Flamingo numbers can reach up Since 1998, Laguna Brava has continued nesting sites in Bolivia (Caziani et al. to 2,000. to provide isolated nesting sites (de la 2006, p. 13). Laguna Colorada is a high- Chile: There are at least a dozen Fuente 2002, p. 6). Also in January altitude wetland where Andean Andean flamingo breeding sites in Chile 1998, large numbers of nonbreeding flamingos remain year-round and where (Childress et al. 2006, p. 7). Salar de birds were reported at Laguna de Mulas they have recently nested with greater Atacama, where the Andean flamingo Muertas, just 4 mi (7 km) from Laguna frequency (see Factor B) (BLI 2008, p. 1; type specimen was obtained in 1854 Brava (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120). Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. (Hellmayr 1932, p. 312; Philippi 1860, Researchers attribute both the large 2007, p. 279; Davison 2007, p. 1; Ducks p. 164), has been a consistent and number of breeding birds at Laguna Unlimited 2007b, pp. 14; Kahl 1979, primary breeding ground (Bucher et al. Brava and the large number of p. 100). Laguna Kalina (also known as 2000, p. 119; Childress et al. 2007a, nonbreeding birds at Laguna de Mulas Laguna Calina and Laguna Busch) has p. 7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4; Muertas to unusual rainfall patterns that recently figured prominently as a Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296). Several year (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120). In nesting location. Chicks were first other sites have figured consistently and March 2001, chicks were observed at reported there in 1997 (Valqui et al. prominently over the years, including Lagunas de los Aparejos (Caziani et al. 2000, p. 112), and nesting has been Salar de Surire, Salar de Huasco, and 2007, pp. 279, 283), part of a lagoon reported there, at small but consistent Salar de Ascota´n (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe system with Laguna Azul and Laguna rates, in 2004, 2005, and 2006 (Childress 1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296; Negra (BLI 2008, p. 50). Normally et al. 2005, p. 6; Childress et al. 2006, Kahl 1975 p. 100). Andean flamingos known as a nesting site for the James’ p. 5; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). were first observed at Salar de Surire in flamingo (Childress 2005, p. 6), this may Salar de Pastos Grandes is another the early 1970s (McFarlane 1975, p. 88). now be a nesting site for the Andean lake system that includes Laguna de The first report of breeding (observation flamingo as well (BLI 2008, p. 50). Pastos Grandes, Laguna Ramaditas, of chicks) there occurred in 1997 (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112), and breeding Andean flamingos overwinter at both Laguna Hedionda, Laguna Can˜ apa, has continued there at increasing high- and low-elevation wetlands in Laguna Cachi, Laguna Khara, Laguna Chulluncani, and Laguna Khar Khota numbers (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283). Argentina. Laguna Guayatayoc is a high- ´ (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 13). This Laguna Ascotan differs from most other elevation overwintering site for Andean Andean flamingo wetlands, as it is fed flamingos (Ducks Unlimited 2007a, pp. wetland complex provides breeding and non-breeding habitat. by 13 freshwater springs as well as 1–4), where the species has sometimes several brackish lagoons (Vilina and Non-breeding year-round wetlands in been reported in relatively large Martı´nez 1998, p. 28). In addition, Salar Bolivia include: Lago Uru Uru (Ducks numbers (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 116; de Coposa has long served as breeding Unlimited 2007b, p. 5–8; Kahl 1975, Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). Laguna de and overwintering habitat for the p. 100; M

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1912, p. 14). It is estimated that nearly counted: 33,918 Andean flamingos in only at three wetlands and, in those 20 percent of the global population January 1997; 27,913 in January 1998; wetlands, a total of only 12,801 chicks overwinters in Peru (Ricalde 2003, 14,722 in June 1998; and, 24,442 in July were produced—Salar de Surire (Chile; p. 91). 2000 (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). In the 9,200 chicks), Salar de Atacama (Chile; Recent Trends in Distribution: In summer of 2005, a total of 31,617 3,378 chicks), and Aparejos (Argentina; 1997, 50 percent of the breeding Andean flamingos were counted 223 chicks) (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283). population (of breeding age) was (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). Recent The most recent simultaneous census distributed among three sites in Chile censuses estimate the global population data indicate that a total of 2,338 chicks (Salar de Surire, Laguna Maricunga, and at around 34,000 individuals (Caziani et survived at breeding colonies located in Laguna Negro Francisco) and two sites al. 2006, pp. 276–287; Caziani et al. Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile during the in Argentina (Pozuelos and Vilama) 2007, pp. 13–17). 2006–2007 breeding season (December (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279). In the According to Arengo (in litt. 2007, p. to February) (Childress et al. 2007a, p. summer of 2005, 50 percent of the 2), long-term population trends have 7). In Argentina, eight sites were breeding population was located in 5 been difficult to establish, given the surveyed, six of which are known separate wetlands—Negro Francisco unreliability of previous population Andean flamingo breeding sites. Of (Chile), Salar de Surire (Chile), Lagunas estimates. However, given that the these, breeding was attempted at one de Vilama (Argentina), Laguna Colorada global population sizes of all other site, but was unsuccessful. No breeding (Bolivia), and Salar de Atacama (Chile) flamingo species are estimated above was reported in Peru during the 2006– (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). 100,000 individuals, experts consider 2007 breeding season. Of 4 sites the Andean flamingo to be the rarest of Population Estimates surveyed in Bolivia, 3 of which are the 6 flamingo species (Arengo in litt. known Andean flamingo nesting Between 1965 and 1968, Charles 2007, p. 2). grounds, breeding occurred at 2 sites Cordier’s estimate of the Andean Nesting sites: In the last decade, small (Laguna Colorada and Kalina) producing flamingo population varied by an order groups of Andean flamingos have been total of 1,800 chicks. In Chile, breeding of magnitude, from 50,000 to 500,000 reported intermittently nesting at a was attempted at four sites in Salar de (as cited in Johnson 1967, p. 404; as greater variety of sites, including: Atacama. A total of 2,900 pairs of cited in Kahl 1975, p. 100). In 1975, Laguna Brava and Lagunas de Vilama Andean flamingos laid eggs but only Kahl (1975, p. 100) estimated the total (Argentina) (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; 538 chicks survived. population to be 150,000 individuals. Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Derlindati This estimate was based on (1) previous 2008, pp. 6–7); Laguna Colorada and Conservation Status estimates; (2) the fact that the largest Laguna Kalina (Bolivia) (Caziani et al. The Andean flamingo is the rarest of number of individuals Kahl had seen in 2007, p. 279; Childress et al. 2005, p. 6; six flamingo species worldwide (family one place (Lago Uru Uru, Bolivia) was Childress et al. 2006, p. 5; Childress et Phoenicopteridae). The IUCN considers 18,000 individuals; and (3) that, at most al. 2007a, p. 7; Rodriguez Ramirez 2006, the Andean flamingo to be ‘‘Vulnerable,’’ sites, he observed the Andean flamingo as cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2); because (1) it has undergone a rapid to be less numerous than the Chilean and Salar de Punta Negra and Salar de population decline, (2) it is exposed to flamingo and James’ flamingo. In 1986, Huasco (Chile) (Bucher et al. 2000, p. ongoing exploitation and declines in the population was estimated to be less 119; Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; Valqui habitat quality, (3) and, although than 50,000 individuals and declining et al. 2000, p. 112). In recent years, exploitation may decrease, the longevity (Johnson 2000, p. 203). However, the Andean flamingos have been recorded and slow breeding of flamingos suggest accuracy of earlier population estimates from 25 wetlands survey units, but there that the legacy of past threats may has never been confirmed. According to were fewer than 100 individuals at persist through generations to come (BLI Arengo (in litt. 2007, p. 2), a member of many of these sites (Caziani et al. 2007, 2008, p. 1). Long-lived species with the Altoandino Flamingo Conservation p. 281). Only 12 wetlands contained slow rates of reproduction and ongoing Group (Grupo de Conservacio´n more than 100 Andean flamingos at any poor breeding success, such as that Flamencos Altoandinos), previous one of the 4 sampling periods from 1997 being experienced by the Andean historical population estimates were to 2000, and breeding has been flamingo, can quickly decline towards based on extrapolations of data that are consistently reported at only 2 of these extinction when reproduction does not not considered to be reliable. Experts sites (Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 2–3; keep pace with mortality (BLI 2008, p. consider the figure of between 50,000 Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Caziani et al. 2; Bucher 1992, p. 183; del Hoyo et al. and 100,000 individuals may have been 2007, pp. 279–281; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 1992, p. 517) (see Population Estimates, accurate until the mid-1980s (BLI 2008, 112). above). p. 1). Although the figure of 150,000 Breeding success: Productivity (e.g., Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 86) estimates from intensive studies of Summary of Factors Affecting the was still being reported in the 1990s, an breeding sites in Chile indicate marked Andean Flamingo estimate of 50,000 is considered a more fluctuations over the past 20 years, with A. The Present or Threatened accurate figure (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. periods of very low breeding success Destruction, Modification, or 2; BLI 2008 p. 1; del Hoyo et al. 1992, (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2). In 1987, a Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or p. 526), and experts believe that the high of around 15,000 chicks fledged, Range species underwent a severe reduction followed by 10 years of relatively low from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s productivity (fewer than 800 chicks Andean flamingos occupy shallow, (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 5). fledged per year on average), and a saline wetlands in the lowland, puna, The first simultaneous census of recent increase to an average of 3,000 and altoandino regions of the Andes Andean flamingos was conducted in chicks fledged since 2000 (Rodriguez (see Table 1) (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 6; Bucher 1997 (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 110). Using Ramirez 2006, Amado et al. 2007, both 1992, p. 192; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; a comprehensive sampling design and as cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1– Caziani et al. 2007; del Hoyo 1992, pp. conducting simultaneous surveys at 3). Between 1997 and 2001, successful 514; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). over 200 wetlands in Peru, Bolivia, breeding (based on the observation of 2– Andean flamingos are altitudinal Chile, and Argentina, researchers 3-month-old chicks) was documented migrants and alternate between

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wetlands based largely on at Laguna Kalina and Laguna Colorada in these areas (BLI 2008, p. 553; Caziani environmental conditions and (1,800 chicks) (Bolivia), and the other 25 et al. 2001, p. 106; de la Fuente 2002, especially the availability of water percent at Salar de Atacama (538 chicks) p. 8; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, p. 4; (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et al. 2000, (Chile). Sites where breeding does not Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193). p. 119; del Hoyo 1992, pp. 514; Fjeldsa˚ occur serve as important staging areas In Bolivia, there are proposals to and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; Goldfeder and for pre-reproduction mating displays exploit lithium, potassium, and borium Blanco 2007, p. 190; Hurlbert and Keith and as feeding locations for non- from Salar de Coipasa (Ducks Unlimited 1979, pp. 334, 336; Rocha and breeding flamingos and even breeding 2007b, p. 11) and Pastos Grandes (New Rodriguez 2006, p. 12). During the flamingos at nearby sites (Derlindati World Resource Corp 2008, p. 1)—both summer breeding season (December to 2008, p. 10). Andean flamingos travel to known breeding and overwintering sites January), Andean flamingos occupy different wetlands to feed, even while for the Andean flamingo. Bolivia high-elevation wetlands in Chile, nesting (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani et contains an estimated 50 percent of the Argentina, and Bolivia, and less al. 2007, p. 277; Conway 2000, p. 212; world’s supply of the lithium that is frequently, Peru. During the winter, they del Hoyo 1992, pp. 509–519). used to make batteries for portable may stay at the high-elevation wetlands, The Andean region where the Andean electronic equipment. The largest or move to lower elevations in flamingo occurs is characterized by an known lithium deposit in the world is Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru (Blake extensive series of endoreic (closed) located in the Bolivian altiplano—the 1977, p. 207; BLI 2008, pp. 1 and 6; water systems that drain internally, that Pastos Grandes concession (New World Boyle et al. 2004, pp. 563–564, 570–571; are recharged primarily by summer Resource Corp 2008, p. 2). Lithium can Bucher 1992, p. 182; Bucher et al. 2000, rains, that contract seasonally, and that be extracted directly from the saline p. 119; Caziani et al. 2006. p. 17; Caziani may occasionally dry out completely water in the alitplano salars; this water et al. 2007, pp. 277, 279, 281; del Hoyo (see Factor E) (Bucher 1992, p. 182; is referred to by the mining industry as 1992, p. 514, 519; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe Caziani and Derlindati 2000, pp. 124– ‘‘brine.’’ The brine is pumped through a 1990, p. 85; Hurlbert and Keith 1979, 125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti series of evaporation ponds to pp. 330; Kahl 1975, pp. 99–101; Mascitti and Caziani 1997, p. 328). concentrate the lithium (New World and Bonaventura 2002, p. 360; Mascitti Mineral extraction, water Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). Obtaining and Castan˜ era 2006, p. 328). contamination, water extraction, and lithium from brine is considered more The wetlands occupied by Andean water diversion from mining, cost-effective in the mining industry flamingos are utilized on a landscape agriculture, grazing, urban development, than the other alternative, extracting level (Derlindati 2008, p. 10). Andean and increasing tourism are ongoing lithium from hard rock (New World flamingos prefer water that is less than activities that negatively impact wetland Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). Nearly all the 3 ft (1m) deep (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, habitats that support Andean flamingos world’s supply of brine-derived lithium p. 86; Mascitti and Casten˜ era 2006, p. throughout the species’ range (Arengo in comes from the Chilean and 331) and rely on the variety of habitat litt. 2007, p. 2; Childress et al. 2007a, p. Argentinean altiplanos (New World options at wetland complexes 5; Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193). Resource Corp 2008, p. 4). In Peru, throughout the species’ range to select Mineral extraction: There are ongoing Laguna Loriscota and Laguna Vizcachas optimal nesting and feeding sites. mining operations to extract salt, borax, are being prospected to extract or divert Beginning in 2002, researchers ulexite, sulphur, sodium carbonate, water to feed mining operations. These conducted a multi-year Andean lithium, and several other minerals at areas are currently being reviewed as flamingo dispersal study, to determine many of the wetlands occupied by the Important Bird Areas (Arengo 2009, p. overwintering sites and spatial and Andean flamingo. Mineral extraction 34). temporal movements (Caziani et al. and prospecting are ongoing at these Intensive exploitation of natural 2003, p. 11; Johnson and Arengo 2004, wetlands, including: Salars de Atacama resources has degraded the soil and pp. 9, 15). Andean flamingos in and Surire (Chile) (Corporacioń ecology of the region, resulting in Argentina were tracked using satellite Nacional Forestal 1996a, p. 9; Rundel extensive erosion, river sedimentation, transmitters, and results were highly and Palma 2000, pp. 270–271)—the two soil salinization, silting up of lakes, and variable. One bird stayed at the breeding sites that accounted for 98 water imbalances in watersheds that origination site (the actual location of percent of the chick production during contribute to extreme fluctuations in which was undisclosed), and another the period 1997–2001 (Caziani et al. water flows (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 14). bird traveled 715 mi (1,150 km) over a 2007, p. 283)—and Lago Uru Uru In the past, Andean flamingos have 4-day period, using more than four sites (Bolivia) (Soto 1996, p. 7; Ugarte-Nunez abandoned breeding sites undergoing in the process (Caziani et al. 2003, p. and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. alteration from mining. Laguna Ascotań 11). The habitats visited included salar 135)—the site that had the largest was once considered a breeding site for lakes, rivers and flooded areas. number of Andean flamingos ever the species (Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296; Flamingos were more mobile during recorded in one wetland (Kahl 1975, p. Kahl 1975 p. 100). The birds abandoned summer to autumn (January–May), 100). Prospecting and digging for the site in the mid-20th century, which moving between sites often, and less minerals and underground water— Johnson (1958, p. 296) attributed to the mobile in winter. The birds in this study involving road building, which makes it resumption of borax extraction. Today, overwintered at Laguna de Mar Chiquita possible for people to reach places that Andean flamingos continue to feed at (Argentina), Lago Poopo´ (Bolivia), and were formerly inaccessible—are ongoing the site (Vilina and Martıńez 1998, p. Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Caziani et al. at Salar Punta Negra (Corporacioń 28), but there are no reports of nesting. 2003, p. 11). Nacional Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11). Water Contamination: Water Between 1997 and 2001, 98 percent of Argentinean wetlands—including resources at many salars have been Andean flamingo chicks were produced Laguna Brava, Purulla, Grande, Baya, contaminated, largely as the result of in two Chilean wetlands—Surire (9,200 Diamante (these last three part of the chemical pollution produced by the chicks) and Atacama (3,378 chicks) Galan Complex), Laguna Pozuelos, and mining and metallurgical industries. (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 283). In the Lagunas de Vilama, where Andean The waters of the Titicaca-Desaguadero- 2006–2007 breeding season, 75 percent flamingos breed and live year-round— Poopo´-Salar de Coipasa (TDPS) of the surviving chicks were produced are also under pressure to allow mining hydrological system have been polluted

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by mining and metal foundry activities absence of flamingos in areas where contamination could have lethal effects (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11; Ricalde 2003, refuse enters the Laguna Salinas (Peru). on Andean flamingos. For instance, p. 91). This water system includes the Inadequate sewage systems at growing although in 1997 Laguna de Pozuelos important Bolivian overwintering sites, urban centers pollute the salars (Jellison was among 5 wetlands that harbored 50 Lagos Poopo´ and Uru Uru—where more et al. 2004, p. 11). Pollution of the water percent of the breeding population of than 50 percent of the known in the TDPS system is problematic Andean flamingos, the number of population of Andean flamingos where towns are concentrated on the Andean flamingos on Laguna de overwintered in 2000 (Caziani et al. shores of the lakes (Ronteltap et al. Pozuelos has diminished greatly since 2007, p. 279). The area has been mined 2005, p. 5). As of 2004, the TDPS water 1993 (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. for silver, lead, zinc, copper limestone, system, of which Lagos Poopo´ and Uru 122). Pollution from mining wastes and antimony, iron, gold, tin, and uranium Uru are a part, supported a population erosion due to overgrazing, combined (Rocha 2002, p. 10). Lago Poopo´, Lago of nearly 3 million people (Jellison et al. with desiccation of the lake (see Factor Uru Uru, and the lower Rıó Desaguadero 2004, p. 14). At Lake Titicaca, E), is negatively affecting the wetland at have concentrations of heavy metals wastewater is causing eutrophication— Laguna de Pozuelos (Argentina), where above the limits permitted for human whereby excessive nutrients stimulate Andean flamingos breed and reside consumption (Apaza et al. 1996, excessive plant growth, reducing the year-round (Laredo 1990, as cited in Organization of American States/United dissolved oxygen in the water as the Adminstration de Parques Nacionales Nations Environment Programme (OAS/ plants decompose, causing other 1994, p. 2). In the 2006–2007 breeding UNEP) and the Bi-national Authority of organisms to die—over approximately season, no breeding was detected at this Lago Titicaca (Autoridad Nacional del 3,954 acres (ac) (1,600 hectares (ha)) in lake (Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). Lago Titicaca (ALT)) 1999; Van the Puno Bay, and in another portion of Water Extraction and Diversion: Ryckeghem 1997—as cited in Rocha the lake, leakage from former oil wells Water is extracted from wetlands for use 2002, p. 10). Because Lago Poopo´ is continues to degrade wildlife habitat by the mining industry, to facilitate located at the terminal end of the (INRENA 1996, p. 9). The southern lakebed resource exploitation, and to endoreic (closed) TDPS drainage islands of Lake Titicaca are also being meet increasing human demand. Mining system, pollutants are more likely to polluted by medium sized rivers loaded companies hold water concessions at concentrate there (Jellison et al. 2004, p. with wastewater from the cities of La Laguna Negra (Chile) (Corporacioń 120; Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 3) and the Paz and El Alto (with more than 100,000 Nacional Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11). lake has been contaminated by mining inhabitants), one of the fastest growing Water extraction is an intrinsic part of activities for many years (Adamek et al. cities of South America, affecting some lithium mining in Argentina, Bolivia, 1998). Mine pollution has led to lake of the richest areas in the lake for and Chile (New World Resource Corp water lead concentrations that are 300 fishing and birdlife (Arengo 2009, p.37). 2008, p. 4) (see Mineral Extraction). times higher in Lago Poopo´ than the Sewage from the city of Oruro and the Underground water has been pumped average concentrations detected in other neighboring towns of Challapata, Huari, from Salar de Punta Negra (Chile) for lakes in the world, and fish in the lake and Poopo´ empties into Lagos Poopo´ use in a large copper mining operation test positive for heavy metal residues and Uru Uru, causing organic and (Line 2004, p. 4). In the past decade, (Cardoza et al. 2004, as cited in Jellison bacteriological pollution (Ducks Andean flamingos have bred et al. 2004, p. 120). Water Unlimited 2007b, p. 7; Liberman et al. intermittently at Salar de Punta Negra (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. contamination in Lago Poopo´ was 1991, OAS/UNEP and ALT 1999—as 2007, p. 279, 283; Johnson et al. 1958, further exacerbated in the year 2000, cited in Rocha 2002, p. 10). In addition, illegal dumping of p. 296; Kahl 1975, p. 100). The shallow when 39,000 barrels of crude oil spilled agrochemicals has severely impacted wetlands preferred by Andean in the lake. The native community Uru wetlands and the species that depend flamingos are subject to high rates of Morato, which has lived along the lake on them. In 2000, at Mar Chiquita evapotranspiration (Caziani and for 5,000 years, reported that the (Argentina), Bucher reported that 30 Derlindati 2000, p. 122), and water flamingoes did not lay eggs there that tons of Lindane, an insecticide, was extraction hastens desiccation of these year ‘‘for the first time in thousands of illegally dumped at the northern end of wetlands. In these arid closed-basin years’’ (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 13). the lake, jeopardizing the entire closed systems, groundwater extraction is Tourism and increasing human lake system (Johnson and Arengo 2001, unsustainable (Messerli et al. 1997, p. population to support the mining p. 38). Industrial pollutants and 233; Research and Resources for industry has destroyed habitat and pesticides have caused large-scale die- Sustainable Development (Recursos e further contaminated water supplies. off of flamingos. Childress et al. (2007b, Investigacioń para el Desarrollo Ecotourism is prevalent at many p. 30) reported that tens of thousands of Sustentable (RIDES)) 2005, p. 14). wetlands inhabited by the Andean lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor) Wetland hydrology has also been flamingo in Argentina, most of which were killed in July 2004 by industrial affected by road construction. For are exceptional sites for viewing heavy metals and pesticides at feeding example, in Reserva Laguna Brava in biodiversity and wildlife, including lakes in Kenya and Tanzania. A massive Argentina, an international road that Laguna de Mar Chiquita (Ducks bird die-off of unspecified species of crosses the reserve is being paved. This Unlimited 2007a, p. 22); Laguna Brava, birds at Miramar in February 2004 project not only affects the wetland where tourism includes the use of off- (located in Co´rdoba, where Laguna de directly because of its proximity to road vehicles (BLI 2008, p. 40); and Mar Chiquita is located) may have been wetlands and flamingo nesting sites, but Lagunas de Vilama (Caziani et al. 2001, caused by the dumping of excess construction activities have diverted p. 106). Increasing amounts of pollution agrochemicals into the water, which water flows from streams, cutting off from surrounding towns that support penetrated the soil (BLI 2008, pp. 36– their flow into the wetland (Arengo ecotourism and the mining industry 37). 2009, p. 38–39). wash into wetlands during the rainy Given that pollutants and pesticides Wetlands have been drained to season and are carried into the lake by have been known to cause die-offs of facilitate excavation on the lakebed wind. Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- other species of flamingos and other surface (Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- Echegaray 2000 (p. 139) noted an bird species, it is likely that such Echegaray 2000, p. 135). Excavation can

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drastically alter the water levels of these in addition to providing habitat for flora Mulas Muertas (breeding and shallow lakes, creating areas that are and fauna (Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 5). overwintering sites, respectively), in unsuitable for foraging and nesting and The extraction of water for human Argentina, an international road to allowing human access to areas that consumption has exacerbated drought connect Argentina with Chile has been were once inaccessible (Corporacioń conditions throughout Andean flamingo under construction. This road passes Nacional Forestal 1996c, p. 11). habitat since the early 1990s (see Factor near the shores of Lagunas Brava and Furthermore, there have been reports of E) (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, pp. Mulas Muertas and through the flamingos dying when they became 124–125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110; bofedales that feed the two lakes, stuck in the mud brought up from the Mascitti and Caziani 1997, p. 328). In decreasing the available area suitable for bottom of the lake by mining operations Chile, where Andean flamingo breeding Andean flamingo nesting and foraging (Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- colonies are found and where mineral and disrupting hydrological recharge Echegaray 2000, p. 137). Laguna and hydrocarbon exploration and system by altering the wet meadows that Vizcachas (Moquegua) is a critical site exploitation have increased in the last feed the two lakes (de la Fuente 2002, for Andean Flamingos in Peru that is two decades, both the number of p. 8). At Laguna Salinas (Peru), which seriously threatened by water successful breeding colonies and the provides habitat for all three Andean translocation for mining (Arengo 2009, total production of chicks of Andean flamingo species (Ducks Unlimited p. 39). flamingos have declined since the 1980s 2007d, p. 26), a mining road bisects the Urbanization and tourism have (Parada 1992, Rodrı´guez and Contreras lake and construction excavations have intensified groundwater use (Jellison et 1998—as cited in Caziani et al. 2007, reduced flamingo habitat availability al. 2004, p. 11), as hotels and restaurants p. 284). Of 2,900 pairs of Andean (Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- have been established in the villages flamingos that attempted to breed in Echegaray 2000, pp. 137–138). Increased and towns surrounding the salars and Chilean wetlands in the 2006–2007 road construction to support mining and lagunas (RIDES 2005, p. 21). An influx season, only 538 chicks were produced tourism also facilitates predator access of tourists at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia) (Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). to nesting grounds (Corporacioń has resulted in noticeably increased Water from salars has been diverted to Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 12) (Factor water consumption (Rocha and support agriculture. Rıó Lauca, which C). Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8). At Salar de feeds Salar de Coipasa (Bolivia), has Agriculture and Grazing: Lowland Atacama, the maximum volume been diverted near its source in Chile wetlands that serve as important available for extraction from the basin is for irrigation purposes (Ducks overwintering sites for the Andean estimated by the average annual Unlimited 2007c, pp. 9–11). This has flamingo are subject to agricultural recharge rate of 177 cubic feet per resulted in a considerable reduction in pressures (Derlindati 2008, pp. 1, 7). second (ft3/s) (5 cubic meters per second the flow of water into Salar de Coipasa Laguna Melincue´ (Argentina), for (m3/s)), yet the rights to 219 ft3/s (6.2 and is contributing to the desiccation of instance, lies in the heart of Argentina’s m3/s) of water have been allocated the Salar (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, agricultural zone (Romano et al. 2006a, (RIDES 2005, pp. 15–16). The number of p. 11). p. 17; Romano et al. 2006b, pp. 16–20). people visiting remote Salar de Surire Rıó Desaguadero is a 230-mi-long (370 The forested lands are being cleared, (Chile), a primary Andean flamingo km) river that once flowed from Lago and pastures have been and continue to breeding site, was under 1,000 as of Titicaca to Lago Poopo´ but recently be planted with cash crops in the areas 1995, and is increasing (Soto and changed direction and now flows into surrounding Mar Chiquita (Argentina) Silvestre 1996, p. 7). Recent estimates Lago Uru Uru (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, (BLI 2008, p. 36). Damming of wetlands indicate that over 50,000 people visit p. 5). This is attributed to water level for agriculture has modified important Salar de Atacama (Chile) and reductions caused by an ongoing flamingo areas in southern Peru, such as surrounding areas each year. Based on drought since the early 1990s (see Lagunillas (Puno) and Laguna Suches the recharge estimates, continued Factor E) and by diversion for irrigation (Tacna) (D. Ricalde, in litt., as cited in increases in water use levels (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 14). In 2004, Rıó Arengo 2009, p. 80). commensurate with increasing tourism Mauri, a major tributary of the Rıó Cattle grazing occurs adjacent to would not be sustainable (RIDES 2005, Desaguadero, was diverted to Peru Andean flamingo habitat in Argentina, p. 21). (Armando et al. 2004, as cited in Jellison where the species breeds and The gradual loss of water from the et al. 2004, p. 14). These water shortages overwinters, including Laguna Brava (de basin reduces the surface area of the exacerbate the contamination and la Fuente 2002, p. 8) and Laguna lake and the total amount of habitat extraction problems for Lagos Poopo´ Pozuelos (Adminstration de Parques available to the Andean flamingo. and Uru Uru, mentioned above. Nacionales 1994, p. 1). At Laguna Brava, Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- Research has shown that drastic water ranching activities are considered small Echegaray (2000, p. 135) found that the level changes can significantly alter the scale (comprising 300 heads of cattle), number of flamingos at Laguna Salinas seasonal altitudinal movements of the in part because the area surrounding the (Peru) was strongly correlated to the Andean flamingo (Mascitti and Caziani lake is uninhabited (de la Fuente 2002, proportion of the lake covered with 1997, pp. 324–326). In January 1996, p. 8). At Laguna Pozuelos, grazing has water (1997: r2 = 0.73; 1998: r2 = 0.72), Caziani & Derlindati (2000, p. 124) resulted in severe soil erosion, indicating that loss of surface area reported that a colony of unidentified especially along the shore, and influences flamingo abundance. Lago flamingo nests at Lagunas Vilama, increased siltation of the lake Parinacochas (Peru), long known as an where Andean and James’ flamingo are (Adminstracioń de Parques Nacionales important overwintering site for Andean known to breed, were found on dry 1994, p. 1; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, flamingos, is being drained as part of a land—probably due to an unexpected p. 4). In Bolivia, livestock management water development project in Peru retraction of the lake—leaving 1,500 (llamas and alpacas) continues to be a (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 31). The abandoned nests, some of which had problem in the bofedales surrounding TDPS in Bolivia and Peru, which Lagos eggs from that season. Laguna Colorada (Ducks Unlimited Poopo´ and Uru Uru belong to, provides Increased urbanization and mining 2007b, p. 14; Flores 2004, pp. 25–26). drinking water and cleaning water, have increased infrastructure These activities have contributed to transportation, industry and irrigation— development. At Lagunas Brava and the alteration and degradation of vital

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Andean flamingo habitat. Long-lived intentional diversion of water from 6 U.S. Dollars (US$)) (Saénz 2006, p. species with slow rates of reproduction, these endoreic (closed) wetlands 89). such as the Andean flamingo, can exacerbates natural seasonal On the Argentinean (Departments of appear to have robust populations, but fluctuations and reduces habitat Salta and Jujuy)/Bolivian border can quickly decline towards extinction options. Wetlands are contaminated (Potosı´)—where several Andean if reproduction does not keep pace with from mining spoils, sewage, and flamingo wetlands are found, including mortality (BLI 2008, p. 2; Bucher 1992, agriculture pollution. Wetland Laguna Pozuelos (Argentina), Laguna p. 183; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 517). complexes occupied by Andean Colorada, and Salar de Chalviri (both in Andean flamingos have temporally flamingos that are hydrologically Bolivia) —locals use flamingo feathers sporadic and spatially concentrated connected become affected by as medicinal incense and for costumes; breeding patterns, and their breeding pollutants and by diminished water they eat flamingo meat and use the fat success and recruitment are low levels on a landscape level. Resource for medicine (Barbarań 2004, p. 11). (Caziani et al. 2007; Childress et al. extraction and water contamination Hunting is also ongoing at Lagunas de 2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7; have had and continue to have Vilama (Argentina), where the species Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). Successful significant impacts on the water quality overwinters (BLI 2008, p. 553). reproduction is spatially concentrated and the availability of wetlands that are At Salar de Atacama (an Andean in just a few wetlands (Childress et al. critical to the lifecycle of the Andean flamingo breeding site in Chile), 2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7; flamingo. Andean flamingo breeding flamingos are hunted for their feathers Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7; Valqui et al. patterns are temporally sporadic, (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996a, 2000, p. 112). In the case of Andean successful reproduction is spatially pp. 8–9). Flamingos are used in local flamingos, Conway (W. Conway, as concentrated, and their breeding success rituals associated with rain, birth, death, cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112) and recruitment are low. Continued and and illnesses by indigenous cultures suggests that a stable population can be pervasive habitat destruction that have long inhabited the Salar de maintained if the species’ breeding throughout the species’ range in recent Atacama region (Castro and Varela 1992, success is good every 5–10 years. Recent decades coincides with the species’ p. 22). At Laguna Salinas (an overwintering productivity estimates indicate that the drastic population reduction, as noted site in Peru), hunters have killed species has experienced very low by experts (See Population Estimates, flamingos for target practice or just ‘‘to breeding success over prolonged periods above). The negative impacts of habitat get a close look at one’’ (Ugarte-Nunez (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2; Amado et al. destruction on Andean flamingos on the and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137). 2007, Rodriguez Ramirez 2006—as cited reduction of the species’ range and Increased road construction to support in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1–3). An population numbers are intensified by mining and tourism (Factor A) also examination of the species’ nesting sites an ongoing drought (Factor E). Lowered facilitates hunting access to nesting and breeding success (see Population water levels could lead to disease grounds (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal Estimates, above) indicates that, despite outbreaks and can increase the an increased number of nesting sites, 1996a, p. 12). At Lago Titicaca (Peru), flamingo’s susceptibility to predation localized hunting may occur on the the species’ breeding success remains (Factor C). Therefore, we find that low (Arengo in litt. 2007, p. 2; Caziani islands (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 27). destruction and modification of habitat Excessive hunting of ducks and coots is et al. 2007; Childress et al. 2005, p. 7; are threats to the continued existence of Childress et al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et also a problem at Lago Parinacochas (an the Andean flamingo throughout its overwintering site in Peru) (Ducks al. 2007a, p. 7). Valqui et al. 2000 (pp. range. 111–112) postulated that reproduction Unlimited 2007d, p. 23), where in the Andean flamingo, a species B. Overutilization for Commercial, occasionally flamingos are also hunted which prefers to nest at high densities Recreational, Scientific, or Educational (Arengo 2009, p.46). Hunting pressure and once nested in huge colonies at Purposes on flamingos has been described as Salar de Atacama (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe ‘‘intense’’ at Negro Francisco (Chile) and Hunting for local consumption: 1990, p. 86; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296; poaching is a problem at Mar Chiquita Andean flamingos are hunted Kahl 1975, p. 100), is being inhibited by (Argentina); both are Andean flamingo throughout most of their range for use the more dispersed nature of the breeding grounds (Bucher 1992, p. 183; as food or medicine and in rituals. population and occupation of smaller Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996c, p. Johnson (1967, p. 405) described lakes. 11; Goldfeder and Blanco 2007, p. 193). flamingo hunting activities by the Indiscriminant hunting of Andean Summary of Factor A Montaro Indians at Lago Poopo´ (Bolivia) flamingos continues at Lago Poopo´ (an Salar habitat throughout the Andean and by the Chipayas at Laguna Coipasa Andean flamingo overwintering site in flamingo’s range has been and continues (Bolivia), who hunted the species for Bolivia) (Rocha 2002, p. 10). Around to be altered as a result of natural food and for its feathers, which were Lagos Poopo´ and Uru Uru, flamingos are resource exploitation. Andean flamingos sold as dance ornaments. In the late still trapped using traditional require a variety of available habitats summer, the Chipayas also rounded up techniques—a slip-knot rope strung over large areas in order to find optimal groups of young flamingos and across the shores of the lake (Saénz foraging and nesting sites, given slaughtered them for their fat, which 2006, pp. 88–89). Locals, such as the unpredictable seasonal fluctuations. was boiled down and sold as a remedy Urus, who live near Lagos Poopo´ and Mining has resulted in direct loss of for tuberculosis (Johnson 1967, p. 405). Uru Uru, prefer Andean flamingos habitat due to excavations of lakebeds, Flamingo hunting continues today above all other waterfowl, presumably has increased water extraction, and has throughout much of the species’ range for their fat content (Saénz 2006, p. caused water pollution. Wetlands (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). Quantities 185). Flamingo blood might be used throughout Andean flamingo habitat of wild birds, including flamingos, are medicinally and feathers for adornment have been drastically altered by water still sold in the markets in Argentina, (Saénz 2006, pp. 88–89). Locals at Lagos extraction for mining, agriculture, and Bolivia, and Chile (Barbarań 2004, p. 6; Poopo´ and Uru Uru hunt flamingos to human consumption. Flamingos are Saénz 2006, p. 103). In 2006, birds sold sell to miners, who make oil from the sensitive to fluctuating water levels, and for between 25–50 Bolivianos (Bs) ($3– bird to cure tuberculosis (Morrison

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1975, p. 81). One trapper noted that strict regulation to avoid utilization 1982, when Great Britain exported 27 ‘‘long ago’’ it was possible to trap up to incompatible with the species’ survival. birds to Germany. There has been no 15 flamingos per day at Lago Poopo´, but International trade in specimens of trade in live specimens since 1982 that this was no longer the case (Saénz Appendix-II species is authorized (UNEP–WCMC 2008c, pp. 1–2). 2006, p. 89). through permits or certificates under Since 1997, the Andean flamingo has Direct removal through hunting of certain circumstances, including been protected throughout Europe by Andean flamingo juveniles and adults verification that trade will not be the European Commission (EC) has immediate and direct consequences detrimental to the survival of the Regulation 338/97 (Eur-Lex 2008, p. 24). on the already small size of the Andean species in the wild and that specimens For species listed under Annex B, flamingo population. The Andean in trade were legally acquired (UNEP– imports from a non-European Union flamingo experienced a severe WCMC 2008a, p. 1). For information on country must be accompanied by a population reduction since the 1980s how CITES functions to regulate trade, permit that is only issued if the (BLI 2008, pp. 1, 5), with the number of see Factor D. Scientific Authority has determined that birds decreasing from 50,000 to 100,000 Bucher (1992, p. 183) described a trade in the species will not be individuals (BLI 2008, p. 1) to the smuggling operation that involved trade detrimental to its survival in the wild. current estimate of 34,000 (Caziani et al. in live Andean flamingos with birds According to Dr. Ute Grimm (German 2006, pp. 276–287; Caziani et al. 2007, captured at Laguna de Mar Chiquita (a Scientific Authority to CITES (Fauna), pp. 13–17). Hunting further reduces the breeding site in Argentina) and Bonn, Germany, in litt. 2008, p. 1), there number of individuals. All flamingos transported out of the country as have been no imports of Andean are believed to be monogamous, with a captive-bred specimens (specimens that flamingos since this legislation went strong pair-bonding tendency that may were not taken out of the wild) with into effect (Grimm in litt. 2008, p. 1). be maintained from one breeding season forged CITES documents. Based on Thus, we cannot conclude that CITES to the next (del Hoyo 1992, p. 514). CITES documentation, trade records trade documents were used to smuggle Hunting can destroy pair bonds and indicate that a total of 77 Andean live birds from Argentina, and the trade disrupt mating from one season to the flamingo specimens have been traded data do not suggest that this is the case. next. Because not all sexually mature internationally since the species was Egg collection: There is a long history adults breed every year and, even in listed in 1975 (United Nations of collecting flamingo eggs in the years of breeding, not all sexually Environment Programme-World altiplano region. Eggs are harvested for mature adults will participate (Bucher Conservation Monitoring Centre subsistence use and for sale in local 1992, p. 183), removal of those adults (UNEP–WCMC) 2008c, pp. 1–2). Thirty- markets (Barbarań 2004, p. 6; BLI 2008, that are nesting greatly reduced their six specimens were traded as nonliving p. 56; Rocha 2002, p. 10; Saénz 2006, p. already poor breeding success (Fjeldsa˚ specimens—all were exchanged for 89). Walcott (1925, pp. 354–357) and Krabbe 1990, p. 85). Andean scientific purposes and involved trade provided a detailed account of egg flamingos are long-lived, with slow rates with Chile and Argentina—3 specimens collecting at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia), of reproduction and poor breeding from Chile (in 1985) and 25 specimens as described by a local Puna Indian. success (BLI 2008, p. 2; Bucher 1992, p. from Argentina (in 2004); 1 shipment of According to this account, the locals 183; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 517). Stable 250 grams of specimens from Chile knew when the Andean flamingos began populations can be maintained only if (possibly blood samples, in 1997); 1 nesting for the season and a group of 8 the species’ breeding success is good body (probably a museum specimen, in to 10 villagers would camp at the lake every 5–10 years (William Conway, 1989); and 2 feathers (which appear to long enough to gather the eggs. They Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, be the same specimen—imported to the gathered nearly every egg, burying the New York, as cited in Valqui et al. 2000, U.S. from Chile in 2000 and returned to ones that they could not carry, so that p. 112). Removal of juveniles from the Chile in 2001) (UNEP–WCMC 2008c, the birds would not incubate them, and population contributes to the already pp. 1–2). returning later to retrieve the buried low rate of chick production (as further Forty-one of the 77 specimens were eggs. The eggs were baked in clay ovens discussed under Egg Collection, below). live shipments. Eighteen of the on site before being transported back to Experts believe that ongoing specimens originated from one Andean their village. Another early 20th century exploitation, coupled with habitat flamingo range country (Bolivia) and account noted that flamingo eggs were decline, and the species’ rapid were exported in three shipments—in sold as far back as 1903 in a market at population decline and slow breeding 1977, 1978, and 1981. Sixteen of the San Pedro de Atacama (Chile) (Walcott render this species vulnerable to birds were traded for scientific 1925, pp. 354, 360)—this is the nearest extinction in the wild (BLI 2008, p. 1). purposes; trade for scientific purposes town to Salar de Atacama, the type Finally, given the species’ sensitivity to generally indicates a transaction locality of the Andean flamingo human disturbance (see Factor E), involving a zoo, where primary research (Hellmayr 1932, p. 312). Eggs were Andean flamingos are negatively on captive breeding is undertaken. harvested once, twice, or several times affected by disturbance from hunting- There is no indication as to the origin a season (Johnson et al. 1958 pp. 291, related activities, even when they are of the remaining 23 live specimens (i.e., 298; Walcott 1925, pp. 354–356). not directly targeted (CONAF, Region II, the country from which the specimens Accounts describe the annual practice as cited in Instituto Nacional de originated), therefore, we are unable to of harvesting eggs, with entire families Recursos Naturales (INRENA) 1996, p. determine unequivocally whether live journeying to the lake to set up camp 11; de la Fuente 2002, p. 8; Valqui et al. specimens were exported from from December to February (Barfield 2000, p. 112). Argentina consistent with the 1961, p. 96; Johnson et al. 1958 pp. 291– Hunting for international trade: In requirements of CITES. Of these 23, 292). Villagers near Salar de las Parinas 1975, the Andean flamingo was listed in only 3 specimens were traded for in Chile mention removing crates of Appendix II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC commercial purposes: In 1979, when eggs from the colonies with horse-drawn 2008b, p. 1). Appendix II includes France exported a single live individual carts. species that are not necessarily to Great Britain; in 1980, when the Egg collecting has become an threatened with extinction, but may United States exported 4 live established part of the local culture become so unless trade is subject to individuals to Great Britain; and, in (Barbarań 2004, p. 6; Rocha 2002, p. 10).

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Egg collecting has been reported at (1975, p. 81) reported that flamingo eggs species, excavation activities near the several wetlands throughout the Andes were in great demand and that traders lake had a profound effect on the that are critical to the Andean visited nesting areas, including Lagos flamingos. Flamingos were driven away flamingo’s life cycle, including: Laguna Poopo´ and Uru Uru, to buy eggs from from areas where there was noise de Pozuelos (Argentina) (Administration local Indians, transporting eggs away caused by excavating machinery, de Parques Nacionales 1994, p. 2); ‘‘by the truckload.’’ As towns grow and disrupting feeding and breeding Lagunas de Vilama (Argentina) (BLI mining operations expand, demand for activities. Flamingos fled nesting sites 2008, p. 553; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106); eggs increases to satisfy the miners (del during disturbance activities (such as Lago Poopo´ (Bolivia); Lago Uru Uru Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 521). Mining excavation), and some never returned, (Bolivia) (Saénz 2006, p. 89); Laguna operations have infiltrated once isolated abandoning their nests (Ugarte-Nunez Colorada (Bolivia) (Hurlbert and Keith wetlands. In 1925, birds nesting at and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137). 1979, p. 332; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 292; Laguna Cachi (part of Pastos Grandes, Summary of Factor B Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 1); and Bolivia) were considered secure from Salar de Atacama (Chile) (Hurlbert and egg collecting due to the remote and Hunting for local consumption, egg Keith 1979, pp. 332–333; Johnson et al. inhospitable terrain (Walcott 1925, pp. collection, and tourism have a negative 1958, p. 298), although some of the eggs 354–356). Today, Pastos Grandes, which impact on Andean flamingo populations collected are from other species of is an important breeding ground in throughout their range. Hunting flamingo. Egg collection may also occur Bolivia, is the site of intense mineral removes juveniles and adults from the at Lago Titicaca (Peru) (Ducks prospecting (see Factor A). population, which has already Unlimited 2007d, p. 27). Residents from Tourism and Ecotourism: As experienced a severe population decline some wetlands in Peru such as Titicaca, described in Factor A, ecotourism is within the past 30 years and is Laguna Salinas, Laguna Loriscota and prevalent at many wetlands inhabited considered the rarest of all flamingo Laguna Vizcachas have reported nesting by the Andean flamingo, including: species in the world. Removal of adults attempts by small numbers of flamingos Laguna Grande, Diamante, Brava y from the population decreases the (probably P.chilensis) where egg Mulas Muertas y Pozuelos (Argentina), number of sexually mature specimens gathering by locals terminated the Laguna de Colorada (Bolivia), Salar de available for reproduction, may break process. Atacama, and the TDPS wetland pair bonds, and jeopardizes their Collecting is facilitated by the fact complex, which includes Lagos Poopo´ already inconsistent breeding habits. that the birds nest in large colonies. and Uru Uru (the latter three wetlands Although egg-collecting has been Large nesting sites are targeted for egg in Chile). According to the Corporacioń carried out for years, and perhaps collection, as collectors can quickly Nacional Forestal (1996c, pp. 10–11), centuries, increased demand has gather a large number of eggs at these uncontrolled tourism, especially the use intensified collection pressures. Egg sites (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 111; Saénz of four wheeled all-terrain vehicles, has collection is facilitated by the flamingo’s 2006, p. 89). become a problem at Laguna Negra. colonial nesting practices and from Egg collection has an immediate The Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve increased access to once-remote negative impact on the Andean (Reserve) in Bolivia encompasses wetlands from mining operations flamingo’s already poor breeding Laguna Colorada, Laguna Kalina, and (Factor A). Disturbance from hunting, success (see Population Estimates— Salar de Chalviri (Ducks Unlimited egg collection, and tourism exacerbates Breeding Success) (Arengo in litt. 2007, 2007b, p. 43). The Reserve began the species’ poor breeding success pp. 1–3; del Hoyo et al. 1992, p. 521). collecting tourism data in 1999 (Factor E). Therefore, we find that Because flamingos are long-lived with (Gonza´lez 2006, p. 1). Since 2000, hunting for local consumption, egg slow rates of reproduction (Bucher tourism has increased annually by about collection, and tourism are threats to the 1992, p. 183), stable populations can be 5 percent per year, from 26,066 visitors continued existence of the Andean maintained if the species’ breeding in 2000 to 51,271 visitors in 2005 flamingo throughout its range. success is good every 5–10 years (Gonza´lez 2006, p. 2). Over the 6-year With regard to hunting for (William Conway, Wildlife period, a total of 142,968 tourists visited international trade, we believe that the Conservation Society, Bronx, New York, the Reserve, primarily in the Bolivian small number of live specimens that as cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). winter months of July (24,629 visitors) were traded and the near lack of trade However, the numbers of nesting birds and August (32,230 visitors). During the for commercial purposes, combined being reported are lower in the past Andean flamingo breeding season with the fact that there have been no decade when compared to the 1980s (November to February), an average of shipments of live Andean flamingos (Parada 1992, Rodrı´guez and Contreras 18,000 people visited the Reserve each since 1982, indicate that the level of 1998—as cited in Caziani et al. 2007, p. month (Gonzalez 2006, p. 2). In 2005, international trade, controlled via valid 284). Chick production has been very ticket sales indicated that 65 percent of CITES permits, is small. Therefore, we low for the past 20 years, averaging 800 the tourists came to see the flamingos find that harvest of flamingos for per year from 1987 to 1997 (Rodriguez (Gonza´lez 2006, p. 2). Within the international trade is not a threat to the Ramirez 2006, Amado et al. 2007, as Reserve, problems associated with continued existence of the Andean cited in Arengo in litt. 2007, pp. 1–3), tourism include increased car traffic and flamingo. and 3,000 chicks per year from between trash, especially disposable bottles and 1997 to 2001 (Caziani et al. 2007, p. other nonbiodegradable waste (Embassy C. Disease or Predation 283). As discussed in Factor E, of Bolivia 2008, pp. 7–8). Disease: Flamingos are nomadic disturbance caused by collection At Lago Titicaca (Peru), in addition to species with the potential to disperse activities further compounds the disturbance by local agriculturalists and pathogenic microorganisms and adverse effects of egg collection (see fishermen, the large number of visitors horizontally transmit disease agents due Factor E). and the noise of motorized vehicles has to their flocking behavior (Uhart et al. Increasing demand for eggs and decreased the number of birds on the 2006, p. 32). Uhart et al. (2006, p. 32) increased access to habitats further lake (INRENA 1996, p. 6). At Laguna found 13 antibodies for various exacerbates the species’ already poor Salinas (Peru), which provides habitat infectious diseases (indicating exposure) breeding success. In 1975, Morrison to all three South American flamingo in a study of all 3 altiplano flamingos.

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Changes in water availability and (Factor A). This situation has been Protections under CITES, and Ramsar habitat quality may favor the emergence compounded by the ongoing drought designations. of pathogens, which could affect the conditions throughout a large portion of CITES: The Andean flamingo is listed health of flamingos (Uhart et al. 2006, p. the Andean flamingo’s range (Factor E). in Appendix II of the Convention on 32). However, we are not aware of any In January 1996, Caziani & Derlindati International Trade in Endangered pathogenic diseases that are currently (2000, p. 124) reported that a colony of Species of Wild Fauna and Flora affecting Andean flamingos in the wild. unidentified flamingo nests at Lagunas (CITES). CITES is an international treaty A massive mortality of flamingos and Vilama, where Andean and James’ among 175 nations, including all four other aquatic birds (on the order of flamingos are known to breed, were Andean flamingo countries and the several thousands) was recorded in found on dry land—probably due to an United States, that entered into force in January 1975 around the mouth of the unexpected retraction of the lake— 1975 (UNEP–WCMC 2008a, p. 1). In the Segundo River in Mar Chiquita leaving 1,500 abandoned nests, some of United States, CITES is implemented (Argentina). Bucher (1992, p. 183) which had eggs from that season. through the U.S. Endangered Species believed the observed mortality was Because this species nests in the open, Act (Act; 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). The caused by an outbreak of avian laying eggs directly on the ground, Act designates the Secretary of the botulism. The affected birds showed many nesting sites can be more easily Interior as the Scientific and typical field signs of the disease (Locke accessed, by humans and nonhuman Management Authorities to implement and Friend 1987, as cited in Bucher predators. In the 2006–2007 breeding the treaty with all functions carried out 1992, p. 183), including: Paralysis of season, Childress et al. (2007, p. 7) by the Service. Under this treaty, voluntary muscles, inability to walk or noted that an entire colony of 600 countries work together to ensure that fly, and a tendency to congregate along unidentified flamingo nests at Laguna international trade in animal and plant vegetated peninsulas and islands, where Brava (Argentina, where Andean species is not detrimental to the survival lines of carcasses were seen at the flamingos are known to nest) had been of the species, by regulating the import, water’s edge. Avian botulism outbreaks decimated by foxes (species not export, re-export, and introduction from are associated with receding water identified). The Corporacioń Nacional the sea of CITES-listed animal and plant conditions in areas of flooded vegetation Forestal (1996a, pp. 12) reported that species (USFWS 2008, p. 1). As during periods of high temperatures foxes ate flamingo eggs and chicks at discussed under Factor B, we do not (Bucher 1992, p. 183). Thus, activities Los Flamingos National Reserve (Chile), consider international trade to be a that decrease water levels at the lakes, but did not document the extent of this threat impacting the Andean flamingo as outlined in Factor A, could cause predation. and consider that this international disease outbreaks and result in flamingo treaty has minimized the potential mortality. Summary of Factor C threat to the species from international In 2002, Fabry and Hilliard (2006, Several diseases have been identified trade. p. 49) began a flamingo monitoring in the flamingo population and are Ramsar: The Ramsar Convention, program in the Atacama Desert to being monitored. Potential for disease signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an explore the declining flamingo outbreaks warrants continued multilateral treaty which provides the populations in the region, test for monitoring and may become a more framework for national action and linkages between human activity and significant threat factor in the future, international cooperation for the declining flamingo populations, and especially if habitat alteration combined conservation and wise use of wetlands evaluate flamingo health. The team has with the ongoing drought continue to and their resources. There are presently marked and released over 80 flamingos decrease water levels at the lakes 157 Contracting Parties to the and has identified several pathogens, (Factors A and E). Disease has been Convention (including all of the including Newcastle’s disease, Avian identified and has at least in one case countries where the Andean flamingo influenza, and West Nile virus, as likely caused mortality (botulism). occurs), with 1,702 wetland sites, possible causes for increasing flamingo Therefore, we find that disease in totaling 153 million hectares, designated mortality. This research is ongoing. flamingos is a threat to the continued for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Predation: Walcott (1925, p. 354) existence of the Andean flamingo. Wetlands of International Importance. noted that freshwater gulls (Larus Predation by foxes, gulls, and other Many wetlands of importance to the serranus) at Laguna Colorada (Bolivia) predators results in direct removal of Andean flamingo’s life cycle are were likely depredating flamingo eggs. eggs, juveniles, and adults from the designated as wetlands of international Derlindati (as reported by Arengo 2009, population. Predation can have importance under the Ramsar p. 56) observed predation on flamingos devastating consequences for the Convention. In Argentina, these include: by Andean wolf (Dusicyon cuplaeus) species, especially given the colonial Laguna de Mar Chiquita (Ba´rbaro 2002, and Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). nature of the species and its tendency to pp. 1–12), Lagunas de Vilama (de la Other potential predators include nest in only a few wetlands each year. Zerda et al. 2000, pp. 1–6), Laguna pampas fox (Dusicyon griseus), variable Predation removes potentially Brava (de la Fuente 2002, pp. 1–10), and hawk (Buteo poliosoma), and Andean reproductive adults from the breeding Laguna de Pozuelos (Administration de caracara (Phalcobaenus albogularis). pool, disrupts mating pairs, and Parques Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–3). In Johnson et al. (1958, p. 299) concluded exacerbates the species’ already poor Bolivia, Lagos Poopo´ and Uru Uru predation by land-bound predators was breeding success (these effects are (Rocha 2002, pp. 1–13) and Laguna not a significant threat to this species, discussed in detail under Factor B). Colorada (Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998, given the difficulty of access to nesting Therefore, we find that predation is a pp. 1–11) are Ramsar wetlands. Chilean sites. However, nesting sites are no threat to the continued existence of the Ramsar wetlands include Laguna del longer as inaccessible as they were in Andean flamingo throughout its range. Negro Francisco and Laguna Santa Rosa the mid-20th century. Human activities (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996c, (such as mining, urbanization, tourism, D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory pp. 1–12); Salar de Huasco (Corporacioń and concomitant infrastructure Mechanisms Nacional Forestal 1996b, pp. 1–5); and development) have infiltrated wetlands Two regulatory issues can be Salar de Surire (Soto 1996, pp. 1–9). In previously considered inaccessible discussed on a regional level: Peru, Lago Titicaca (INRENA 1996, pp.

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1–14) and Laguna Salinas (Jefatura de la and overutilization of Andean flamingos and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Reserva Nacional de Salinas y Aguada (Factor B). 1990 (BLI 2008, p. 31; Ducks Unlimited Blanca 2003, pp. 1–14) are Ramsar (a) Laguna Brava and Laguna de 2007a, p. 2). It is managed by the wetlands. Experts consider Ramsar to Mulas Muertas: Provincial Law No. National Parks Administration of provide only nominal protection of 3944 declared the creation of the Argentina and is subject to the wetlands, although they also note that Reserva de Vicun˜ as y Proteccioń del regulation of Law No. 22,351 (1980, pp. such a designation may increase Ecosistema Laguna Brava, establishing 1–11) concerning National Parks, international awareness of its ecological Laguna Brava as a protected reserve in Natural Monuments, and National value (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 19). La Rioja Province (BLI 2008, p. 40). Reserves (Administration de Parques However, as described below, activities Laguna Mulas Muertas, where the Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–2). Under Law that negatively impact the Andean Andean flamingo has overwintered, is No. 22,351 (1980, pp. 2), an area that flamingo are ongoing within Ramsar also included within this reserve (BLI has been declared a Natural Monument wetlands, including the curtailment and 2008, p. 40; Bucher et al. 2000, p. 120). is conferred ‘‘absolute’’ protection, such destruction of Andean flamingo habitat This law also established the designated that the land, things, and species of (Factor A), and hunting and managing authorities and providing for animals and plants thereon are overutilization of Andean flamingos the formulation of regulations for the inviolable. However, under this law, (Factor B). As such, this designation has operation of the Reserve, under the only the water surface is protected, and, not mitigated the impact of threats on Provincial System of Protected Areas. despite this protection, mining and the Andean flamingo. There is an outpost for park rangers in resultant water contamination continue Due to the wide range of Andean the town of Alto Jague that is equipped (de la Fuente 2002, p. 8; Ducks flamingos in four countries along the with a 4x4 vehicle and a permanent staff Unlimited 2007a, p. 4; Goldfeder and Andes, the remaining analysis of of four park rangers assigned to the Blanco 2007, p. 193) (see Factor A). existing regulatory mechanisms will be protected area. Despite this designation, According to the National Park presented on a country-by-country the habitat within the reserve continues Administration, a trained warden is basis, in alphabetical order. to be curtailed and disrupted by human posted at the site (Administration de activities. Recent road construction (de Argentina: The Andean flamingo is Parques Nacionales 1994, pp. 1–2). la Fuente 2002, p. 8) (see Factor A) and considered vulnerable in Argentina Despite this, until recently hunting increased tourism, including the use of (Goldfeder & Blanco 2007, p. 191). The continued to threaten the Andean off-road vehicles (BLI 2008, p. 40) (see Provincial Law of Game No. 3,014/73 flamingo at Laguna Pozuelos, where Factors A and B), are ongoing. (Law No. 3,014 1973, pp. 1–5) was individuals and their eggs were hunted Multinational mining companies have established in Argentina in 1973. Article for subsistence and local commerce undertaken prospecting activities within (Administration de Parques Nacionales 7 of this law strictly prohibits hunting, the Reserve, indicating the potential that 1994, p. 2; BLI 2008, p. 31) (see Factor possession, or transportation of wild mineral extraction could occur there (de B). animals, their parts, offspring, nests, or la Fuente 2002, p. 8) (see Factor A). (d) Lagunas de Vilama: The lakes that eggs, except as permitted by regulation (b) Laguna de Mar Chiquita: Laguna form Lagunas de Vilama are located (Law No. 3014, p. 7). Resolution No. de Mar Chiquita is an important within the Reserva Altoandina de la 513/2007 (2007, pp. 1–7) and Resolution wintering site for Andean flamingos and Chinchilla, under the jurisdiction of the No. 1,089/98 (1998, pp. 1–4) prohibit was included in the System of Protected province of Jujuy in accordance with hunting, trapping, interprovincial Nature Areas of the Province of Co´rdoba Provincial Decree No. 2,213E–92 (BLI transport, or international trade in in 1966 (BLI 2008, pp. 34–37). In 1994, 2008, pp. 52–53; de la Zerda et al. 2000, certain species of wildlife, including the the area was declared a multiple-use p. 5; Provincial Decree No. 2,213E 1992, Andean flamingo. Despite this law, reserve (Reserva de Ban˜ ados del Rıó pp. 1–5). This Reserve, along the hunting for local consumption of Dulce y Laguna de Mar Chiquita) (BLI Argentinean/Chilean border, was Andean flamingo individuals and eggs 2008, p. 36; Ducks Unlimited 2007a, p. created in 1992 specifically to protect continues at wetlands of known 22). In accordance with existing the chinchilla (Eriomis brevicaudata), importance in Argentina, including legislation, environmental protection is the vicun˜ a (Vicugna vicugna), and Laguna Pozuelos and Mar Chiquita achieved through the regulated use of numerous birds (Provincial Decree No. (Barbarań 2004, p. 11; Bucher 1992, p. natural resources, respecting its 2,213 E 1992, p. 1). Despite this 183; Senz 2006, p. 103) (see Factor B). characteristics, ecological status, regulation, habitat destruction caused Therefore, these laws are inadequate to wildlife and potential resources. In by prospecting for minerals and tourism mitigate the threat of Andean flamingo 2000, a group of provincial park (Factor A) and egg collection (Factor B) hunting for local consumption. wardens was formed to patrol the are factors that continue to threaten the Protected areas have been established reserve. In 2001, there were four new Andean flamingo within the Lagunas de by regulation at several sites occupied park wardens, one expert and a Vilama wetland system (BLI 2008, p. by the Andean flamingo in Argentina, technician to implement environmental 553; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106). including: (a) Laguna Brava and Laguna legislation in the reserve (Ba´rbaro 2002, Bolivia: The 1975 Law on Wildlife, de Mulas Muertas, (b) Laguna de Mar p. 10). Activities that cause habitat National Parks, Hunting and Fishing Chiquita, (c) Laguna de Pozuelos, and destruction are ongoing around Mar (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34) (d) Lagunas de Vilama. As described Chiquita, including pollution from has the fundamental objective of below, the regulatory mechanisms agriculture, water contamination from protecting the country’s natural behind these designations are agrochemicals (BLI 2008, pp. 36–37; resources. This law governs the inadequate, primarily due to lack of Johnson and Arengo 2001, p. 38) (see protection, management utilization, enforcement, to address or mitigate Factor A), and disturbance from transportation, and selling of wildlife ongoing activities that are negatively ecotourism activities (Ducks Unlimited and their products; the protection of impacting the Andean flamingo within 2007a, p. 22) (see Factor B). endangered species; habitat these protected areas, including the (c) Laguna de Pozuelos: Located in conservation of fauna and flora; and the curtailment and destruction of Andean Jujuy Province, Laguna de Pozuelos was declaration of national parks, biological flamingo habitat (Factor A), and hunting designated a Natural Monument in 1981 reserves, refuges, and wildlife

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sanctuaries, tending to the preservation, from indiscriminant hunting (Rocha pilferage of flamingo eggs during the promotion, and rational use of these 2002, p. 10; Saénz 2006, pp. 88–89) breeding season (Rocha and Eyzaguirre resources. In Bolivia, the Andean (Factor B). 1998, pp. 8–9). As of 2004, the following flamingo is protected in general in (b) Laguna Colorada, Laguna Kalina, ongoing problems were identified Article 111 of the Environmental Law and Salar de Chalviri: Lagunas Colorada within the Reserve: Uncontrolled and No. 1333 (1992), and also, in general, by and Kalina are important breeding sites badly managed tourism; high Supreme Decree 22641 (8 November that belong to the same hydrological concentrations of activities within the 1990), which declares an indefinite water basin (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. lagoons, including Laguna Colorada; moratorium on hunting any wildlife 13). Salar de Chalviri is a wetland lack of environmental controls for the species (Arengo 2009, p. 63). However, complex that provides habitat for the mining industry; implementation of a hunting of flamingos continues to be a Andean flamingo during the winter. geothermal project; uncertain financing threat at Lake Poopo´ (Rocha 2002, p. 10; Laguna Colorada was one of five to support activities to manage the Saénz 2006, pp. 88–89) (Factor B). wetlands, and the only wetland in protected area; unregulated use of Wetlands frequented by the Andean Bolivia that, in 2005, harbored 50 archeological and natural resources; and flamingo in Bolivia that have some level percent of the breeding population weak management of the protected area of protected status include: (a) Lago (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13). In the most (Flores 2004, p. 5). At Laguna Colorada, Poopo´ and (b) Laguna Colorada, Laguna recent simultaneous census, for 2006– water contamination from tourism Kalina, and Salar de Chalviri. However, 2007, breeding in Bolivia occurred only (RIDES 2005, p. 21; Rocha and the regulations are ineffective at at two wetlands, Laguna Colorada and Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8) and livestock reducing the threat of habitat Kalina (see Current Range). Therefore, grazing are ongoing (Ducks Unlimited destruction (Factor A), hunting and egg the effects of habitat reduction (Factor 2007b, p. 14; Flores 2004, pp. 35–36) collection (Factor B), and human A), hunting, and tourism (Factor B) at (Factor A). Egg collecting has been disturbance (Factor E) within these these wetlands greatly diminish the reported at Laguna Colorada for many protected areas. numbers of reproductive adults and years (Hurlbert and Keith 1979, p. 332; (a) Lago Poopo´: In 2000, Lago Poopo´, juvenile offspring, and the overall Johnson et al. 1958, p. 292; Rocha and an overwintering site for the Andean breeding success of the species. Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 1) and continues to flamingo (see Current Range), was The Eduardo Avaroa National Reserve be a problem within the Reserve (Ducks declared a natural heritage site and (La Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Unlimited 2007b, p. 17) (Factor B). ecological reserve under Law No. 2,097 Eduardo Avaroa) (Reserve) was Disturbance caused by collection (2000, pp. 7–8) (Declaration of National established in 1973 (Supreme Decree activities further compounds the Patrimony and Ecological Reserve of 11,231 1973, pp. 1–2), expressly to adverse effects of egg collection (see Oruru, for Lake Poopo´ in the protect Laguna Colorada for its role in Factor E). Department of Oruru). Law No. 2,097 supporting a large diversity of wildlife, Supreme Decree No. 28,591 (2006, pp. (2000, p. 7) allowed for international including rare species such as the 2–17) regulated the management of cooperation on the conservation and Andean flamingo, and to counter a tourism within the protected areas that rehabilitation of the lake. However, as of growing commerce in these species, make up the National System of 2002, Rocha (2002, p. 11) noted that which were being harvested from the Protected Areas. It established a little had been done to ensure the lake’s area. The Decree established the framework of regulatory provisions conservation. In their review of the boundaries of the Reserve, declared related to tourism so that each protected conservation and management hunting within the park illegal, area could develop rules specific to the challenges of saline lakes, Jellison et al. established a guard post within the reserve, to ensure the conservation and (2004, p. 14) concluded that because park, and empowered the Minister of protection of natural and cultural Lago Poopo´ is not part of the national Agriculture and Cattle to conduct the heritage. The Eduardo Avaroa National system of protected areas, there has necessary biological and ecological Reserve (Reserve) has been working been little attention to its conservation studies to manage the park. The area of toward a tourism management program and ‘‘wise use’’ (Jellison et al. 2004, p. the Reserve was defined as Laguna for some time, including the collection 14). Colorada itself (which covers and examination of tourism data for the Lago Poopo´ is on the terminal end of approximately 12,948 ac (5,240 ha)) Reserve in order to better understand the TDPS (Titicaca-Desaguadero-Poopo´- (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 13), plus a how the Reserve is used and how to Salar de Coipasa) hydrological system 6-mi (10-km) radial area surrounding adjust their management of activities along the border with Peru (Jellison et the lake (Supreme Decree No. 11,239 (Gonza´lez 2006, p. 1). However, tourism al. 2004, p. 11, 120), with Lago Titicaca 1973, p. 1). Under Supreme Decree No. continues to increase within the Reserve straddling the border between the two 18,431 (1981, pp. 1–2), the limits of the (Gonza´lez 2006, p. 2), with concomitant countries (Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 1) Reserve were extended to 1,764,515 stress on and contamination of the water (see Current Range: Bolivia). Water acres (714,074 ha). With this expansion, resources (RIDES 2005, p. 21; Rocha and contamination from mining and Laguna Kalina and Salar de Chalviri Eyzaguirre 1998, p. 8) (Factor A), along metallurgical industries has were thus incorporated within the with the deleterious effect of human contaminated the TDPS water system Reserve (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, pp. disturbance on the species (CONAF, for many years (Adamek et al. 1998, 13–16). In 1992, the Reserve was added Region II, as cited in INRENA 1996, p. Cardoza et al. 2004—as cited in Jellison to the Protected Area System (Sistema 11) (Factor E). et al. 2004, p. 12; Jellison et al. 2004, p. Nacional de Areas Protegidas (SNAP)) Chile: Chile outlined the methods by 11; Ricalde 2003, pp. 10, 91). Because (FUNDESNAP 2008, p. 1; Rocha and which they classify various wild species Lago Poopo´ is located at the terminal Eyzaguirre 1998, pp. 8–9). as threatened or endangered species end of the endoreic (closed) TDPS As of 1998, the Reserve had a under Supreme Decree No. 75 (2006, pp. drainage system, pollutants are more management plan, but it was not being 1–6)—Reglamento para la Clasificacioń likely to concentrate there (Jellison et al. implemented. However, efforts were de Especies Silvestres—and has just 2004, p. 120) (Factor A). In addition to being made to manage tourism with the initiated the process of classifying water contamination, Andean flamingos objective of wetland conservation and to species with the publication of two at Lago Poopo´ are exposed to threats patrol the area in order to avoid proposed lists of species (Exenta No.

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1,579 2006, pp. 1–4) (Da Inicio a each year (RIDES 2005, p. 21). These acres (520,000 ha), including the Salar Proceso de Clasificacioń de Especies e activities lead to water pollution, de Surire. In 1983, the limits of the Indica Listado de Especies a Clasificar), increased water usage, and disturbance national park were redefined, and three but the Andean flamingo has not been of the flamingo life cycle. The breeding administrative units for protected nature listed nor has it been proposed for success of the species has been steadily areas were created: The present Parque listing as threatened or endangered (see decreasing at Salar de Atacama (Fabry Nacional Lauca, the National Nature www.conama.cl/clasificacionespecies/). and Hilliard 2006, p. 1). In Chile, Reserve Las Vicun˜ as, and the Salar de Therefore, there is no regulatory breeding was attempted at four sites in Surire Nature Reserve, including part of mechanism that specifically protects the Salar de Atacama. A total of 2,900 pairs the salt marsh of 27,906 acres (11,298 Andean flamingo on a national level. of Andean flamingos laid eggs, but only ha) (Soto 1996, p. 8). Lauca Biosphere The Chilean National Commission on 538 chicks survived (Childress et al. Reserve (including all three the Environment (Comisioń Nacional 2007a, p. 7). administrative units) was designated a del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA)) was Protected areas have been established UNESCO Biosphere reserve in 1983 established in 1990, and, in March 1994, by regulation at four sites occupied by (Rundel and Palma 2000, p. 262). the General Environmental Law (Ley de the Andean flamingo in Chile: (a) Despite this designation, the threat of Bases Generales del Medio Ambiente) Laguna del Negro Francisco, (b) Salar de mining in the park continues (Rundel went into effect. The General Surire, and (c) Lagunas Atacama and and Palma 2000, pp. 270–271). The Environmental Law restructured Pujsa. These wetlands have figured as number of people visiting remote Salar CONAMA and introduced new consistent breeding and overwintering de Surire (Chile), a primary Andean instruments of environmental habitats for many years (Bucher et al. flamingo breeding site, was under 1,000 management that had not previously 2000, p. 119; Childress et al. 2007a, p. as of 1995, but increasing (Soto 1996, p. existed: Environmental education and 7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, pp. 1–4; 7). One travel website advertises the research; public participation; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; availability of a campsite environmental quality standards to Hellmayr 1932, p. 312; Johnson et al. (www.chilecontact.com/en/conozca/ preserve nature and environmental 1958, p. 296; Kahl 1975 p. 100). surire.php), noting that no public heritage; emission standards; plans for However, as described below, the transportation is available and management, prevention, and cleanup; regulations are ineffective at reducing recommending the use of four-wheel responsibility for environmental the threats of habitat destruction (Factor drive vehicles to access and tour the damage; and the system of A), hunting and egg collection (Factor area. The impact of tourism is discussed environmental impact assessment. B), and human disturbance (Factor E) under Factor B. Under the General Environmental Law, within these protected areas. (c) Salars de Pujsa and Atacama: As several new regulations have been (a) Laguna del Negro: Salar de Negro mentioned above, Salar de Atacama established over more than 20 areas, Francisco provides year-round habitat provides year-round flamingo habitat including atmospheric, water, noise, for the Andean flamingo (Caziani et al. and nesting sites. Salar de Pujsa was and light pollution (Embassy of Chile 2007, p. 279; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p. reported as a nesting site in 1997 2007, pp. 1–2). However, water 6; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). Laguna del (Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112), although no contamination from mineral extraction, Negro Francisco was included in the nesting was reported there in the 2004, agricultural pursuits, sewage, and trash Parque Nacional Nevado Tres Cruces 2005, or 2006 breeding seasons (Factor A), and disturbance from noise that forms part of the national system of (Childress et al. 2005, p. 7; Childress et (Factor E), are ongoing at Chilean protected wildlife areas (SNASPE) al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et al. 2007a, p. wetlands of importance to Andean (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996c, 7). These Salars are among the wetlands flamingo life cycle, including: (a) p. 11). Despite this designation, the that were included in the Los Laguna Ascotań and (b) Salar de Corporacioń Nacional Forestal (1996c, Flamencos National Reserve (Reserve), Atacama. Therefore, this regulatory pp. 10–11) reported several persistent designated in April 1990 by Decree No. mechanism is not being effectively threats, including: (1) Concessions for 50 of the Ministry of Agriculture, implemented to reduce the threats to the water use held by the mining companies although only part of Salar de Atacama Andean flamingo. that work on the altiplano; (2) is included. These wetlands form an (a) Laguna Ascotań was once prospecting and digging for minerals important area for the biological considered a breeding site for the and underground water, which involves stability of flamingo populations species (Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296; road building that makes it possible for (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996a, Kahl 1975 p. 100). While the species people to reach places that were pp. 12–13). continues to to feed at the site (Vilina formerly inaccessible; (3) intense illegal In addition to the Reserve and Martıńez 1998, p. 28), there are no bird hunting (Bucher 1992, p. 183, management plan, there is a proposed recent reports of nesting there. This may Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996c, p. strategy for the sustainable management be attributed to mineral extraction 11); and (4) uncontrolled tourism, and regulation of activities in the salt (including borax) (Johnson 1958, p. 296) especially the use of four-wheeled all- marshes and for their conservation. The (Factor A) and concomitant disturbance terrain vehicles (Corporacioń Nacional most recent reports available deem the activities (Factor E). Forestal 1996c, pp. 10–11). management at this site insufficient, due (b) Salar de Atacama has been a (b) Salar de Surire: Andean flamingos to the limited number of staff and the consistent and primary breeding ground breed and overwinter at this wetland large area of the reserve (Corporacioń (Bucher et al. 2000, p. 119; Childress et (Caziani et al. 2006, p. 13; Caziani et al. Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 12–13). al. 2007a, p. 7; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, 2007, p. 279; McFarlane 1975, p. 88; Locals at Salar de Atacama hunt the pp. 1–4; Johnson et al. 1958, p. 296). Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). In 2001, Salar Andean flamingo for its feathers and for Mining activities and increased human de Surire, along with Salar de Atacama, ritualistic use (Castro and Varela 1992, presence and tourism have disturbed was the most successful Andean p. 22) (Factor B). Road building has foraging and nesting birds there flamingo breeding site in Chile (Caziani increased access to nesting areas and (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996a, et al. 2007, p. 279). The Parque Nacional facilitated hunting and egg collection p. 9). Over 50,000 people visit Salar de Lauca was created in 1970, (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996a, Atacama (Chile) and surrounding areas incorporating approximately 1,285,000 pp. 11–12; Ducks Unlimited 2007c, p. 3)

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(Factor A). Water extraction in this C), and human disturbance (Factor E) hunting and egg collection may be endoreic (closed) basin, which is fed within these protected areas. occurring there (Ducks Unlimited only by summer storms and winter (a) Laguna Salinas: Laguna Salinas is 2007d, p. 27; Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11; snowmelts, is ongoing (Corporacioń part of the Reserve National Salinas and Ricalde 2003, p. 91). Aguada Blanca (Reserve), established by Nacional Forestal 1996a, pp. 8–9). The Summary of Factor D rights to 13,137 ft3/s (6.2 m3/s) of water Supreme Decree No. 070–79–AA in have been allocated; however, the water 1979 (1979, pp. 260–262). A master plan The existing regulatory mechanisms recharge in the basin is only about for the Reserve was adopted in 2001 or enforcement of these mechanisms 10,594 ft3/s (5 m3/s) (RIDES 2005, p. 16) (Jefatura de la Reserva Nacional de throughout the species’ range are (Factor A). Salinas y Aguada Blanca 2003, pp. 6–7). inadequate to protect the Andean Peru: The Andean flamingo is However, at Laguna Salinas, which flamingo or mitigate the factors that are considered vulnerable by the Peruvian provides habitat for all three Andean negatively impacting the species and its government under Supreme Decree No. flamingo species (Ducks Unlimited habitat, including habitat destruction 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855), which 2007d, p. 26), the habitat is being (Factor A), hunting and tourism (Factor prohibits hunting, taking, transport, or destroyed or modified by mining, fires, B), predation (Factor C), and trade of endangered species, except as agriculture, and drainage for drinking disturbance (Factor E). Therefore, we permitted by regulation. At Laguna water (Ricalde 2003, p. 91; Ugarte- find that the existing regulatory Salinas (an overwintering site in Peru), Nunez and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate the threats to the continued existence of hunters have previously killed p. 135) (Factor A). Flamingos are absent the Andean flamingo throughout its flamingos for target practice or just ‘‘to from polluted areas of the lake (Factor range. get a close look at one.’’ The extent of A); Andean flamingos are sensitive to this persecution at Laguna Salinas is reduced water levels (Factor A); and E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors unclear, but may have abated since disturbance activities disrupt flamingo Affecting the Continued Existence of the installation of a park guard watch post nesting and eating habits on the lake Species (Factor E) (Ugarte-Nunez and in mid-1998 (Ugarte-Nunez and Two additional factors are having a Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137). At Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, pp. 135, 137, 139). In addition to reducing negative impact on the Andean flamingo Lago Titicaca (Peru), localized hunting population: Human disturbance and and the collection of birds’ eggs may be flamingo habitat availability, increased road construction to support mining and drought. ongoing (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 27). tourism (Factor A) facilitates hunting Human disturbance: Walcott (1925, Excessive hunting is a problem at Lago and predator access to nesting grounds pp. 355–356) noted that the birds are Parinacochas (an overwintering site in (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal 1996a, shy, and, when eggs are collected by Peru) (Ducks Unlimited 2007d, p. 23). pp. 12) (Factors B and C). humans, Andean flamingos do not The Reserva Nacional Titicaca National (b) Lago Titicaca: The Titicaca return to lay a second egg. Jameison and and Reserva Nacional Salinas y Aguada National Reserve (Reserva Nacional del Bingham (1912, pp. 12, 14) noted that Blanca are not under strict protection Titicaca) (Reserve) (89,364 acres (36,180 extensive sheep and cattle pastures regimes and allow subsistence level of ha)) encompasses approximately 8 existed around Lago Parinacochas and activities, including hunting. Laguna percent of the Peruvian portion of Lago that flamingos no longer nested there. Parinacochas is not under any legal Titicaca (Supreme Decree No. 185–78– Many human-induced disturbances protection. Therefore, this regulatory AA 1978, p. 257). The Reserve was exist throughout the Andean flamingos’ mechanism is ineffective at protecting created in 1978 (Chief Resolution No. range. Mining, population growth, the Andean flamingo or mitigating the 311–2001–INRENA 2001, pp. 413–415) tourism, and associated road threat of hunting (Factor B). to guarantee the conservation of its construction and maintenance generally Protected areas have been established natural resources because of the increase disturbance and noise and can through regulation at two sites occupied existence of exceptional characteristics make nesting and foraging areas by the Andean flamingo in Peru: (a) of wild fauna and flora, scenic beauty, unsuitable for the Andean flamingo. Laguna Salinas and (b) Lago Titicaca. and traditional use of natural resources These disturbances have led to Lagunas Salinas has long provided in harmony with the environment. In decreased numbers of birds foraging and overwintering habitat for the Andean addition, it was created to promote the nesting at several sites that are flamingo (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 279; socioeconomic development of the important for the Andean flamingo Hellmayr & Conover 1948, p. 277; Kahl neighboring populations through the reproductive cycle, including: Salar de 1975, pp. 99–100). Fourteen percent of wise use of natural resources and the Atacama (Chile) (Corporacioń Nacional the population overwintered there in promotion of tourism. The Peruvian Forestal 1996a, p. 9), Laguna Colorada 2003 (Ricalde 2003, p. 91). Lago Titicaca Navy controls navigation on all of the (Bolivia) (Rocha and Eyzaguirre 1998, p. is part of the TDPS wetland system, to lakes in Peru, including boats that visit 8), and the TDPS wetland system which Lagos Poopo´ and Uru Uru the reserve. It also patrols and monitors (INRENA 1996, p. 6). Flamingos that are (Bolivia) belong. These last two lakes in the border, and ensures compliance disturbed during nesting season have the wetland complex provide an with regulations on hunting and the use been known to abandon their nests important variety of overwintering of wildlife resources from the lake (Ugarte-Nunez and Mosaurieta- habitat for the Andean flamingo, where (INRENA 1996, pp. 9–10). The Institute Echegaray 2000, p. 137). Road more than 50 percent of the known of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional construction has increased access to population of Andean flamingos de Recursos Naturales—INRENA) noted wetlands, facilitating additional overwintered in 2000 (Caziani et al. that the large number of visitors and disturbances from foot traffic and 2007, p. 279; Mascitti and Bonaventura noise disturbance from motorized motorized vehicles at lakes, such as 2002, p. 62). However, as described vehicles negatively impacted the Laguna Salinas (Peru) (Ugarte-Nunez below, the regulations are ineffective at number of birds on the lake (Factor E) and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, p. 137), reducing the threat of habitat (INRENA 1996, p. 6). The waters of Lago Lago Loriscota (Peru) (Valqui et al. destruction (Factor A), hunting and egg Titicaca are polluted from boat traffic 2000, p. 112), Laguna Brava (Argentina) collection (Factor B), predation (Factor and domestic sewage, and localized (BLI 2008, p. 40; de la Fuente 2002, p.

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8), and Lago Titicaca (Peru) (INRENA percent of the total water input in the al. (2000, p. 120) believe this shift in 1996, p. 6). Disturbance has increased TDPS water system evaporates habitat use was prompted by El Nin˜ o, with the increase in tourism and human (Ronteltap et al. 2005, p. 2). In addition which caused increased water levels at encroachment into Andean flamingo to the seasonal cycle of expansion and their usual nesting and feeding sites wetlands, including: Laguna de Mar contraction, there are longer-term cycles across the border in Chile. Laguna de Chiquita (Argentina) (Ducks Unlimited in which lakes experience extended Mar Chiquita (Argentina) experienced a 2007a, p. 22), Laguna Brava (Argentina) periods of expansion or contraction period of ‘‘exceptional flooding’’ (BLI 2008, p. 40), Lagunas de Catamarca (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122). beginning in 1977, such that nesting (Argentina) (Caziani et al. 2001, p. 106), For instance, Laguna Pozuelos sites were inundated and the salinity of Laguna Negro Francisco (Chile) occasionally dries completely—on about the water decreased (Ducks Unlimited (Corporacio´n Nacional Forestal 1996c, a 100-year cycle. The last time it dried 2007a, p. 21). Long known only as an pp. 10–11), Laguna de Colorada out completely was in 1958 (Mascitti & overwintering site, breeding was (Bolivia) (Embassy of Bolivia 2008, pp. Caziani 1997, p. 321). According to recently reported at Mar Chiquita 7–8), Salar de Atacama (Chile), and the researchers, wetlands have been drying (Childress et al. 2005, p. 6). TDPS wetland complex, which includes out on a regional scale since the early When winter brings increased aridity Lagos Poopo´ and Uru Uru (Chile) 1990s due to extensive drought and lower temperatures, higher altitude (INRENA 1996, p. 6). conditions (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, wetlands may dry out or freeze over. Long-lived species with slow rates of pp. 124–125; Caziani et al. 2001, p. 110; Under these conditions, Andean reproduction, such as the Andean Mascitti and Caziani 1997, p. 328). The flamingos may move to lower altitudes flamingo, can appear to have robust shallow wetlands preferred by Andean (Blake 1977, p. 207; Boyle et al. 2004, populations, but can quickly decline flamingos are subject to high rates of pp. 570–571; Bucher 1992, p. 182; towards extinction if reproduction does evapotranspiration, and drought Caziani et al. 2006. p. 17; Caziani et al. not keep pace with mortality (BLI 2008, conditions accelerate this process 2007, pp. 279, 281; del Hoyo 1992, p. p. 2; Bucher 1992, p. 183; del Hoyo et (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122). 519; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 85; al. 1992, p. 517). In the case of Andean Andean flamingos are sensitive to Hurlbert and Keith 1979, pp. 330; flamingos, Conway (W. Conway, as reduced water levels (Ugarte-Nunez and Mascitti and Bonaventura 2002, p. 360; cited in Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112) Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000, pp. 135). Mascitti and Castan˜ era 2006, p. 328). suggests that a stable population can be The flamingo population at Laguna Research has recently shown that maintained if the species’ breeding Pozuelos, which has shrunk to an Andean flamingos use their habitat on a success is good every 5–10 years. estimated 66 percent of its usual size, landscape level—beyond the Salar or Andean flamingos have temporally has strongly diminished since the Laguna in which they feed or breed— sporadic and spatially concentrated winter of 1993, which researchers using wetland systems that provide a breeding patterns, and their breeding consider a result of extensive lake variety of habitat options from which to success and recruitment are low desiccation (Mascitti and Caziani 1997, select optimal nesting and feeding sites (Caziani et al. 2007; Childress et al. p. 328). Other wetlands are in the (Caziani and Derlindati 2000, p. 122; 2005, p. 7; Childress et al. 2006, p. 7; process of drying out or shrinking as a Caziani et al. 2001, pp. 104, 110; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 7). result of drought, including Salar de Derlindati 2008, p. 10). Flamingo Productivity estimates from intensive Chalviri (Bolivia) (Ducks Unlimited productivity is affected by climatic studies of breeding sites in Chile 2007b, pp. 17–20); Lago Poopo´ (Bolivia) variability and its influence on water indicate marked fluctuations over the (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5); Lagunas availability during the breeding season past 20 years, with periods of very low Vilama (Argentina) (Caziani and (Caziani et al. 2007, p. 284). Although breeding success (Arengo in litt. 2007, Derlindati 2000, p. 122); and the TDPS the Andean flamingo can move between p. 2). Reproduction is spatially wetland system (Bolivia, Chile, and wetlands in response to annual climatic concentrated in just a few wetlands Peru) (Jellison et al. 2004, p. 11). Lago variability (Bucher et al. 2000, pp. 119– (Childress et al. 2005, p. 7; Childress et Uru Uru (Bolivia) nearly dried out in 120; Mascitti 2001, p. 20; Mascitti and al. 2006, p. 7; Childress et al. 2007a, p. 1983 but ‘‘recharged’’ in 1984 after Bonaventura 2002, pp. 362–364), drastic 7; Valqui et al. 2000, p. 112). flooding (Ducks Unlimited 2007b, p. 5). water level changes can significantly Drought: The altiplano region Laguna Salinas (Peru) nearly dried out alter the seasonal altitudinal movements underwent a drought from the early in 1982–1983, but refilled during heavy of the Andean flamingo (Mascitti and 1990s until 2004 which affected Andean rains in 1984. Every few years, Laguna Caziani 1997, pp. 324–326). flamingo populations. In addition to this Salinas and large parts of Parinacochas Summary of Factor E drought, the water levels of the salars partially or totally dry out, making and lagunas occupied by the Andean habitat unavailable (Arengo 2009, p. 77). The extent to which human flamingo normally expand and contract Currently, the water fluctuates widely disturbance has infiltrated Andean seasonally, depending in large part on each year, nearly drying out from flamingo habitat and the ongoing summer rains to ‘‘recharge’’ or refill September through January (Ducks activities that contribute to this them (Bucher 1992, p. 182; Caziani and Unlimited 2007d, p. 25). disturbance could have long-lasting Derlindati 2000, pp. 124–125; Caziani et Andean flamingos are equally consequences on the population size al. 2001, p. 110; Mascitti and Caziani sensitive to increasing water levels. and age structure, especially 1997, p. 328). Laguna de Mar Chiquita Andean flamingos generally occupy considering the species’ unique life- (Argentina) fluctuates by up to 20 in (50 wetlands that are less than 3 ft (1 m) history, breeding patterns, and recent cm) in the dry season (Ducks Unlimited deep (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 86; years of low productivity (see 2007a, p. 21). In addition to seasonal Mascitti and Casten˜ era 2006, p. 331). In Population Estimates: Breeding flucuations, water levels fluctuate up to 1998, breeding was reported for the first Success). Therefore, we find that human 57 cm daily at the northern end of the time at Laguna Brava. The same year, disturbance activities are threats to the lake, due to regular strong winds more than 7,000 non-breeding birds continued existence of the Andean making some sites available for feeding were reported 4 mi (7 km) away at flamingo throughout its range. while others unavailable on a daily Laguna de Mulas Muertas, which was Andean flamingo habitat throughout basis. It is estimated that up to 95 not a normal feeding habitat. Bucher et the Andes has experienced long-term

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significant drought. The species’ B). In combination with these habitat (8 centimeters (cm)) in length and has reliance upon shallow wetlands during threats, the altiplano region is a short black bill (BLI 2008; del Hoyo et its entire lifecycle makes it particularly undergoing a long-term drought, which al. 1999, p. 674). Males have iridescent vulnerable to threats that influence the is impacting the availability and quality olive-green upperparts, white amount and distribution of of wetlands for feeding, breeding, and underparts, and a bright violet-red precipitation, runoff, or overwintering (Factor E). Increased throat (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674; evapotranspiration. The drought causes tourism at the wetlands is taxing limited Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). the shallow wetlands upon which this water supplies, causing further water Females also have iridescent olive-green species depends for its entire life cycle contamination from trash and sewage, upperparts; however, their underparts to dry out or to fluctuate widely from and increasing habitat disturbance from are buff (pale yellow-brown) and they year to year, which disrupt the species’ human presence (Factors A and B). do not have a brightly colored throat breeding and feeding cycles, and can Infrastructure to support mining and (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). The strand entire nesting colonies when tourism destroys and increases access to male Chilean woodstar has a strongly waters retract unexpectedly. These Andean flamingo habitats, facilitating forked tail, which is green in the center drought conditions are exacerbated by hunting, egg collecting, and human and blackish-brown on the ends, while water extraction and pollution occurring influx, along with increased pollution, the female’s tail is unforked and has throughout the species’ habitat (Factor water use, and disturbance (Factors A, broad white tips (BLI 2008). It is also A). Reduced water levels can increase B, and E). Predation removes potentially known as Yarrell’s woodstar (del Hoyo access to nesting sites, facilitating reproductive adults from the breeding et al. 1999, p. 647) and Picaflor Chico predation and hunting (Factors B and pool, disrupts mating pairs, and de Arica (Johnson 1967, p. 121). The C). Therefore, we find drought to be a exacerbates the species’ already poor species is locally known as ‘‘Picaflor’’ or threat to the continued existence of the breeding success and is facilitated by ‘‘Colibrı´ ’’ (Johnson 1967, p. 121). Andean flamingo throughout its range. increased access to wetlands and the Taxonomy Status Determination for the Andean ongoing drought (Factors A, B, and E). Flamingo Many wetlands within protected areas The species was first taxonomically continue to undergo activities that described by Bourcier in 1847 and The Andean flamingo is colonial, destroy habitat or remove individuals placed in Trochilidae as Eulidia yarrellii feeding and breeding in flocks, and is from the population (including hunting (BLI 2008). According to the CITES the rarest of all six flamingo species and egg collecting), such that the species database, the Chilean woodstar worldwide. Experts consider that the regulatory mechanisms are inadequate more dispersed nature of the species at is also known by the synonyms Myrtis to mitigate the threats to the species and smaller nesting sites has inhibited yarrellii and Trochilus yarrellii (UNEP– its habitat (Factor D). The magnitude of reproduction in the species. The WCMC 2008b). Both CITES and BirdLife the threats is exacerbated by the species’ Andean flamingo underwent a severe International recognize the species as recent and drastic reduction in population decline in the last few Eulidia yarrellii (BLI 2008). Therefore, numbers, poor breeding success and decades, from a conservative estimate of we accept the species as Eulidia recruitment, and the species’ reliance on 50,000 to 100,000 in the early 1980s to yarrellii, which follows the Integrated only a few wetlands for the majority of a current estimate of 34,000. In the past Taxonomic Information System (ITIS its reproductive output. 20 years, nesting sites and breeding has 2008). Section 3 of the Act defines an declined with increased habitat ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species Habitat and Life History alteration (Factor A), overutilization which is in danger of extinction (Factor B), disease and predation (Factor Hummingbird habitat requirements throughout all or a significant portion of C), as well as increased human are poorly understood (del Hoyo et al. its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as disturbance and an ongoing drought 1999, p. 490). Many species are highly ‘‘any species which is likely to become (Factor E). The Andean flamingo’s entire adaptable, adjusting to human-induced an endangered species within the life cycle relies on the availability of changes or expanding their ranges if foreseeable future throughout all or a networks of shallow saline wetlands food conditions are favorable. Others ’’ (salars and lagunas) at low, medium, significant portion of its range. Based rapidly decline or are in danger of and high altitudes that are characteristic on the immediate and ongoing extinction due to environmental throughout its range in Argentina, significant threats to the Andean disturbances (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Several flamingo throughout its entire range, as 490). The Chilean woodstar has manmade and natural factors are having described above, we determine that the generally been described as inhabiting a negative impact on the flamingo’s Andean flamingo is in danger of riparian thickets, secondary growth, persistence in the wild. These factors extinction throughout all of its range. desert river valleys, arid scrub, include mining activities and resultant Therefore, on the basis of the best agricultural lands, and gardens pollution, increasing human population available scientific and commercial (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 233). Estades and water usage, hunting and egg information, we are listing the Andean et al. (2007, p. 169) looked at a variety collection, tourism, predation, human flamingo as an endangered species of habitat variables in relation to disturbance, and drought conditions. throughout all of its range. Chilean woodstar numbers and found Mining occurs at many of the wetlands II. Chilean woodstar (Eulidia that tree cover in September was the that the Andean flamingo depends upon yarrellii) only variable that significantly affected for habitat. The threats from mining their abundance. In areas with higher include direct habitat destruction, water Species Description tree cover, more Chilean woodstars were pollution, water extraction, and The Chilean woodstar, endemic to observed (Estades et al. 2007, p. 169). disturbance (Factors A and E). Hunting Chile and Peru, is a small hummingbird During the rainy season, when and egg collecting reduce the number of in the Trochilidae family (BLI 2008). No woodstars have more resources to individuals in the population and larger than the size of most moths exploit at higher elevations, the exacerbate the species’ poor breeding (Johnson 1967, p. 121), the Chilean population is more dispersed and success and low recruitment rate (Factor woodstar is approximately 3 inches (in) vegetation variables do not appear to

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limit the abundance of the species build its nest. As a result of this study, p. 170). Despite repeated searches, it (Estades et al. 2007, p. 170). Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 6) state was not found in the Lluta Valley As with all hummingbird species, the that the reproductive habitat of the (Estades et al. 2007, p. 168), where it Chilean woodstar relies on nectar- Chilean woodstar requires an adequate was previously reported to breed producing flowers for food but also combination of nesting sites (olive and (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). A relies on insects as a source of protein mango trees) and food sources (small further study in the Azapa and Vitor (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 482; Estades et flowers). valleys in 2006 found Chilean al. 2007, p. 169). The Chilean woodstar woodstars nesting in only one location, Historical Range and Distribution drinks nectar from the flowers of a a site in the Chaca area of the Vitor variety of native trees such as Geoffroea Historical evidence suggests that Valley that is less than 2.5 ac (1 ha) in decorticans (chan˜ ar) and Schinus molle although the Chilean woodstar had a size (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). (pimento), and ornamental plants such limited distribution, it was locally However, the species may be breeding as Lantana camara, Pelargonium spp., abundant (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. in the Azapa valley, since survey work and Bougainvillea sp. (Estades et al. 2). However, beginning in the 1970s, the there in the past 4 years has found a few 2007, p. 169). In addition, the species frequency of observations of this species stable territories and detected a few has been seen feeding from the flowers appears to have declined recently to juveniles (Estades 2009). Hummingbird of several crops, including alfalfa, garlic, levels considered alarming by some nests are difficult to find and further onion, and tomato (Estades et al. 2007, ornithologists (Estades and Aguirre survey work is needed to verify p. 169). Its small beak and body size 2006, p. 2). breeding in this area. enable it to exploit flowers with very Current Range and Distribution small corollas (collective term for the Population Estimates petals of a flower) (Estades et al. 2007, The Chilean woodstar is endemic to a In September 2003, the Chilean p. 172). few river valleys near the Pacific coast woodstar population was estimated to Breeding activity likely takes place from Tacna, Peru, to northern be 1,539 individuals (929–2,287; 90 between August and September (del Antofagasta, Chile (Collar et al. 1992, p. percent confidence interval (CI)), with Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674), although 530; del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674; over 70 percent of the population found active nests have occasionally been Johnson 1967, p. 121). This area lies at in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007, found at other times of the year, the northern edge of the Atacama p. 168). In April 2004, the population suggesting that there may be some Desert, one of the driest places on Earth was estimated to be 758 individuals temporal variability (Estades et al. 2007, (Collar et al. 1992, p. 530). Current (399–1,173; 90 percent CI), again with p. 169). Most nests have been located in populations are only known to occur in over 70 percent of the population found olive trees (Olea europaea) at an average the Vitor and Azapa valleys, in the in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007, height of 7.5 ± 1.3 ft (2.3 ± 0.4 m), but Arica Department in extreme northern p. 168). Estades et al. (2007, p. 170) a few nests were found in native shrubs Chile (Estades et al. 2007, p. 168). There warn against interpreting their results as and ornamental trees (Estades et al. have been a few observations of this a population crash from 2003 to 2004, 2007, p. 169). species in the town of Tacna, Peru (near because the 2004 surveys were A 2006 study by Estades and Aguirre the border of Chile), but these conducted in April, when food (2006, p. 6) found Chilean woodstars observations have been infrequent resources and populations were more nesting in only one location, a site in (Collar et al. 1992, p. 530) and there dispersed (Estades et al. 2007, p. 170). the Chaca area of the Vitor Valley that have been no records of the species Further population estimates were is less than 2.5 ac (1 ha) in size. The there in the last 20 years (Jaramillo conducted by Estades (2007, in litt.) in breeding site is an old olive grove that 2003, as cited in Estades et al. 2007, p. 2006 and 2007. In 2007, the population is lightly managed and is not sprayed 164). At least some individuals appear of Chilean woodstars was estimated to with pesticides (Estades and Aguirre to move seasonally to higher elevations be 1,256 individuals (694 in the Azapa 2006, p. 6). The grove is surrounded by to exploit seasonal food resources Valley and 562 in the Vitor Valley) Geoffroea decorticans (chan˜ ares; (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990, p. 296). (Estades 2007, in litt.). Estades (2007, in Chilean Palo Verde) and citrus trees, Estades et al. (2007, p. 170) hypothesize litt.) reports that, overall, the species which both flower in September that these higher elevation valleys may declined between 2003 and 2007, even (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). The provide some connectivity between the though the Chilean woodstar population location of the observed nests suggests lower elevation valleys, otherwise did increase between 2006 and 2007. to Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 6) that isolated by the unvegetated expanses of Estades (2007, in litt.) attributes the the Chilean woodstar does not place its the Atacama Desert. increase in the population of the species nest at the minimum distance from the In 1967, Johnson (1967, p. 121) between 2006 and 2007 to an increase food source, as would be expected described the Chilean woodstar as a in the number of individuals in the according to the optimal foraging ‘‘species of extremely limited range and Vitor Valley, while the number of theory. Instead, it appears that Chilean very small total population.’’ However, Chilean woodstars in the Azapa Valley woodstars build their nest at an Johnson (1967, p. 121) also stated that declined. intermediate distance of 164 ft (50 m) it was the most abundant hummingbird from nectar sources (flowers) (Estades in the Azapa Valley, where he and Conservation Status and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). Estades and others counted ‘‘over a hundred The Chilean woodstar is listed as an Aguirre (2006, p. 6) indicate that this hovering like a swarm of bees.’’ In ‘‘endangered and rare’’ species in Chile may be a strategy the Chilean woodstar September 2003, using fixed-radius under Decree No. 151—Classification of employs to avoid the presence of other point counts and sampling an area Wild Species According to Their hummingbirds around their nest. In larger than the presumed range, Estades Conservation Status (ECOLEX 2007). addition, Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. et al. (2007, pp. 168–169) found the The species is considered to be 6) report that it appears the quality of Chilean woodstar to be restricted to the ‘‘Endangered’’ by IUCN, due to its very this particular olive grove is enhanced Azapa and Vitor valleys of northern small range, with all viable populations by the nearby presence of sheep, whose Chile, and to be the rarest hummingbird apparently confined to remnant habitat wool is used by the Chilean woodstar to in the Azapa Valley (Estades et al. 2007, patches in two desert river valleys (BLI

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2008). These valleys are heavily Summary of Factor A under Decree No. 151—Classification of cultivated, and the extent, area, and As a result of extensive agriculture in Wild Species According to Their quality of suitable habitat are likely the river valleys where the Chilean Conservation Status (ECOLEX 2007). In declining (BLI 2008). woodstar occurs, most of its natural 2006, it was also designated as a national monument under Decree No. Summary of Factors Affecting the habitat is disappearing, requiring the 2—Declaring National Monuments of Chilean Woodstar species to rely mainly on artificial sources for feeding and nesting. the Wild Fauna Huemul, Long-tailed A. The Present or Threatened Although the species is able to use Chinchilla, Short-tailed Chinchilla, Destruction, Modification, or introduced plants, the loss of important Andean Condor, Chilean Woodstar, and Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or native food plants, such as chan˜ ares, is Juan Fernandez Firecrown—which Range most likely a limiting factor for the prohibits all hunting and capture of Chilean woodstar. Due to the scarcity of these species (ECOLEX 2006). However, The historical range of the Chilean native trees, the species seems to rely this regulation is not necessary to woodstar has been severely altered with heavily on introduced olive trees for reduce an existing threat to the Chilean extensive planting of olive and citrus nesting. However, management woodstar because we do not consider groves in the valleys of northern Chile practices currently used in olive groves hunting or collection (Factor B) to be a and southern Peru (del Hoyo et al. 1999, adversely impact the species and its threat to the species. p. 674). The native food plants of the nests. Therefore, we find that habitat The Chilean woodstar is listed in species may have been drastically destruction is a threat to the continued Appendix II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC reduced when habitat for the species existence of the Chilean woodstar 2008b). CITES is an international treaty was converted to agriculture; now the throughout its range. among 175 nations, including Chile, species depends largely on introduced Peru, and the United States, that entered B. Overutilization for Commercial, garden flowers as nectar sources (del into force in 1975 (UNEP–WCMC Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 674). Although the 2008a). Under this treaty, countries Purposes Chilean woodstar is able to incorporate work together to ensure that introduced plant species into its diet, In 1987, the Chilean woodstar was international trade in animal and plant the loss of some native species likely listed in CITES Appendix II, which species is not detrimental to the survival continues to be a limiting factor for the includes species that are not necessarily of wild populations by regulating the species (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). As threatened with extinction, but may import, export, re-export, and an example, Estades et al. (2007, p. 172) become so unless trade is subject to introduction from the sea of CITES- report that one of the most likely strict regulation to avoid utilization listed animal and plant species (USFWS reasons for the disappearance of the incompatible with the species’ survival. 2008). As discussed under Factor B, we Chilean woodstar from the Lluta Valley International trade in specimens of do not consider international trade to be is the cutting of almost all the chan˜ ares Appendix-II species is authorized a threat to the Chilean woodstar. (Geoffroea decorticans), which is through permits or certificates under Therefore, this international treaty does considered one of the most important certain circumstances, including not reduce any current threats to the food sources for the species. Chan˜ ares verification that trade will not be species. Any international trade that are cleared by farmers who consider it detrimental to the survival of the occurs in the future would be effectively an undesirable plant and an attractant to species in the wild and that the regulated under CITES. mice (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). specimen was legally acquired (UNEP– We are not aware of any regulatory In a study to estimate the population WCMC 2008a). mechanisms that effectively limit or Since its listing in 1987, there have of the Chilean woodstar, Estades (2007, restrict habitat destruction, or high- been no CITES-permitted international in litt.) found a decrease in the pressure spraying of olive trees with transactions in the Chilean woodstar population of the Chilean woodstar in water to reduce mold, two of the threats (Caldwell 2008, in litt.). Therefore, we the Azapa Valley between 2006 and to the Chilean woodstar (see Factor A). 2007. Estades (2007, in litt.) associates believe that international trade is not a factor influencing the species’ status in As discussed under Factor E, this decline with the substantial pesticides are also a threat to the increase in agricultural development the wild. In addition, we are unaware of any other information currently Chilean woodstar, and there are some related to the cultivation of tomatoes in regulations that limit or ban certain the Azapa Valley in recent years. available that indicates that hunting or overutilization of the Chilean woodstar pesticides. For example, current Chilean woodstars appear to rely for commercial, recreation, scientific, or regulations in Chile prohibit the primarily on introduced olive trees for education purposes has ever occurred. importation, production, and nesting (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). The As such, we do not consider this factor application of DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, species has most likely been forced to to be a threat to the species. Chlordane, and Heptachlor (Altieri and use orchards as nesting sites due to the Rojas 1999, p. 64). Despite such paucity of native trees (Estades et al. C. Disease or Predation regulations, large-scale use of pesticides 2007, p. 172). Although olive trees are We are not aware of any scientific or such as Parathion, Paraquat, Lindane, not exposed to as many pesticides as commercial information that indicate and pentachlorophenol—all severely other fruit trees in the region, the use of disease or predation poses a threat to restricted or even banned in Europe, high-pressure spraying (of water) to this species. As a result, we are not Japan, and the United States—continues control mold threatens the viability of considering disease or predation to be a in Chile (Rozas 1995, as cited in Altieri nests and their contents in some areas contributing factor to the continued and Rojas 1999, p. 64). Furthermore, (Estades 2009; Estades et al. 2007, p. existence of the Chilean woodstar. international standards and quarantine 172). Because of the small size of the requirements, imposed by countries remaining population (see Factor E), the D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory importing Chilean fruits to limit loss of even a few nests annually is a Mechanisms quarantined insects, have acted to threat to the continued existence of the The Chilean woodstar is listed as an increase pesticide use in Chile (see species. ‘‘endangered and rare’’ species in Chile Factor E) (Altieri and Rojas 1999, p. 63).

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Summary of Factor D economic losses (Altieri and Rojas 1999, during this time period was due to the p. 63). fact that no Peruvian sheartails were We are not aware of any regulatory Estades et al. (2007, p. 170) found that observed in Chaca. This observation mechanisms that effectively limit or significant amounts of pesticides are supports the theory that Peruvian restrict habitat destruction, or high- still being used, particularly in the sheartails are a competitor of the pressure spraying of olive trees with Azapa Valley, and there is at least one Chilean woodstar (Estades et al. 2007, water to reduce mold, two of the threats recent case where the application of pp. 163, 172). In addition, the to the Chilean woodstar. Although there insecticides at a plant nursery resulted abundance of Chilean woodstar nests are some regulations in Chile that limit in the death of a female Chilean observed in the species’ only known or ban certain pesticides, other kinds of woodstar. Furthermore, in a study to breeding site (in the Chaca area of the pesticides are still widely used in Chile, estimate the population of the Chilean Vitor Valley) appears to be related to the especially by fruit growers. Therefore, woodstar, Estades (2007, in litt.) found absence of Peruvian sheartails in this we find that the existing regulatory a decrease in the population of the location (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate species in the Azapa Valley between 6). Furthermore, the high abundance of the current threats to the Chilean 2006 and 2007. Estades (2007, in litt.) Peruvian sheartails at Azapa could woodstar throughout its range. associates this decline with the explain the absence of nesting by the E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors substantial increase in agricultural Chilean woodstar at otherwise Affecting the Continued Existence of the development, related to the cultivation appropriate sites, such as the Azapa of tomatoes, in the Azapa Valley in Species Valley (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 6). recent years. The cultivation of tomatoes During the 2008 breeding season, Pesticides: The use of Malathion, in this area of Chile requires a high several Peruvian sheartails were Dimethoate, and other chemicals to demand of pesticides, and thus observed at at least two Chilean control the Mediterranean fruit fly represents a growing threat to the woodstar nests in the Chaca area, which (Ceratitis capitata) in the 1960s and Chilean woodstar (Estades 2007, in litt.). is of concern since this area has been early 1970s correlates with declines in Competition from the Peruvian the primary breeding area for the Chilean woodstar abundance (Estades et sheartail: Estades et al. (2007, p. 172) woodstar (Estades 2009). al. 2007, pp. 171–172). Although hypothesized that the Peruvian sheartail Reproduction: Another study in the Malathion is only slightly to moderately (Thaumastura cora), which has Azapa and Vitor valleys in 2006 found toxic to wild birds (Pascual 1994 and experienced rapid population increases Chilean woodstars nesting in only one George et al. 1995, as cited in Estades within the range of the Chilean location, a site in the Chaca area of the et al. 2007, p. 171), the systemic woodstar, is a strong competitor for food Vitor Valley that is less than 2.5 ac (1 insecticide Dimethoate is very toxic and or space because: (1) These species have ha) in size (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. is known to contaminate the nectar of morphological similarities which, in 6). Of the 19 nests that were monitored, flowers (Baker et al. 1980, as cited in hummingbirds, indicates they may 12 failed; the cause of these nest failures Estades et al. 2007, p. 171). The Chilean require similar food resources; (2) there is unknown (Estades and Aguirre 2006, government program to eradicate the appears to be spatial segregation p. 8). The daily nest failure rate was Mediterranean fruit fly in the Arica- between the species; and (3) 3.21 percent, which is higher than has Azapa area has been reduced since the antagonistic interactions have been been observed in other hummingbird 1970s (Olalquiaga and Lobos 1993, as documented (Estades et al. 2007, p. species (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8). cited in Estades et al. 2007, p. 171), 169). Because the sheartail is more The probability of nest success was 23.8 which likely has reduced this threat to aggressive than the Chilean woodstar, it percent, which is also higher than has is believed to displace the woodstar Chilean woodstar (Estades et al. 2007, p. been observed for other hummingbird within its range (Estades et al. 2007, pp. 171). Although the governmental species (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8). 169, 172). In Azapa, Peruvian sheartails pesticide applications for the Estades and Aguirre (2006, p. 8) note have occupied the lower parts of the eradication of the Mediterranean fruit that the method used to calculate both valley where there is a large supply of fly may be declining, private farmers of these values for other hummingbirds flowers in residential areas year-round still rely on a heavy use of highly toxic (by Baltosser 1986, as cited in Estades (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). Chilean chemicals to keep their crops pest-free and Aguirre 2006, p. 8) is not exactly woodstars, on the other hand, are the same as the method used in this (Salazar and Araya 2001, as cited in primarily located in the middle part of study. Although the values of Estades et al. 2007, p. 171), and their the valley where the dominant land use reproductive success are within normal use shows no signs of decline (Estades is agriculture (Estades et al. 2007, p. range, the high percentage of nest et al. 2007, p. 172). 172). As a result, the Chilean woodstar failures is troubling for a species that As a result of international standards has a much higher risk of exposure to has such a small population size and quarantine requirements imposed pesticides (Estades et al. 2007, p. 172). (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 8). by countries importing Chilean fruits, Because certain pesticides used within The loss of hatchlings, probably due there is an overwhelming incentive for the range of the Chilean woodstar are to a lack of space in the nest itself, also farmers to continue to extensively use known to cause mortality, increased indicates that recruitment of the Chilean chemical pest control (Altieri and Rojas exposure to these pesticides increases woodstar is low (Estades and Aguirre 1999, p. 63). If the inspection of a the species’ risk of population decline 2006, pp. 8, 10). If you take into account shipment of Chilean fruits detects just and extinction. that the flowering period for chan˜ ares one specimen of a quarantined insect In a study to estimate the population and citrus is relatively short (a pest, the result is the automatic rejection of the Chilean woodstar, Estades (2007, maximum of two months), the of the entire shipment of fruit (Altieri in litt.) found an increase in the possibility of Chilean woodstars and Rojas 1999, p. 63). Therefore, population of the species in the Vitor producing a second clutch in the spring Chilean fruit growers intensively spray Valley (Chaca-Codpa area) between is almost zero (Estades and Aguirre their crops to completely eliminate all 2006 and 2007. Estades (2007, in litt.) 2006, p. 10). Without a second nesting pests in order to avoid the risk of suggests that one of the reasons for the period, the Chilean woodstar is not able shipment rejection and its associated population increase in the Vitor Valley to compensate for a loss of its first, and

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most likely only, clutch (Estades and high-pressure spraying of olive trees to previously gathered in large numbers in Aguirre 2006, p. 10). All data suggest remove mold, as well as competition autumn to feed on berries (del Hoyo et that the recruitment capability of the from the more aggressive Peruvian al. 2005, p. 681). The thrush breeds in Chilean woodstar is low and that, sheartail. The magnitude of these threats April and May and builds a cup-shaped currently, the majority of reproduction is exacerbated by the species’ restricted nest placed not far above the ground in is taking place only in the Vitor Valley range, only one known breeding site, a bush or tree (del Hoyo et al. 2005, p. (Estades and Aguirre 2006, p. 10). low recruitment rate, and extremely 681; Raffaelle 1998, p. 381). Clutch size Small Population Size and Restricted small population size. An insect ranges from two to three eggs, which are Range: The Chilean woodstar has outbreak causing increased use of toxic blue-green in color (del Hoyo et al. experienced a population decline since pesticides in agricultural fields, a series 2005, p. 681). the 1960s and now consists of less than of catastrophic events, or other 2,000 individuals distributed within detrimental interactions between Historical Range and Distribution two valleys (Estades et al. 2007, p. 170). environmental and demographic factors Species tend to have a higher risk of could result in the rapid extinction of Although we are unaware of any extinction if they occupy a small the Chilean woodstar. specific information on the historical geographic range, occur at low density, Section 3 of the Act defines an range and distribution of the St. Lucia occupy a high trophic level, and exhibit ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species forest thrush, we assume that this low reproductive rates (Purvis et al. which is in danger of extinction subspecies has always been found only 2000, p. 1949). Small populations are throughout all or a significant portion of on the island of St. Lucia. more affected by demographic ’’ ‘‘ ’’ its range and a threatened species as Current Range and Distribution stochasticity, local catastrophes, and ‘‘any species which is likely to become inbreeding (Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, an endangered species within the The entire species of forest thrush is 773–775). The small, declining foreseeable future throughout all or a known from Montserrat, Guadeloupe, population makes the species significant portion of its range.’’ Based Dominica, and St. Lucia. The St. Lucia vulnerable to loss of genetic variation on the immediate and ongoing forest thrush is endemic to the island of due to inbreeding depression and significant threats to the Chilean genetic drift. This, in turn, compromises St. Lucia in the West Indies (del Hoyo woodstar throughout its entire range, as et al. 2005, p. 681). St. Lucia is an island a species’ ability to adapt genetically to described above, we determine that the changing environments (Frankham in the Caribbean, between the Caribbean Chilean woodstar is in danger of Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, and 1996, p. 1507) and reduces fitness, and extinction throughout all of its range. is 238 square miles (m2) (616 square increases extinction risk (Reed and Therefore, on the basis of the best kilometers (km2)) in area (CIA World Frankham 2003, pp. 233–234). available scientific and commercial Factbook 2008). Summary of Factor E information, we are listing the Chilean Other natural or manmade factors woodstar as an endangered species Population Estimates affecting the continued existence of the throughout all of its range. This subspecies was considered Chilean woodstar include extensive use III. St. Lucia forest thrush numerous in the late 1800s (Semper of pesticides by farmers and Cichlhermina lherminieri ( 1872, as cited in Keith 1997, p. 105), competition from the Peruvian sheartail. sanctaeluciae) These threats have been associated with although we could find no historical the decline in the population of the Species Description accounts of population size of this species and the lack of nest sites in the The St. Lucia forest thrush subspecies. The current population Azapa Valley. Because the Chilean (Cichlhermina lherminieri status of the thrush is unknown, but woodstar is currently breeding in only sanctaeluciae) (also referred to as recent sightings of this subspecies are one site (in the Chaca area of the Vitor ‘‘thrush’’) is a subspecies of the forest rare, with only five confirmed sightings Valley) and has a low recruitment rate, thrush (C. lherminieri) in the family on the island over the last few years restricted range, and a small population Turdidae. It is a medium-sized bird, (John 2009; Dornelly 2007, in litt.). size, any threats to the species are approximately 10 inches (in) (25 to 27 These sightings consist of one bird in further magnified. Therefore, we find centimeters (cm)) in length (BLI 2000). the St. Lucia Nature Reserve near the that other natural or manmade factors This subspecies has all dark upperparts; community of De Chassin in the north are a threat to the continued existence is brownish below with white spots on part of the island, and four individuals of the Chilean woodstar throughout its the breast, flanks, and upper belly; and along the De Cartiers Trail in the range. has a white lower belly. It has yellow Quilesse Forest Reserve on the south legs and bill, and bare skin around the Status Determination for the Chilean part of the island (Dornelly 2007, in eye (BLI 2000). Woodstar litt.). A survey was conducted in 2007 to try to estimate the populations of We have carefully assessed the best Taxonomy various rare birds on the island of St. available scientific and commercial This subspecies was first Lucia, including the thrush (Dornelly information regarding the past, present, taxonomically described by P. L. Sclater 2007, in litt.). However, no thrushes and potential future threats faced by the in 1880 (del Hoyo et al. 2005, p. 681). Chilean woodstar. The species is were observed during the study period currently at risk throughout all of its Habitat and Life History (Dornelly 2007, in litt.). range due to a number of immediate and The St. Lucia forest thrush occupies Conservation Status ongoing threats. The Chilean woodstar mid- and high-altitude primary and is restricted to two river valleys, where secondary moist forest habitat (Keith The entire species of forest thrush there has been extensive modification of 1997, p. 105). The thrush feeds on (Cichlhermina lherminieri) is classified its primary habitat. It is threatened by insects and berries from ground level to as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by IUCN, due to human- agricultural practices, in particular the the forest canopy (del Hoyo et al. 2005, induced deforestation and introduced use of pesticides and, to a lesser extent, p. 681; Raffaelle 1998, p. 381). It predators (BLI 2008b).

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Summary of Factors Affecting the St. year due to banana cultivation. use of non-wood forest products. Lucia Forest Thrush Although the banana industry has Certain species of forest trees are used faltered since that time (GOSL 1993, as for production of brooms, canoes, and A. The Present or Threatened cited in John 2000, p. 3), according to incense, while the bark of other tree Destruction, Modification, or the World Bank (2005, p. 1), farmers in species are used to produce fermented Curtailment of the Species’ Habitat or St. Lucia have continued to clear forests drinks, and liannes are used in the craft Range for cultivation, moving to higher and industry (John 2000, pp. 6, 7). Removal The habitat of the St. Lucia forest steeper land, primarily on private land. of these forest products reduces either thrush consists of mid- and high- The government has encouraged this the quality or the availability of nesting, altitude primary and secondary moist deforestation by constructing roads into feeding, and breeding habitat of the forests (Keith 1997, p. 105). Consistent these remote areas, which further thrush, thereby potentially reducing with previous accounts, the most recent reduces forest lands. Degradation of the population numbers and the sightings of the thrush were within this hillside environment puts the more reproductive success of breeding birds. mid- to high-elevation moist forest productive lowlands at risk, and Summary of Factor A habitat, where in June and August of hurricanes and tropical storms 2007, respectively, St. Lucia Forestry accelerate the degradation process Both historical and current Department staff sighted four birds in (World Bank 2005, p. 1). information suggests that this species is one location along the Des Cartiers Trail As of 2004, 28.5 percent of the land restricted to natural forests on the in the south of the island, and one bird on St. Lucia was used for ‘‘intensive island, which, based on recent data, in De Chassin in the north of the island farming,’’ and 26.3 percent was for have been reduced to approximately (Dornelly 2007, in litt.). ‘‘mixed’’ use purposes (JAR 2004, p. 41). 29,870 ac (12,088 ha) on the island. A As of 2007, natural forest occupied According to St. Lucia’s 2007 Economic large percentage of the remaining approximately 29,870 ac (12,088 ha) on and Social Review (p. 3), although the natural forest that occurs on private the island of St. Lucia, 77 percent of banana industry was negatively lands in St. Lucia (23 percent) is subject which (23,000 ac (9,308 ha)) was within impacted by the passage of Hurricane to ongoing loss from timber harvest, forest reserves and 23 percent (6,870 ac Dean in August, the overall outturn in construction activities related to (2,780 ha)) was on private lands (John agriculture more than compensated for residential housing and tourism, road 2009; Joint Annual Report (JAR) 2004, the banana decline, with a 7.6 percent development, and to a lesser extent, p. 42). The St. Lucia Department of increase in ‘‘nontraditional crops.’’ This conversion of forest lands to agriculture. Forestry considers habitat quality is a strong indication that increasing These ongoing activities result in within the Forest Reserves to be high, agriculture continues to put pressure on destruction of the limited habitat but considers the habitat quality on St. Lucia’s forest resources. Aside from available for the thrush, which has private lands to be ‘‘less,’’ since the agriculture, in the 21st century, historically been attributed to a rapid Department has little control over construction activities related to tourism decline in this subspecies’ population management of these private lands and (hotels and golf courses) and residential numbers. Although to a lesser extent the forest cover can be removed for housing with accompanying access road than on private lands, the forests within alternate land use or development networks has been a leading cause of St. Lucia’s forest reserves (77 percent of (Dornelly 2007, in litt.; John 2009). In deforestation on St. Lucia, particularly the remaining forest) are also subject to 2004, 633 ac (256 ha) of plantation on private land (John 2009; John 2000, destruction and modification from forest existed within the forest reserves, pp. 3, 4). activities such as timber removal, consisting of three main timber tree Even within St. Lucia’s Forest fuelwood gathering, and removal of species, and an additional 615 ac (249 Reserves, the land is not protected to non-wood forest products for traditional ha) of plantation forest existed on such an extent that it is preserved in its use, activities which destroy and private lands (JAR 2004, p. 42), but natural condition. According to St. degrade the thrush’s habitat. Therefore, there is no information to suggest that Lucia’s ‘‘Forest, Soil, and Water we find that the ongoing destruction the thrush utilizes plantation forest Conservation Ordinance 1946/1983,’’ and modification of the thrush’s habitat habitat. with permission of the Forestry is a threat to the continued existence of Historically, St. Lucia’s policy that Department, one may ‘‘injure, cut, fell, the St. Lucia forest thrush throughout its allowed open access to ‘‘Common convert, remove, or harvest any tree or range. Property resources,’’ combined with the parts thereof.’’ Although it is illegal to country’s high demand for agricultural occupy Forest Reserves for the purposes B. Overutilization for Commercial, land, led to large- scale deforestation of cultivation, squatting, or pasturing Recreational, Scientific, or Educational (GOSL 1993, as cited in John 2000, p. 3), livestock (St. Lucia Forestry Department Purposes which reduced the thrush’s habitat, n.d.), enforcement of these activities is We are not aware of any scientific or resulting in a rapid population decline questionable, given that as of the year commercial information that indicates of this subspecies (IUCN 2008). The 2000, squatters occupied 247 ac (100 ha) overutilization of the St. Lucia forest widespread deforestation that continues of area within forest reserves (John thrush for commercial, recreational, to this day suggests that population 2000, p. 3). These squatters are scientific, or educational purposes numbers continue to decline as a result considered to be under the ‘‘taungya’’ currently poses a threat to this of this impact. A potential impact of forest mangagement system and the land subspecies. As a result, we are not habitat destruction is exemplified by the they occupy remains under the considering overutilization to be a Grand Cayman thrush (Turdus ravidus), government control as Forest Reserve contributing factor to the continued a species closely related to the St. Lucia (John 2009). As of the year 2000, 4.5 existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush. forest thrush, which went extinct as its miles (7.2 km) of roads existed within habitat on the island was progressively the forest reserves, providing access to C. Disease or Predation cleared (Johnston 1969, as cited in BLI forest resources within the reserves. Disease: We are not aware of any 2008a). Typical uses of forest resources include scientific or commercial information In the 1980s, deforestation on St. fuelwood collection for heating and that indicates that disease poses a threat Lucia was estimated at 1.9 percent per cooking purposes, as well as traditional to this subspecies. As a result, we are

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not considering disease to be a Summary of Factor C in St. Lucia. As discussed above under contributing factor to the continued We are not aware of any scientific or Factor A, deforestation on private lands existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush. commercial information that indicate as a result of timber harvest, conversion Predation: The St. Lucia forest thrush that disease or predation currently poses of forest lands to agriculture, construction activities related to the is suspected to be impacted by a threat to this subspecies. Although the tourism industry and residential predation from an introduced mongoose St. Lucia forest thrush is thought to be development, and road development is (Raffaelle et al. 1998, p. 381). The Asian impacted by predation from an introduced mongoose, we do not have ongoing. It is not known how much of mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was the private natural forest habitat on the any data to show that mongoose introduced to the island of St. Lucia in island is occupied by the St. Lucia forest predation is a current threat to the the early 1900s (Hoagland et al. 1989, p. thrush. However, based on the localities thrush. As a result, we are not 624) and is considered an invasive of the few recent confirmed sightings of considering disease or predation to be a species. Mongoose have been this subspecies, and the proportion (23 contributing factor to the continued introduced to many island chains for percent) of natural forest that occurs on existence of the St. Lucia forest thrush. the purpose of controlling small private lands, the St. Lucia forest thrush rodents; however, their diet is not D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory likely inhabits at least some of the restricted to rodents; mongoose are Mechanisms private lands on the island. known to eat birds as well. Morley and The St. Lucia forest thrush is a Summary of Factor D Winder (2007, p. 1) found that in the ‘‘protected wildlife’’ species under St. Lucia has developed numerous Fiji islands, some bird species were Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection primarily associated with those islands laws and regulations to manage wildlife Act (WPA) of 1980, which has and forest resources on the island. that were free of mongoose. Any effects prohibited hunting of this subspecies of mongoose introduction detected, However, these laws do not adequately since 1980 (ECOLEX n.d.(b)). In protect the habitat of the St. Lucia forest however, were historical, as mongoose addition, the WPA prohibits taking, had been on these islands for at least 20 thrush from destruction or modification. damaging or destroying of eggs or Suitable thrush habitat within Forest years prior to their study. Bird young, or the damage of a nest of Reserves is provided some level of assemblages on islands where mongoose ‘‘protected wildlife’’ species (ECOLEX protection from existing laws designed had been introduced were (1) n.d.(b)). Where habitat for this species to protect watershed processes and dominated by introduced bird species occurs within Forest Reserves or prevent soil erosion. However, these that are relatively unaffected by Protected Forests, it is protected from laws do not adequately protect the predation, or (2) native arboreal species harvest without approval by the habitat of this subspecies because they that avoid predation, as mongoose rarely Forestry Department under the Forest, allow noncommercial uses of forest venture up into the forest canopy. Some Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance resources (including nest trees) to researchers have suggested that ground- Act of 1946, amended in 1983 (ECOLEX continue. Natural forest habitat on nesting bird populations have n.d.(a)). However, we do not consider private lands is unregulated, and established a predator-prey equilibrium overutilization (Factor B) to be a current although the rate of habitat destruction with mongooses in the Caribbean threat to the St. Lucia forest thrush, so and modification has likely decreased (Westermann 1953, as cited in Hays and these laws do not address any of the since the 1980s, conversion of forest Conant 2006, p. 7). Although the thrush threats to this subspecies. land to agriculture and timber harvest is not known as a ground nesting bird, The Forest, Soil and Water still continue. As a result of the lack of it is reported to nest in shrubs and trees Conservation Ordinance Act of 1946, regulatory protection of the natural near the forest floor. On St. Lucia, the amended in 1983, authorizes the St. forest habitats on private lands and the mongoose and other introduced Lucia Minister of Agriculture to limited protection of Forest Reserves, predators, such as birds and cats, have establish Forest Reserves on government we find that the existing regulatory contributed to the decline of another land and Protected Forests on private mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate native bird species, the White-breasted lands (John 2000, p. 7). Habitat in Forest the current threats to the St. Lucia forest thrasher (Ramphocinclus brachurus) Reserves and Protected Forests is thrush throughout its range. conserved primarily for the purpose of (Collar et al. 1992, p. 824). The degree protecting watershed processes and E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors to which mongoose are responsible for preventing soil erosion. No legal Affecting the Continued Existence of the the decline of bird species is often hard commercial timber harvest occurs on Species to assess, because of exacerbating factors these lands. However, fuelwood Bare-eyed Robin: Competition with such as the introduction of other collecting, removal of non-wood forest the bare-eyed robin (Turdus nudigenis), species, such as rats and cats, which products for traditional use, and timber which colonized the island in the 1950s, often have impacts to bird populations removal (with permission of the has been identified as a factor impacting as well. Therefore, we do not have Forestry Department) still occur in some this subspecies (Raffaelle et al. 1998, p. enough information to assess whether Forest Reserves. Where suitable habitat 381). However, we do not have enough predation by an introduced mongoose is for the thrush exists in Forest Reserves, information to assess whether a significant threat to the St. Lucia forest it is assumed to be of high quality competition with the bare-eyed robin is thrush. Other possible predators include (Dornelly 2007, in litt.). However, small a significant threat to the St. Lucia forest the St. Lucia boa constrictor (Constrictor illegal homesteads occur on thrush. constrictor orophias), Fer de Lance approximately 247 ac (100 ha) of the Shiny Cowbird: Brood parasitism by (Bothrops caribbaeus), opossum Forest Reserves, and residents of these the shiny cowbird (Molothrus (Didelphis marsupialis) and rat (Rattus homesteads utilize the timber and other bonarientsis), which colonized the rattus) but we do not have enough forest resources, such as fuelwood, in island in 1931, is also suspected as a information to assess whether predation the surrounding areas (John 2000, p. 3). factor impacting this subspecies by these species is a significant threat Timber harvest on private lands other (Raffaelle et al. 1998, p. 381). The shiny (John 2009). than Protected Forests is not regulated cowbird is a known ‘‘brood parasite’’

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(i.e., they lay their eggs in the nests of inbreeding. Ne represents the number of cinders (ash) far and wide’’ (Lefort de other birds and do not provide any animals in a population that actually Latour 1787, as cited in University of parental care for their own offspring). contribute to reproduction, and is often the West Indies Seismic Research Centre When the eggs of the brood parasite much smaller than the census, or total n.d.(b)). The occurrence of occasional hatch, these chicks often push out the number of individuals in the population swarms (a sequence of many eggs or chicks of the host birds and are (N). Furthermore, the rule states that the earthquakes striking in a relatively short raised by the host species. Parental care long-term fitness of a population period of time and may last for days, that the host birds provide to the young requires an Ne of at least 500 weeks, or even months) of shallow parasites is care denied to their own individuals, so that it will not lose its earthquakes together with the vigorous young. This often has a detrimental genetic diversity over time and will hot spring activity in southern St. Lucia effect on the reproductive success of the maintain an enhanced capacity to adapt indicate that this area is still potentially hosts, reducing population growth. The to changing conditions. Therefore, an active and the island can therefore shiny cowbird is an extreme host analysis of the fitness of this population expect volcanic eruptions in the future generalist; its eggs have been found in would be a good indicator of the (University of the West Indies Seismic the nests of over 200 species of birds subspecies’ overall survivability. Research Centre n.d.(b)). On Montserrat, (Friedmann and Kiff 1985 and Mason Although the current population where another subspecies of the forest 1986, as cited in Cruz et al. 1989, p. status of the St. Lucia forest thrush is thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri 524). Shiny cowbirds are known to unknown, we presume the population lawrencii) is found, volcanic activity parasitize other bird species nests on St. of the thrush is small, since recent caused a reduction in the range of the Lucia (Cruz et al. 1989, p. 527). Many sightings of this subspecies are rare, subspecies by two-thirds (in 1995–1997) of the documented host species have not with only five confirmed sightings on (G. Hilton in litt., as cited in BLI 2008b), evolved effective defense or counter- the island over the last few years and in 2001, heavy ash falls resulted in defense mechanisms during the 70+ (Dornelly 2007, in litt.). Even though a loss of habitat (Continga 2002, as cited years the cowbird has occupied the survey was conducted in 2007 to try to in BLI 2008b). Because of the similarity island (Post et al. 1990, p. 461). estimate the populations of various rare in ecology, taxonomy, and habitat Although brood parasitism by the shiny birds on the island of St. Lucia requirements between the subspecies on cowbird has the potential to impact the including the thrush, no thrushes were Montserrat and the St. Lucia forest thrush, we could find no documented observed during the study period thrush, volcanic activity on St. Lucia cases of brood parasitism on the St. (Dornelly 2007, in litt.). As a result, we could have similar effects on the St. Lucia forest thrush. presume the size of the St. Lucia forest Lucia forest thrush population. Small Population Size: The presumed thrush population falls below the small size of the St. Lucia forest thrush minimum effective population size Tropical storms and hurricanes occur population, based on only five required to avoid risks from inbreeding in the Caribbean, and can have severe impacts on terrestrial ecosystems on confirmed sightings of the subspecies in (Ne = 50 individuals). We also presume the last few years (John 2009; Dornelly the population size of this subspecies small islands. A primary impact of forest habitats is the damage caused to 2007, in litt.), makes this subspecies falls below the upper threshold (Ne = vulnerable to any of several risks, 500 individuals) required for long-term trees by high winds. Trees are often including inbreeding depression, loss of fitness of a population that will not lose blown over or sustain damage to trunks genetic variation, and accumulation of its genetic diversity over time and will and limbs. These types of impacts can new mutations. Inbreeding can have maintain an enhanced capacity to adapt result in a major habitat loss to the St. individual or population-level to changing conditions. As such, we Lucia forest thrush. In addition, there is consequences either by increasing the currently consider the St. Lucia forest often damage to soil productivity due to phenotypic expression (the outward thrush to be at risk due to lack of near- landslides and excess soil erosion (John appearance or observable structure, and long-term viability. 2000, p. 19). St. Lucia has experienced function or behavior of a living Stochastic Events: The St. Lucia forest an increase in the number of hurricanes organism) of recessive, deleterious thrush’s small population size makes and severe tropical storms over the last alleles or by reducing the overall fitness this subspecies particularly vulnerable 30 years. After hurricane Allen in 1980, of individuals in the population to the threat of adverse random, at least 55 percent of all dominant tree (Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987, naturally occurring events (e.g., volcanic species on the island had broken p. 231; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Small, activity, tropical storms and hurricanes) branches and many had lost large isolated populations of wildlife species that could destroy individuals and their portions of their crowns (Whitman are also susceptible to demographic habitat. St. Lucia is a geologically active 1980, as cited in John 2000, p. 18). The problems (Shaffer 1981, p. 131), which area, resulting in a significant risk of indirect effects occur in the aftermath of may include reduced reproductive catastrophic natural events. It is subject the storm when species experience loss success of individuals and chance to volcanic activity and hurricanes (CIA of food supplies and foraging substrates, disequilibrium of sex ratios. Once a World Factbook 2008). loss of nests, loss of nest sites (trees) and population is reduced below a certain St. Lucia is a volcanic island roost sites (John 2000, p. 20). Moreover, number of individuals, it tends to (University of the West Indies Seismic these indirect effects are likely to rapidly decline towards extinction Research Centre n.d.(a)). Historically, increase their vulnerability to predation. (Franklin 1980, pp. 147–148; Gilpin and there have been no magmatic eruptions With hurricanes and tropical storms, Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. on St. Lucia (i.e., eruptions involving species are also exposed to the strong 64–65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). the explosive ejection of magma) winds which can displace individuals A general approximation of minimum (University of the West Indies Seismic off of the island into the surrounding viable population size is the 50/500 rule Research Centre n.d.(b)). However, there open ocean environment (John 2000, p. (Shaffer 1981, p. 133; Soule´ 1980, pp. have been several minor phreatic 20). Some of these displaced birds are 160–162). This rule states that an (steam) explosions in the Sulphur likely blown far out to sea, and may not effective population (Ne) of 50 Springs area of St. Lucia (University of be able to make it back to land in their individuals is the minimum size the West Indies Seismic Research Centre weakened state. In general, the most required to avoid imminent risks from n.d.(b)), ‘‘which spread a thin layer of vulnerable terrestrial wildlife

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populations have a diet of nectar, fruit, limited availability of suitable habitat actions by Federal governments, private or seeds; nest, roost or forage on large and the fact that there have been only agencies and groups, and individuals. old trees; require a closed canopy forest; a few confirmed sightings of this Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, have special microclimate requirements; subspecies over the last several years. and as implemented by regulations at 50 or live in habitat where the vegetation The primary factor impacting the CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies has a slow recovery rate (John 2000, p. continued existence of the thrush is to evaluate their actions within the 20). Small populations with these traits habitat loss and degradation, as a result United States or on the high seas with are at a greater risk to hurricane induced of deforestation from timber harvest and respect to any species that is proposed extinction, particularly if they exist in agricultural conversions. Although 77 or listed as endangered or threatened, small isolated habitat fragments (John percent of the natural forests remaining and with respect to its critical habitat, 2000, p. 20). on St. Lucia (as of 2004) is partially if any is being designated. However, protected through establishment of a Summary of Factor E given that the Andean flamingo, Chilean network of Forest Reserves, these forests woodstar, and St. Lucia forest thrush are We presume the population of the St. are still subject to destruction and not native to the United States, no Lucia forest thrush is small since there modification from activities such as critical habitat is being designated in have only been five confirmed sightings timber removal, fuelwood collecting, this final rule. of the subspecies in the last few years. and removal of non-wood forest Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes The thrush’s small population size products for traditional use. limited financial assistance for the makes this subspecies particularly Approximately 23 percent of the natural development and management of vulnerable to the threat of adverse forest habitats on which this subspecies programs that the Secretary of the random, naturally occurring events (e.g., depends occur on private lands. Interior determines to be necessary or volcanic activity, tropical storms, and Deforestation on private lands is an useful for the conservation of hurricanes) that could destroy ongoing threat to the St. Lucia forest endangered and threatened species in individuals and their habitat. The thrush, due to the lack of regulatory foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) occurrence of occasional swarms of protection of natural forests on private of the Act authorize the Secretary to shallow earthquakes, along with lands and the continued loss of these encourage conservation programs for vigorous hot spring activity, indicates forests through timber harvest, foreign endangered species and to that St. Lucia could still be volcanically conversions to agriculture, construction provide assistance for such programs in active, and future volcanic eruptions are activities, and road development. the form of personnel and the training expected. Tropical storms and The island of St. Lucia is a of personnel. hurricanes are naturally occurring geologically active area, resulting in a The Act and its implementing events in the Caribbean; however, the significant risk of catastrophic natural regulations set forth a series of general frequency of these events has increased events. The thrush’s presumed small prohibitions and exceptions that apply over the last 30 years. These high- population size makes this subspecies intensity events damage forest habitats, particularly vulnerable to the threat of to all endangered and threatened which are currently very restricted adverse random, naturally occurring wildlife. As such, these prohibitions are (approximately 29,870 ac (12,088 ha)) events such as volcanic activity, tropical applicable to the Andean flamingo, on the island due to timber harvest and storms, and hurricanes that could Chilean woodstar, and St. Lucia forest agricultural conversions. It can take destroy individuals and their habitat. thrush. These prohibitions, under 50 many years for forested areas to fully Section 3 of the Act defines an CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any person recover from the damage caused by ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species subject to the jurisdiction of the United tropical storms and hurricanes. which is in danger of extinction States to ‘‘take’’ (take includes harass, Therefore, we find that the subspecies’ throughout all or a significant portion of harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, presumed small population size and its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as trap, capture, collect, or to attempt any restricted range due to deforestation, ‘‘any species which is likely to become of these) within the United States or and the increase in naturally occurring an endangered species within the upon the high seas, import or export, events that damage the thrush’s habitat, foreseeable future throughout all or a deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship are a threat to the continued existence significant portion of its range.’’ Based in interstate or foreign commerce in the of the St. Lucia forest thrush throughout on the immediate and ongoing course of a commercial activity or to sell its range. significant threats to the St. Lucia forest or offer for sale in interstate or foreign thrush throughout its entire range, as commerce, any endangered wildlife Status Determination for the St. Lucia described above, we determine that the species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, Forest Thrush St. Lucia forest thrush is in danger of deliver, carry, transport, or ship any We have carefully assessed the best extinction throughout all of its range. such wildlife that has been taken in available scientific and commercial Therefore, on the basis of the best violation of the Act. Certain exceptions information regarding the past, present available scientific and commercial apply to agents of the Service and State and potential future threats faced by the information, we are listing St. Lucia conservation agencies. St. Lucia forest thrush. The subspecies forest thrush as an endangered species We may issue permits to carry out is currently at risk throughout all of its throughout all of its range. otherwise prohibited activities range due to ongoing threats of habitat involving endangered and threatened destruction and modification (Factor A), Available Conservation Measures wildlife species under certain lack of near- and long-term viability Conservation measures provided to circumstances. Regulations governing associated with the thrush’s presumed species listed as endangered or permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for small population size (Factor E), and threatened under the Act include endangered species, and at 17.32 for random, naturally occurring events such recognition, requirements for Federal threatened species. With regard to as volcanic activity, tropical storms, and protection, and prohibitions against endangered wildlife, a permit must be hurricanes (Factor E). certain practices. Recognition through issued for the following purposes: For The St. Lucia forest thrush is listing results in public awareness, and scientific purposes, to enhance the presumed to be rare based on the encourages and results in conservation propagation or survival of the species,

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and for incidental take in connection Internet at http://www.regulations.gov Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth with otherwise lawful activities. or upon request from the Branch of below: Listing, Endangered Species Program, Required Determinations U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (see FOR PART 17—[AMENDED] National Environmental Policy Act FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section). (NEPA) ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 Author We have determined that continues to read as follows: environmental assessments and The primary author of this final rule Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. environmental impact statements, as is staff of the Branch of Listing, 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99– defined under the authority of the Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. National Environmental Policy Act of and Wildlife Service. ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding a new 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not entry for ‘‘Flamingo, Andean,’’ ‘‘Thrush, be prepared in connection with List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 St. Lucia forest,’’ and ‘‘Woodstar, regulations adopted under section 4(a) Endangered and threatened species, ’’ of the Act. We published a notice Chilean in alphabetical order under Exports, Imports, Reporting and ‘‘ ’’ outlining our reasons for this BIRDS to the List of Endangered and recordkeeping requirements, Threatened Wildlife to read as follows: determination in the Federal Register Transportation. on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). § 17.11 Endangered and threatened Regulation Promulgation References Cited wildlife. A complete list of all references cited ■ Accordingly, we amend part 17, * * * * * in this final rule is available on the subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate popu- Historic lation where When Critical Special range endangered or Status listed habitat rules Common name Scientific name threatened

******* BIRDS

******* Flamingo, Andean ...... Phoenicoparrus andinus Argentina, Bolivia, Entire ...... E ...... NA NA Chile, and Peru.

******* Thrush, St. Lucia forest Cichlherminia West Indies—St. Lucia Entire ...... E ...... NA NA lherminieri sanctaeluciae.

******* Woodstar, Chilean ...... Eulidia yarrellii ...... Chile and Peru ...... Entire ...... E ...... NA NA

*******

Dated: August 3, 2010. Jeffrey L. Underwood, Acing Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2010–19965 Filed 8–16–10; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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