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SISTERHOOD STANDS AGAINST PATRIARCHY IN ANITA DIAMANT’S THE RED TENT
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) in English Language Studies
by Maria Angelia Student Number: 156332038
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017
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ATIIESIS
SISTERHOOD STANDS AG{NST PATRIARCHY IN ANITA DIAMANT'S THE RED TENT
{* [?o.q"i,'-n{
Patrisius Mutiara Andalrs. SJ.. S"S.. S,T.D. Thesis Advisor August 2r2Al7
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A TIIESIS
SISTERIIOOD STAF{DS AGAINST PATRIARCI{Y IN AhtITA I}IAMANT'S THE RED TENT
by Maria Angelia Student Number: 156332038
was defended in front of the Thesis Committee and declared acceptable
Thesis Committees
Chairperson Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D
Secretary Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A., (Hons.), Ph.D.
Member Dr. G. Fajar Sasmita Aji, M. Hum.
Member Pahisius MutiaraAndalas, S.J., S.S., S.T.D
Yogyakart4 August 16, 2017
The Graduate Program Director University
/
Dr. Gregorius Budi Subanar, S.J.
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MOTTO
There is a crack in everything, that’s how the light gets in – Leonard Cohen
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STATEMENT OF' WORK ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else's ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.
Yogyakarta, August 2, 2017
Maria Angelia PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETAJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Maria Angelia
NIM : 156332038
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang bedudul:
SISTERHOOD STANDS AGAINST PATRIARCHY IN ANITA DIAMANT'S THE RED TENT
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendisribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 2 Agustus 2017
kan
Maria Angelia
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Glory be to the Almighty, my Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for making my thesis complete. I deliver my first gratitude to my thesis advisor Patrisius
Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.S., S.T.D. and my lecturers in English Literature major
Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A., (Hons.), Ph.D. and Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D. Your friendly guidance, patience and advice help and encourage me to finish this thesis well. I also show my deepest gratitude to my mother, my sister and my brothers who have been supporting me through all forms of encouragement.
My sincere gratitude goes to other lecturers in English Language Studies
Department: Prof. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, Dr. Emmanuel Sunarto, M. Hum.,
Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Fr. Alip, M. A., F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D., Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko,
M.A., and Dr. Haryatmoko, S.J.
I would like to say thank to Mbak Marni, Pak Mul and other members of
KBI secretariat for their help and support. In addition, my gratitude also goes to my classmates in literature class batch 2015: Mbak Sophia for her wise advice and friendship; Laksmi, Ludmila, Sabrina, Anna, Feby and Wibi for the solidarity and suggestion. My friends in KBI: Maxy, Gaby, Festri, Yosa, Chrisda, Marshal,
Ratna, Rifki, Prisil, Darma, Dita, Dea, Mbak Sari, Vero, Alfa, Dewi, Vita, Atta,
Mas Indra, Mas Adit and Mbak Mel for suggestion and support. Finally, I thank my best friends S.K. Pospos, Dana McNally and Angely; Pak Dino, Ka Dina,
Dian, Mala and Mbak Susi; Mbak Iren and Mas Anton for assiting me to find some supporting data for my thesis, give suggestion and comfort during my study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS COVER PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iii MOTTO ...... iv STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY ...... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ...... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii ABSTRACT ...... x ABSTRAK ...... xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Problem Formulation ...... 7 1.3 Benefit of the Study ...... 8 1.4 Thesis Outline ...... 9
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 10 2.1 Review of Related Studies ...... 10 2.2 Review of Related Theories ...... 17 2.2.1 Patriarchy ...... 18 2.2.1.1 Ancient Israel Patriarchy ...... 21 2.2.1.1.1 Birthright ...... 24 2.2.1.1.2 Polygamy ...... 26 2.2.1.1.3 Circumcision ...... 29 2.2.2 Feminism and Sisterhood ...... 30 2.2.2.1 Feminist movement ...... 30 2.2.2.2 Jewish Feminism Movement and Jewish Sisterhood ...... 32 2.2.2.3 Sisterhood ...... 35 2.2.2.3.1 Sisterhood by Robin Morgan, bell hook and Tingting Qi ...... 36 2.2.2.4 Mother and daughter relationship ...... 40
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CHAPTER III: SISTERHOOD STANDS AGAINST PATRIACHAL MODE OF PRODUCTION ...... 42 3.1 Polygamy ...... 43 3.2 Sisterhood to fight against the patriarchal mode of production ...... 49
CHAPTER IV ...... 70 SISTERHOOD CHALLENGES MALE VIOLENCE ...... 70 5.1 Birthright ...... 70 5.2 Circumcision ...... 75 5.3 Sisterhood fights against male violence ...... 79 5.4 Dinah‟s Reconciliation ...... 86
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS ...... 88 Bibliography ...... 97
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ABSTRACT
Angelia, Maria. Sisterhood Stands against Patriarchy in Anita Diamant’s The Red Tent. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies of Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University. 2017.
This thesis accentuates the pivotal role of sisterhood by examining solidarity among several women characters in Anita Diamant‟s The Red Tent (2007) to challenge the Ancient Jewish patriarchy. It analyzes the form of sisterhood before challenges of the patriarchal mode of production and male violence. Those are instilled through patriarchal culture, which differentiates position of women and men in the society. Therefore, two research questions are formulated: (1) How does sisterhood stand against the patriarchal mode of production? (2) How does sisterhood resist male violence? Challenging the patriarchy, this thesis applies sisterhood theories by bell hooks, Robin Morgan and Tingting Qi. Their sisterhood zests are cohesive in bringing sisterhood goes across culture and social background even though they apply different terms. hooks and Morgan prefer term of solidarity, while Tingting Qi‟s term is empathy. To see the forms of patriarchy in the society, this thesis employs three out of six patriarchal structures proposed by Sylvia Walby, i.e., patriarchal culture, patriarchal mode of production and male violence. The thesis connects them with the research of patriarchy studied by Gerda Lerner. The thesis shows that sisterhood is there to fight against patriarchal culture in the form of polygamy and birthright. The patriarchal culture leads to women‟s oppression in the patriarchal mode of production and male violence. The four mothers and Dinah find comfort and power in their sisterhood to resist children‟s gender preference and division of work. The four mothers go hands in hands to break the exploitation of women as a media of production in the family. They also count on each other during the daily affliction as women, mothers and daughter. Finally, the sisterhood also empowers Dinah to stand for herself after her brothers‟ violence due to jealousy of the birthright. The story of Dinah in the Genesis showing her as a victim is turned into a story of a skillful and independent midwife through Dinah‟s friend, Meryt. The presence of Werenro also brings Dinah to accept her true identity and reconnect to her memory with her mothers. Keywords: sisterhood, patriarchal culture, patriarchal mode of production, male violence, solidarity.
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ABSTRAK
Angelia, Maria. Sisterhood Stands against Patriarchy in Anita Diamant’s The Red Tent. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma. 2017.
Tesis ini menekankan peran penting sisterhood dengan mengkaji solidaritas di antara beberapa karakter perempuan dalam novel Anita Diamant berjudul The Red Tent (2007) yang menantang patriarki Yahudi Kuno. Tesis ini menganalisis solidaritas perempuan yang dihadapkan dengan tantangan-tantangan dari patriarki dalam peran anggota keluarga di rumah tangga dan kekerasan laki- laki. Keduanya ditanamkan melalui budaya patriarki sehari-hari, yang membedakan posisi perempuan dan laki-laki di masyarakat. Oleh karena itu, dua pertanyaan penelitian dirumuskan: (1) Bagaimana sisterhood menantang patriarki dalam peran anggota keluarga di rumah tangga? (2) Bagaimana sisterhood menolak kekerasan laki-laki? Untuk menantang patriarki, tesis ini menerapkan teori sisterhood yang dikemukakan oleh bell hooks, Robin Morgan dan Tingting Qi. Semangat sisterhood dari ke tiga pakar tersebut bertalian satu dengan yang lain dalam membawa sisterhood menerobos perbedaan budaya dan latar belakang sosial meskipun dengan istilah yang berbeda. bell hooks dan Morgan menggunakan solidaritas, sementara Tingting Qi menggunakan kata empati. Untuk melihat bentuk patriarki di masyarakat, tesis ini menggunakan tiga dari enam struktur patriarki yang diajukan oleh Sylvia Walby, yaitu budaya patriarki, patriarki dalam peran anggota keluarga di rumah tangga dan kekerasan laki-laki. Tesis ini kemudian mengaitkan teori Sylvia Walby dengan dengan penelitian patriarki dari Gerda Lerner. Tesis ini menunjukkan bahwa sisterhood melawan budaya patriarki dalam bentuk poligami dan hak kesulungan. Budaya patriarki tersebut menyebabkan penindasan terhadap perempuan dalam bentuk patriarki dalam peran anggota keluarga di rumah tangga dan kekerasa laki-laki. Ibu, bibi-bibi Dinah dan Dinah mendapatkan penghiburan dan kekuatan melalui sisterhood ketika melawan ketidakadilan dalam memilih jenis kelamin anak dan hak anak sulung. Keempat ibu bahu membahu melawan eksploitasi perempuan sebagai media produksi keluarga. Mereka juga saling mendukung dalam menghadapi tantangan sehari- hari sebagai wanita, ibu dan anak perempuan. Akhirnya, sisterhood menguatkan Dinah untuk tetap melanjutkan hidup tanpa bergantung dengan orang lain setelah tragedi yang dilakukan padanya oleh saudara laki-lakinya karena kecemburuan hak kesulungan. Kisah Dinah dalam Kitab Kejadian yang memperlihatkan dirinya sebagai korban berubah menjadi kisah seorang bidan yang terampil dan mandiri yang disampaikan oleh Meryt. Kehadiran Werenro juga membantu Dinah untuk menerima identitas dia yang sebenarnya dan dapat berekonsiliasi dengan ibunya.
Kata-kata kunci: sisterhood, budaya patriarki patriarki dalam peran anggota keluarga di rumah tangga, kekerasan laki-laki, solidaritas.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
There is a statement saying, “a group of people is solid due to having the same enemy.” It is a state when the group has the same aim and the group can be a solid teamwork. A group of people, especially a group of women, is usually associated with sisterhood, and then the question is who their enemy is. The answer, of course, is not men, but a way of thinking that belittles the woman, and sexist in any kind of form exercising the thought.1 The example is a woman is judged to be an irresponsible mother if she has overtime, but a father is a hard worker if he comes home late due to working. Another example is a man is stated as a weak person if he cries. This concept of thinking is influenced by the patriarchal value that standardizes character of masculinity and femininity.
Feminists, with sisterhood, claim opportunities to uncurl patriarchal assumption toward women and to reconstruct history in which women‟s voices are reduced. According to bell hooks, sisterhood is a bonding among women that emphasizes the shared strengths and resources to empower each other, and feminists must promote such sisterhood in stead of focusing on the shared victimization.2 Realizing the potency to fight against the injustice of patriarchy is better than being fear for the hurdles that will prevent them.
bell hooks helps this thesis to investigate the causal relationship between patriarchy and sisterhood as follows:
1 bell hooks, Introduction, Feminism is for everybody: Passionate Politics, (Cambridge: South End Press, 2000), viii. 2 bell hooks, “Sisterhood: Political Solidarity Among Women”, Feminist Theory from Margin to Center, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 46.
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Male supremacist ideology encourages women to believe we are valueless and obtain value only by relating to or bonding with men ... We are taught that women are “natural” enemies, that solidarity will never exist between us because we cannot, should not, and do not bond with one another.”3
There are two simultaneous responses to digest the thought. First, it gives a negative judgment towards women who are contradictive to the male supremacy; hereafter, male supremacy and male dominance used in this thesis refer to the manifestation of patriarchy. The judgment lives in society, and becomes sustained common truth if no one cares about the sexism. The other, it creates a question why such ideology exists. The elaboration about patriarchy is explained in Chapter II.
The bonding among women with similar experiences can reinforce positive attitude to support each other. This thesis states that sisterhood can also be objectified by the strong sense of humanity and by having solidarity to the oppressed ones. A person does not have to experience the same bitterness to be a caring person. The importance of sisterhood is emphasized in The Red Tent
(2007), the first novel by Anita Diamant. It is recognized from the prologue.
There was far more to tell. Had I been asked to speak of it, I would have begun with the story of the generation that raised me, which is the only place to begin. If you want to understand any woman you must first ask about her mother and then listen carefully.4
Dinah, the main character, accentuates the absence of her and women‟s voices and then advises us to hear from her. In Genesis (Bereishit in Hebrew, hereafter
Genesis is abbreviated to Gen. with verse only), Dinah is just a victim, her name is written to show the power of her heroes; brothers who take revenge for Dinah‟s
3 bell hooks, “Sisterhood: Political Solidarity Between Women,” Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, (New York: Routledge, 2015), ix. 4 Anita Diamant, The Red Tent, (New York: Picador, 2007), 2. All subsequent reference to this work, abbreviated TRT, will be used in this thesis with pagination only.
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disgrace because she is assumed to be raped by a prince from Shechem. This thesis opts The Red Tent to examine the power of sisterhood to challenge patriarchy, and to show that the injustice among human beings creates oppression.
Therefore, this thesis presents the connection between discussions of the novel with Diamant‟s intention of adjusting story of Dinah from the Genesis.
In an interview session with Diamant several years ago, she told Ellen
Kanner 5 that she believed in women‟s bonding. The women‟s bonding theme is found in Diamant‟s other novels, such as Good Harbor (2001) and The Boston
Girl (2014). Every novel has its own struggle and fight; patriarchy in The Red
Tent and The Boston Girl, and breast cancer in Good Harbor, but three of them have a connection to Judaism. However, Diamant‟s first novel is worthier of discussion because it is an appropriation of a minor character in Genesis. It is accepted as a midrash 6 by non-Orthodox Jewish people.
The practice of midrash is similar with a genre of writing giving a different fact of a certain earlier-existing text, which is used by post-colonial and feminist studies. Adrienne Rich‟s term is re-vision, which is „- the act of looking back, of seeing with fresh eyes, of entering an old text from a new critical direction- is for women more than a chapter in cultural history: it is an act of
5 An interviewer from BookPage 6 Daniel Boyarin, “The Son of Man in First Enoch and Fourth Ezra: Other Jewish Messiahs of the First Century,” The Jewish Gospels: The Story of the Jewish Christ, (New York: The New Press, 2012), 76. Midrash is a manifestation of critic toward Judaism. Daniel Boyarin asserts “...The rabbis who produced the midrashic way of reading considered the Bible one enormous signifying system, any part of which could be taken as commenting on or supplementing any other part. They were thus able to make new stories out of fragments of older ones (from the Bible itself), ... the new stories, which build closely on the biblical narratives but expand and modify them as well, were considered the equals of the biblical stories themselves.”
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survival.‟7 Likewise, Widdowson states that re-visionary novels are voices of the oppressed, voiceless, and abused stories due to dominant ideologies.8 The opportunity is then welcomed by women who are eager to write history. Being triggered by their worries, they can do more research on the certain issue and create the re-vision.
According to David Young, rewriting is essential because of its role in the first writing, which is influenced by limited cultural views and literature.9 The position of re-vision is a responsive text that is accompanied by different thoughts during the similar time. In this thesis, sisterhood is important not only as a protective response toward patriarchy, but also as an empowerment source for women in facing a hard time or doubt in daily life. Before the thesis expounds supporting theories to scrutinize patriarchy and sisterhood, the following essential data about Diamant need to be considered. Diamant is an American-Jewish writer, who was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1951.10 Diamant has a profound concern about Jewish‟s religion, she says, „My Judaism is a very important part of who I am.‟11 Diamant pours her interests in female‟s friendship and Judaism into stories in her novels. The sisterhood theme can be found in her three novels and to review briefly about her novels, the synopses of the novels are informed in the following paragraphs.
7 Adrienne Rich in Liedeke Plate, “Remembering the Future: or, Whatever Happened to Re- Vision?” Signs 33, no. 2 (2008): 389,
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The first is The Red Tent that tells a story about Dinah‟s sisterhood among her four mothers and other women. Her mother and mother-aunties12 are sisters, and they marry to the same husband. Dinah learns about sisterhood from her mother and her mother-aunties who finally support each other in facing women‟s plight due to polygamous marriage. However, Dinah‟s sisterhood with her mother is broken after the massacre by Levi and Simon. Dinah‟s husband and men from her husband‟s clan are killed after Shalem is relenting to undergo circumcision as a prerequisite for marrying Dinah. To seek a refuge, Dinah flees with her mother in law to Egypt. Dinah recuperates and finds her new life in Egypt through her sisterhood with Meryt, and she finally reconciles with her mother through her friendship with Werenro.
Similar theme of sisterhood is also found in Good Harbor.13 It is about the struggle of a woman diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ (non-aggressive breast cancer). The setting is in the city of Gloucester, Massachusetts, United
States. Kathleen Levine is a Jewish librarian who has a husband and two adult sons. In a service in Gloucester synagogue, she meets Joyce Tabachnik who is a journalist and a romance writer. Joyce is also a Jewish and has a busy husband and a teenage daughter. Their friendship starts from sharing a story as mothers and wives.
Finally, The Boston Girl 14 with a background about Jewish family highlights females‟ friendship in the era of Jews‟ immigrations to the U.S. in
1915-1985. Addie Baum is born in the U.S. after her family - papa, mameh, Betty, and Celia - moves to the U.S. Her mother cannot accept the extreme different
12 Term refers to Dinah‟s aunties used by Anita Diamant in TRT, 3. 13 Anita Diamant, Good Harbor, (New South Wales: Allen & Unwin, 2001). 14 Anita Diamant, The Boston Girl, (New York: Scribner, 2014).
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social situation in the U.S. In contrast, Addie Baum enjoys her life in the U.S. and makes friend with girls and women she meets at a reading club. Her friends help her to face her daily problem, especially economics situation.
Among the three novels, this thesis pays more attention to The Red Tent as the main discussed novel, but includes the other two novels in the discussion.
Diamant‟s decision to write The Red Tent relates to the following information.
This thesis sees that first sisterhood is the embodiment of the novel itself. Dinah emerges in three chapters in Genesis; first is in chapter 30:21, Dinah15 as a daughter that is born by Leah; second, she is narrated in chapter 34, a blood-shed love story between Dinah and Shalem, a prince from Shechem, Canaan. The last is mentioned to explain generation of Jacob in chapter 46.16 Similarly, there is no different information about Dinah in the Islam Koran. On the other hand, Joseph‟s story (Yusuf in the Islam Koran) is written in specific surah or letter called “Surah
Yusuf.”17 Meanwhile, the discussion about Jacob can be found in Surah Al
Baqarah verses 132-14018 and Surah Hud verses 70-71.19
The Red Tent was published for the first time in 1997. Ten years later, the reprinted of the same novel emerged as a 10 years celebration of the novel. Three stimulations behind its publishing are; first, second wave of feminism in the U.S. gives strong influence for Diamant in seeing life. She is aware of the shortcoming text and history stated by women. Second, her interest in Judaism is composed
15 Pauline A. Viviano, “Kejadian,” Tafsiran Alkitab Perjanjian Lama, eds. Dianne Bergant and Robert J. Karris, (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius, 2002), 67. 16 “Genesis,” Jewish Virtual Library, ch.34. ver.1-34, (1 June 2016). 17 Al-Bayyinah: Al-Qur’an Transliterasi dan Terjemahan, “Yusuf,” (Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo, 2011), 452-77. 18 Ibid, “Al-Baqarah,” 36-8. 19 Ibid, “Hud,” 440.
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with feminism spirit.20 Her awareness to write about women is inspired by
Virginia Woolf.21 Woolf encourages women to write, to speak about women all though in fiction, yet fiction is felt more real than the reality.22 In fiction, woman has more freedom to express herself, and inspire other women.
Lastly, the publication of Diamant‟s first novel that was published in 1997 relates to the publisher‟s situation. In 1990s the re-vision genre is a fruitful narrative tool for feminists. The publisher‟s strategy influences the novel‟s publication to minimize production costs. By publishing re-vision novel, which is mostly as the response of canonical text (already well-known), publisher can resell the canon, and introduce the new work. 23 Diamant changes The Book of
Dinah to The Red Tent as the title for the novel to remember the mothers‟ struggles, baby birth process, which happens in the red tent.24
1.2 Problem Formulation
To address the three initial interpretations shared above, the following research questions are pivotal to investigate:
1. How does sisterhood stand against patriarchal mode of production?
2. How does sisterhood resist male violence?
In this thesis, knowing the first understanding of a patriarchy tenet perpetuated in society is essential for dismantling subject (oppressor), and object
(oppressed) in the society. This thesis analyzes patriarchy by attributing it with the context, and challenges it with sisterhood‟s theories.
20 “Our Alumni: Anita Diamant,” Arts & Sciences, 23 January 2013,
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The two research questions are answered by pondering the following three foregrounds encouraging sisterhood zeal in The Red Tent. First, the re-vision in the novel is a form of sisterhood from Diamant to Dinah and the readers. Second, this thesis observes the dynamic process of women‟s bonding, which is associated with sisterhood among Jacob‟s wives, Dinah‟s sisterhood with her mothers; and
Dinah‟s sisterhood with her friends. The last is Dinah‟s reconciliation with her past. Three foregrounds are important to show initial hook in the novel leading to the analysis.
Through the foregrounds, the study formulates three initial interpretations, those are (1) patriarchy oppressing Dinah has to do with Ancient Jewish tradition.
(2) Dinah‟s sisterhood with her mother and mother-aunties makes her as an independent woman.25 (3) Dinah‟s sisterhood with her friends assists her to continue her life. However, friendship between Dinah and Joseph is analyzed to see the position of sisterhood in heterosexual friendship.
1.3 Benefit of the Study
This thesis believes that sisterhood spirit is never getting obsolete.
Feminism has been evolved from the first wave up to present; sisterhood also walks along with women-activists. Feminist predecessors have brought improvement irrespective measure of change. Varied professions can be applied by women (pilot, engineer, lawyer, police, and so on) all though it has not happened in all part of the world yet.
This thesis joins in igniting sisterhood zeal in the academic area, which is triggered by females‟ experiences in the society. In addition, sisterhood spirit in
25 She learns midwife skill from Rachel, her mother-aunty whom she likes for her beauty. The midwife skill is a primary capital for her to be able to fund herself, and earn respect in foreign place after she becomes a widow.
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the novel can enrich selection of literature discussions in the academic realm, as
Jewish literature is rarely discussed in the area where this thesis is written. It celebrates world literature, Diamant strongly inserts tradition of ancient Jewish in the novel.
1.4 Thesis Outline
This thesis is arranged systematically. There are five chapters in this thesis. The first chapter is focusing on backgrounds of the study, the object of the study, problem formulation, and benefit of the study. The next chapter, chapter II encompasses the review of related studies and review of related theories
(patriarchy, ancient Israel patriarchy, feminism, sisterhood, and mother-daughter relationship). Data in chapter II then are applied in chapters III and IV to analyze
Israel patriarchy in The Red Tent, and to expound how sisterhood resists the Israel patriarchy. Finally, the last chapter is conclusions from the previous two chapters.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Previously, this thesis provides information about the initial interpretations of The Red Tent, which is the importance of sisterhood in facing male domination.
This chapter encompasses eight related studies and some related theories to enlighten analyses in Chapters III and IV. Moreover, there are some historical backgrounds that are not included in this chapter but they are inserted in each related discussion chapter.
2.1 Review of Related Studies
Eight correlated studies about feminism, a mother-daughter relationship and sisterhood support the thesis. However, sisterhood in The Red Tent has not been profoundly studied, but the novel has inspired some women in the U.S. to form women groups.26 Those previous studies are employed to strengthen discussion in the thesis. The first three studies on The Red Tent are studies by
Karen J. Flagg, Vladimir Tumanov and a study by Lillian Comas Diaz and
Marcella Bakur Weiner.
The first study, Karen J. Flagg asserts that Diamant‟s first novel is a manifestation of modern midrash. She juxtaposes The Red Tent with two concepts of modern midrash, specifically feminist midrash by Rabbi Ellen M. Umansky and Rabbi Elyse Goldstein. Her finding states that Umansky‟s concept is more
26 Tracie Welser, “The Red Tent: A Woman-space Phenomenon,” Off Our Backs: A women’s News journal 37, no. 2/3 (2007): 42, < http://www.jstor.org/stable/20838816>, (25 April 2016). Welser shares in her article that The Red Tent gives an idea for women in Brooklyn to set up their women group project. The goals of sisterhood are to empower and educate women; there are yoga and meditation classes, writing group, book club, counseling for daughters without mothers and the like.
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compatible with The Red Tent. 27 The feminist midrash turns up as an answer for
Jewish feminist‟s critical thinking toward biblical narratives. The woman writer adds her point of view as the response to the first text in the Bible, and then imagines the situation in the feminist‟s perspective.
Umansky is aware of challenge in creating feminist midrash; on one side, it must not violate Jewish tradition, on the other side, it has to accommodate modernity.28 Therefore, she emphasizes the following four characteristics of aggadic 29 midrash: firstly, “modern midrash tells a story from a Jewish text through feminist‟s point of view. Secondly, it originates a response to the biblical text. Thirdly, the process of developing midrash must work towards reconciling the ancient voices and the modern voices of Jewish women. Lastly, new midrash must be „legitimately Judaism.‟”30 Being truly Judaism is having the Judaism identity; to admit only one God, for instance. However, it is still debatable.31 Her study affirms that The Red Tent is a form of feminist midrash that relates to the
Judaism development.32
The second study, Vladimir Tumanov scrutinizes The Red Tent with the comparative study. It is different from Flagg‟s study because Tumanov juxtaposes the story about Jacob and Dinah in Genesis with Anita Diamant‟s The Red Tent
27 Karen J. Flagg, “The Red Tent: A Case Study for Modern Feminist Midrash,” Religious Studies Theses, George State University, (2009): 1,
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and Thomas Mann‟s Joseph and His Brothers and The Stories of Jacob to see the writers‟ ideologies. The study shows that Dinah is given voice in The Red Tent,
Diamant uses gender politics to rewrite the story from the Genesis, while Dinah remains in the similar position with Genesis in Mann‟s novels.33
Regarding the defiling story about Dinah, Tumanov emphasizes the contrasting manner of Prince Shechem toward Dinah 34 and the Amnon‟s attitude to Tamar.35 Tumanov points out that Prince Shechem has a good will to marry
Dinah, but Amnon asks his man to let Tamar scram after forcing her to have sexual intercourse with him.36 Similarly, Diamant deliberately names the prince as
Shalem 37 to emphasize the prince‟s kindness.38 Both studies by Flagg and
Tumanov assert Diamant‟s concern in feminism; Flagg recognizes Diamant‟s work as a feminist midrash and Tumanov finds Diamant‟s gender politics position in The Red Tent.
Compared to two previous studies, the last study by Lillian Comas Diaz and Marcella Bakur Weiner 39 merely invoke The Red Tent to underscore the pivotal women‟s bonding. Such bonding generates healing power for woman‟s
33 Vladimir Tumanov, “Dinah‟s Rage: The Retelling of Genesis 34 in Anita Diamant‟s The Red Tent and Joseph and His Brothers,” Canadian Review of Comparative Literature 34, no.4 (2007): 378,
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psychology (their term is „sister of the heart.‟). Furthermore, they agree that female friendship helps the oppressed. In contrast, the other five studies in the following paragraphs do not analyze The Red Tent, but they focus more on the mother-daughter relationship and female friendship. The analyses illuminate this thesis to scrutinize The Red Tent in the way each researcher applies the theories and states her/his findings.
The five subsequent studies are Motherhood and Sisterhood in Gloria
Naylor’s Novel by Lucie Prochazkova; Sisterhood across Cultures-With
Reference to Chen Ran’s and Amy Tan’s Fiction by He Jing; Kadidia Sy‟s study entitled Women’s Relationships: Female Friendship in Toni Morrison’s Sula and
Love, Mariama Ba’s So Long a Letter and Sefi Attas’s Everything Good Will
Come; What Happened to Mother?: Patriarchy, Oppression, and Reconciliation in Janet Fitch’s White Oleander by Jaime L. Kelsky; and Abiodun Adeniji‟s
Patriarchal Structures and Female empowerment in Nigerian and Taiwanese
Novels.
Prochazkova and He Jing raise similar theme that is sisterhood. This thesis is helped by Jing‟s analysis that applies Chodorow‟s theory to understand women‟s friendship. Man and woman are separated by sustained norms and value in the society; mostly, a woman does domestic tasks such as buys groceries and cooks, while a man does work in public area; for example, he works out side the house. The segregation creates room in a woman‟s life to be filled by another woman because they understand each other based on the similar work to do. 40
Hence, the friendship between women is made. Later, it is applied to analyze the
40 Nancy J. Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. (Los Angeles: California UP. 1978), 199-200.
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mother-daughter relationship in The Red Tent. Jing states that there is sisterhood in polygamous marriage in China and it is based on Confucianism.41 The information is employed to add argumentation in Chapter III.
Meanwhile, this thesis highlights Willa character in Linden Hills.
Prochazcova shows that Willa finds sisterhood through messages (Luwana‟s letter, Evelyn Creton‟s recipes, and Priscilla McGuire‟s Photos) left by women in the past who were her husband‟s late wives. Those messages warn Willa that
Luther looks for a submissive woman because he needs a wife to take care of him and to continue his family‟s lineage.42 The messages that Willa gets from the other sisters are a form of sisterhood, which help her to resist the oppression from
Luther. It aligns with Naylor‟s statement in a conversation with Virginia Fowler saying that “victims don‟t fight back.”43 Willa is not a victim, and she gets a courage to end the Luther‟s oppression.
Furthermore, Kadidia Sy affirms that female friendship can be successful if there is a sincere commitment. In Mariama Ba‟s and Sefi Atta‟s novels, the female friendship is a real action, it is an empowerment for the oppressed one so that she can manage her life when she faces plight. 44 Sy applies theory about sisterhood in polygamous marriage by Hudson-Weems. The polygamy is different from The Red Tent, but this study highlights the culture in Africa, polygamy is taken for granted.
41 He Jing, 212. 42 Lucie Prochazkova, Motherhood and Sisterhood in Gloria Naylor’s Novel, (Masaryk University, 2012), 49-51,
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Consequently, Aissatou and Ramatoulaye 45 choose to accept the condition, but sisterhood is urgently needed as an additional power to face the reality. In such condition, Hudson-Weems states,
Given that we know all too well how comforting sisterhood is, we must welcome it and its rewards for others as well as for ourselves. Thus, for the moment, let us reflect on how much more beautiful our world would be if all sisters simply loved each another. Our children would be more secure, for they would have not just one female guardian, but many to attend to their needs.46
It is hard to accept such condition, but culture is usually successful to force women to accept the condition that is not chosen by her. It also takes place in The
Red Tent. In addition, Sy foregrounds empathy in sisterhood with a theory proposed by Hudson-Weems.47 Without empathy, Sy shows the failure of sisterhood as she finds in Sula and Love. The causes are seclusion due to different race and class. In addition, Sy discusses another cause of oppression that is male passiveness or passive patriarchy.48 As the conclusion, there are two things influencing oppression, those are the lack of sisterhood in a society and male ignorance that are found in The Red Tent, as well.
The failed sisterhood due to patriarchy is also highlighted by Jaime L.
Kelsky in her analysis on Janet Fitch‟s White Oleander. Astrid experiences disapointment when she has to live with Starr, a topless waiter in a bar, who expels Astrid due to jealousy. Starr sees Astrid as her competitor because Astrid is close to a male whom Starr loves. Meanwhile, Astrid‟s relation with her biological mother, a prisoner, is crippled by her mother‟s overprotective behavior.
There is distrust in their relationships; her mother does not believe Astrid is able
45 Characters in So Long a Letter. 46 African Woman Literary Theory in Kadidia Sy, 4. 47 Kadidia Sy, 6. 48 It refers to Jude, a character in Love.
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to take care of herself. 49 According to bell hooks, distrust and competition are the hurdles in sisterhood. Besides the failure of sisterhood, Kelsky‟s study acknowledges universal mother in a process of giving birth. Universal mother is a symbol of the source of power and love.50 Similarly, Diamant shows women‟s beliefs in goddesses, which are discussed in Chapters III.
Lastly, Abiodun Adeniji proposes a teamwork between women and men to empower women in society instead of doing demonization towards men. Besides, he argues that feminist easily judges patriarchy as the reason of her affliction.
Example is taken from a study on Li Ang’s Butcher’s Wife. Both novels tell the sorrow of women as the main characters, who suffer from domestic violence, which is done by husbands. To end affliction, the women characters ended the husbands‟ lives. Adeniji‟s focus is asking the moral value of the murder although he realizes the husbands‟ torture; they treat their wives and children badly. 51
Besides suggesting the collaboration of men and women to empower women, education about equality needs be given to men and woman.
To conclude that regarding three studies analyzing The Red Tent, this thesis is a continuance of Tumanov‟s and Flagg‟s studies on The Red Tent.
Tumanov‟s comparative study is employed to emphasize Dinah and Prince
Shechem‟s romance is not a rape. Flagg‟s result of studying The Red Tent endorses this thesis to analyze it through feminism study and specifically with sisterhood theory.
49 Jaime L. Kelsky, 35-36. 50 Ibid, 33. 51 Abiodun Adeniji, “Patriarchal Structures and Female Empowerment in Nigerian and Taiwanese Novels: A Study of Chimamanda Adichie‟s Purple Hibiscus and Li Ang‟s The Butcher‟s Wife,” A Journal of African Studies. vol.7, no.1, (2015),
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This study also acknowledges sisterhood as a “help,” the help is not only given by the other sisters but also sought by the sister in need. The story from the past is taken as the lesson and learn for the future, and universal mother concept is taken as a comfort and an empowerment for every woman. The woman also seeks empathy from the one whom she believes can help her to go through the situation.
This thesis also agrees with Adeniji‟s suggestion about collaboration between man and woman to support the oppressed woman without cornering man. Hence, it is important to accentuate that man is not the enemy, but the ignorance of practicing bully and oppression to women that are applied by patriarchy.52
2.2 Review of Related Theories
The story about Jacob and his progenies is believed to happen between
1450-1410 B.C.53 Other data shows it is between 1,600(s) to 1,500(s) BCE.54
During the era, the religion in Near East was polytheistic. Canaanites comprise some different tribes that live together and later share similar language and tradition. 55 This chapter then discusses two main subjects: the first is the traditions that specifically relates to women‟s oppressions in patriarchy subchapter, and the last is sisterhood among the women characters as the movement to go against the oppressions.
52 bell hooks, Feminism is for Everybody, 16. 53 Based on the Holy Bible printed by Tyndale House Publishers, 2013 54 Jewish virtual library, “History: Timeline for the History of Judaism”,
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2.2.1 Patriarchy
The understanding of male dominance has evolved from a state that is natural to the cultural construction; at the expense of the half human race
(women). Many texts are written and taught to give benefit to the other half of human race (men). Traditionalist56 and feminist-maternalist57 are tenets embracing natural view on male-dominance. They admit the biological difference between men and women as the source of women‟s second place in the world (weak creature).
Several theorists have formulated the definitions of patriarchy. Friedrich
Engels in Mary Murray, states that a patriarchal family is a form of simple workplace where the head of the family - the adult man - becomes the ruler of the family. Unfortunately, the definition is not satisfying enough to explain the reason for male dominance in the family.58 Levi Strauss says that incest is taboo according to many traditions. Therefore, the exchange of women between different families is needed. The theory, then, gets critics, for it does not underlie the concept of choosing a woman as an exchangeable commodity.59
According to Sylvia Walby, patriarchy is “a system of social structures and practices, in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.” 60 In stead of
56 Biological difference that is also known as “sexual asymetry”; the concept is taken from stone age, man was warrior and hunter, while woman is weak creature. Gerda Lerner, “Origin,” The Creation of Patriarchy, Women & History, (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986), 16-7. 57 The theorist is J.J. Bachofen, a Sweden antropologist. He accepts sexual difference between man and woman. However, woman is perceived as virtue bearer in society so in her arm, world can be saved from barbarism. This view is also adopted by first wave feminist in America, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Gerda Lerner, 26. 58 Friedrich Engels in Mary Murray,” The Debate,” The Law of the Father, (London: Routledge, 2005), 6. 59 Levi Strauss in Gerda Lerner, 25. 60 Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy, (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1990), 20.
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analyzing patriarchy through feminism studies (liberal feminism, radical feminism, etc.), Walby explains the forms of patriarchy taking place in the society through six structures: those are patriarchal mode of production, patriarchal relations in paid work, patriarchal relations in the state, male violence, patriarchal relations in sexuality, and patriarchal relations in cultural institutions.61 The reason is to know closely power relation exercised in patriarchy through institutions (i.e., religion, educational institution, family and workplace) in the society.
From the six structures of patriarchy by Walby,62 this thesis uses three relevant structures to analyze patriarchy in The Red Tent. First structure is the patriarchal mode of production, a wife has obligation to take care of the family
(husband, children, and parents sometimes). Division of work is decided by the head of the family (women‟s work is about caring and serving).63 These characteristics are attached to the variety of works that are allowed for women to do as a profession. Options in workplace to women are based on their daily duty in the family. However, women are still expected to complete her household chores, and the mother‟s role at home. Such disparity between man and woman is sustained in the society due to cultural value. The relation of patriarchal culture and patriarchal mode of production is explained later.
Second, male violence is the practice of male domination towards female.
Forms of the violence comprise rape, wife-beating, father/daughter incest, flashing, sexual harassment at work, sexual assault.64 According to Walby, male
61 Sylvia Walby, 20. 62 Ibid, 20-1. 63 Ibid, 63. 64 Ibid, 128.
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violence takes place due to lack of state‟s care; law prohibiting violence is only executed if the violence is „extreme‟ in „inappropriate‟ situation. However, there is no clear measurement of what is extreme and what is inappropriate. In contrast, the law needs to be implemented in any possible situation of violence.65
The last structure of male supremacy is embodied in patriarchal culture as the first entrance to instil the concept of patriarchy in the society; this structure is formed by institutionalized group of people in an area such as religion and custom. It is clearly explained by Walby that:
Gendered culture is actively constructed in all areas of social life, not just families, media, and school. Discourses of masculinities and femininities are struggled over in the paid workplace and the state, as well as learnt by individuals.66
An example related to ancient time is women are men‟s belongings; they do not have right and are passive in the society, and their places are at home.67 In relation to such matter, Walby accentuates that “the keys of patriarchal relations in culture are differentiation of the discourses of femininities and masculinities, and the valuation of masculinity above those of feminity.” 68 To relate with Ancient
Jewish society, the study employs Gerda Lerner‟s The Patriarch. Her research also investigates the Book of Genesis. According to her, the Genesis is written with certain purpose and context relating to certain time span by many hands.69
Hence, it is important to investigate context: culture and society, which relates to
65 Sylvia Walby, 146-8. 66 Ibid, 94. 67 Elisabeth M. Tetlow, “The Status of Women in Greek, Roman and Jewish Society,” Women can be Priests,
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the time when the scriptures are written. The following subchapters elaborate context of the Ancient Jewish patriarchy.
2.2.1.1 Ancient Israel Patriarchy
Three Walby‟s concepts of patriarchy illuminate the Ancient Israel patriarchy practices. Some of Gerda Lerner‟s researches about Ancient Israel patriarchy help this thesis to connect the patriarchy discussion with relevant context. Henry Renckens states a perception of Israel has changed since archeologist, historian and anthropologist has showed and synthesized their findings. There are old and new perceptions of Israel; according to Renckens, old
Israel is typified as distinctive and religious genius.70 The Bible shows that Israel is the God‟s chosen nation. On the contrary, divine taught is not like a meteor coming to the earth. 71 There is a process in understanding revelation given by
God; the text needs to be deeply analyzed to prevent the absolute truth. According to the Genesis, Israel is named given to Jacob,72 Israel is then is used as a name for a nation whose people are believed to be Jacob‟s generation. Jewish is derived from Judah; the fourth son of Jacob, Jewish refers to Judah‟s descents.73 Jewish and Israel henceforth are used interchangeably.
The simple Jewish family consists of a man with his wife, sons and their wives and children, his unmarried daughters, and his servants. Then, some families get united to form a clan. As a clan, they support one another in economics, security and gather in a religious occasion (feasts). Tradition of war
70 Henry Renckens, “The Mystery of Israel,” The Religion of Israel, trans. N. D. Smith, (London: Sheed & Ward, 1967), 6. 71 Ibid, 7. 72 Gen. 32:28. 73 Rochel Chein, “What is the Meaning of the Name "Jew"?” Jewish Identity, n.date.
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and revenge is a common situation to protect the clan. They must protect the weaker members in the clan; they are women and children. 74 In the surface, such responsibility can support some of Jacob‟s sons to do the massacre in Shechem.
However, it is not the only justification to support the incident, more analysis is needed to implement, which is discussed in Chapter V.
Lerner‟s findings show that the development of clan to be urban socialization affects women‟s subordination. She asserts three steps of urban society developed in Mesopotamia, those are: the forming of temple-town, city- states, and then nation. People, who want to seek for better job and guard, move from village to town. Consequently, the people in the town are asked by the higher ruler of the area to give their human resources in building the town
(temple, economic, and military system). Moreover, Lerner explains that the strongest man in a village will lead the rest of the villagers as a chief, crown himself as a king. Military and reproduction are ways to grow up the kingdom. 75
Military system is needed to expand the city to become a nation. People from a city attack another city; they kill the men, and drag the women and children to the conqueror‟s town to make them slave, or arrange mating with the upper-class women from the conquered town to build power under the reign of the conqueror.76 The area of expansion marks the start of women‟s subordination.
The following are findings by Lerner about the status and role of women
(upper-class women) in Ancient Near East. First is a Queen who has role in temple administration and ritual. Second, the man in military used their wives to
74 Gerda Lerner, 163. 75 Gerda Lerner,“The Stand-In wife and the Pawn,” 56-7. 76 Ibid, 58. The findings of excavation are tablets of regulation, skeleton, statue, metal, gold and silver jewelries (lapiz lazuli, Diamant uses it in her TRT to describe Leah‟s eyes, and as a gift Jacob gives to his wife.) and other artifacts.
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do negotiation and support their position.77 Third, contracted marriage was used to prevent warfare between cities, daughter is arranged to follow parent‟s will to support diplomatic relation. Thus, princess in the era was given good education because she expected to assist her husband, and her father.78
The fact that the royal women could have access to education and administration in kingdom and temple was good news, but their activities were still determined by father‟s and husband‟s will. There are two examples shared by
Lerner. Firstly, Queen Kirum who was asked by her father, King Zimri Lim (King of Mari city 1775 to 1761) to marry to Khaya Sumu (ruler of Ilansura), was hated by the husband due to her close relationship to her father. Her father becomes her advisor after she was assigned to be mayor in Khaya Sumu city.79 The last is
Queen Shibtu (city of Mari) acted as her husband‟s assistant to rule the country and choose concubine for her husband.80
On the first hand, it is a good tiding to know that women in ancient time got opportunity to be active in pubic area. On the other hand, the access to have position in public area is still determined by the father, and/or the husband. Lerner sees that “the security of their power depends on installing family members
(wives, concubines, or daughters) in important subordinate positions of power.”81
The word “their” refers to men; it tells that role of women is to support men‟s career and position. Moving closer to the Hebrew tradition, Lerner argues that father and mother have power over the children. It is shown from Hebrew law emphasizing punishment to sons if they do crime against their mother and father.
77 Ibid, 65. It occurs between 2350-2230 B.C.E. (Dynasty of Urukagina, a king in Ur area). 78 Ibid, 67. It is found in Ur III Dynasty (after 2280-1800 B.C.E) 79 Ibid, 71. 80 Ibid, 74. 81 Ibid.
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But, there is no record about such punishment to daughters.82 The power hold by parents over the children accounts for a story of Rebecca who advises Jacob, her favorite son to steal blessing from Esau. Furthermore, there is no information in the Genesis saying Esau is angry to his mother about it. To know further about the
Ancient Jewish customs, the following subchapters are informing related customs to the oppressions toward women.
2.2.1.1.1 Birthright
In relation to Jewish tradition and religion, birthright and father‟s blessing need to be pondered as the causes of envy between brothers. This thesis brings up three stories link to the birthright. The favoritism triggers feud in the family.
Three stories in Genesis -Isaac and Ishmael (Ch.21), Jacob and Esau
(Ch. 27) and Jacob‟s sons (Ch.37) - are mostly used to analyze birthright.
Anna K. Davis (2008) shares two meanings of birthright. Firstly, the firstborn child has bigger portion in material and property. Secondly, firstborn child is expected to do service to God, and lead the clan. The first, Davis tells
The birthright entitled the firstborn to inherit a greater share of his father‟sland and possessions than the remaining heirs. The most common understanding of this greater part in the Jewish literature is a double portion, which is twice the amount given to each of the other sons.83
Then, scholars make more investigation and study about the right of the firstborn child. Davis concludes four benefits for the firstborn son: (1) special blessing from the father, while other brother(s) get just a blessing. (2) Position as a priest
82 Ibid, 106. 83 Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, A Reference Guide to the Steinsaltz Edition of the Talmud, trans. Rabbi Israel V. Berman (New York: Random, 1989), 170; Louis Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, vol. 3 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1966), 211. Quoted in Anna K. Davis, “Israel‟s Inheritance: Birthright of the Firstborn Son,” CTS Journal 13, (2008): 81.
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for his kin, and tribe. (3) Position as a leader for his clan. (4) Power to rule his tribe in term of expanding the tribe.84 The conclusion is taken from the shifting meaning of the firstborn‟s sacrifice.
Davis asserts that the right of the firstborn son is a responsibility, it means a sacrifice to God. Hence, the birthright undergoes development meaning in the practice. There are three points relating to sacrifice to God. Davis analyzes it by referring to the Exodus 13:2 85 and the Numbers 18:17 86 to state that the calling from God is to do the sacrifice. Exodus 13:14–1587 states that the sacrificing has been replaced by the death of the Egyptian firstborns of both human and animal, because the King does not want to release the Israel people. The last understanding of “living sacrifice” is the firstborn needs to serve God by practicing the religion and leading the tribe, since the animal sacrifice has been replaced by the death of Egyptian firstborn creatures.88
However, it would be wonderful to give such responsibility to all children so that they have the intimate relation with the Almighty. Then, the meaning of firstborn gets more definition through Exodus 4:22.89 It states that God‟s firstborn child is Israelites, not only the first child of a family. The meaning, then, covers the unity of Israel. It is clear to know the development in understanding the
84 Anna K. Davis, 86. 85 “Consecrate to Me all the first-born, the first offspring of every womb among the sons of Israel, both of man and beast; it belongs to Me.” 86 “The first-born of an ox or the first-born of a sheep or the first-born of a goat, you shall not redeem; they are holy. You shall sprinkle their blood on the altar and shall offer up their fat in smoke as an offering by fire, for a soothing aroma to the Lord” 87 When in the future your child asks you, “What does this mean?” you shall answer, “By strength of hand the Lord brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery. When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals. Therefore, I sacrifice to the Lord every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.” 88 Anna K. Davis, 82-3. 89 “Israel is My son, My firstborn.”
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meaning of the birthright. Considering the great heart of the Almighty, it is human who formulates the misperception about it that right for the double portion of inheritance. Greenspahn tells that the other born child (ren) is entitled to some portion of the father‟s inheritance, but lesser than the firstborn one. It is shown from stories of Jephthah (Judges 11:12), Hagar (Genesis 21:10), and Jacob‟s sons from his concubines. Greenspahn asserts that it is not important to expel child of
Hagar, and Jephthah if they were not entitled to some portion of inheritance.90
Considering some disparities in the old perception of practicing religion,
Reconstructionist Judaism has made big progress in accommodating needs of
Jewish people with Mordecai‟s „Jewish civilization‟ and „a maximum of
Jewishness in all phases in Jewish life.‟91 He does not want to segregate Jewish into more classification, but he would like to ask Jewish people to build the
Judaism with their own experience of life in understanding and practicing
Judaism. He also gives more portion for Jewish women to practice the religion, to be a rabbi, for instance.
2.2.1.1.2 Polygamy
In the Genesis, we know that polygamy is shown as a solution to continue the lineage. A story of Sarah and Abraham clearly informs us that Abraham sleeps with Hagar with Sarah‟s consent to have a son (Chapter 16). By saying polygamy, this thesis uses document from the Bible, not only having more than a wife, but also sleeping with concubines. It is to promote consideration that polygamy practice is possible to create jealousy and oppression in the family. In addition,
90 Greenspahn in Anna K. Davis, 87. 91 Reena Sigman Friedman, “The Emergence of Reconsructionism: An Evolving American Judaism, 1922-1945.” American Jewish Archives 48, no. 01 (1996): 9.
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this practice is legitimized by the code of Hammurabi (King Hammurabi‟s reign is between c.a 1792–1750 B.C.E). It regulates marriage and family. 92
... men married to a naditum, a priestess who is not allowed to bear children. The naditum either gives her husband her slave girl to bear her children, or if she does not, the husband is entitled to a secondary wife, a sugetum, an inferior priestess or kind of a “lay sister” for the purpose of his begetting sons of her ... If she has not borne sons, her mistress may sell her.93
From this law, it is understood that progeny is very important for a family, it is also bound up with state expansions or race expansion‟s need (see page 22).
The family favors a biological child more than an adopting child, even a wife helps her husband to take another woman to be the secondary wife, or sleep with a concubine. There is no official marriage between a man and a concubine; it connects to the concubine‟s status, which is lower than the woman-master.94 The different position between woman-master and concubine is strengthened by Code of Hammurabi, the woman master is granted a higher position, as she already acts as the right hand of the husband.
By contrast, to explain the utilizing of Code of Hammurabi in Israel society, for specific in era of Jacob, Rev. C. H. W. Johns says it is possible for
Abraham to recognize the Code of Hammurabi, since he lives in Ur and takes journey via Haran, a province in Babylon 95 and brings the law to his people.
Later, the Code of Hammurabi influences the forming of Hebrew law but it tends to be not as severe as the first. For example, a childless concubine is permitted to
92 Gerda Lerner, “The Wife and the Concubine,” The Creation of Patriarchy, 102. 93 Ibid, 93. 94 Ibid, 113. 95 C. H. W. Johns, The Relations between the Laws of Babylonia and the Laws of the Hebrew Peoples, (London: Oxford UP, 1914), 25, < http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46050/46050-h/46050- h.htm>, (28 May 2017).
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be sold in Babylon. In contrast, the master still treats the concubine as a slave in
Hebrew.96
Different treatment of marrying a woman and a slave-woman to be a concubine is emphasized by payment. Hence, Jacob is expected to work for Laban for 7 years to marry Rachel. Otherwise, it is not accepted as a marriage in the tradition of Ancient Israel or Hebrew society.97 To understand more the situation in Hebrew society, it is crucial to examine Hebrew Law by referring to a study by
Carol Pratt Bradley. Marriage in Hebrew tradition is perceived as a covenant between a man and a woman in front of God, it does not focus only on the payment.98
Concerning type of marriage in Near Eastern society through biblical text,
God favors the monogamous marriage. The evidences are story of Adam and
Eve, God create just a man and a woman instead of two women, or two men and three women, and the story of Sarah and Abraham. Sarah takes Hagar to give a son on behalf of her and her husband without hearing God‟s voice. Thus, monogamous marriage is the common situation in Near East,99 but wife‟s infertility allows husband to have another woman. The decision to take the other woman is up to the husband. 100 Considering the polygamous marriage, England in 13th Century allowed a husband to have a concubine even though the church banns official marriage to have the secondary wife. It is easier to dismiss the
96 Ibid, 34. 97 Carol Pratt Bradley, “Women in Hebrew and Ancient Near Eastern Law,” Studia Antiqua 3, no. 1 (2003): 7,
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relation with the concubine than with the secondary wife. 101 By contrast, the aim is not stated to focus on fertility.
On the other hand, a wife cannot have another man. If she does, she must be punished as the following law states:
... adultery is possible only on the side of the wife, because she is the property of the husband, but not on the part of the husband. ... the wife owes faithfulness to her own marriage; the husband owes faithfulness to another man‟s marriage. 102
The reason of practicing polyandry in Mesopotamia is to pay the husband‟s debt.103 It means the husband perceives his wife as his commodity; he can treat the wife as he wants. The following subchapter discusses other practice in Jewish tradition that is used by Levi and Simon to get more properties and power for themselves.
2.2.1.1.3 Circumcision
Pauline A. Viviano states that circumcision firstly is known as ancient
Egypt‟s tradition. It is also practiced by Semitic people living in Canaan. It is taken as an important symbol after incident in Babel (586-538 B.C.E) by
Israelites. The circumcision is a mark to state identity of Israel people, the one who devote and worship Yahwe. Circumcision is still a religious ritual for Jewish people.104
In The Red Tent, Joseph initiates a solution to accept the Canaanite prince in the Jacob‟s family by instructing the prince and males clan to do circumcision.
Pondering the tradition, Moses Maimonides, a rabbi, a philosopher, and a
101 Mary Murray, ”Woman as Property ,” The Law of the Father, 109. 102 L. M. Epstein in Gerda Lerner, 114. 103 Marc van de Mieroop, “Gender and Mesopotamia History,” Approaching the Ancient World: Cuneiform Texts and the Writing of History, New York: Routledge, 141. 104 Anita Diamant, Preface: My Conversion Story – and Yours, Choosing a Jewish Life. (EPUB)
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physician affirms as follow: „no one should circumcise himself or his sons for any other reasons but for pure faith. Circumcision is the symbol of the covenant which
Abraham made as his belief in God.‟105 This tradition actually stimulates question and debate, but there are more benefits if a Jewish person practices it based on medical necessity. Considering the blood feud in the story, circumcision is discussed as a background, and a moment used by Simon and Levi as a green light to the massacre.
2.2.2 Feminism and Sisterhood
Definition of sisterhood in several sources is carrying the similar form of a relationship among women, but the praxis is different to one another, and it is based on each theorist‟s belief. In realm of feminism movement, sisterhood106 has been challenged for its sincerity to fight for women‟s necessity. Knowing every human being bears fluid identity as a member of certain race, religion, gender, nation, age and other categories, sisterhood‟s development faces complex situation. By contrast, empathy and humanity must be instilled in the realization of sisterhood.
2.2.2.1 Feminist movement
In the previous paragraph, it is stated that sisterhood faces challenges.
Therefore, the following concise records of feminism movement in the Western world is important to be included, as feminist movement in the Jewish society gets strong influence from it. In the United Kingdom, the salient equality awareness
105 Anita Diamant, “The Covenant of Circumcision,” Choosing a Jewish Life. (EPUB) 106 Sisterhood is females‟ bonding, while brotherhood is originally taken from fraternity, a religious term. Brotherhood is men‟s bonding with a spefic vision, “we are endeavouring to widen the scope of our work in order the better to serve the interests of the weak and oppressed in all lands.” Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, eds., Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, (New York: Routledge, 2003), 130.
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exponent is Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)107. Not only has she awaken people to see women‟s right as part of human rights in the U.K but also has influenced feminist movement in French, European countries and the United States at the time.108 Wollstonecraft emphasizes her position as follow, “I dedicate this volume to you; to induce you to reconsider the subject, and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education: and I call with the firm tone of humanity; ...”109 Spirit of sisterhood is shown by her restlessness in seeing small portion granted for women to have access in education. She reminds the world that we all are the same, we are human beings.
Similarly, in the U.S., Sarah Grimke questions a low position of women in domestic and public spheres through her Letters on the Equality of the Sexes
(1837). She asserts misinterpretation of Holy Scripture causes women to be seen not equal to men. Grimke says woman and man are God‟s image, thus there should be no domination from a man toward a woman, and vice versa.110 The time when intellectual women in West fought for women‟s suffrages and equality in education marks feminism movement first wave. The zeal of first wave feminism is eloquently responded by women of color. Women of color also want to be educated, able to earn money, work, have right in property, and have voice in government and the like, and it is the mark of second wave feminism. 111
107 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) 108 Eileen Hunt Botting, Introduction, Rethinking the Western Tradition: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Mary Wollstonecraft, Eileen Hunt Botting, (Yale UP, 2014), 1. 109 Mary Wollstonecraft, “To M. Talleyrand-Perigord, Late Bishop of Autun,” Ed. Eileen Hunt Botting, Eileen H., Rethinking the Western Tradition: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Mary Wollstonecraft, (Connecticut: Yale UP, 2014), 21. 110 Sarah Grimke, Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, 1837. 111 Black women, and all not-white women in bell hooks, Introduction, Feminist Theory:From Margin to Center, (New York: Routledge, 2015), xiv.
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The first wave of feminist movement also gives big impact to Judaism‟s development in the U.S. Liberal Judaism denomination [Reform, Conservative
(CJ) and Reconstructionist (Rec.J) Judaism] takes part to give more space for women to participate in Judaism praxis. In 1964 Society for the Advancement of
Judaism (SAJ), which is initiated by Mordecai Kaplan welcomed Jewish women to be counted in the minyan (congregation meeting), and receive an aliyah (duty to recite Torah at the pulpit) to the Torah. His daughter was the first young lady to be celebrated in bat mitzvah. 112 It is known that the change happens because woman speaks up for herself. Nurit Zaidman, an Israel anthropologist, states that modern Jewish feminism started in early 1971; it was marked by a group of women called Ezrat Nashim. The group voiced the members‟ eagerness to fully participate in Judaism.113
Those women of color voice their right that is not accommodated in the first wave feminism creates question about sisterhood; it is liberation for middle- class white women only.114 The similar restriction in era of French revolution due to the tyrant of bourgeoisie was felt by lower class women and women of color as well. However, first feminist movement gives a frame work for other women in other countries, and in religion institution to deconstruct the patriarchal system.
2.2.2.2 Jewish Feminism Movement and Jewish Sisterhood
Jewish women joining in the feminist movement in the U.S. are Aguilar
Grace, Gerda Lerner, Betty Freidan, and Robin Morgan. Their theories contribute
112 Nurit Zaidman, “Variation of Jewish Feminism: The Traditional, Modern, and Postmodern Approaches,“ Modern Judaism 16, no. 1 ( Feb. 1996), 50.
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to feminism struggle. Mary Antin‟s fight is recorded specifically in religion persecution. Thanks to liberal Judaism working as pioneer to pave the way for
Jewish feminists to write their own history and story.
Mary Antin is one of Jewish woman who chooses to take the opportunity.115 Her works are used as empowerment for two oppressed group.
First, it is for Jewish immigrants; 116 Antin shares to the world the longing to live life as free people can have. Second, it is as an empowerment for Jewish women.
In her The Promised Land (1912), Antin tells that „for a girl it was enough if she could read her prayers in Hebrew, and follow the meaning by the Yiddish translation at the bottom of the page…A girl‟s real schoolroom was her mother‟s kitchen.‟117 In America, she and Jewish women have to face another constraint in their religion due to her sex. She cannot fully participate in Judaism, including joining in school under custody of Orthodox value.118 Fortunately, her father reconsidered Antin‟s wish, and send her along with her sister to have education in a free formal institution.119
Among liberal Judaism, Rec.J promptly opened Reconstructionist
Rabbinical College (RRC), and accepted woman student in 1968, while CJ opened women rabbinical class in 1983. Furthermore, Rec.J is braver to reconstruct religious ritual, and language used in Holy Scriptures, 120 Rec.J allows
115 She immigrated from Polotsk in 1894 to America due to religious persecution in Russia. 116 Sunny Yudkoff, “Translation of Mary Antin‟s Yiddish Letter (Precursor to From Plotzk to Boston),” Studies in American Jewish Literature (1981-) 32, no. 1 (2013): 36-66,
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a ritual chaired by woman rabbi and invites women ancestors in their prayer, such as goddess Miriam and Sarah to bless them.121 However, Judith Plaskow, a woman rabbi tells the use of women goddess “She is Asherah, Ishtar, Isis ...
Mary”122 in ritual, which is not fully accepted in Post-modern Rec.J, as It is still considered as radical.
The development of liberal Judaism influences the development of Jewish sisterhood. Jewish sisterhood is known as a group of Jewish women who dedicate themselves to support religious ritual and activity in synagogue and congregations. For example, Montreal Synagogue sisterhood in Canada; during
1900 to 1949, it had developed its role from sustaining charity field after the
World War I, to be more participative in Judaism ritual.
Pamela Nadell and Rita Simon are the figures of Jewish sisterhood.
Bringing spirit of Jewish sisterhood in America, National Federation of Temple
Sisterhoods (NFTS) that was founded in 1913, and then it changed to Women of
Reform Judaism in 1993 123 encourages women to pursue women‟s right in politics, education, and opportunity at work for women in middle- and upper- classes. Yet, the opportunity did not get warm welcome among Jewish women.124
There is debate in the body because the paradigm in Judaism, everyone is not equal.
More expression referring to God are „yours are the cradling arms of life‟, and „the womb of our safe deliverance.” Here, the typical expressions attached to women are used to depict God. God is also altered to be more neutral as YEHOVA, which is taken from Hebrew source Yah, means the Mighty One, The Righteous One, The Source, The Living One, The Radiance. 121 Ibid, 55 122 Nurit Zaidman, 57. 123 Gary Phillip Zola, “Sisterhood and the American Synagogue,” n. Date, 1-2,
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Despite of the fact that there is improvement in politics and area where women can be more participative in Judaism, perception of „women of valor‟ is still strong. Beth Wenger in Goodman states women still get label as,
„enabler, behind the scenes agents‟ as part of the new functions of the sisterhood. Service to the synagogue and motivating their husbands and children in the religious aspect of their lives were primary goals of their agenda. As one Montreal sisterhood member stated about the work of the sisterhood, „Behind every good man is a woman.‟125
Jewish women have not really walked far from the first step they went, they still became the assistants of the main figures in Judaism.
In contrast, development of Women of Reform Judaism in the U.S. showed essential progress especially in remaking biblical text, The Torah: A
Women’s Commentary published in 2007,126 and more linguistic remaking in the ritual text. Since Jewish sisterhood is closely relating to influence of feminism movement in Judaism, however, it is more important to know underlying concept of sisterhood, this study uses sisterhood from bell hooks and Morgan‟s anthology that is profoundly discussed in the following sub-chapters.
2.2.2.3 Sisterhood
Knowing sisterhood was born in feminism movement in the U.S. and
European countries, it strongly influences women‟s liberation movement in other countries and religion realm, including Jewish women. 127 Several writers and theorists developing the power of sisterhood are Robin Morgan, and bell hooks, those names are representatives of theorists in first and second waves.
Morgan‟s and hooks‟s sisterhood moves freely without interference from male-dominated perception in culture and society, while Cott‟s sisterhood is
125 Ibid, 125. 126 Gary Phillip Zola, 8. 127 Nurit Zaidman, 48.
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trapped in gender bias. Tingting Qi‟s formulation of sisterhood enriches Morgan‟s and hook‟s in a way that involves sense of empathy. This thesis employs Western sisterhood to highlight the analysis, since it gives rationale about patriarchy; it dismantles construction of patriarchy, and helps to address it with sisterhood praxis. On the other hand, Jewish sisterhood shows more Jewish feminism development. As an example, the synagogue sisterhoods in Canada were instructed to support Jewish religious life during World War I and II; “women were deemed to be the guardians of morality and religiousity (to nurture husbands and children).” 128 In contrast, Pamela Nadell and Rita Simon – Jewish feminists - fight to claim “equality for women in the synagogue and religious life… they were also able to learn new ones. … book reviews, current events, and public speaking also expanded their knowledge about issues to the public sphere.” 129 It is important to highlight spirit of Nadell and Simon‟s struggle in sisterhood that is mutual relation among sisters. The zeal is parallel with the following three theorists who work on sisterhood as well.
2.2.2.3.1 Sisterhood by Robin Morgan, bell hook and Tingting Qi
Morgan collects women‟s writings as a heritage for other sisters at the time and the next generation. Sisterhood is Powerful (1970) aims to tell other women about each writer‟s restriction in her life. In introduction part, Morgan vigorously states the book is a trigger to provoke criticism toward women‟s solidarity in sharing and scrutinizing injustice experienced by women. She uses following analogy „a black person feeling compelled to have “processed” hair‟130 to describe women‟s position in the eye of oppressor. Her messages are (1)
128 Donna Goodman, 117. 129 Ibid, 128. 130 Robin Morgan, Introduction, Sisterhood is Powerful, xv.
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„women must become really committed to winning and (2) become genuine ally of other people struggling for their freedom.‟131 Moreover, she states,
To deny that you are oppressed is to collaborate in your oppression. To collaborate in your oppression is a way of denying that you‟re oppressed particularly when the price of refusing to collaborate is execution.132
She urges all women to open their eyes for any form of restriction applied toward women, being silent is similar to join with the oppressor ally. This is the foundation of political movement done by women who were apolitical before.
Likewise, hooks specifically discusses sisterhood as a “political solidarity among women.‟ She criticizes concept of sisterhood formed by bourgeois white women that focuses on common oppression. In fact, women are divided into different race, culture, social class, and other classification,133 and this is very important according to hooks to be mediated. She strengthens several points about sisterhood: “(1) abandoning the idea of sisterhood as an expression of political solidarity weakens and diminishes feminist movement. (2) Solidarity strengthens resistance struggle.134 (3) Women are enriched when we bond with one another, but we cannot develop sustaining ties or political solidarity using the model of sisterhood treated by bourgeois women‟s liberationists... the emphasis on common oppression.135 (4) To develop political solidarity among women, feminist activists cannot bond on the terms set by the dominant ideology of the culture...sexist oppression.”136 In a nutshell, hooks voices the black women‟s plights and other
131 Ibid, xv. 132 Ibid, xvi. 133 bell hooks, “Sisterhood as Political Solidarity among Women,” Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 44. 134 Ibid. 135 Ibid, 45. 136 Ibid, 47.
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women who are marginalized by being judged not white, and by their local oppression.
In spirit of true sisterhood, hooks emphasizes the importance and urgency to recognize and solve oppressions suffered by not only you as a person. hooks posits characters of patriarchy that counters sisterhood, those are competition, distrust, and defensive among women.137 Thus, she prefers word of „solidarity‟ to
„support‟138 as being solid means we are one at the same level, but the word support means that you place yourself a bit higher than the one whom you help.
hooks‟s solidarity aligns with Morgan‟s, she declares:
I was so called “politico,” who shied away from admitting (on any but a superficial level) that I was oppressed, and who put all other causes above and ahead of my own, castigating myself with liberal guilt and doing Lady Bountiful actions about other people‟s oppression.139
Morgan affirms that by positioning herself in a higher level than the women whom she supports is similar with the oppressor‟s position. It means she adopts the thinking concept applied by the oppressor; inserting hierarchy in her struggle, but it should be eradicated. Morgan emphasizes solidarity in sisterhood to fight sincerely against the oppression. Likewise, Tingting Qi, by studying Thayer-
Bacon‟s sisterhood, promotes empathy among sisters.
Furthermore, this thesis underlines that there are two things to remember in sisterhood; to aware of and admit the oppression so that there is no repeated circulation of oppressor. However, it is as easy as pie, for patriarchy uses all realm and institution in life; religion, education, and the like to sustain patriarchal interest. Beverly Jones says that:
137 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 48. 138 Ibid, 64. 139 Robin Morgan, xiv.
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[...] it is really very clever the way male society creates for women this premarital hell so that some man can save her from it and control her ever after by the threat of throwing her back. Degrading her further, the final crisis is usually averted or postponed by a tearful reconciliation in which the wife apologizes for her shortcomings, namely the sparks of initiative still left to her.140
The stories experienced by many women in Morgan‟s anthology are the action to tell other women about each writer‟s restriction in her life. In the process to publish the anthology, they faced problem in the level of writer‟s family and publisher (Random House).141 The anthology is taken as a threat or a radical movement thus it gets resistance.
Tingting Qi agrees with solidarity in sisterhood, which is found in Morgan and hooks‟s sisterhoods, and she elaborates how solidarity can be embodied with empathy. Jodi Dean accentuates a dialogue among the women with different experiences of oppression is essential. Through communication and mutual understanding, sisterhood is truly meaningful.142 Moreover, Tingting Qi believes that empathy makes sisterhood stronger in practice because its characteristics of
“receptiveness and openness.”143
The woman‟s story is processed in the feeling, which is part of imagination proposed by Maxine Greene.144 The imagination is completed with an intuition; a spontaneous feeling for other person. The importance of intuition in understanding other is proposed by Nel Nodding and Paul Shore.145 Then, the
140 Beverly Jones, “Marriage and Motherhood,” The Sisterhood is Powerful, ed. Robin Morgan. (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 47. 141 Robin Morgan, Introduction, The Sisterhood is Powerful, (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), xvi-xvii. 142 Jodi Dean in Tingting Qi, 331. 143 Tingting Qi, 334. 144 Maxine Greene in Tingting Qi, 333. 145 Nel Nodding and Paul Shore in Tingting Qi, 333-4.
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imagination stimulates reception in emotion. It is called “emotional acumen” by
Alison Jaggar.146 Furthermore, Thayer-Bacon further points out:
... reason, imagination, emotion and intuition also enables women to shape their thoughts, feelings, emotions, imaginations together and then make sense of life experience of their own and others.147
This rationale clarifies how woman in every part of the world can feel other woman‟s plight. We need to situate ourselves in the oppressed one. In the next step, it should lead to an action. In conclusion, this thesis agrees with Morgan and hook‟s concept of sisterhood, with additional process in adding empathy shared by Tingting Qi. However, it is still a challenge to see women‟s oppression in the middle of cultural and religion practices. Proper analysis needs to be pondered, and this thesis examines how sisterhood challenges it.
2.2.2.4 Mother and daughter relationship
Review of related studies shows some narratives with mother and daughter relationship, but the daughter and mother are not all by biological relationship.
The connection between them is possible, as the role of mother is not only taken by a woman who gives birth, but also it is taken by a person with mothering-will.
The role clearly starts from labor division as Nancy J. Chodorow accentuates,
“being a mother means bearing a child ... do primary parent/caretaker.”148
Likewise, Patricia Hill Collins says, “Other mothers are women who assist blood mothers by sharing mothering responsibilities ... by taking on child-care responsibilities for one another‟s children. 149 It can explain the role of the
146 Alison Jaggar in Tingting Qi, 333-334. 147 Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334. 148 Nancy J. Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. (Los Angeles: California UP. 1978), 11. 149 Patricia H. Collins in Lucie Prochazkova, 5.
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mother-aunties of Dinah. But, to see the relationship between mother and daughter as friends, this thesis refers to Chodorow as follow,
Women try to fulfill their need to be loved, try to complete the relational triangle, ..., which the heterosexual relationship tends to fulfill for men. ... Segregation by gender is the rule: Women tend to have closer personal ties ... and to spend more time in the company of women than they do with men. ... Deutsch suggests ... others need a best friend with whom they share all confidences ... one way of resolving and recreating the mother- daughter bond... 150
Helene Deutsch in Chodorow tells that it is common that woman is more comfortable to tell about her secret with her female friend. This understanding may explain sisterhood in The Red Tent when Dinah finds comfort among mothers and with her female friends who helps her in her crisis. The following sub-chapter is discussing theories used to analyze patriarchy and sisterhood.
150 Nancy J. Chodorow, 199-200.
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CHAPTER III
SISTERHOOD STANDS AGAINST PATRIACHAL MODE OF
PRODUCTION
Chapter II explains the review of related studies that are bound up with this thesis and theories to support the analysis. This chapter expounds the patriarchal culture personified in The Red Tent and how sisterhood challenges it.
This chapter also answers the first research question. Therefore, this thesis needs to dismantle the novel more as a fiction even though it is recognized as a midrash,151 as the focus of this thesis is on the content of the novel instead of the process of making it into a midrash, which has been studied by Flagg as it is explained in the chapter review of related studies.
Therefore, Sylvia Walby‟s patriarchy is employed to endorse the variety of patriarchy depicted in The Red Tent. This chapter scrutinizes patriarchal culture that comprises polygamy and birthright in Ancient Jewish. However, analysis of birthright is discussed in Chapter IV as the birthright is misunderstood by
Jacob‟sons and it leads to male violence. Considering the implementation of such patriarchal culture is under the custom of Near Eastern, Gerda Lerner‟s patriarchy is applied to strengthen the analysis. To challenge it, hooks, Morgan and Qi‟s theories of sisterhood illuminate the solidarity among the women. The structure of patriarchal culture, then, is narrowed into two other structures: patriarchal mode of production and male violence.
Walby states that “the keys of patriarchal relations in culture are differentiation of the discourses of femininities and masculinities and the
151 Critics or comments toward the biblical text in Judaism.
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valuation of masculinity above those of feminity.” 152 The tenet can explain the position of women in Mesopotamia at ancient time; they are valueless. Therefore, sons have more important role in the family than daughters,153 polygamous marriage and concubine are acceptable to produce sons, or when the wife is ill and cannot serve the husband. 154 Further discussion about patriarchal culture is sharphened to analyze the way sisterhood among the women characters in The
Red Tent go against the impact of patriarchal mode of production in Chapter III and male violence in Chapter IV. Discussions and analyses in Chapters III and IV begin with practices in patriarchy and then sisterhood to challenge them.
3.1 Polygamy
This subchapter examines the polygamy situation and agonies suffered by mothers, and the way sisterhood among them goes against it. It is known that in any text discussing Jacob (Jewish and Christian Bible, and Koran), he has four wives although the wives‟ names are different between the Bible and the Koran.
Leah and Rachel are born from different wives of Laban, while Zilpah and
Bilhah‟s mothers are Laban‟s concubines. In the Bible, name of Laban‟s wives and concubines are not mentioned, yet based on The Red Tent, Leah‟s mother is
Adah, and Rachel‟s mother is Huna, a talented midwife. Mer Ne-fat is Zilpah‟s mother, and Tenut is Bilhah‟s mother. To analyze the oppression due to patriarchy, this thesis employs some studies by Gerda Lerner, Nemet-Nejat and
Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen.
On the first page of the main novel discussed in this thesis, Dinah admits her complicated situation living with four mothers even though there is a line
152 Sylvia Walby, 104. 153 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea, 130. 154 Ibid, 136
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trying to make the condition looks natural at the time. “Like any sisters who live together and share a husband, my mother and aunties spun a sticky web of loyalties and grudges” (TRT, 2). The word “grudges” notifies situation of envy among them; sharing the same husband, every wife would try to win Jacob‟s attention. It is obvious from how Leah and Rachel put an effort to draw Jacob‟s attention. Leah draws Jacob‟s attention by her ability to cook and her willingness to take care of wool and cattle, while Rachel uses her beauty and love because she is Jacob‟s first love.
Polygamy tradition gives a strong influence in Near East; a man is allowed to have more than one wife and it is socially accepted. On the other hand, a few documents show polyandry tradition in Near East. The practice of polyandry is considered as an offense in Urukagina.155 It is understood that the stories in the
Genesis originally allow polygamy.156 Code of Hammurabi also legitimates polygamy to be done by a husband if the wife is barren or cannot have child due to task.
... men married to a naditum, a priestess who is not allowed to bear children. The naditum either gives her husband her slave girl to bear her children, or if she does not, the husband is entitled to a secondary wife, a sugetum, an inferior priestess or kind of a “lay sister” for the purpose of his begetting sons of her ... If she has not borne sons, her mistress may sell her.157
The child is important to expand the tribe. To make it more oppressive to woman,
Lerner finds preference of a boy over a girl. “Babylonian families valued the birth
155 Gerda Lerner, “The Stand-In Wife and the Pawn,” The Creation of Patriarchy, 63. 156 Raphael Cohen-Almagor, “Discrimination against Jewish Women in Halacha (Jewish Law) and in Israel,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, (2016), 17.
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of sons far above the birth of daughters;” 158 This confirms that polygamy is an answer to have a son if a wife bears no son. In contrast, a daughter is worthy when she becomes a bride, for the family gets a dowry.159
Pondering the sum of dowry that Laban may have from his daughters‟ marriages, it elucidates the swindle in Jacob‟s first wedding. Laban said that it is not appropriate according to the custom to let the younger daughter marry to a man before the older daughter ties the knot.160 Through the swindle, Laban gets another seven months from Jacob‟s labor as a dowry that Jacob gives on behalf of
Rachel, as the first seven months belongs to Leah. It gives more profit for Laban.
Furthermore, Jacob also asks Zilpah to be Leah‟s dowry, which is similar to position of Bilhah on Rachel‟s behalf (TRT, 35).
The situation then aligns with Walby‟s patriarchy, “it is a system of social structures and practices, in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.”161
In a marriage, the law of the area, husband and the father rule a woman. Living with more than one woman as a sexual partner is a man‟s prerogative, but it is seen as a crime for a woman. Laban has four daughters from his four relationships with his two wives and two concubines, and he is able to have sons from another concubine, named Ruti (TRT, 86).
Questioning a tenet adopted by Laban to rule life of his daughters, this thesis emphasizes Walby‟s patriarchal culture saying, “the keys of patriarchal relations in culture are differentiation of the discourses of femininities and
158 Gerda Lerner, 106 159 Ibid. 160 Gen. 29:25. 161 Sylvia Walby, 20.
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masculinities, and the valuation of masculinity above those of feminity;” 162
Laban understands that Jacob loves Rachel, and he believes that Jacob would do all means to have Rachel. Laban misuses this situation due to the promising benefit. This is in accordance with Lerner‟s research stating position of a woman in a family is supporting her father, and her husband.163 From the discussion above, it is understood that polygamy exists also due to expanssion and then polygamy is used to exploit women.
It closely relates to Walby‟s patriarchal mode of production, Walby states a wife has a responsibility to take care of the family (husband, children, and parents sometimes). 164 There are two practices in patriarchal mode of production that are challenged by sisterhood: division of work and children‟s gender preference. Both are interrelated with polygamy because sons are more valuable than daughters, even infanticide for daughters are more common than sons.165
Hence, mother has no back up to help her, but females‟ bonding and the presence of a daughter give power for women to face the plight.
Despite of the fact that polygamous marriage with sisters is common in
Mesopotamia,166 Jewish law does not recommend polygamy with wives who are relatives because it may ignite jealousy among the wives. The envy among wife- sisters is hard to avoid.167 Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen calls polygamy with sister-wives as sororal polygamy, and there are two comments about polygamy.
Firstly, polygamy may help each wife to cooperate among them, “share values
162 Ibid, 104. 163 Gerda Lerner, 74. 164 Sylvia Walby, “Theorizing Patriarchy,” Sociology, 213-34. 165 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea, 130. 166 Gerda Lerner, 71. 167 Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, “Defining Polygamy,” Polygamy: A Cross-cultural Analysis, (New York: Berg, 2008,) 32.
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and norms.”168 It is understood that if the norm says woman‟s place is at home, they may share the task at home (do household chores and raise children, for examples). By sharing tasks and stories, wives can build a bonding among them and have time for herself sometime as it happens in Jing‟s analysis about sisterhood among wives in China. This thesis does not see that it is completely bad because women are given worse options at the time if a woman asks a divorce to her husband.169 The sisterhood among the wives helps them within the specific context. This thesis would elaborate it in the next subchapter.
Other polygamy cases, which are found in Ancient Jewish tradition and in
Cameroon, show that there is possibility the wives compete to each other, whether to get more attention and love, and/or money from the husband. The situation below is found in Cameroon by Catrien Notermans.
Co-wife competition is a main problem for women in the district. Instead of helping each other with domestic tasks – as the local normative discourse prescribes – co-wives frequently fight for the money and the sexual favors of their husband. The unequal division of money causes sharp arguments and competition between the co-wives, since these women do the agricultural work and almost totally depend on their husbands for money.170
It states that feud in polygamy family emerges because of an unequal economics support from the father. This situation is found in the main novel analyzed in this thesis with more complicated situation, which is birthright and it is discussed in
Chapter IV.
Diamant illustrates expressively the competition between Leah and
Rachel. Leah is asked to replace Rachel in her marriage after Zilpah scares Rachel
168 Ibid. 169 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea, 140. Mostly, husband asks divorce in the marriage. On the contrary, there is a social stigma is labelled to a wife; the wife does adultery or she is childless. 170 Catrien Notermans in Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, 32.
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by telling how man usually treats his wife sexually (TRT, 30-31). This is different to what happen in the Genesis.171 However, the stories of Jacob‟s marriage to
Leah and Rachel in the novel and the Genesis are endorsed by the custom, which implies polygamy is acceptable.
In other part, Anita Diamant makes the story more decent, she does not show Jacob‟s overt love toward Rachel like in the Genesis.172 In The Red Tent,
Jacob sees Leah with respect. It is similar when Jacob sees Adah (Leah‟s mother).173 Despite of the fact that Jacob has many sons from Leah, Jacob‟s love toward Joseph – a son from Rachel - is deeper than to other sons. It is further discussed in Chapter IV.
After the Rachel‟s marriage, the feud between them has become worst when Rachel and Leah compete to give Jacob a son. In the introduction part,
Lerner informs the favoritism toward sons over daughters. The ability to give a son for a family is wife‟s pride. It is also informed in Chapter II that the competition is a product of patriarchy,174 Rachel‟s hatred toward Leah is getting worst because Rachel has not been pregnant yet. To compete with Leah, Rachel sends Bilhah to sleep with Jacob, which takes place in Gen. 30:3. It usually happens in ancient Israel, similar to the story of Sarah and Hagar. However,
Diamant alters the story to highlight the sisterhood among the mothers. Bilhah offers herself as a surrogate mother for Rachel‟s child (TRT, 52). The status of
Bilhah as a slave makes Bilhah‟s sons belong to Rachel, but Diamant gives space
171 Genesis 29:25 And it came to pass, that in the morning, behold, it was Leah: and he said to Laban, What is this thou hast done unto me? Did not I serve with thee for Rachel? Wherefore then hast thou beguiled me? 29:26 And Laban said, it must not be so done in our country, to give the younger before the firstborn. 172 Genesis 29:30 He loved also Rachel more than Leah. 173 The Red Tent, 29. 174 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 48.
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for Bilhah to raise her voice. She decides to be a mother because of her own decision. Considering the different status between wife and concubine, it is also the product of patriarchy that is supported by Code of Hammurabi,175 but Diamant relates the position of Bilhah with the Hebrew law that treats a slave a bit better than in Code of Hammurabi.176 Furthermore, Diamant gives voice for Bilhah.
3.2 Sisterhood fights against the patriarchal mode of production
In Chapter II, sisterhood in polygamy family is found in several countries, and in different era; China based on Jing‟s study, Cameroon, and Mesopotamia in ancient time. The reason of polygamy in China177 and Mesopotamia is the same in relation to heir. Confucianism legitimates the polygamy in China, while Code of
Hammurabi legitimates polygamy in Mesopotamia.178 Polygamy in Cameroon is cultivated by the society because the practice is believed can increase a man‟s power. By having many kids, especially sons, the man gets more chance to be successful in leading a village.179 Likewise, the condition is found in
Mesopotamia. The factual informations above indicate necessity about polygamy from the ancient time up to the recent time is to support men.
The oppression suffered by a woman in polygamy is also caused by gender preference of children. Meanwhile, the divison of work in the family worsens the situation for women. Lerner finds that Babylonian family favors a son more than a daughter. It is because several reasons: a son is assigned to continue the family line, a son is given a duty (privilege) to expand family‟s property, as he is
175 Gerda Lerner, 113. 176 Ibid, 34. 177 Leda Castrillo, “Polygamy: An Inappropriate Relationship,” Mako: NSU Undergraduate Student Journal 1, art. 1 (2007): 5,
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believed to have a good management, military ability and he is able to provide service to temple and king. Furthermore, a son is the one who performs death ritual for the parents.180 The function of wives in polygamous marriage then supports the position of a man; a family is complete if the family has a son. A mother‟s task is preparing the children to follow a path of life that is constructed by patriarchal culture.
It is obvious in Laban‟s marriage that the culture accounts for the polygamy situation in the novel, for children he gets from the first four women are girls. Polygamy in Jacob‟s marriage happens in distinctive situation than Laban‟s.
Zilpah influences Rachel to put off her wedding; it urges Rachel to seek a help from Leah to replace her on her wedding eve. hooks‟s explanation about competition among women that breaks sisterhood is clear through the story.
Zilpah, who is closer to Leah and knows that Leah likes Jacob, deceives Rachel
(TRT, 30-31). In the Genesis, Laban tells Jacob that a first daughter should get marry first before the second daughter does. (Gen. 29:10 to 36:6). Thus, the marriages are not 100 percent decided by Jacob. However, Jacob expects Bilhah and Zilpah to be the dowries. Afterwards, the other product of patriarchy, distrust, broadens the gap between Leah and Rachel. The envy between them is getting stronger when Leah is able to give Jacob many sons, while Rachel remains with no child.
The failure sisterhood happens due to „social being in-relation‟;181 Thayer-
Bacon asserts a person‟s thinking is affected by others, since a human being is a social creature. Leah welcomes Rachel‟s begging to take Jacob as her husband
180 Gerda Lerner, “The Wife and the Concubine,” The Creation of Patriarchy, Women & History, (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986), 106. 181 Barbara Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 333.
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without questioning Rachel her fear and objection, for Leah is attracted to Jacob.
There is no rejection from Leah about it. Moreover, Leah collaborates with Jacob to have Rachel too. In The Red Tent, Leah agrees with polygamy, for it is taken for granted by the society at the time.
The thesis observes Leah as the symbol of a woman, who gets influence from patriarchy. She is obsessesed with Jacob; she always tries to pamper her husband with her foods, she shows her skill in managing animal husbandry and her willing to give Jacob many sons. Upon the situation, Dinah told the readers about Leah‟s role as the mother, “She, who had always risen the earliest and retired last, ... (stirring a pot while nursing, or grinding grain as she oversaw the spinning)” (TRT, 48). Besides, she expects Dinah to be able to have similar skill as Leah‟s (TRT, 86). It does not to tell that being able to cook and do household chores are bad, but Leah does not have time for herself; she always thinks about
Jacob, her works but she neglects herself.
In contrast, Rachel is a woman with lesser work at home, as she does not occupy herself with many household chores like Leah does, and she has more time to have quality time with Jacob freely, and she is a midwife. This part draws attention to two moments when sisterhood among the sisters is challenged and then it grows. The growing sisterhood among the mothers is a moment for Dinah to experience the females bonding through stories she hears and socialization with her mothers and mother-aunties.
It starts with Rachel‟s wish to get pregnant again and then Rachel pictures herself in the position of Leah when she is giving birth to Reuben in the red tent.
Rachel remembered. “I wandered in and out of the tent, eaten up by jealousy. But as the hours came and went, each one harder than the last,
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my envy waned and I was horrified by the pain I saw on Leah, the strong one, the invincible ox who was on the ground trembling and wide-eyed. I was terrified by the thought that I might have been in her place that I might yet be. (TRT, 39)
Rachel finally admits that Leah is strong regardless her envy. Such openness and receptiveness are the characteristics of sisterhood studied by Qi.182 There is an emotional development from hatred to fear; the fear for Leah and then for herself in the future when she undergoes the childbirth. Moreover, Nemet-Nejat in her study informs that, “a new born baby was at risk if the mother failed to produce milk. The rich could hire a wet nurse, but the poor faced certain death of the child.”183 The risk of labor affects not only the mother but also the child so that sisterhood among the wives can help to increase the possibility of mother‟s and baby‟s lives. Based on the novel, Rachel cannot do the breastfeeding and Leah becomes the wet-nurse for Joseph (TRT, 75).
By contrast, Diamant criticizes polygamy practice through The Red Tent.
The study finds the critic on two different pages in The Red Tent and connects them with her Jewish denomination. First, the Code of Hammurabi states that the husband can decide to whether take the provided concubine, or not.184 Diamant writes the following in the bracket “why would he not? Leah nursed her latest son and Rachel‟s back had been turned to him for long months” (TRT, 52). It implies
Jacob wants the moment with his concubine in the middle of Leah‟s busy time and Rachel‟s recovery time. “Why would he not” indicates the benefit Jacob can have from accepting the offer, but it also shows Diamant‟s question toward the good heart of Jacob.
182 Tingting Qi, 334. 183 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea, 130. 184 Ibid.
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Second evidence is the time when Dinah makes friend with Meryt, an
Egypt midwife, who helps her a lot. Meryt is a wife, but she is barren. Diamant narrates this story through Dinah, “Meryt and her man adopted two boys whose parents had been felled by river fever” (TRT, 237). Diamant implicitly compares stories of the four wives of Jacob with Meryt. Third proof is taken from
Diamant‟s nonfiction; she tells readers that she writes her faith journey based on the liberal Judaism, and not the Orthodox one.
Choosing a Jewish Life describes conversion within the framework of liberal, or non-Orthodox, Judaism. Although liberal Jews do have their disagreements, they share the basic assumption that Judaism evolves over time, and that Jews in every generation struggle to reconcile ancient ways with modern challenges. 185
Polygamy is addressed by two reactions in Judaism. Sephardic Jews186 mostly do not ban polygamy.187 In 14th century polygamy was still found in
Sephardic Jews society.188 In contrast, Ashkenazic Jews189 prohibits polygamy.190
Similar fact stated by Barry Freundel; polygamy is not found in Ashkenazic
Jews.191 This discrepancy occurs due to influence from countries, where Jews immigrate to. Ashkenazic Jews get impact from Western and European countries, while Sephardic Jews absorb cultural value from Middle East, and African
185 Anita Diamant,”Introduction,” Choosing a Jewish Life. (EPUB) 186 Jews coming from Spain, Portugal, North Africa and the Middle East and their descendants. Sephardic Jews commonly are Orthodox Judaism.
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countries.192 Pondering the data, this thesis believes that it relates to Diamant‟s disagreement with polygamy.
Another sisterhood experience is embodied by Bilhah, Rachel‟s handmaid.
She sees the longing of Rachel to have child and offers herself to Jacob with
Rachel‟s blessing. Unfortunately, Jacob‟s gladness with Bilhah tortures Rachel‟s heart (TRT, 52-54). In this part, Diamant underscores the role of sisterhood; she reworks Bilhah‟s story in the Genesis. Rachel offers Bilhah to Jacob in order to have a baby.193 In The Red Tent, Bilhah makes decision to conceive a child on
Rachel‟s behalf, for Bilhah has compassion on Rachel. “Let me be your vessel until your time comes, for your time will yet arrive. Let me be your hope, Rachel”
(TRT, 51), from the excerpts, Bilhah makes her own choice because she cares for her sister.
Reflecting the sisterhood experiences above, Qi contributes the rationale for molding sisterhood with empathy. Jaggar‟s „emotional acumen‟194 construes a situation when Rachel imagines Leah‟s condition. The imagination is received and processed in Rachel‟s emotion and feeling, and directs Rachel to see such situation in herself, she pictures herself to be in the position of Leah, as Thayer-
Bacon states,
... reason, imagination, emotion, and intuition also enables women to shape their thoughts, feelings, emotions, imaginations together and then make sense of life experience of their own and others.195
Similarly, Bilhah feels the Rachel‟s despair196 and offers herself as a help for
Rachel to be the surrogate mother.
192 Judaism 101, “Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews,” http://www.jewfaq.org/ashkseph.htm, (10 June 2017). 193 Gen. 30:2 - 30:4. 194 Alison Jaggar in Tingting Qi, 333-334. 195 Barbara Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334.
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Sisterhood between Leah and Rachel has been molded through their sharing moment under the red tent after Leah‟s first labor and has grown fruitfully when Dinah comes to the world. Dinah‟s birthday is a symbol of the woman‟s generation; this thesis accepts it as a feminist movement in Jacob‟s family. Leah tells Dinah, “So you are Dinah, my last-born. My daughter. My memory” (TRT,
69). Hereafter, the history does not belong to Jacob‟s sons only but also Leah‟s daughter and the next generation. Later, sisterhood spirit moves from the inner- circle of the mothers to a concubine of Laban.
Considering children‟s gender preference, Dinah, Leah and the other mothers in the novel convey their concerns to continue the family‟s line through the existence of a daughter three times. Firstly, “the chain connecting mother to daughter was broken and the word passed to the keeping of men, who had no way of knowing” (TRT, 1). Men are having more freedome to perform in religion, family and society. The stories of men are the main heritage to be inheritted from generation to generation. In consequence, women‟s voices are silenced. Genesis
34 shows that men take position to represent Dinah with limited information about her; Dinah‟s voice is ignored.
The second is mothers‟ cravings for a daughter can be seen through the following lines:
My mothers were proud to give my father so many sons. Sons were a woman‟s pride and her measure. But the birth of one boy after another was not an unalloyed source of joy in the women‟s tents. My father boasted about his noisy tribe, and the women loved my brothers, but they longed for daughters, too, and complained among themselves about the maleness of Jacob‟s seed. (TRT, 2)
196 The Red Tent, 51.
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The statement is bound up with the wife‟s role in the family, and the phenomenon in the society at the time; having many sons is more prestigious than daughters. In the relation to the Ancient Israel custom - take care the weak member in the family, and woman is included in such member 197 - having more sons in a family also means the family has more power.
Moreover, Lerner argues that Ancient Israelites‟ means to enlarge their tribe are by making war and reproduction. They conquer the men from other tribe, abduct the women and grab their belongings. 198 The winner-tribe opt good women from the conquered tribe to be wives and concubines, and have the rest to be their slaves. Diamant in The Red Tent exemplifies the reproduction that is enforced by Laban to his new concubine, Ruti, because Laban has no sons from the two wives and concubines as follow:
“‟Lady, I beg you. Give me the herbs to cast out the baby I carry,‟ she whispered in a cold, flat hiss. „I would rather die than give him another son, and if it is a girl, I will drown her before she is old enough to suffer at his hands.‟ „Help me for the sake of your husband‟s sons,‟ said Ruti, in a voice from the other side of the grave. „I know you will not do it for me. You hate me, all of you.” (TRT, 63)
At the time when Ruti has given Laban two sons, Laban does not feel satisfied with that. Up on Ruti‟s rejection to bear more children, Laban tortures her and still use her as a tool to satisfy Laban‟s hunger for his sexual pleasure. The situation that Ruti‟s sons disrespect their own mother makes Ruti want to abort her fetus.
Rachel, Leah, Zilpah and Bilhah do not get along with Ruti because Ruti is
Laban‟s concubine, and Ruti‟s sons are rivals of the mothers‟ sons (TRT, 63). The decision to help Ruti is urged by Bilhah who says, “we are no better than he
(Laban) is to have her suffer alone, to have given her no comfort, no help” (TRT,
197 Gerda Lerner, 163. 198 Gerda Lerner, 56-57.
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63). There are two steps in forming sisterhood between the four mothers and Ruti.
First, Ruti is the mother of sons whom Jacob hates. Hence, the mothers step into an area where they just feel pity on her. This first impression about Ruti‟s struggle rhymes with hook‟s, where sisterhood has not been spun.
Abandoning the idea of sisterhood as an expression of political solidarity weakens and diminishes feminist movement. ...Women are enriched when we bond with one another, but we cannot develop sustaining ties or political solidarity using the model of sisterhood created by bourgeois women‟s liberationists... the emphasis on common oppression. 199
The common oppression segregates struggle among the sisters. Similar to hooks‟s analysis of the bourgeois women who just focus on their own struggle and leave women of color behind, hooks reminds us to know that the true sisterhood creates empathy toward other sister without necessity to experience the same condition. This situation does not show the willingness of the four mothers to help, since they do not put themselves into Ruti‟s shoes. Therefore, they do not feel the urgency to help her. Howbeit, Ruti is aware with her own oppression and seek the help from her four mothers. This step is parallel with Morgan‟s theory:
To deny that you are oppressed is to collaborate in your oppression. To collaborate in your oppression is a way of denying that you‟re oppressed particularly when the price of refusing to collaborate is execution.200
Even though she is a concubine and a slave, Ruti renounces Laban‟s wanton behavior to her. Through Bilhah‟s initiation (TRT, 70), Ruti‟s plight becomes the four mothers‟ agonies. Dinah says, “Zilpah took on Ruti‟s suffering as her own”
(TRT, 64). Rachel states her position toward Ruti, “Let us care for our sister, Ruti”
(TRT, 64). Leah and Bilhah also take care of her.
199 bell hooks, “Sisterhood as Political Solidarity among Women,” Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 44-5. 200 Robin Morgan, xvi.
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On this context, Bilhah conveys her consideration that carries these spirit in sisterhood (1) „women must become really committed to winning and (2) become genuine ally of other people struggling for their freedom.‟201 Bilhah reminds other mothers to separate their hatred to Laban from Ruti‟s condition because Ruti is the object of Laban‟s domination, in this chapter is specifically patriarchal mode of production. Ruti is like a machine to produce his children.
The mothers then agree to be an aid for Ruti to abort the fetus. They focus on their mission and work together as a good team work to accomplish the mission. It is clearly seen through their strategy below:
“The sisters did not change in their apparent treatment of Ruti. They did not speak to her or show her any special kindness. But at night, when Laban snored, one of the four would find her, huddled on her filthy blanket ... and feed her broth or honeyed bread. ... Finally, the moon waned and all the women entered the red tent. ... Rachel mixed a black herbal brew, which Ruti drank in silence. (TRT, 64)
Their intention to help Ruti is realized with the great tactic. The mothers always gather in the red tent during time of women‟s period, during pregnant time, and after a woman gives birth to a baby, thus when the time comes the mothers could execute the plan. In the red tent, Rachel gives the herbs for Ruti‟s miscarriage.
Zilpah and Rachel pray to Gula and Anath (ancient goddesses who are known for their help at childbirth) for Ruti (TRT, 64). They work together in a good team work. The sisterhood also invites blessing from goddesses whom the mothers believe they understand the struggle of a pregnant mother. The mothers are also very good to keep the incident from Laban, and men in the clan. Dinah knows the story from Zilpah (TRT, 65).
201 Robin Morgan, xv.
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Connecting to the development in Judaism, Rec.J denomination allows
Jewish women to practice the religion by adapting the way that they are comfortable with such as inviting female ancestors in the Judaism service.202
Nonetheless, reciting prayers to goddesses are still taken as a radical movement by the denomination. This thesis believes that Diamant has concern in such situation and write such practice in her The Red Tent. Moreover, the goddesses in
Ancient Israel are part of the tribe‟s history and it is inheritance to be given from generation to generation. The incident also relates to a story when Rachel steals a teraphim from Kemuel (Laban‟s son from Ruti) to bring it to Canaan, and states that it is also her legacy (TRT, 90).
The success of their plan carries a form of care that the mothers think the struggle as their own struggle too. In the novel, Dinah said that “Zilpah took on
Ruti‟s suffering as her own” (TRT, 64). The solidarity creates no hierarchy as
Morgan‟s theory of sisterhood below:
I was so called “politico,” who shied away from admitting (on any but a superficial level) that I was oppressed, and who put all other causes above and ahead of my own, castigating myself with liberal guilt and doing Lady Bountiful actions about other people‟s oppression.203
Zilpah does not feel inferior to take Ruti‟s plight as her own plight; she does not think that admitting being oppressed is lowering her position. In fact, it ignites her empathy to put herself in Ruti‟s shoes, and she is eager to find the solution, execute it and achieve the goal to abort the fetus. The plan can run well also because the age of the pregnancy is still one-month old (TRT, 63). The possibility to save the mother is very promising.
202 Nurit Zaidman, 55. 203 Robin Morgan, xiv.
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Similarly, the women complain about Jacob‟s sons, and crave for a daughter. The longing for a daughter in the novel relates to having an heir and a confidant to carry women‟s story for the next generation. “I carried my mothers‟ tales into the next generation, but the stories of my life were forbidden to me, and that silence nearly killed the heart in me” (TRT, 3). Dinah states that the stories heard from her mother and grandmother are precious, as valuable as a gift for goddesses (TRT, 3). It relates to her identity, the acceptance and love in the family. Dinah is one of Jacob‟s children, but patriarchal mode of production unfolds the gap between them. Dinah expresses her relationship with her father in the novel that is discussed on page 66.
Another reason of having a daughter, which is admitted by Dinah is that a daughter can be a help for the mother to do the household chores. The following discussion then moves to division of work in patriarchal mode of production, which shows the injustice between mother‟s and father‟s tasks tortures the mother.
Daughters eased their mothers burdens – helping with the spinning, the grinding of grain, and the endless task of looking after baby boys, who were forever peeing into the corners of the tents, no matter what you told them. (TRT, 2-3)
Regarding the domestic task, it is very sensible to recognize it. The number of mother‟s tasks is more than list of father‟s works. Diamant describes in her novel that a mother needs to take care of the children, house, does a favor for the husband in husbandry, and serve another husband‟s need.
They divide the duties of a chief wife. Leah had charge of the weaving and cooking, the garden and the children. Rachel – still lovely and slim- waisted – served her husband and waited upon traders who came to the camp. She looked after Jacob‟s needs and, her skills as a healer growing, saw to the pains and illlnesses of men, women, and even beasts. (TRT, 65)
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Similar description is also written by Diamant in her other novel, The
Boston Girl. Celia, a minor character in the novel is occupied with many household chores: cleaning up the house, cooking, and raising her sons who are not her biological sons as she marries to a widower who is 11 years older than her.
The husband does not take care of the sons with words but with violence. In consequence, it turns the boys to be more ignorant to Celia and debase her.204 Her husband rubs the salt into Celia‟s wound, and it makes her to be more silent in the house.
The role of Celia‟s husband does not perform a role of nurturing children.
He teaches the children with violence in stead of giving understanding to listen to the mother. Through the situation, Celia does not have support from the husband, but the condition is worse. Moreover, the sisterhood between Celia and Addie (the main character in the novel who is Celia‟s younger sister) is failed because of
Addie‟s ignorance. It is not a mutual relationship between them; Celia always takes care of her sister, Addie. She supports Addie‟s wish to have education by giving her some money and releasing her from tasks at home before Celia gets married.
On the other hand, Addie is busy with her activity and does not offer quality time with her sister. Referring to hooks‟s theory of sisterhood, she reminds women not to rely on common oppression,205 this thesis understands to emphasize that women‟s oppressions are not the same. Therefore, each sister should be sensitive to acknowledge other sister‟s struggle and be a support system for each other. Addie‟s struggle is having opportunity to pursue education and knowledge,
204 Anita Diamant, “We got a suffragette in the family.” The Boston Girl. 205 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 45.
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while her sister‟s fight is having more time for herself in the middle of overwork at home as a wife and a step-mother, and to be heard. However, Celia is not brave enough to ask for help. In fact, she represses it because her mother has exposed her with many doctrines to be a good woman; be obedient, be able to cook, and be selfless.206 At the end, she decides to kill herself.
The only solace for Celia is her sister‟s presence. Her father is depicted as a passive character compare to the mother. Therefore, there is not enough support that empowers her to go out from her fear and restlessness. She cannot find it from herself and from her family‟s circle, even not from Abbie, whom she supports.
Returning to discussion in The Red Tent, in contrast, the father focuses more on his livestock and teaches the sons to perform male‟s work. Such situation is accordance with Lerner‟s research that finds no regulation about the girl‟s rebel, and she assumes that a girl is more dutiful than a boy. Sending a daughter into a marriage life is accepted as a solution for her rebel disposition.207
Upon the division of work between a man and a woman in the family, the four women are blessing208 for Laban and Jacob. Leah, Bilhah and Zilpah‟s effort is very fruitful; Dinah conveys the following:
The family‟s good fortune and increasing wealth were not entirely the result of Jacob‟s skill, nor could it all be attributed to the will of the gods. My mothers‟ labors accounted for much of it. While sheep and goats are a sign of wealth, their full value is realized only in the husbandry of women. Leah‟s cheeses never soured, ... Zilpah and Bilhah wove the wool from Jacob‟s growing flocks into patterns of black, white, and saffron that lured traders and brought new wealth. (TRT, p. 45)
206 Anita Diamant,” That‟s where I started to be my own person.” The Boston Girl. 207 Gerda Lerner, 106. 208
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Diamant describes Jacob as a hard worker and a smart man and Laban benefits much from Jacob. His skill at training shepherd dog and managing the husbandry that is supported by his wives and concubines‟ presence, multiply Laban‟s wealth.
Howbeit, the relation among Jacob and his women does not challenge the patriarchal mode of production. Moreover, there is no significant interaction between Jacob and Dinah showing the bond between a father and a daughter.
Further discussion about Jacob‟s position in the family is profoundly analyzed in
Chapter IV. The following paragraphs expound the friendship among Dinah and her mothers.
In the review of related theories subchapter, discussion about patriarchal culture in Ancient Jewish provides the rationale of oppression toward women.
Distinct position between a woman and a man, especially in work division, and biological difference, create some hurdles for a woman and a man to support each other, and it is a part of patriarchal mode of production. Therefore, sisterhood is bonded among women to help each other, in daily needs, especially to face the oppression caused by patriarchy in the novel.
Dinah‟s circle with her mothers marks her first sisterhood. Her childhood is filled with memory of her mother‟s; it is strong as she says,
I am not certain whether my earliest memories are truly mine, because when I bring them to mind, I feel my mothers‟ breath on every word. ... And I‟m sure that I was caught up by strong arms every time I stumbled, for I do not recall a time in my early life when I was alone or afraid. ... I knew that I was the most important person in my mother‟s world. And most important not only to my mother, Leah, but to my mother-aunties as well. (TRT, 75)
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The closeness among Dinah and her mothers is described through the lines above, the memory of her mothers feels like her own memory. The sisterhood among
Dinah and her mothers is clarified with Helene Deutsch‟s theory,
Women try to fulfill their need to be loved, try to complete the relational triangle, ... ,which the heterosexual relationship tends to fulfill for men. ... Segregation by gender is the rule: Women tend to have closer personal ties ... and to spend more time in the company of women than they do with men. ... Deutsch suggests ... others need a best friend with whom they share all confidences ... one way of resolving and recreating the mother- daughter bond... 209
The theory is very relevant to the novel. The different area between a man and a woman is constructed to be very clear; weaving, cooking, weaving, and brewing are woman‟s work, while hunting and shepherding sheep done by men, for instance. The job division is not chosen by a person due to his/her preference, but through sex and gender. Such division of work is perpetuated from the traditionalist that is influenced by custom in Stone Age era (1400 B.C.E.).210
Therefore, topic to talk between man and woman is different and women need their space to talk their topic among them because they can understand each other.
Dinah is attached to her mother and mother-aunties even she can enter the woman tent where only females entering womanhood can join. There is different treatment among the female, between the young and older women. However, the mothers breach the custom, as hooks states it, “to develop political solidarity among women, feminist activists cannot bond on the terms set by the dominant ideology of the culture... sexist oppression.”211
209 Helene Deutsch in Nancy P. Chodorow, 199-200. 210 Gerda Lerner, 16-17. 211 bell, hooks, “Sisterhood as Political Solidarity among Women,” Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 47.
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Leah and Dinah‟s friendship starts when Dinah is still in Leah‟s womb;
“You and I whispered to each other like old friends. You were very wise, telling me to eat to calm my upset stomach, how to settle a quarrel between Reuben and
Simon” (TRT, 66-67). Oppression faced by Dinah, when she is a child, is bullying from Simon and Levi; Simon and Levi assume their work in pasture and hunting is showing manhood. Hence, they mock Zebulun and Dan (Jacob‟s sons) when they do King/Queen role play with Dinah and Jacob (TRT, 77). Simon and Levi are happy to see Dinah and Joseph left without friends. In contrast, Dinah has mothers to comfort her with their love, stories, and skill training.
The friendship is not one way but two ways. In Morgan‟s anthology, there are many women from different professional and cultural background, and different sexual orientation. Every woman shares her story; even there is a system to give equal portion for each woman to contribute, to speak up in the meeting.212
Sisterhood is a mutual understanding, there is a moment to speak, and to hear and understand each other. Dinah also comforts Leah when Leah tries to have Issa and
Tali‟s attention (two from six sons she has) by giving her cook, but the boys do not care. Leah is too busy with her works, and she finds difficulty to take care her seven children. Again, it relates to the function of wife, which is explained in
Walby‟s patriarchal mode of production. Dinah recognizes that Leah is occupied with many domestic works, and Dinah approaches her mother and consoles her.
Dinah knows that Leah is always occupied herself with many domestic stuffs, but she does not hate or put a distance with her mother. In fact, Dinah provides consolation for her mother because she loves her mother (TRT, 79).
212 Robin Morgan, p.Xxviii
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Dinah‟s attitude to her mother shows solidarity that strengthens resistance struggle.213 This indicates that Dinah does not get full attention from Leah, but
Dinah gets the mother‟s love from her other mothers. Dinah sees Bilhah as a good mother, as good as the rain and as good as the milk (TRT, 9), Bilhah is also a good listener for Dinah. Previously, the study states that Leah is a symbol of a woman who gets influence from patriarchy tenet; it also shows in this chapter when Leah wrenches anger upon Dinah due to her poor skill in weaving (TRT, 78-79) even though Leah regrets her harsh treat to Dinah and embraces her. Dinah gets comfort first from Bilhah who teaches her how to weave the spindle and tells her a story.
On the contrary, the relationship between Jacob and Dinah is not close. “My world was filled with mothers and brothers, work and games, new moons and good food. The hills in the distance held my life in a bowl filled with everything I could possibly want” (TRT, 83). Dinah does not mention her father‟s name. Dinah knows Jacob from her mothers‟ stories, and Joseph‟s stories, until she follows
Leah to speak with Jacob. Dinah knows Jacob for the first time through Jacob‟s voice, gesture, and thought (TRT, 85). Through the scene, patriarchal mode of production cannot be competed by relationship between a daughter and a father and between husband and wife, but the close relationship between a mother and a daughter.
Besides being close to her mothers, Dinah makes a good friendship with
Joseph; “Joseph was my constant companion, first my milk-brother and later my truest friend” (TRT, 75). The frienship between Dinah and Joseph indicates two
213 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 44.
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important things. Firstly, the communication of them about Jacob‟s God, ancestors and goddesses becomes a bridge between two beliefs; Joseph admires
Jacob‟s story and Dinah adores her mother‟s story shows the Jewish feminism movement. Rec.J opens way for Jewish women to invite female ancestors in the
Judaism service.214 Goddess, Sarah and the like are called out in the service to give blessing for the people in synagogue. The last is Dinah and her mothers‟ friendship are more to tell compares to relationship between Joseph and his brothers. Joseph finds friend in Dinah besides being close also to his father due to his father‟s favoritism.
Diamant describes distinctive nurture by the mothers to Dinah and Joseph does not relate to birthright.
According to the custom of the old days, the youngest child inherited a mother‟s blessing, and one way or another, fathers usually followed suit. But Joseph and I were petted and spoiled also because we were also our older brothers‟ victims. (TRT, 76)
Diamant accentuates the oppression that is felt by Dinah and Joseph when they are kids is not due to the birthright and its prerogative. Dinah and Joseph always get bully from Levi and Simon because Joseph spends most of his time with
Dinah (TRT, 86) and Joseph is Jacob‟s joy. Moreover, at the time children do not aware about the birthright. The hatred of Joseph‟s brothers toward Joseph turns to relate with the birthright when they grow up.
Pondering such relationship, this thesis observes Dinah‟s friendship with
Joseph and finds that Dinah‟s presence in Joseph‟s life is significant. This thesis summarizes that Dinah shares her love that she gets from her mothers to support
Joseph as well. Another analysis of Joseph and Dinah‟s friendship is elaborated in
214 Nurit Zaidman, 55.
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subchapter of Dinah‟s reconciliation in Chapter IV. Ironically, Joseph‟s initiation of circumcision to be the solution of prince Shechem and Dinah‟s wedding is misused by Levi and Simon.
To conclude this chapter, this thesis underscores two essential findings: first, patriarchal mode of production differentiates area between a man and a woman in the family. It prevents mutual relationship between them. Therefore,
Dinah can only find comfort from her mother and mother-aunties, but not from her father. The sisterhood consolation is then shared with Joseph. The frienship between Dinah and Joseph emphasizes bell hook‟s feminism ideology; it is the sexism that is fought by feminists.215 Dinah still supports Joseph as her brother.
Diamant‟s The Boston Girl indicates the opposite. The failure of sisterhood occurs not only by patriarchy tenet - being a good woman means to focus on domestic activities - absorbed by the mother but also it takes place due to male‟s passivity and a not-mutual sisterhood. Addie‟s attention is more on her needs to study and participate in discussion club. The concise discussion is instilled in this thesis to highlight the importance of sisterhood in the middle of world that is not fully admitted feminism. People see feminism as a movement to fight against nature and God.216
The disparity between men and women in patriarchal culture is a value in the society that has been instilled from the ancient time. Therefore, the probability of both man and woman have absorbed such value is not only big but it is a fact.
This thesis underscores the patriarchal value that is strong in the society so that a woman can be a persecutor for the other woman. Competition between Rachel
215 bell hooks, Introduction, Feminism is for everybody: Passionate Politics, viii. 216 Ibid, vii.
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and Leah; Leah accepts the opportunity to marry Jacob without concerning
Rachel‟s feeling, and their race in producing sons prevent their sisterhood.
Rachel‟s distrust toward Leah and Zilpah, and Rachel‟s defense in polygamy situation is sensible. Howbeit, they must face the real condition because culture and the law legitimate polygamy. Being resistance to polygamy by fighting among the mothers will not help them or ease the burden, it similar to jump from the frying pan into the fire. On the contrary, the mothers do attempt to understand each of mother‟s struggle; the time when a mother is pregnant and at the labor. The mothers can challenge patriarchal culture with their empathy and solidarity. However, Diamant affirms her rejection to polygamy in her novel through Meryt‟s character, and her belief in Liberal Judaism.
Diamant rewrites polygamy in the story of Jacob from Genesis with more voices granted to the female characters. She foregrounds sisterhood in both situation; in failure and in successful attainment. The competition between Rachel and Leah at last abates because of empathy. Those are the impacts of patriarchal culture, specifically in polygamy. Pondering the situation, it is important to remember that discussion of sisterhood in polygamy in thesis, as the result from patriarchy, does not to elevate position of a man who practices polygamy. In fact, it is an appreciation to mothers‟ hardwork in sisterhood to face the problem that has already appeared.
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CHAPTER IV SISTERHOOD CHALLENGES MALE VIOLENCE
The last chapter of analysis and discussion answers the second research question, which elaborates sisterhood against male violence. In Chapter III, this thesis informs the readers that birthright is part of patriarchal culture in Ancient
Jewish society. However, the analysis and discussion are elaborated in this chapter because birthright is the trigger for male violence while the circumcision is a media to execute Simon‟s and Levi‟s plan to grab King Hamor‟s wealth.
Dinah‟s sisterhood with Meryt and Werenro becomes the weapon for the impact after the massacre in Shechem. At the end of this chapter, the thesis expounds
Dinah‟s reconciliation with her mother, her relationship with Jacob and the position of Dinah and Joseph‟s friendship in sisterhood and feminism.
The relation of patriarchal culture and birthright is elaborated in this paragraph before this thesis discusses the birthright. Walby analyzes position of women and men in patriarchal culture, there are discourses of femininities and masculinities, and the hierarchy of masculinity is higher than feminity.217 This concept is then institutionalized in all realms in life, in religion, for example. The distinctive attitude toward the higher position over the lower is manifested in assigning the firstborn son to inherit the pride of the family; he is trusted to be the leader for the clan, to take care of the family‟s property, and continue the family lineage.
5.1 Birthright
The thesis asserts that birthright relates to the favoritism and it provokes a jealousy. It generates the similar feeling that a wife experiences in polygamy
217 Sylvia Walby, 104.
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situation, where a husband favors the younger wife instead of the old one, for instance. The possibility of sibling‟s feud in polygamy family gets bigger when it connects to birthright. It is hard for a husband to equally treat each wife in polygamy; jealousy among wives happens as it is shown in Chapter III, thus
Simon and Levi are not satisfied with their right and by any means try to have more wealth and power as it is shared below:
Anthropologists today have found that this sibling rivalry is a common by product of polygamous marriages. Children were often born by different wives, and each wife wanted the best for their child. The Bible tells us that Joseph and Benjamin are the sons of Jacob's second wife, while all the other sons are from different wives. Being given a special coat would have only fuelled the brothers' jealousy.218
However, it is also understood that a mother would give the best for her child, for example a story of Sarah and Hagar. It is known that Sarah expels Hagar
(her slave and a concubine to her husband) and Ishmael, Hagar‟s son due to her envy. Sarah is afraid to let Abraham inherit the birthright to Ishmael.219 Pauline A.
Viviano, a professor of theology at Loyola University Chicago, asserts that
Abraham does not follow Sarah‟s request without pondering life of Ishmael who happens to be his son as well.
The following example is different from the previous story, Esau and
Jacob are consecutively father‟s favorite and mother‟s favorite. Isaac is closer to
Esau, as Esau is a typical strong man who is good in hunting and he pleases the father. On the contrary, Rebecca loves Jacob more, since Jacob helps her mother at home. Rebecca advises her lovely Jacob to steal also the blessing from Esau 220
218 “Joseph,” BBC-Religion, 2009,
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after Jacob makes Esau trade his birthright with a soup and take an oath to let
Jacob have the birthright and would not take it back.221 There are two things to analyze in the birthright; those are the prerogative and the blessing from the father.
Subsequently, information in the Genesis indicating Rebecca‟s sons become two big nations is believed to be the divine interference to fix the misconduct and the misinterpretation about birthright. 222 Similarly, God save and give blessing to Hagar and Ishmael; make him and his progeny as a big nation, as well.223 It means there is misinterpretation to see the birthright, Levi and Simon focus more on the firstborn‟s benefits are a double portion of the father‟s property, position as a leader and a priest and an honorable opportunity to continue the patriarchal family. Other children get some portion of father‟s inheritance. Beside birthright, a blessing from a father before he dies is believed to be a special blessing. The blessing is understood as the blessing to give the son prosperity and legitimation that the other sibling(s) has (have) to obey the blessing receiver.224 It is then understandable that Esau is angry with Jacob.225
Abram, Ishmael would have been patriarch, but Sarai had claimed her rights and named Isaac instead. It was she who sent Isaac to seek a bride from among her family, as was the custom from the oldest days. (TRT, 28) 221 Pauline A Viviano, 63. 25:31 And Jacob said, Sell me this day thy birthright. 25:32 And Esau said, Behold, I am at the point to die: and what profit shall this birthright do to me? 25:33 And Jacob said, Swear to me this day; and he swore unto him: and he sold his birthright unto Jacob. 25:34 Then Jacob gave Esau bread and pottage of lentils; and he did eat and drink, and rose up, and went his way: thus Esau despised his birthright. 222 Genesis 25:23“Two nations are in your womb, and two peoples born of you shall be divided; the one shall be stronger than the other, the elder shall serve the younger” 223 Pauline A Viviano, “Kejadian,”Tafsir Alkitab Perjanjian Lama, Eds. Dianne Bergant & Robert J. Karris, (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2002), 59. 224 Ibid, 64. 225 27:38 And Esau said unto his father, Hast thou but one blessing, my father? Bless me, even me also, O my father. And Esau lifted up his voice, and wept.
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This thesis argues that Jacob would have not felt guilty about his misconduct if it is really Jacob‟s right and destiny to have the birthright. In fact,
Jacob realizes that he betrays his lovely brother and he is afraid of Esau so that
Jacob follows her mother‟s suggestion to go to Padanaram, and stay with his uncle, Laban. Human beings perceive the birthright as a prerogative to have more power and wealth than the other children are the thought; it is what Simon and
Levi have in mind. Davis says that the firstborn‟s right of double portion is to do the responsibility as a living sacrifice to serve God.226 In the first place, this study then emphasizes the pivotal analysis to follow the development of birthright interpretation in the Bible. The birthright is also given to Israel, which is not only as a person but also a nation.227
In Jacob‟s lineage, Joseph gets Jacob‟s blessing and Reuben is entitled for the birthright to continue the family lineage. Unfortunately, Reuben consciously strips it away from him after he sleeps with his father‟s concubine, Bilhah without
Jacob‟s blessing. 228 The Genesis shows overtly Jacob‟s favoritism toward Joseph after Reuben sleeps with Bilhah. It is emphasized in Genesis as follow:
Gen. 37:2 These are the generations of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years old, was feeding the flock with his brethren; and the lad was with the sons of Bilhah, and with the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives: and Joseph brought unto his father their evil report. 37:3 Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age: and he made him a coat of many colours. 37:4 And when his brethren saw that their father loved him more than all his brethren, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably unto him.
The Genesis indicates that Joseph‟s brothers do something that is unpleasant to
Jacob. It makes the relationship between Jacob and Joseph closer. Subsequently,
226 Anna K. Davis, 82. 227 Exodus 4:22 “Israel is My son, My firstborn.” 228 “How power and dominion fell into the hands of White and Blacks, “Judah and Israel, 92.
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the close and distinctive relationship between Jacob and Joseph ignites hatred in
Joseph‟s brothers‟ hearts. On the other hand, Diamant describes Dinah and Joseph as the children who are loved by their mothers because both are the youngest, while Joseph is Jacob‟s joy (TRT, 76).
Story of the birthright is written in more elaborative situation by Diamant in the story of the four mothers. Rachel, Leah, Zilpah and Bilhah discuss to bring teraphim with them to South before they move to Canaan. Leah said that Kemuel, the firstborn son of Laban might claim the teraphim as it is his birthright. Then,
Rachel insists to take the teraphim with her and says that it is sign of their birthright as well (TRT, 90). The study captures the important message shared by
Diamant, birthright should be given to all progeny, and there is no preference, and birthright is a product of patriarchal culture is true.
Diamant rewrites Simon and Levi‟s jealousy about birthright and favoritism.
[...] They had been in Ashkelon seeking trade not merely for the family‟s goats and sheep, wool, and oil, but to speak with slave traders, whose business could yield far greater wealth than any hard-earned harvest of the earth. Simon and Levi wanted wealth and the power it would bring them, but they had no hope of inheriting those from Jacob. It was clear that Reuben would get their father‟s birthright and the blessing would go to Joseph. (TRT, 197)
It affirms that birthright and special blessing by the father mean a lot for Simon and Levi. They seek for benefit of power and wealth, but they do not mention the responsibility of birthright. Levi and Simon take advantage from the Dinah‟s marriage.
When they heard that Hamor had offered my father a king‟s bride-price for me, they raised their voices against the marriage, sensing that their own positions would be diminished by such an alliance. Jacob‟s house would be swallowed up in the dynasties of Shechem, and while Reuben might
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expect to become a prince, they and their sons would remain shepherds, poor cousins, nobodies. “We will be lower than Esau,” they muttered to each other and to the brothers over whom they still held sway: Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali, of Leah‟s womb, and Zilpah‟s Gad and Asher. (TRT, 197)
Levi and Simon then go through their plan; they kill all males in Shechem after they are circumcised. It is a condition Jacob asks to Harmor and prince of
Shechem, which is fulfilled by them.
This thesis takes another preference story about birthright in Common Era to show that favoritism, as well as misinterpretation of birthright generates intrigue among the members. It is not about favoritism in a family, but in Jewish society comes from different countries. Ben Kasstan suggests the committee of
Taglit-Birthright Israel229 to treat the participants from the U.K. and the U.S. equally. He finds that participants from the U.S. are not processed as strict as the
U.K.‟s participants. They are not requested to complete the form with many supporting documents because their Israel identity is seen more valid than the
Jewish people from the U.K.230 Preference, for specific birthright, according to this Thesis by analyzing Diamant‟s The Red Tent is a trigger of Dinah‟s oppression.
5.2 Circumcision
Before going to discuss circumcision, this study questions whether it is a prohibited for Jacob‟s children to marry to a person from different tribe.
Apparently, the answer is yes and no, yes is for the generation under Abraham‟s
229 (written as it is show in original paper) a journey in every sense of the word. Taglit is Hebrew term for „discovery‟, and the programme is a ten day tour of Israel bestowed at no cost „in order to sthrengthen participants‟ personal Jewish identity and connection to the Jewish people (Birthright Israel 2010-2011). 230 Ben Kasstan, “Birthright: A journey of Jewish identity,” Durham Anthropology Journal 18, no. 1 (2012): 159,
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watch. Raphael Patai shows Abraham‟s words in genesis regarding the question,
“... by the lord, the God of heaven and the God of the earth, that thou shalt not take a wife for my son of the daughters of the Canaanites among whom I dwell,”231 but it is not a problem for Leah and Jacob. Three of Jacob‟s sons,
Simon or Simeon and Levi take Canaanites women to be their wives before the incident of Shechem occurs, and so does Judah after the incident.232 The brothers‟ marriages and Dinah‟s to Shalem are undisputed even though at the time Canaan and Jewish were different tribe.233
The justification made by Levi and Simon to do Canaanites manslaughter is revenge for family‟s disgrace because Shalem defiles Dinah when she visits the palace. Regarding to the issue, Tumanov‟s study shows that the incident between
Shalem and Dinah is not a rape.234
Gen. 34:1-4, And Dinah the daughter of Leah, which she bares unto Jacob, went out to see the daughters of the land. And when Shechem the son of Hamor the Hivite, prince of the country, saw her, he took her, and lay with her, and defiled her. And his soul clave unto Dinah the daughter of Jacob, and he loved the damsel, and spake kindly unto the damsel. And Shechem spake unto his father Hamor, saying, Get me this damsel to wife.
The prince asks his Harmor, his father to speak on behalf of him to Jacob so that he can marry Dinah. This study asserts that the word “defiled” refers to action to have relationship before they have marriage. In addition, Tumanov adds that
Diamant purposely uses Shalem,235 which means „peace‟ or „safety‟ as the
231 Raphael Patai , Six Great Historic Encounters, “ Jewish Mind, (Detroit: Wayne State Up, 1996), 44. 232 Gen. 38:2 233 Raphael Patai, 44. 234 Quoted in 2 Samuel 13:12,14, and 17 “And she said to him, “No, my brother, do not force me, for it is not done so in Israel; do not do this wanton deed ... But he would not heed her and he overpowered her, and forced her, and lay with her ... And he called his youth, his servant, and he said, “Send now this one away from me, outside, and lock the door after her!” 235 Hebrew word. In Bereishit Shalem is a city in Shechem. Genesis 33:18.
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prince‟s name to indicate the prince‟s love. 236 Diamant adorns the story in romance genre as a love story between teenagers.
When the prince and I returned to the palace, ... We stood in silence for only a moment and then Shalem drew me into the shadow of a corner and put his hands on my shoulders and covered my mouth with his mouth and pressed his body against mine. And I, who had never been touched or kissed by any man, was unafraid. He did not hurry or push, and I put my hands on his back and pressed into his chest and melted into his hands and his mouth. (TRT, 189-190)
However, in The Red Tent, Joseph initiates circumcision tradition to be undergone by the prince to solve the problem about Dinah and Shalem (TRT,
198). The reason is because it relates to a covenant made between Jacob‟s
Ancestor and God that needs to be practiced by next generation after them.
(Genesis 17:10) This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee; Every man child among you shall be circumcised. (11) And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt me and you. ... (13) He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must need to be circumcised: and my covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant.
Circumcision is the identity of Jewish people for Liberal 237 and Orthodox
Judaism. It is not only a tradition but a promise to God. 238 In this case, the circumcision is a ritual to welcome other tribe in Israel family.239 Howbeit, there is a peculiar statement conveyed by Jacob, and his sons after knowing that prince
Shechem loves Dinah. They say, “But if ye will not hearken unto us, to be circumcised; then we will take our daughter, and we will be gone” (Gen. 34:17). It means Jacob‟s sons are sure about the prince‟s love and desire to have Dinah, and then the prince would agree upon the term.
236 Vladimir Tumanov, 378. 237 Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism are Liberal Judaism. 238 Anita Diamant, “The Covenant of Circumcision,” Choosing a Jewish Life. 239 William H. Propp, “The Origins of Infant Circumcision in Israel,” (1987): 360,
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As the response, prince Shechem agrees upon the term even he persuades his father, King Hamor to accept the term. Subsequently, the King states all men in Canaan under his order would undergo the circumcision. It is to welcome the unity of two tribes. Moreover, the king declares the possibility of multiracial marriage between Canaanites and Jacob‟s tribe.
“Here and now, if you like. I will honor the custom of my wife‟s family, and I will order my slaves and their sons to follow me. I know my father speaks out of fear for me and in loyalty to his men, who would suffer. But for me, there is no question. I hear and obey.” (TRT, 199-200)
Jacob‟s response toward prince‟s willingness to honor Israel‟s tradition is elaborated by Diamant. Jacob says,
If the men of Shechem agree to this, none could say that our daughter was injured. If the men of the city make such sacrifice to the god of my fathers, we shall be remembered as makers of souls, as gatherers of men.” (TRT, 198)
When Jacob takes Joseph‟s advice regarding the family‟s problem, Jacob states his special relation to Joseph. “I will do what Joseph says, for he has my heart"
(TRT, 199). As shown in the previous discussion on the ancient birthright: “Simon and Levi wanted wealth and the power it would bring them, but they had no hope of inheriting those from Jacob” (TRT, 197). Therefore, Levi and Simon use the moment to grab wealth from King Hamor. They kill all Canaanites boy and men, for their conditions are weak after being circumcised. This violence incident is usually connected to “the Conquest of Shechem.”240 There are two hypotheses to explain the incident, one of them is the violence acted by Simon and Levi. In
Genesis, it is written that Jacob‟s sons take Shechem people‟s wealth, including
240 Zev Farber,“Jerubaal, Jacob and the Battle for Shechem: A Tradition History,“Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 13, no.12, (2013): 17, <10.5508/jhs.2013.v13.a12>, (9 June 2017).
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the women.241 If it is only for taking revenge on behalf of the family‟s disgrace, killing is enough to pay the prince Shechem‟s wrong deed toward Dinah. It is explained by Lerner‟s research about the responsibility of the leader of the clan to protect his members. 242
5.3 Sisterhood fights against male violence
The violence committed by Levi and Simon is bound up with the wedding between royal family and lay family happens in Near East, which is called hypergamy. In this marriage, the female‟s virginity is an absolute prerequisite.
This is also regarded as family‟s capital that is watched by male member in family with jealousy.243 The jealousy refers to position that the female will have after the marriage; she has a higher status than the other family‟s members. The historical background connects to Dinah‟s overhearing of Simon and Levi, “we will be lower than Esau, they muttered to each other and ... Zebulun, Issachar, and
Naphtali, and Zilpah‟s Gad and Asher.” (TRT, 197)
Based on walby‟s male violence, different position between man and woman is justifying the arbitrary act of male with power to woman. There are two justifications to analyze Simon and Levi‟s violence. First, the prince Shechem‟s obedience to do the circumcision is perceived by Simon and Levi as the weakness of their sister‟s husband, instead of goodwill to be united family. Levi and Simon opt to be the oppressor instead of being the oppressed; they would not get higher position in the family by following the custom. Therefore, they execute the massacre in Shechem and it causes Dinah becomes a widow. It is a male violence that impacts to Dinah‟s life all. It tortures Dinah‟s emotionally. Simon and Levi
241 Gen. 34:25. 242 Gerda Lerner, 163. 243 Gerda Lerner, 94.
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counterfeit justification to follow the tradition and custom to be the family‟s honor guard.
In the incident, Dinah‟s sisterhood with her mother is ruined. Dinah hates
Leah for what happen to her. Leah always occupies herself with household chores and husbandry as it is explained in Chapter III and Dinah also connects Leah to
Simon and Levi as their mother, the main characters of Dinah‟s sorrow. Besides,
Dinah knows from Bilhah who visit her in Shechem palace before the bloodshed incident that:
“Leah believes Rachel sold you into the hands of evil. She is like your father in her distrust of the city, and she is not pleased that you will make your bed within walls. Mostly, I think, she misses you. ... „He is good to you, yes?‟ Bilhah asked, giving me the chance to praise my Shalem. ... I spilled everything into Bilhah‟s willing ear. (TRT, 196)
She also hates Jacob as the passive and ignorant father. In stead of Leah, the other mothers take a good care of Dinah after her brothers drag her from the palace
(TRT, 205). Dinah loves her mother and mother-aunties, but she is disappointed with Leah for her misery. Therefore, she chooses to live with her mother in law in
Egypt instead of staying with her family. This is her choice and her decision, which is not common in Near East tradition; a woman mostly feels secure under protection of a man. 244
The memory of Dinah‟s mothers is still in her mind, but she faces her new life in a new place alone until she meets Meryt, an Egypt midwife. She helps
Dinah to give birth. In previous subchapter, mothers‟ sisterhood is formed through similar experience of being a pregnant woman, and a mother. This life experience is bound up with midwife‟s skill instead of skill as a cook, or a trader. Dinah sees
244 Gerda Lerner, 75.
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this skill is more helpful than being a good cook, which the meal is just to please
Jacob, and other people like what Leah does. Knowing the skill to deliver a baby safely is an essential thing she can do for herself, and being a mother is her choice. The skill is a message, a form of sisterhood from Rachel that helps her a lot.
This study highlights relation of freedom in Jewish feminism movement, woman has to be given right to choose as we can see from Antin‟s afterthought, which stating constrain of a girl, „for a girl it was enough if she could read her prayers in Hebrew, and follow the meaning by the Yiddish translation at the bottom of the page…A girl‟s real schoolroom was her mother‟s kitchen.‟245 Dinah does not want to follow the custom, she is not good at weaving, but she is still a woman (TRT, 78). On the other hand, Dinah chooses to learn how to be a midwife from Rachel. Diamant states in The Red Tent, “Rachel became their link to the larger world” (TRT, 47). It is Rachel‟s choice to be a midwife, Rachel does not like to be busy in the kitchen like Leah, or spinning thread like Bilhah. This thesis does not state bad of being a mother, or a woman who loves doing cooking or sewing, but this thesis shows freedom to choose, and being different from the majority is all right.
Two plights faced by Dinah due to persecution by Simon and Levi, since
Dinah is pregnant; she is afraid that her son would have been killed by her brothers (TRT, 208). First, oppression of being a stranger and a widow without family in Egypt; she flees with Re-Nefer, her mother in law to Re-Nefer‟s family.
The feeling of loneliness that she must face connects to the bloodshed. Even
245 Carina Zuniga, 3.
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though, there is significant difference between Israel and Egypt culture –disparity among woman and man is not as bold as in her family in Israel 246 -, being lonely is still plight that Dinah must face. The following is Dinah‟s expression about the different culture in Egypt:
"Among the many wonders of my first banquet was the way woman ate together with men. Husbands and wives sat side by side throughout the meal ... It was impossible to think of my own parents eating a meal in each other‟s company. (TRT, 229-230)
Second plight is she has to give up her full right as a mother. She cannot name her son, she has to follow the term delivered by Re-nefer, her mother in law; his son‟s destiny is determined by Re-nefer once he is born247 even though Re-nefer allows
Dinah to be called as Ma (mother), her role is limited to be a nursemaid. Unless
Dinah does the instruction, she can live in Egypt, and be close to her son. (TRT,
228)
In Egypt, Dinah is called with a new name, Den-ner (TRT, 240). This thesis believes that it is a symbol of forgetting the past, the nightmare that Dinah faces in Canaan. This study connects Dinah‟s new name with her statement on the first chapter of the novel, “I carried my mothers‟ tales into the next generation, but the stories of my life were forbidden to me, and that silence nearly killed the heart in me” (TRT, 3). Dinah cannot say the story of herself because it relates to her true identity, which can harm many people: her mother-in-law, her son and her family.
246 Jonhnson, Janet H., “Women‟s Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt,” Fathom Archive, 2002,
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The memory of the bloodshed incident tortures her mother in law, thus Re-nefer prefers to elude the memory. There is no sisterhood bonding between Dinah and her mother-in-law. Hooks accents about sisterhood‟s solidarity to empower resistance struggle,248 yet Dinah‟s mother in law opts to be silent about it, to ignore it instead of accepting and forgiving the past. The act does not against the patriarchy but just to repress it. Moreover, Den-ner also relates to reconciliation of her with her past and with her mother, which is discussed in reconciliation subchapter.
On the other hand, Meryt stops asking about Dinah‟s past because Dinah is not comfortable about it, but Meryt keeps visiting and talking with Dinah (TRT,
234). Similarly, friendship between Kathleen and Joice in Diamant‟s other novel,
Good Harbor show the understanding of among the mothers. Meryt‟s solidarity to
Dinah firstly is based on similarity of being midwife and there is no competition but trust between them. Their different cultural backgrounds and similar profession do not prevent them to be friends. Meryt and Dinah become friends and partner in work. Meryt understands Dinah‟s plight, and she even covers her background life in public so that Dinah does not have to face more oppression from the society because she stays with Meryt. Meryt‟s position shows the development of sisterhood in The Red Tent because the sisterhood acrosses cultures.
The pivotal role of Meryt is admitted by Dinah, she says, “I might have vanished during those long years without anyone taking more than passing notice except for Meryt.” (TRT, 235) She understands Dinah‟s emotional agitation, and
248 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 44.
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always supports Dinah. Such sisterhood is found in Good Harbor; Kathleen‟s life is consumed by her breast cancer, and takes distance to outside world, including
Joyce, her friend. But, Joyce does not turn back against Kathleen.249
Diamant‟s The Boston Girl tells friendship between Addie Baum and
Filomena, at the first time they meet. Filomena does not mock or gives a look that belittles Addie Baum, for Addie brings her clothes in side pillowcase. Filomena calls it “valise”, and tells that Addie is clever to be simple and efficient. At the moment, Addie knows she can trust Filomena.250 It informs us the friendship does not take benefit from one and other‟s lackness, but rather show tolerance.
Concerning re-vision of The Red Tent, Diamant through Meryt character foregrounds good story about Dinah,
She told the tale of how I had saved my son‟s life with my own hands, always leaving out her own part in it. She spoke of my skill with herbs and of the renown I had earned in the western wilderness as a healer. ... Thanks to Meryt, I became a legend among the local women without once venturing out of Nakht‟re‟s garden.
It is contradictive with story that is said in Genesis. In Genesis, Dinah is a victim; in The Red Tent, Dinah is a healer. Dinah is a footnote in Genesis, but Meryt turns story about Dinah into a legend. It is a striking act by Diamant, she makes Dinah into different story in The Red Tent and in Dinah‟s imaginative life. The re-vision is not only for the present and future generation, it is also for the past.
Meryt and Dinah both are widows; their husbands died. However, Meryt does not know that Dinah‟s husband dies because of being killed by Dinah‟s
249 Dialogue between Joyce and Kathleen: “Can I get you anything else?” Joyce asked. “No. I think I‟ll try to nap.” “Okay. I‟ll come by tomorrow and pick up the bras that don‟t work.” At the door she gave Kathleen a hug and thanked her for saying what she was really thinking. “Call me if you need anything.” (Good Harbor, 149). 250 In chapter “what are friends for?” there no page in epub version.
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brothers. They share to each other not only as a midwife but also as a widow, as
Meryt let Dinah, whom Meryt calls Den-ner, stay and live with her in Meryt‟s son‟s house. In ancient time, woman who works is rare, yet Dinah and Meryt can make a living by being midwives.
Referring to hooks‟s theory about patriarchy toward sisterhood; patriarchy creates competition, distrust, and defensive among women.251 Meryt admits
Dinah‟s skill is better than her even though Meryt is also a midwife. With solidarity, 252 she affirms her son and daughter‟s in law that Dinah is her daughter that she cannot leave Dinah alone, and she is her midwife master, a teacher whom she learns from (TRT, 262). Meryt says so to ask permission from her son‟s family to bring Dinah along with her to her son‟s house, since Meryt‟s daughter in law asks Meryt to live with them. Meryt‟s son refused Dinah at first, but he changes his mind after his mother tells him that his house would be blessed to have Den- ner (Dinah) (TRT, 266).
Those experience rhymes with Morgan‟s restlessness, 253 Meryt does not feel her position is higher than Dinah because Dinah needs a place to stay. Meryt takes Dinah‟s story and strugle as her own strugle, she spins story about Dinah by looking at her ability and skill that also helps her as a midwife. There is no imbalanced position between Meryt and Dinah, as a sisterhood spirit formed by
Western middle-class women, and a strugle by apolitico woman who assists other sister for having a credit from the society. The sisterhood related closer to solidarity instead of support. The story of Dinah in re-vision The Red Tent is different from the Genesis. Dinah is a daughter of Jacob who is well-known for
251 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 48. 252 Ibid, 64. 253 Morgan, Robin, xiv.
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her skill in herbs and helping pregnant mothers to bring new life into the world
(TRT, 226).
5.4 Dinah’s Reconciliation
Den-ner, a new name of Dinah in Egypt, shows her new identity as a human, and she does not correct it. Etymology, the name does not have certain meaning that connects to the story. Some articles state that local people in Egypt find difficulty in calling Dinah, thus they change into Den-ner. In contrast, this study believes that Den-ner relates to Re-nefer‟s denial of incident in the past. The terrifying incident that is repressed and a new identity is better to be recognized.
Conversation between Werenro 254 and Dinah in Egypt leads Dinah to remember her identity, her family, and her good memory. Werenro tells Dinah about Werenro‟s oppression due to males‟ violence; she was raped, battered, and tortured by three Canaan males on the way of her duty. She decided to end her life after all the cursed-inhuman deed, but a woman found and help her. Werenro has a big heart to console Dinah even though her story is more devastated. She ignites hope in Dinah‟s life as she says:
You are not dead. Her voice betrayed a little sorrow. You are not like me. Your grief shines from your heart. The flame of love is strong. Your story is not finished, Dinah. ... Not “Den-ner” the foreign midwife, but “Dinah,” a daughter beloved of four mothers. (TRT, 256)
Werenro accepts her condition, Dinah‟s story and open to feel it with empathy,255 she reminds Dinah as a beloved daughter of Leah, Rachel, Zilpah and Bilhah. Her reconciliation to her mother, Leah, is symbolized with a ring that Rachel gave to
Leah before she dies as a symbol of forgiveness. The ring is, then, given to Dinah through Judah, Dinah‟s older brother from the same mother. Leah also asks Dinah
254 Rebecca‟s, Dinah‟s grandmother, debora, woman‟s messanger in Rebecca‟s temple. 255 Tingting Qi, 334.
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to forgive her (TRT, 318). Leah believes that Dinah will come home someday and trusts the ring through Judah who doubts her mother‟s intuition.
In contrast, Dinah does not feel the attachment to Jacob; she even said that should her mothers pass away, she would call herself an orphan (TRT, 294). Her friendship with Joseph turns to be a relation between the King‟s vizier and a midwife, she keeps their memory of childhood as a history (TRT, 94). Joseph, as a King‟s vizier, asks Dinah to accompany him to Canaan to see Jacob, for he is dying and would like to give blessing to Joseph, and his sons. From the Genesis, it clearly states that Joseph is sold by his brothers to be a slave. In The Red Tent,
Joseph tells to Dinah about it and requests Dinah‟s understanding and sympathy;
Joseph also experiences such a terrible deed from his brothers because of birthright (TRT, 303).
She does not intend to meet Jacob, but to hear story about her mothers and from her mothers‟ generations. Dinah knows that Jacob does not remember her.
“Dinah is forgotten in the house of Jacob” (TRT, 312). Diamant does not write
Dinah‟s forgiveness to Jacob and Jacob‟s regret toward Dinah‟s torture. The connection is still from mothers to daughter. The position of Dinah toward Joseph is similar with condition that Lerner finds in Ancient Israel, to support Joseph‟s position, to have blessing from Jacob. Sisterhood in this thesis presents to challenge patriarchy. It starts with sisterhood among mothers in polygamy family and ends with reconciliation between Dinah and her mother that also shows sisterhood between them continues because Dinah still carries story from her previous generation.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
This final chapter concludes the analysis and discussion in the previous two chapters. The story about Jacob in the Genesis is complicated; he steals the birthright from his twin older brother and then flees to Padanaram. He meets
Rachel, whom he loves the most, but he is beguiled by Rachel‟s family, and happens to marry Leah and Rachel. Diamant presents the complication in Jacob‟s marriages and life that gives bad impact to Dinah 256 in Diamant‟s first fiction as a form of re-vision.
The re-vision of Dinah in The Red Tent, which is perceived as a midrash for the Non-Orthodox Judaism, shows some differences compared to the Bereishit or the Genesis. Dinah has more stories to be told than only about her bloodshed incident. Therefore, this study has argued three things: first, Dinah‟s oppression has something to do with the Ancient Jewish patriarchy. The second one is
Diamant‟s The Red Tent is the form of sisterhood presented by Diamant to Dinah, women at the time and the women readers. Dinah is not a victim as people know from the Genesis. The last is, this thesis has also argued that sisterhood among the women in the Anciet Jewish has power to fight against patriarchal culture, patriarchal mode of production and male violence.
Referring to Prochazkova‟s study, she states that “victims do not fight”257, this thesis has shown that Dinah fights with her own way to challenge her brothers‟ violence; she refuses to live with her father and brothers who cause her sorrow even though she has to leave her mothers too. She chooses to flee to Egypt
256 Dinah‟s husband and all males from her husband‟s clan are killed by Dinah‟s brothers. 257 Lucie Prochazkova, 45.
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to save her baby and counts on her own ability that she learns from her mothers, especially Rachel to be a midwife. In stead of making the long story short as it is in the Genesis, Diamant writes about Dinah‟s wonderful childhood; she has mothers who love her because they have never left her behind and have comforted her. Dinah is also depicted as a talented and persistent girl; she knows herbs to assist pregnant mothers, she also helps their labors and she does not give up on life.
This thesis then has proven the importance of sisterhood in resisting patriarchal culture, patriarchal mode of production and male violence. The products of patriarchal culture challenged by sisterhood is polygamy and birthright. There is no information who initiates the bride‟s switching on the wedding eve in the Genesis, but Zilpah in The Red Tent, is the person who scares
Rachel about sexual relationship between husband and wife. Hence, Rachel asks help from Leah to take her place. However, Laban states that the older daughter has to get marry first to follow the custom (Gen. 29:26). Subsequently, Leah accepts the offer because Leah also has an affection for Jacob and it breaks the sisterhood. However, the sisterhood among the mothers is molded after Rachel witnesses Leah‟s labor and Leah‟s willing to support other women including her sisters.
The risk that the pregnant mother and the baby have to face is diminished by Rachel‟s empathy toward Leah and other pregnant mothers. Rachel is also the one who encourages Leah to not give up on Dinah, when Dinah is still in Leah‟s womb. Leah and Rachel‟s sisterhood shows support among the women to fight against patriarchal culture. They value of life is more than the jealousy as Jacob‟s
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wives in polygamous marriage. Furthermore, condition at the time forbid a wife to initiate divorce because the wive can suffer more oppression from the society. 258
This thesis emphasizes the importance of sisterhood for women instead of promoting polygamy. Therefore, this thesis shows three analyses of Diamant‟s rejection to polygamy based on the context from the novel. Firstly, Diamant state that Jacob‟s willingness to sleep with Bilhah in peculiar tone, “why would he not?” (TRT, 52) even though a husband can reject the offer based on the code of
Hammurabi, Jacob accepts the offer. Secondly, Diamant describes story of Meryt and her husband who opt to adopt children in stead of writing polygamy in
Meryt‟s marriage. The last is Diamant‟s religious practice in liberal Judaism that forbids polygamy.
Walby‟s theory affirms the value in patriarchal culture is standardizing feminism discourse is lower than in masculinities discourse, 259 the tenet is embodied in polygamy and birthright. There is an imbalanced right between man and woman in polygamy, and disparity between firstborn son and other children in birthright. The Ancient Jewish patriarchy is influenced from two sources, the law from the king in the area and custom in Israel patriarch, Abraham.
The analysis on sisterhood in The Red Tent has shown process of forming the empathy among women. The mothers‟ sisterhood is initiated by a minor figure in the The Red Tent, Bilhah, the Rachel‟s handmaid. She makes her sisters think about Ruti‟s oppression, and urges the sisters to do something for Ruti. She is also the one who glues connection among the sisters with her observation and compassion; she calls Inna to help Leah in Leah‟s labor, and accompanies Rachel
258 Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea, 140. 259 Sylvia Walby, 104.
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when she craves for a baby, and comforts Dinah when she is lonely in the
Shechem Palace and when Leah criticizes her for her poor skill at weaving.
This study has found that as long as there are competition, distrust and defense among the women, sisterhood is hard to be objectified.260 Rachel sees
Leah as her competitor even though Leah is calmer than Rachel, Leah is also jealous to Rachel. Thus, Rachel does not believe in Leah. In addition, Zilpah helps
Leah to marry Jacob. Consequently, Rachel‟s behavior is defensive to Leah and
Zilpah. Analysis in polygamy is also supported by study by Miriam Koktvedgaard
Zeitzen that states polygamy with sisters as wives tends to create more conflict in the family.
This thesis has also found that the hierarchy and oppression in patriarchal culture and patriarchal mode of production are pulled down with empathy toward the oppressed sisters. Rachel feels the struggle that Leah faces when she delivers
Reuben (TRT, 39). Imagining other people‟s situation and then process it with emotion and feeling, make Rachel feels Leah‟s hurt during the labor as her plight.261 Similarly, the four mothers decide to help Ruti because of solidarity of sisterhood. They resist Laban‟s violence by helping Ruti to abort her baby instead of being ignorant of other sister‟s affliction as the oppressors.262
Likewise, Dinah, who is forced by the condition to leave her love (her mothers) and save her child in her womb, flees away from the persecution by her brothers. In Egypt, she finds a new friendship with Meryt and reconnects with an old friend, Werenro. Meryt is Dinah‟s other mother, and friend to help Dinah believes in her skill again as a midwife. To connect the memory of her mothers,
260 Hooks, bell, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, 48. 261 Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334. 262 Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334.
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Werenro reminds Dinah who she is; Werenro says that Dinah has four mothers who love her. Werenro opens Dinah‟s eyes to accept her identity and belives that
Dinah is the survivor. This situation aligns with hooks‟s sisterhood saying sisterhood is an empowerment to resist the oppression. 263 Dinah does not hide her past, which is different to her mother in law who represses her sorrow by not talking about it (TRT, 215).
This thesis finds Morgan‟s and hooks‟s sisterhood theories support each other. They talk about sisterhood going across culture and social background. The implementation of the theories is found in discussion about sisterhood in this thesis. Rachel and Leah, along with Bilhah and Zilpah help each other. They are also sister for Ruti – Laban‟s concubine - who comes from different social class with Leah and Rachel. Likewise, sisterhood between Dinah and Merty – they come from different cultural background; Meryt is Egyptian and Dinah is
Aramean – is the embodiment of sisterhood goes across culture.
Morgan and hooks‟ theories of sisterhood are supported by Qi Tingting‟s study that emphasizes empathy and its rationale. Qi applies theories as the composition of Jodi Dean‟s „communicative we‟,264 Nodding and Shore‟s intuition,265 Maxine Greene‟s imagination,266 Allison Jaggar‟s „emotional acumen‟267 and then unify them under theory of Thayer-Bacon (2000)268 saying woman with intuition, imagination, and emotion can understand other people. It is
263 Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334. 264 Jodi Dien in Tingting Qi, 331. 265 Nel Nodding and Paul Shore in Tingting Qi, 333-334. 266 Maxine Green in Tingting Qi, 333. 267 Alison Jaggar in Tingting Qi, 333. 268 Thayer-Bacon in Tingting Qi, 334.
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all about process of “receptiveness and openness.”269 This is to say that with intuition to feel other sister‟s problem, a person with compassion – sharp emotion- is willing to give a hand to other in need. It is sincerer because the person imagines herself in the position of the one in need, which is called empathy.
Finally, the discussion in this thesis has found the position of sisterhood toward men by seeing friendship between Dinah and Joseph. Dinah is consistent in supporting her brother by accompanying him to meet Jacob even though Dinah is forgotten by Jacob (TRT, 312). It shows value of feminism that closely connected to the spirit in sisterhood that does not fight against men. Moreover, hooks clearly states a man who supports the feminist‟s struggle is accepted as the sisterhood‟s comrade.270 Therefore, communication between man and woman needs to be broadened to go beyond the biological difference between man and woman so that the hieararchy between a man and a woman dicreases. While waiting for such realization, sisterhood is a supporting system among women. It is exactly stated by Morgan, „‟ the women‟s movement is a non-hierarchical one;”
271 feminism can be applied to everyone both male and female to end sexism, which is endorsed by hooks. It is then relates to woman‟s reflection in practicing
Judaism.
Mordecai Kaplan has an intention to make Reconstructionist Judaism as a media to build the Judaism.272 Every individu in Judaism can contribute to increase the sensitivity in Judaism so that their faiths in Judaism are accommodated. Thus, The Red Tent is perceived as an embodiment of sisterhood
269 Tingting Qi, 333. 270 bell hooks, From Margin to Center, 82. 271 Robin Morgan, xviii. 272 Reena Sigman Friedman, 9.
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in religion, as Diamant is pushed with the necessity to give voice for the silent character in Genesis that is Dinah. Then, it turns to be wider; it gives voice for women – Dinah, Rachel, Leah, Bilhah, Zilpah, Ruti, Inna, Merty, and Werenro - in the story.
To relate to condition in Indonesia, this thesis highlight condition of polygamous marriage in an area in Indonesia. The fact that there is a man with more desire in sexual relationship exists in the world and there is a woman who cannot have child due to health problem gives opportunity for a husband to take another wife. A wife is given opportunity to be dutiful to Islam; to support the husband and the family. In this case, the wife can decide whether she wants to divorce or be in polygamy.273 In contrast, a study by Muhammad Ansor about polygamy in Langsa, Aceh indicates a hard situation to have a harmonious polygamous marrriage even though it is allowed in Islam.274 His study sates that many people understand well that polygamy is allowed in Islam, but most of the wives decide to divorce their husbands if their husbands want to have another wife. Moreover, the conflict among the wives is inevitable. 275 Economically, polygamy gives bad impact for children; they compete each other to have support from the father.276
Meanwhile, other product of patriarchy that is birthright takes place in Java.
It is known with term sepikul-segendong.277 Sepikul is a measurement of
273 Sonja Van-Wichelen, “Contesting Masculinity,” Religion, Politics and Gender in Indonesia: Disputing the Muslim Body,” (New York: Routledge, 2010), 87. 274 Muhammad Ansor, “Berbagi Suami Atas Nama Tuhan: Pengalaman Keseharian Perempuan Dipoligami di Langsa”, Jurnal Wacana Hukum Islam dan Kemanusiaan 14 no. 7, (2014): 49-50, Ijtihad,
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inheritance given to a son, the other; segendong is the amount that is shared by parents to a daughter. The regulation is 2: 1, which the first is for the son, and the last is for the daughter.278 The reason of this difference is a son will be the head of his family. Therefore he gets double portion because he is expected to do five responsibilities: to be the breadwinner, to provide a house, to be the protector, and guide for the family, and as a figure to continue the lineage. On the other hand, the inheritance law, absorbed by Javanese tradition from Islam regulation, gets impact from modernity. Hence, there is another inheritance law that gives parity between daughter and son, it is called singgar semangka.279
To conclude, sisterhood can be the powerful weapon toward oppression and injustice only if it can be applied with sense of solidarity and empathy.
Common oppression can only divide the sisters into more division. Moreover, struggle to realize the parity in family and society is a kind of ongoing process, thus it is important to be aware of any practice that creates imbalance among human beings. Finally, it is also essential to least is to implement sisterhood by focusing the value of feminism that says sexism that is ended by another sexist is not feminism movement because feminism also fights against sexist thought.
278 Moh. Zeinudin and Fikri,”Studi Komparatif Tentang Aspek Ontologi Pembagian Waris Menurut Hukum Islam dan Hukum Adat Jawa” 3, no. 2 (2016): 9. Jurnal Unifikasi,
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Suggestion
Discussion in this thesis focuses on sisterhood in The Red Tent with a few analyses from two other Diamant‟s novels - The Boston Girl and Good Harbor – to support analyses of sisterhood in The Red Tent. This study suggests two other discussions that can be explored from The Red Tent. The first is analyzing The
Red Tent with feminism study in matriarchy. The characters of matriarchy are also shown in the novel, emphasizing equality among the members in the family, for instace.
The last is analyzing The Boston Girl and The Red Tent with feminism
Marxist, for patriarchal mode of production from two novels is able to be expounded more. This thesis emphasizes sisterhood and patriarchy discussions from Dinah and her family in the Genesis and The Red Tent, thus this thesis examines more the position of Dinah and other women characters in term of struggle and solidarity among the women. On the other hand, the role of women in family‟s economic situation has not been elaborated and this is worthy to be taken into consideration for the next study.
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