AN AVIFAUNAL INVESTIGATION FOR THE PROPOSED SAFARI LODGE NEAR MALELANE GATE, KRUGER NATIONAL PARK

Avifaunal Investigation

January 2015

Compiled by: Prepared for: Lukas Niemand ( Pr.Sci.Nat ) Malelane safari Resort Investments Pty (Ltd) Pachnoda Consulting CC Suite 192 PO Box 72847 Private Bag X 75 Lynwood Ridge Bryanston, 2021 Pretoria 0040 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The information provided in this report forms part of a baseline avifaunal investigation that was obtained from (1) relevant literature, (2) observations obtained during a site investigation (19-21 January 2015) and (3) personal correspondence with avifaunal specialists.

The following key considerations were identified and noted:

• Various sampling techniques (including bird point counts) were used to evaluate bird richness on the proposed study area; • Six bird habitat types were identified, ranging from dense microphyllous shrubland to riparian woodland. The riparian woodland types were identified with high bird species richness, while the alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River provided habitat for "specialised" bird species (mainly waterfowl, waders and wading birds); • A total of 190 bird species were confirmed during the investigation on the study area; • The study area supported habitat for many threatened and near-threatened bird species, with 11 species recorded during the investigation; • The study area was represented by three distinct avifaunal communities consisting of (1) a community confined to microphyllous shrubland (2) a community confined to mixed shrubland and open savannoid grassland and (3) a community confined to the riparian woodland and alluvial floodplains of the Crocodile River; • The riparian woodland and alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River were identified as sensitive habitat based on the following: o The alluvial floodplain and sandbars along the Crocodile River provide ephemeral foraging habitat for wader and wading bird species. In addition, these habitat types contribute towards the regional avifaunal diversity; o The alluvial floodplains provide essential foraging habitat for regionally threatened and near-threatened stork taxa; o The riparian woodland functions as important daily movement corridors for bird species between roosting and foraging habitat, and ensure ecological connectivity; o The riparian woodland provides potential roosting and breeding habitat for the vulnerable Pel's Fishing Owl ( Scotopelia peli ) and vulnerable White-backed Night-heron ( Gorsachius leuconotus ). It also provides potential breeding habitat for the endangered Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ); and o Areas within the riparian woodland that are composed of dense Grewia bicolor thickets provide ideal wintering habitat for the River Warbler ( Locustella fluviatilis ) and Thrush Nightingale ( Luscinia luscinia ).

i January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

• The Pel's Fishing Owl ( S. peli ), African Fish-eagle ( Haliaetus vocifer ) and Saddle-billed Stork ( E. senegalensis ) were breeding/nesting 1.5 km downstream of the proposed lodge development; and • Nesting/breeding of the Pel's Fishing Owl ( S. peli ), African Fish-eagle ( H. vocifer ) and Saddle-billed Stork ( E. senegalensis ) was not confirmed on the proposed study area.

A list of potential impacts was provided along with mitigation measures.

ii January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... I LIST OF FIGURES ...... II LIST OF TABLES ...... IV LIST OF APPENDICES ...... IV DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ...... V 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 1 1.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE ...... 5 2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ...... 6 2.1 LOCATION ...... 6 2.2 LAND USE , EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURE AND IMPORTANT LANDSCAPE FEATURES 6 2.3 BIOPHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ...... 8 2.3.1 Climate ...... 8 2.3.2 Geology ...... 8 2.3.3 Regional Vegetation Description ...... 9 2.3.4 Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (2013) ...... 9 3. METHODS AND APPROACH ...... 10 3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND INFORMATION BASE ...... 10 3.2 FIELD SURVEYS AND DATA COLLECTION ...... 12 3.3 AVIFAUNA SENSITIVITY ...... 14 3.4 LIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS ...... 15 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 16 4.1 MACRO -HABITAT TYPES ...... 16 4.1.1 Closed microphyllous shrubland ...... 17 4.1.2 Mixed closed shrubland ...... 17 4.1.3 Open savannoid grassland ...... 17 4.1.4 Ficus-Gymnosporia Riparian Woodland ...... 18 4.1.5 Garcinia-Gymnosporia Riparian Woodland ...... 18 4.1.6 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and perennial open flowing water ...... 18 4.2 SPECIES RICHNESS AND SUMMARY STATISTICS ...... 21 4.2.1 Discrepancies in the SABAP1 database ...... 24 4.2.2 Biome-restricted species and Important Bird Areas ...... 24 4.3 DOMINANCE AND RARITY (LOW ABUNDANCE SPECIES) ...... 25 4.4 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND SPECIES COMPOSITION ...... 27 4.5 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND RICHNESS MEASURES ...... 30 4.6 SPECIES OF CONSERVATION CONCERN ...... 31 4.7 SPECIES DESERVING SPECIAL ATTENTION ...... 42 4.7.1 Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) ...... 42 4.7.2 Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli) ...... 45 4.7.3 African Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) ...... 49 4.8 AVIFAUNAL SENSITIVITY ...... 52 4.8.1 Areas of high avifaunal sensitivity ...... 52

i January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

4.8.2 Areas of medium avifaunal sensitivity ...... 53 4.8.3 Areas of low avifaunal sensitivity ...... 53 4.9 POTENTIAL IMPACTS ...... 55 4.9.1 Overview ...... 55 4.9.2 Construction impacts: Loss of habitat and displacement of bird species/assemblages ...... 56 4.9.3 Increased fragmentation and loss of ecological connectivity ...... 59 4.9.4 Operational impacts: Displacement of bird species ...... 59 4.9.5 Operational impacts: Outside lighting and potential collision with infrastructure ...... 60 4.9.6 Operational impacts: Changes to the local bird community composition ...... 60 5. REFERENCES ...... 64 6. APPENDICES ...... 68

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The proposed spatial position of the lodge site and the 'Park and Ride' site...... 2 Figure 2: The proposed layout of the lodge site...... 3 Figure 3: The proposed 'Park and Ride' facility at the Malelane Gate...... 4 Figure 4: The proposed re-alignment of road S114...... 5 Figure 5: A topocadastral map illustrating the geographic position of the study area. 7 Figure 6: A topocadastral map illustrating the land cover classes (2009) corresponding to the study area...... 8 Figure 7: A map illustrating the local conservation categories based on the Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (2013)...... 10 Figure 8: A map of the study site illustrating the geographic placement of 36 bird point counts (satellite image courtesy of GoogleEarth)...... 16 Figure 9: A collage of images illustrating the dominant habitat types on the study area: (a - b) Closed microphyllous shrubland at the 'Park-and-Ride' site, (c - d) mixed closed shrubland - the dominant habitat on the study area, (e - f) azonal habitat comprising of dead trees - important breeding habitat for obligate hole- nesting taxa, (g - h) open savannoid grassland, (i - j) Ficus-Gymnosporia riparian woodland along the Crocodile River, (k - l) Garcinia-Diospyros riparian woodland along the Timfenheni River and (m - n) alluvial floodplain habitat, sandbars and open flowing water restricted to the Crocodile River...... 21 Figure 10: The bird species richness per pentad grid in comparison to the study area (see arrow) (map courtesy of SABAP2 and the Animal Demography Unit). According to the SABAP2 database, the study region hosts between >181 species...... 23 Figure 11: Species accumulation curve based on 36 samples (point counts)...... 23 Figure 12: A dendrogram based on hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the abundances of bird species on the study area...... 29

ii January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 13: Rarefaction curves for the prominent bird communities on the study area...... 31 Figure 14: (a) An image of the Half-collared Kingfisher ( Alcedo semitorquata ) (courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 2001) , (b - c) riffle water downstream and (d) upstream of the proposed development which provides suitable foraging habitat...... 36 Figure 15: (a) Tawny Eagle ( Aquila rapax ), (b) White-backed Vulture ( Gyps africanus ), (c) Hooded Vulture ( Necrosyrtes monachus ), (d) Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus ), (e) Lapped-faced Vulture ( Torgos tracheliotus ) and (f) White-headed Vulture ( Trigonoceps occipitalis ) (images courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1994)...... 37 Figure 16: (a) Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), (b) Black Stork (Ciconia nigra ) and (c) Marabou Stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus ) (images courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1992)...... 38 Figure 17: Martial Eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994)...... 39 Figure 18: Lanner Falcon ( Falco biarmicus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994)...... 40 Figure 19: (a) White-backed Night Heron ( Gorsachius leuconotus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1992) and (b) suitable foraging habitat at the Timfenheni- Crocodile River confluence...... 41 Figure 20: (a) European Roller ( Coracias garrulus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 2001) and (b) suitable foraging habitat corresponding to open savannoid grassland...... 41 Figure 21: (a) Black-bellied Bustard ( Lissotis melanogaster ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1996) and (b) suitable foraging habitat corresponding to open savannoid grassland...... 42 Figure 22: Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1992)...... 43 Figure 23: The current distribution of the Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow...... 44 Figure 24: A map illustrating the occurrence of the Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) on the study area...... 45 Figure 25: (a) Pel's Fishing-owl ( Scotopelia peli ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1999), (b) suitable roosting habitat provided by a large Trichilia emetica as viewed south of the proposed lodge footprint, (c) suitable roosting habitat provided by a large Diospyros mespiliformis at the confluence of the Timfenheni and Crocodile Rivers and (d) a large rot-hole within a T. emetica tree which provides potential breeding habitat approximately 878 m downstream of the lodge footprint...... 47 Figure 26: The current distribution of the Pel's Fishing-owl ( Scotopelia peli ) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow...... 48

iii January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 27: A map illustrating the approximate nesting locality of the Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli ) near the study area (data kindly supplied by Mr. S. Ronaldson of EWT)...... 49 Figure 28: (a) African Fish-eagle ( Haliaeetus vocifer ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994) and (b - c) a nest located 1.5 km downstream of the proposed lodge footprint (see arrow)...... 50 Figure 29: The current distribution of the African Fish-eagle ( Haliaeetus vocifer ) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow...... 51 Figure 29: A map illustrating the approximate nesting locality of the African Fish- Eagle ( Haliaetus vocifer ) near the study area and proposed buffer zone...... 52 Figure 30: A sensitivity map illustrating the avifaunal importance and ecological function of the respective habitat units on the proposed lodge footprint and road alignment...... 54 Figure 31: A sensitivity map illustrating the avifaunal importance and ecological function of the respective habitat units on the proposed 'Park and Ride' area. .. 55

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: A summary table of the total number of species, Red Listed species (Taylor, in press; IUCN, 2014), endemics and biome-restricted species (Barnes, 1998) expected to occur and observed within the proposed study area. Percentage values in brackets refer to derived totals compared against the southern African subregion (Expected) and those expected to occur on the study area (Observed)...... 22 Table 2: A list of biome-restricted species (according to Barnes, 1998) with distribution ranges sympatric to the study area...... 25 Table 3: The most dominant bird species recorded on the study area...... 25 Table 4: The low abundant (rare) species on the study area with contributions of < 0.01 %. * - according to observations during the investigation...... 26 Table 5: A summary of the observed species richness of the prominent bird

compositions on the study area . H’ – Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H' loge ). 31 Table 6: Threatened and near-threatened bird species that could utilise the proposed site area based on their known distribution range and the presence of suitable habitat. Conservation categories were used according to the IUCN (2014)* and Taylor (in press)**. Species highlighted in grey were confirmed during the investigation...... 32

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: A list of bird species observed on the study area during 19-21 January 2015. Scientific and common names were used according to Hockey et al . (2005)...... 68 Appendix 2: Required methodology for assessment of impacts...... 72

iv January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

I, Lukas Niemand (Pachnoda Consulting CC) declare that:

• I act as the independent specialist in this application; • I will perform the work relating to the application in an objective manner, even if this results in views and findings that are not favourable to the applicant; • I declare that there are no circumstances that may compromise my objectivity in performing such work; • I have no vested financial, personal or any other interest in the application; • I have no, and will not engage in, conflicting interests in the undertaking of the activity; • I undertake to disclose to the applicant and the competent authority all material information in my possession that reasonably has or may have the potential of influencing - any decision to be taken with respect to the application by the competent authority; and - the objectivity of any report, plan or document to be prepared by myself for submission to the competent authority; and • All the particulars furnished by me in this form are true and correct.

Lukas Niemand (Pr.Sci.Nat) 24 January 2015

Lukas Niemand is registered with The South African Council for Natural Scientific Professionals (400095/06) with more than 13 years of experience in terrestrial ecological-related assessments with an emphasis on avifaunal investigations. He has conducted numerous avifaunal assessments for a wide range of developments including mining projects, transmission line projects, hydro-electric schemes and other activities in South Africa and other African countries. Countries with work experience outside of South Africa include Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Malawi, Burundi, Republic of Congo and Liberia.

v January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Pachnoda Consulting CC was requested by Malelane Safari Resort Investments (Pty) Ltd to provide an avifaunal investigation for the proposed Safari Lodge and Park-and- Ride Area near the Malelane Gate in Kruger National Park.

The proposed development anticipates to cater for a 240 bed Safari Lodge with a four star rating (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The following activities are proposed:

• Accommodation in tented units; • Main lodge; • Conference venue; • Family Centre; • Wellness Centre; • Environmental Education Centre; and • Riverside meander, river footbridge and catering deck.

Support services and infrastructure will include the following:

• Potable water supply and purification (abstracted from boreholes at approximately 36 cubic meters per day); • Water storage (approximately 350 000 litre off stream reservoir). • Power supply (off-grid generation via a hybrid system including 300kW solar PV with battery storage and 400kW diesel powered back-up generators); • Sewage treatment (centralised on site facility with a capacity of 50 000 litres per 24 hours); • Refuse collection, recycling and off-site disposal; • On-site storm water management; • On-site roads and pathways (footpaths and golf cart routes); • A new access road to the lodge and service area; • Laundry, offices, stores and staff facility; • Vehicle wash bay; • Irrigation (via purified effluent); and • Communications and data.

In addition to the above, the development includes a ‘Park and Ride’ facility at the Malelane Gate (adjacent to the existing staff housing complex; Figure 1 and Figure 3).

1 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Components of the facility include an electric fence and gate, offices, reception, vehicle wash bay, ablutions, a kiosk, a waiting area, an outdoor rest area and parking areas.

Lastly, the development includes the proposed realignment of approximately 3,25 km of the S114 road (which currently runs through the proposed site) (Figure 4).

Figure 1: The proposed spatial position of the lodge site and the 'Park and Ride' site.

2 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 2: The proposed layout of the lodge site.

3 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 3: The proposed 'Park and Ride' facility at the Malelane Gate.

4 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 4: The proposed re-alignment of road S114.

1.2 Terms of Reference

The terms of reference for the assessment are:

• To describe the relevant baseline conditions relating to specific bird species on the proposed development(s) and immediate surrounding area; • To describe the dominant avifaunal community based on bird point counts; • To conduct an investigation of (potential) breeding, foraging and roosting habitat for the Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), Pel's Fishing Owl (Scotopelia peli ) and African Fish-eagle ( Haliaeetus vocifer ); • To describe the anticipated environmental impacts on the bird community during the life-cycle of the lodge complex; and • To provide a set of recommendations on how the negative environmental impacts as described above will be managed.

5 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Specific tasks to be undertaken include:

• A description of the dominant bird species and functional guilds occurring in the area; • A description of threatened, rare, endemic or conservation important species in the area with specific reference to the Endangered Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) and Endangered Pel's Fishing Owl ( Scotopelia peli ); and • A description of the relative avifaunal importance of specific habitat types (or vegetation communities) in the area under investigation.

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

2.1 Location

The study area is located within the Kruger National Park and under the jurisdiction of the South African National Parks (SANParks). The study area extends from the Malelane Gate in the south, along the western bank of the Crocodile River, up to the confluence of the Timfenheni River in the north (Figure 5).

2.2 Land use, existing infrastructure and important landscape features

The study area is primarily vacant and located in a protected area (the Kruger National Park; Figure 6). However, the eastern bank of the Crocodile River (i.e. beyond the boundary of the Kruger National Park) includes the Leopard Creek Golf Estate, the Pestana Kruger Lodge, irrigated croplands and scattered urban settlements (Figure 6).

6 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 5: A topocadastral map illustrating the geographic position of the study area.

7 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 6: A topocadastral map illustrating the land cover classes (2009) corresponding to the study area.

2.3 Biophysical Description

2.3.1 Climate

The climate is characterised by summer rainfall and dry winters. The average annual rainfall varies from 450 to 900 mm. Temperatures range from below freezing point in winter and up to 39 ºC in summer (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). Generally the area is frost free.

2.3.2 Geology

The study area is underlain by undifferentiated granite of the Onverwacht Group (Swazian Erathem).

8 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

2.3.3 Regional Vegetation Description

As a rule, bird diversity is often positively correlated with vegetation structure whereby floristic richness is not regarded to be an important contributor of observed patterns in bird abundance and their spatial distribution ranges. Grasslands are generally poor in woody plant species although it is considered to be an important habitat for many terrestrial bird species such as larks, pipits, korhaans and cisticolas. On the other hand, woodlands are rich in woody plant species and are an important constituent of the Savanna Biome that provides habitat for a large number of bushveld species that are not partial to grassland habitat types. In contrast to the Grassland Biome, the bird assemblages occupying the Savanna Biome are generally poor in endemic species although supporting a rich array of threatened Accipitriform (birds of prey) and Falconiform taxa (falcons and kestrels).

The study area forms part of the Savanna Biome and, more specifically, that of the Lowveld Bioregion as defined by Mucina & Rutherford (2006). It comprehends one ecological type known as Granite Lowveld (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006).

This vegetation type occurs in Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces, Swaziland and marginally also in KwaZulu-Natal with a substantial part found in the Kruger National Park. It is characterised as a tall shrubland with few trees to dense low woodland on deep sandy soils in upland areas or a dense thicket to open savanna in the bottomlands. The former is dominated by Terminalia sericea, Combretum zeyheri and C. apiculatum while the latter is typified by the presence of many microphyllous species such as Dichrostachys cinerea , Senegalia (=Acacia) nigrescens and Grewia bicolor .

The vegetation type is Vulnerable with more than 20 % transformed by cultivation and human settlements. Approximately 17 % of this vegetation type is conserved within the Kruger National Park (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006).

2.3.4 Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (2013)

According to the Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (2013), it is evident that the study area falls within a protected area (at Level 2) (Figure 7). However, the alluvial vegetation on the eastern bank of the Crocodile River opposite the Malelane Gate is classified as "Irreplaceable". These categories (terminology) were recommended by the Government Gazette No. 32006 (16 March 2009) for use during Bioregional Plans (which require the identification of Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas).

9 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 7: A map illustrating the local conservation categories based on the Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (2013).

3. METHODS AND APPROACH

3.1 Literature review and information base

A desktop and literature review of the area under investigation was commissioned to collate as much information as possible prior to fieldwork and data collection. The following literatures were consulted and are considered as key references:

• Hockey et. al. (2005), Harrison et. al. (1997) and del Hoyo et. al. (1992-2011) was consulted for general information on the life history attributes of the relevant bird species. They also provide basic distributional information on a small scale. Additionally, Chittenden and Whyte (2008) was also consulted and provides a more accurate account on the distribution of bird species within the Kruger National Park;

10 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

• Barnes (1998) was consulted for information regarding the biogeographic affinities of selected bird species that could be present on the study area; • The conservation status of bird species was categorised according to the global IUCN Red List of threatened species (IUCN, 2014) and a recent regional conservation assessment by Taylor (in press); • Distributional data was sourced from the first South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP1) and verified against Harrison et. al. (1997) for species corresponding to the quarter-degree grid cell (QDGC) 2531BC (Hectorspruit). The SABAP1 data provides a “snapshot” of the abundance and composition of species recorded within a quarter degree grid cell (QDGC) which was the sampling unit chosen (corresponding to an area of approximately 50x50 km). It should be noted that the atlas data makes use of reporting rates that were calculated from observer cards submitted by the public as well as citizen scientists. It provides an indication of the thoroughness of which the QDGCs were surveyed between 1987 and 1991; • Additional distributional data was sourced from the second South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP2; www.sabap2.adu.org.za). Since bird distributions are dynamic (based on landscape changes such as fragmentation and climate change), SABAP2 was born (and launched on 1 July 2007) from SABAP1 with the main difference being that all sampling is done at a finer scale known as pentad grids (5 min lat x 5 min long, equating to 9 pentads within a QDGC). Therefore, the data is more site-specific, recent and more comparable with observations made during the site visit (due to increased standardisation of data collection). The pentad grids relevant to the current project include 2525_3130 and 2520_3130 although neighbouring pentads were also scrutinized (e.g. 2520_3135, 2525_3135, 2520_3135, 2525_3125 and 2530_3130; • The choice of scientific nomenclature, taxonomy and common names were recommended by the International Ornithological Committee (the IOC World Bird Names), unless otherwise specified (see www.worldbirdnames.org as specified by Gill & Donsker, 2012). The updated nomenclatural sequence of Hackett et. al . (2008) and del Hoyo et. al. (2014) were adopted according to a recent upsurge of phylogenetic studies which differs from the more traditional classification of Sibley & Ahlquist (1990). Colloquial (common) names were used according to Hockey et. al. (2005) to avoid confusion; and • Observations and spatial data, with special reference to Pel's Fishing-owl and charismatic birds of prey, were obtained from conversations with the public sector including Jenny Lane (honorary ranger) and Scott Ronaldson (EWT - KNP Large Bird Project Coordinator).

11 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

3.2 Field surveys and data collection

Field surveys were performed during the austral summer season whereby the study area was investigated on 19 - 21 January 2015. In order to describe the baseline conditions and the avifaunal community on the study site, it was necessary to obtain information on the distribution and abundance of species present by applying the following techniques:

3.2.1 Point count surveys

The study area is small and any attempt to quantify the avifaunal community could lead to results subject to the effects of spatial autocorrelation. Irrespective of the limitations caused by surface area, data was collected by means of 36 point counts (Buckland et. al., 1993) (Figure 8). The data from the point counts is used to determine indicator species and to delineate the different local communities present. The use of point counts is advantageous since it is the preferred method to use to detect cryptic or elusive species. In addition, it is the preferred method to line transect counts where access is problematic, or when the terrain appears to be complex. It is a good method to use and very efficient for gathering a large amount of data in a short period of time (Sutherland, 2006).

At each point count the number of bird species seen was recorded, as well as, their respective abundance values using Swarovski 8.5x42 EL binoculars and a Swarovski 30-70x95 ATX spotting scope. Each point count lasted approximately 10 minutes (Sutherland et. al., 2004). To maximise the independence of observations, points were positioned at least 200 m apart.

The data generated from the point counts was analysed according to Clarke & Warwick (1994) based on the computed percentage contribution (%) of each species including the consistency (calculated as the similarity coefficient/standard deviation) of its contribution. Hierarchical Agglomerative Clustering (a cluster analysis based group- average linkages; Clarke & Warwick 1994) was performed on calculated Bray-Curtis coefficients derived from the data. A cluster analysis is used to assign associations between samples with the aim to objectively delineate groups or assemblages. Therefore, sampling entities that group together (being more similar) are believed to have similar compositions.

The species diversity of each community was analysed by means of rarefaction, while richness measures (such as the total number of species recorded (S) and various diversity indices) were calculated to compare the communities with each other (where

12 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge possible). The advantage of rarefaction is that it adjusts the number of species expected from each sample if all were reduced to a standard size.

3.2.2 Random (ad hoc) surveys

To obtain a more complete inventory of bird species present (apart from those observed during the point counts), all bird species observed while moving between point counts were identified and noted. Particular attention was devoted to suitable roosting, foraging and nesting habitat for threatened or near-threatened species. Besides visual observations, bird species were identified by means of their calls and other signs such as nests, discarded egg shells and feathers.

3.2.3 Playback/broadcasting of bird vocalisations

The probability of detecting skulking or elusive species was verified by playback of bird calls/songs wherever suitable habitat (e.g. dense Grewia thickets) was detected (e.g. certain cryptic warbler and thrush taxa of the genera Acrocephalus , Locustella and Luscinia ). Special care was taken to keep disturbance to a minimum and not to affect the bird's natural behaviour (e.g. to prevent unnecessary habituation).

All observations was processed and submitted to the South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP2).

13 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

3.3 Avifauna Sensitivity

The avifaunal sensitivity of any piece of land is based on its inherent ecosystem service (e.g. wetlands) and overall preservation of biodiversity. In addition, the sensitivity of any piece of land is a key consideration when identifying impacts.

3.3.1 Ecological Function & Connectivity

The extent to which a site is ecologically connected to surrounding areas is an important determinant of its sensitivity. Systems with a high degree of landscape connectivity or with extensive woodland and drainage systems amongst one another are perceived to be more sensitive and will be those contributing to important avifaunal flyways or overall preservation of bird diversity.

3.3.2 Avifaunal Importance

Avifaunal importance relates to species diversity, endemism (unique species or unique processes) and the presence of topographical features or primary habitat with the intrinsic ability to sustain threatened and species protected by legislation.

3.3.3 Sensitivity Scale

• High – Sensitive ecosystems with either low inherent resistance or low resilience towards disturbance factors or highly dynamic systems considered being important for the maintenance of ecosystem integrity (e.g. riverine floodplains and woodland). Most of these systems represent ecosystems with high connectivity with other important bird flight paths OR with high bird diversity while providing suitable habitat for a number of threatened or rare species. These areas should be protected; • Medium – These are slightly modified systems which occur along gradients of disturbances of low-medium intensity with some degree of connectivity with other ecological systems OR ecosystems with intermediate levels of species diversity but may include potential ephemeral habitat for threatened species; and • Low – Degraded and highly disturbed/transformed systems with little ecological function and are generally very poor in species diversity (most species are usually exotic or weeds).

14 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

3.4 Limitations and assumptions

1. It is assumed that third party information (obtained from government, academic/research institution, non-governmental organisations) is accurate and true; 2. Some of the datasets/information are out of date and therefore extant distribution ranges may have shifted although these datasets could provide insight into historical distribution ranges of relevant species; 3. The datasets/information bases are mainly small-scale and could not always consider azonal habitat types that may be present on the study area (e.g. sodic soils or patches of dead trees). In addition, these datasets encompass surface areas larger than the study area, which could include habitat types and species that are not present on the study area itself. Therefore, the potential to overestimate species richness is highly likely while it is also possible that certain cryptic or specialist species could have been be overlooked in the past; 4. Some of the datasets (e.g. SABAP2) managed by the Animal Demography Unit of the University of Cape Town are still in progress and plans to run indefinitely; 5. The study area is under SANParks management and, in general, inaccessible to the public (on foot). Since most of the species distribution ranges concerning the relevant datasets are subject to observations made by the public, it is likely that many species are overlooked or not formally catalogued for the area; 6. No nocturnal surveys were allowed due to the presence of dangerous game species (e.g. foraging hippos); 7. In order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of the bird communities on the study area, as well as, the status of endemic, rare or threatened species, assessments should always consider investigations at different time scales (across seasons/years) and through replication. However, due to time constraints such long-term studies are not feasible and were based on instantaneous (a “snapshot”) sampling bouts; and 8. The information presented in this document only has reference to the investigated study area(s) and cannot be applied to any other area without prior investigation.

15 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 8: A map of the study site illustrating the geographic placement of 36 bird point counts (satellite image courtesy of GoogleEarth).

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Macro-habitat types

Five vegetation communities were identified within the Lodge and Park-and-Ride sites by McCleland (2015), based on floristic composition and vegetation structure. However, although the composition of these communities differ in both cover abundance and species richness, the structure of the dominant communities remains very similar and the bird assemblages on these communities are expected to be very similar in composition. Nevertheless, azonal habitat types persist within these communities which contain very different compositions based on the intrinsic habitat preference of the species at hand. The various habitat types consist of the following (Figure 9):

16 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

4.1.1 Closed microphyllous shrubland

This habitat is confined to the 'Park and Ride' area and synonymous to the Grewia - Dichrostachys Closed Shrubland as described by McCleland (2015). It is a rather monotonous low closed shrubland dominated by bush encroacher taxa such as Dichrostachys cinerea and Grewia bicolor . Other noteworthy woody species include Cordia ovalis, Grewia monticola, Euclea natalensis and Gymnosporia glaucophylla . The graminoid cover is high and typified by secondary species such as Heteropogon contortus, Aristida congesta and Eragrostis rigidior . The habitat is the product of persistent disturbances caused by the trampling and grazing of large game species.

From an avifaunal perspective this habitat is not likely to support a high richness of bird species and the composition is expected to be composed of widespread taxa, which are typical of the Lowveld Bioregion (in particular White-browed Scrub-robin Erythropygia leucophrys and Rattling Cisticola Cisticola chiniana ).

4.1.2 Mixed closed shrubland

This habitat is prominent on the proposed lodge site and along the road re-alignment. It is synonymous to the Grewia - Combretum Closed Shrubland as described by McCleland (2015). It is a short dense shrubland dominated by large shrubs such as Grewia bicolor, Combretum hereroense, Dichrostachys cinerea along with scattered tall trees such as Senegalia nigrescens and Sclerocarya birrea .

More importantly, this habitat is characterised by numerous dead trees (an azonal habitat) which provides ephemeral breeding habitat for many obligate hole-nesting bird species (e.g. starlings, woodpeckers, barbets, rollers, oxpeckers and Southern Grey- headed Sparrows Passer diffuses ) and roosting habitat for small falconiform species (e.g. Amur Falcon Falco amurensis ).

4.1.3 Open savannoid grassland

Part of the proposed road re-alignment corresponds to open savannoid grassland which is typified by a well-established graminoid layer of Themeda triandra and Chloris virgata along with scattered tall canopy constituents (mainly Senegalia nigrescens ). This is the only habitat, which sustains a population of Sabota Lark ( Calendulauda sabota ), a widespread savanna species which was ominously absent from the mixed closed shrubland.

17 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

4.1.4 Ficus-Gymnosporia Riparian Woodland

This habitat is confined to the alluvial banks of the Crocodile River and characterised by an open canopy of tall canopy constituents such as Ficus sycomorus, Diospyros mespiliformis, Kigelia africana and Trichilia emetica . However, the open structure of the canopy is reminiscent of past flooding events and heavy browsing caused by elephants.

These canopy constituents provide potential breeding and roosting platforms for a number of large-bodied bird species pertaining to the Accipitridae (birds of prey), Ciconidae (storks), Ardeidae (herons) and Strigidae (typical owls). In addition, the riparian woodland conforms to a linear band of vegetation along the Crocodile River, which serves as an important daily flyway for many bird species between their rooting and foraging habitat.

In addition, the basal layer and mid-strata consist of dense undergrowth dominated by Gymnosporia senegalensis, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Cordia ovalis and Combretum microphyllum .

4.1.5 Garcinia-Gymnosporia Riparian Woodland

This habitat is confined to a narrow belt of vegetation along the Timfenheni River and characterised by tall closed woodland. The canopy is dominated by Diospyros mespiliformis, Garcinia livingstonei, Schotia brachypetala and Manilkara mochisia . Other noteworthy woody elements include Euclea natalensis , Cordia ovalis , Gymnosporia maranguensis and Grewia flavescens . It also serves as an important dispersal corridor for many bird species.

4.1.6 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and perennial open flowing water

The main channel of the Crocodile River consists of an intricate mosaic of alluvial floodplains and sandbars which provide roosting and breeding habitat for many aquatic bird species which include waterfowl (e.g. Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca and White-faced Duck Dendrocygna viduata ) and a variety of shorebirds (e.g. Blacksmith Lapwing Vanellus armatus , Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris and Water Thick- knee Burhinus vermiculatus ).

In addition, the open flowing water attracts a large variety of wading birds and piscivorous taxa which include amongst others the Pied Kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis ), Reed Cormorant ( Microcarbo africanus ), Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ), African Fish-eagle

18 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

(Haliaetus vocifer ), Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) and a rich variety of herons and egrets of the genera Ardea and Egretta .

a b

c d

e f

19 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

g h

i j

k l

m n

20 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 9: A collage of images illustrating the dominant habitat types on the study area: (a - b) Closed microphyllous shrubland at the 'Park-and-Ride' site, (c - d) mixed closed shrubland - the dominant habitat on the study area, (e - f) azonal habitat comprising of dead trees - important breeding habitat for obligate hole-nesting taxa, (g - h) open savannoid grassland, (i - j) Ficus-Gymnosporia riparian woodland along the Crocodile River, (k - l) Garcinia-Diospyros riparian woodland along the Timfenheni River and (m - n) alluvial floodplain habitat, sandbars and open flowing water restricted to the Crocodile River.

4.2 Species richness and summary statistics

According to the South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP1: Harrison et. al . 1997), 309 bird species have been recorded in the quarter degree grid cell that is sympatric to the study area ( c. 2531BC). This equates to 32 % of the approximate 963 species listed for the southern African subregion 1 (according to Lepage 2014). However, the SABAP2 database suggests that the study area is more likely to sustain an average of 338 species 2 (www.sabap2.adu.org.za; 2520_3130: 326 species & 2525_3130: 350 species). On a national scale, this means that the bird richness in the study region is very high (Figure 10).

Despite the high diversity of bird species in the study region, the proposed development site is limited in habitat diversity. For example, the proposed study area does not contain any topographical landscape features such as mountain ranges while the riparian woodland units lack a well-developed (closed-) canopy structure. The latter explains the absence of a well-structured "forest" bird assemblage consisting of Collared Sunbird (Hedydipna collaris ), Terrestrial Brownbul ( Phyllastrephus terrestris ), African Dusky Flycatcher ( Muscicapa adusta ), Olive Sunbird ( Cyanomitra olivacea ), Black-bellied Starling ( Lamprotornis corruscus), Yellow-rumped Tinkerbird ( Pogoniulus bilineatus ) and Narina Trogon ( Apaloderma narina ). Therefore, the local avifaunal richness on the study site is comparatively lower when compared to the surrounding region (see Appendix 1). Based on the habitat types present, 190 species were confirmed during the investigation, which equates to 56 % of the expected number of species obtained during SABAP2 (Table 1).

1 A geographical area south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers (includes Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho). 2 According to the pentad grids 2525_3130 and 2520_3130 (range = 31 - 210 species based on 166 submitted cards - including full and ad hoc protocols).

21 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Table 1: A summary table of the total number of species, Red Listed species (Taylor, in press; IUCN, 2014), endemics and biome-restricted species (Barnes, 1998) expected to occur and observed within the proposed study area. Percentage values in brackets refer to derived totals compared against the southern African subregion (Expected) and those expected to occur on the study area (Observed).

Expected Observed Total number of species 338 (35 %) 19 0 (56 %) Number of Red Listed species 21 (1 6 %) 11 (52 %) (Taylor, in press & IUCN, 2014)* Number of biome -restricted species 8 (14 %) 5 (71 %) (Barnes, 1998 – Zambezian, Kalahari-Highveld & East African Coast)** Number of endemics (Hockey et. al ., 5 (5.1 %) 3 (60 %) 2005) Number of near -endemics (Hockey 6 (10 %) 5 (83 %) et. al ., 2005) * - only in South Africa (including Lesotho and Swaziland). ** - only species occurring within the geographic boundaries of South Africa (including Lesotho and Swaziland) were considered.

The observed totals are well within the limit (> 50 %; Error! Reference source not found. 1) of the number of expected species, and provide a realistic indication of the thoroughness and general coverage of the study area during the investigation (Figure 11). Even though the study area supports a high richness of bird species, it is poorly represented by endemic and near-endemic species. Many of these species are reaching their eastern distributional limits in the study region. However, the study area provides habitat for many threatened and near-threatened species although it is not considered as a biogeographically important area for restricted-range or biome-restricted species.

22 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 10: The bird species richness per pentad grid in comparison to the study area (see arrow) (map courtesy of SABAP2 and the Animal Demography Unit). According to the SABAP2 database, the study region hosts between >181 species .

140

120

100

80

60

SpeciesCount (cumulative) 40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 31 32 33 34 35 36 Samples

Figure 11: Species accumulation curve based on 36 samples (point counts).

23 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

4.2.1 Discrepancies in the SABAP1 database

The SABAP1 database provides inventory of the reporting rates of bird species that were observed during 1987 to 1991. However, the database should be interpreted with caution since it is possible that some of the species were unintentionally misidentified during the vetting process. Many of these species are in fact unlikely to occur on the study area and show distribution patterns that are extralimital to the study area. A typical example is the apparent occurrence of the Damara Red-billed Hornbill ( Tockus damarensis ), a hornbill species that is endemic to the arid escarpment of Namibia and southern Angola, although hybrids of this species and the Southern Red-billed Hornbill (Tockus rufirostris ) were also reported. However, the latter is only likely to occur in a narrow zone of overlap south of Etosha in Namibia. Other examples of discrepancies include the Grey-backed Camaroptera ( Camaroptera brevicaudata )3, a species that occurs further west although easily confused with the resident Green-backed Camaroptera ( C. brachyura ). Similarly, the Northern Grey-headed Sparrow ( Passer griseus ) and Orange River White-eye ( Zosterops pallidus ) were also reported during SABAP1 although highly unlikely to occur. The presence of these species in the area is a taxonomic artefact when these species were "split" and elevated to a full species.

4.2.2 Biome-restricted species and Important Bird Areas 4

The study area falls within the Kruger National Park Important Bird Area (SA002), a large conservation area which provides habitat for many globally threatened and near- threatened bird species (see section dealing with species of conservation concern) (Barnes, 1998). It supports more than 490 bird species, thereby contributing to nearly 55 % of all the bird species in southern Africa (Barnes, 1998). Apart from supporting a high richness of threatened species, it also sustains 16 bird species that are restricted to a particular biome. However, only eight of these are expected to be present on the study site, while five were recorded during the investigation (Table 2).

3 Please note that this species was only recorded during SABAP1. 4 An important bird area (IBA) is a geographical area supporting significant populations of both globally and nationally threatened species, including a number of biome-restricted species (Barnes, 1998).

24 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Table 2: A list of biome-restricted 5 species (according to Barnes, 1998) with distribution ranges sympatric to the study area.

Species Common Name Recorded during Biome Affinity Predicted Status SABAP1 & SABAP2 Poicephalus Brown -headed Parrot Yes East African Coast Fairly common cryptoxanthus (confirmed) Chlorophoneus viridis Gorgeous Bush -shrike Yes East African Coast Rare (probably absent) Cossypha humeralis White -throated Robin - Yes Zambezian Affinity Uncommon chat (confirmed) Calamonastes stierlingi Stierling's Wren - Yes Zambezian Affinity Uncommon Warbler Turdus libonyanus Kurrichane Thrush Yes Zambezian Affinity Fairly common (confirmed) Lamprotornis corruscus Black -bellied Starling Yes East African Coast Rare Lamprotornis australis Burchell's Starling Yes Kalahari -Highveld Common (confirmed) Cinnyris talatala White -bellied Sunbird Yes Zambezian Affinity Common (confirmed)

4.3 Dominance and rarity (low abundance species)

The dominant (typical) species on the study area are presented in Table 3. Only those species that cumulatively contributed to more than 90% of the overall similarity are presented. It is evident that the dominant composition is insensitive towards habitat type and structure on the study area. These species are widespread in the Savanna Biome and are present in nearly every habitat type that is present on the study area. The Burchell's Starling (Lamprotornis australis ) was the only dominant species that is restricted to a particular biome. The latter is restricted to the Kalahari-Highveld biome (Barnes, 1998) although an isolated population is present in the eastern mesic Lowveld of South Africa (Craig, 2005). It is also one of the most common glossy starlings in the Kruger National Park (Craig, 2005).

Table 3: The most dominant bird species recorded on the study area.

Percentage Species Average abundance Consistency Contribution Rattling Cisticola ( Cisticola chiniana ) 2.03 3.23 27.98 Dark -capped Bulbul ( Pycnonotus tricolor ) 1.19 1.01 14.05 Burchell's Starling ( Lamprotornis australis ) 0.89 0.58 6.73 Cape Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia capicola ) 0.58 0.47 4.96 Brown -crowned Tchagra ( Tchagra australis ) 0.72 0.42 4.85 Long -billed Crombec ( Sylvietta rufescens ) 0.72 0.36 3.59 Cape Glossy Starling ( Lamprotornis nitens ) 0.78 0.33 3.04 White -browed Scrub -robin ( Erythropygia 0.44 0.36 2.85

5 Biome restricted species – A species with a breeding distribution confined to one biome.

25 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Percentage Species Average abundance Consistency Contribution leucophrys ) Tawny -flanked Prinia ( Prinia subflava ) 0.78 0.37 2.8 Woodland Kingfisher ( Halcyon senegalensis ) 0.61 0.33 2.28

Table 4 lists the “rare” species with low abundance values on the study area. Many of these species were counted only once or twice during the point count surveys. However, the majority are widespread, but occur naturally at low densities.

Table 4: The low abundant (rare) species on the study area with contributions of < 0.01 %. * - according to observations during the investigation.

Av. Species Habitat preference* Abundance Yellow-fronted Tinberbird 0.03 Mixed closed shrubland Yellow-throated Petronia 0.08 Riparian woodland Southern Boubou 0.06 Riparian woodland Southern White-crowned Shrike 0.08 Riparian woodland Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill 0.03 Mixed closed shrubland Speckled Mousebird 0.03 Mixed closed shrubland Trumpeter Hornbill 0.08 Riparian woodland Pin-tailed Whydah 0.03 Riparian woodland Purple Roller 0.06 Open savannoid grassland Red-faced Mousebird 0.11 Unspecified Sabota Lark 0.03 Open savannoid grassland Saddle-billed Stork 0.06 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Lesser Honeyguide 0.03 Riparian woodland Levaillant's Cuckoo 0.03 Riparian woodland Little Bee-eater 0.03 Open savannoid grassland Malachite Kingfisher 0.03 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Marabou Stork 1.11 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Osprey 0.03 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Greater Blue-eared Starling 0.03 Mixed closed shrubland Green Wood-hoopoe 0.06 Unspecified Grey Heron 0.06 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Jameson's Firefinch 0.06 Open savannoid grassland Common Sandpiper 0.03 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Double-banded Sand-grouse 0.08 Mixed closed shrubland Giant Kingfisher 0.03 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water Brown-hooded Kingfisher 0.03 Riparian woodland Acacia Pied Barbet 0.03 Mixed closed shrubland African Fish-eagle 0.06 Alluvial floodplain, sandbars and open flowing water

26 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Av. Species Habitat preference* Abundance Arrow-marked Babbler 0.22 Unspecified Bennet's Woodpecker 0.06 Mixed closed shrubland Black-backed Puffback 0.03 Riparian woodland Black-crowned Tchagra 0.06 Mixed closed shrubland Black-headed Oriole 0.03 Riparian woodland Black-shouldered Kite 0.03 Open savannoid grassland

A significant proportion of low abundance species include taxa confined to habitat types that are confined to the Crocodile and Timfenheni Rivers ( c. riparian woodland and alluvial floodplains). These habitat types are patchy and of linear configuration in the landscape and have a "density-dependant" effect on their numbers.

4.4 Community Structure and Species Composition

A cluster analysis of the bird abundance values suggests three distinct assemblages based on vegetation structure (e.g. closed shrubland vs. riparian woodland), the height of the canopy, the presence of aquatic habitat features (e.g. sandbars and flowing surface water) and the degree of disturbances (e.g. browsing intensity) (Figure 12). It was evident that the bird composition on the closed mixed shrubland is similar to those that are present on the open savannoid grassland and the Garcinia - Diospyros riparian woodland. The transition between these habitat types is subtle, which explains the high similarity of the bird community structure between these vegetation types. However, the dense closed microphyllous shrubland and the Ficus - Gymnosporia riparian woodland support distinct bird assemblages that differ from those found in the mixed closed shrubland and open savannoid grassland.

The main avifaunal communities in the study area are as follows (according to a clustering ordination - Figure 12):

1. A community confined to shrubland : This community is widespread and prominent on the study area. It is characterised by multi-species flocks, which tend to forage together although minimizing inter-specific competition between them by exploiting different niches (by feeding in different ways and different levels in the canopy). The bird composition is typified by the Rattling Cisticola (Cisticola chiniana ), Dark-capped Bulbul (Pycnonotus tricolor ), Burchell's Starling ( Lamprotornis australis ) and Cape Turtle Dove (Streptopelia capicola ). This community is also characterised by many hole-nesting species (Southern Grey-headed Sparrow Passer diffuses , Violet-backed Starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster , glossy starlings of the genus Lamprotornis and Red-billed Oxpecker Buphagus erythrorhynchus ), which favour the high density of dead trees (mainly Senegalia nigrescens ).

27 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Indicator species (species mainly restricted to this community) include the Emerald- spotted Wood-dove ( Turtur chalcospilos ), Scarlet-chested Sunbird ( Chalcomitra senegalensis ), Amur Falcon ( Falco amurensis ), Bearded Woodpecker ( Dendropicos namaquus ), Cape Glossy Starling ( Lamprotornis nitens ) and Chin-spot Batis ( Batis molitor ). Part of this community is confined to the open savannoid grassland which supports a sub-assemblage of bird species which were not observed from any of the other habitat types. These species include the Purple Roller ( Coracias naevius ), Magpie Shrike ( Corvinella melanoleuca ) and Sabota Lark ( Calendulauda sabota ).

2. A community confined to microphyllous shrubland : This community is prominent on the microphyllous shrubland near the Malelane Gate. It is characterised by a species- poor composition consisting of Yellow-breasted Apalis ( Apalis flavida ), White-browed Scrub-robin ( Erythropygia leucophrys ) and Rattling Cisticola ( Cisticola chiniana ).

28 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Riparian woodland Closed Mixed closed shrubland microphyllous shrubland

Figure 12: A dendrogram based on hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the abundances of bird species on the study area.

29 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

3. A community confined to riparian woodland and alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River : This community is prominent along the respective habitat types that are restricted to the Crocodile River floodplain. It comprehends two distinct sub- assemblages consisting of (1) an assemblage confined to the riparian woodland and (2) an assemblage dominated by aquatic-dependant species confined to the sandbars and flowing water habitat. The typical species of the former include the Dark-capped Bulbul (Pycnonotus tricolor ), Tawny-flanked Prinia ( Prinia subflava ), Sombre Greenbul (Andropadus importunus ), Speckled Weaver ( Ploceus ocularis ), Woodland Kingfisher (Halcyon senegalensis ) and Yellow-fronted Canary ( Crithagra mozambica ). The latter include the Blacksmith Lapwing ( Vanellus armatus ), Egyptian Goose ( Alopochen aegyptiaca ), Water Thick-knee ( Burhinus vermiculatus ), Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis ), White-faced Duck ( Dendrocygna viduata ), Green-backed Heron ( Butorides striata ), Reed Cormorant ( Microcarbo africanus ) and African Pied Wagtail ( Motacilla aguimp ).

Indicator species pertaining to the riparian woodland include the African Pipit ( Anthus cinnamomeus ), Grey-headed Bush-shrike ( Malaconotus blanchoti ), Marsh Warbler (Acrocephalus palustris ), Common Waxbill ( Estrilda astrild ) and African Fish-Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer ). Indicator species pertaining to the floodplains and sandbars include the Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), Goliath Heron ( Ardea goliath ), Wood Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola ), Red-faced Cisticola ( Cisticola erythrops ), Pied Kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis ), Little Egret ( Egretta garzetta ), Great White Heron ( Ardea alba ) and Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ).

4.5 Species diversity and richness measures

The riparian woodland units with alluvial floodplains along the Crocodile River support a high bird richness (Table 5) when compared to the other habitat types. However, the highest number of bird individuals are confined to the open savannoid grassland and mixed closed shrubland units (Table 5).

Realistically, the highest bird diversity (when also measuring the equitability among bird individuals or evenness), was observed on the open savannoid grassland units followed by compositions pertaining to the riparian woodlands along the Crocodile River (Figure 13). The differences in the observed richness values and diversity measures between the savannoid grasslands and the remaining units are best explained by the vegetation dynamics, in particular the role played by fire. The savannoid grasslands are more prone towards annual fires, which contribute to the patchy occurrence of vegetation at different successional stages and different structure. Therefore, recently burned areas are more likely to be colonised by high numbers of transient species and show higher numbers of individuals when compared to the surrounding mixed closed scrublands. Nevertheless,

30 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge the riparian woodland units along the Crocodile River also supported a high bird diversity as rendered by the high spatial heterogeneity observed within this habitat type (e.g. the different habitat types within the alluvial floodplain and the tall canopy of riparian woodland).

25 Log. (Riparian woodland & alluvial floodplain) Log. (Closed mixed shrubland) 20 Log. (Microphyllous shrubland)

15 Log. (Open savannoid grassland)

10

5 Number Expectedof Species

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40

-5 Number of Samples

Figure 13: Rarefaction curves for the prominent bird communities on the study area.

Table 5: A summary of the observed species richness of the prominent bird compositions on the study area . H’ – Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H'loge ).

Expected number of species Habitat Number of species Mean number of individuals H' (n=40) Riparian woodland & alluvial floodplain 81 40.4 3.85 22.62 Closed mixed shrubland 70 22.1 3.79 18.81 Microphyllous shrubland 12 11.5 2.39 10.36 Open savannoid grassland 24 23.0 2.93 25.26

4.6 Species of conservation concern

Table 6 provides an overview of the threatened and near-threatened bird species that could occur in the proposed study area based on their respective distribution ranges and the presence of suitable habitat. According to Table 6, 21 species 6 are known to occur in the region with 11 species confirmed during the investigation. Four of the 11 species are globally threatened species and two are globally near-threatened, while nine are

6Please note that the region provides habitat for Pel's fishing Owl (Scotopelia peli ) to be present. This species was not recorded during SABAP1 or SABAP2 although it was confirmed breeding in the region ( pers. comm ., S. Ronaldson).

31 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge regionally threatened species and two regionally near-threatened species. Noteworthy species include the regionally endangered Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), the endangered Martial Eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ), the vulnerable Black Stork ( Ciconia nigra ) and the near-threatened Marabou Stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus ).

Table 6: Threatened and near-threatened bird species that could utilise the proposed site area based on their known distribution range and the presence of suitable habitat. Conservation categories were used according to the IUCN (2014)* and Taylor (in press)**. Species highlighted in grey were confirmed during the investigation.

Global Regional Recorded Recorded Occurrence Species Conservation Conservation during during Preferred Habitat Status Status* Status** SABAP1 SABAP2 Alcedo - Near - Yes Yes Prefers fast - Probably semitorquata threatened flowing and uncommon along (Half-collared the Crocodile well-vegetated Kingfisher) River streams. corresponding to the study area. Suitable habitat along the Crocodile River (mainly rapids) occurs to the north and south of the study area. Aquila rapax - Endangered Yes Yes Lowveld and A regular (Tawny Eagle) Kalahari savannas, foraging visitor to especially game the study area. farming areas and Its occurrence is reserves. largely dependent on the presence of carcasses. Lissotis - Near - Yes Yes Dense tall Considered to be melanogaster threatened grassland in fairly common in (Black-bellied lowland areas. the open Bustard) savannoid grassland. Bucorvus Vulnerable Endangered Yes Yes Mainly open An uncommon leadbeateri woodland and large resident. (Southern Ground trees for roosting. Hornbill) Ciconia nigra - Vulnerable Yes Yes Breeds on steep A fairly common (Black Stork) cliffs within summer foraging mountain ranges; visitor on the

32 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Global Regional Recorded Recorded Occurrence Species Conservation Conservation during during Preferred Habitat Status Status* Status** SABAP1 SABAP2 forages on alluvial floodplain ephemeral habitat on the wetlands. study area. Coracias garrulus Near - Near - Yes Yes Open woodland A common non - (European Roller) threatened threatened and bushveld. breeding summer visitor on the open savannoid grassland units. Ephippiorhynchus - Endangered Yes Yes Large rivers and A regular senegalensis inundated foraging resident (Saddle-billed floodplains, mainly in the area. It Stork) in Lowveld/low-lying was not recorded areas breeding on the lodge footprint. Falco biarmicus - Vulnerable Yes Yes Varied, but prefers An occasional (Lanner Falcon) to breed in foraging visitor mountainous/rocky on the study areas. area. Gorsachius - Vulnerable No Yes Low land rivers with Considered to be leuconotus dense overhanging a common (White-backed vegetation resident. Night-heron Gyps africanus Endangered Endangered Yes Yes Breed on tall, flat - A fairly common (White-backed topped trees. foraging visitor in Vulture) Mainly restricted to the region. large rural or game farming areas. Gyps coprotheres Vulnerable Endangered Yes No Mainly confined to An uncommon to (Cape Vulture) mountain ranges, rare foraging especially near visitor. breeding site. Ventures far afield in search of food. Leptoptilos - Near - Yes Yes Varied, from A common crumeniferus threatened savanna to resident - often (Marabou Stork) wetlands, pans and encountered floodplains – roosting along dependant of game the sandbars farming areas corresponding to the Crocodile River. Mycteria ibis - Endangered No Yes Wetlands, pans and A common (Yellow-billed flooded grassland. foraging visitor to Stork) alluvial

33 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Global Regional Recorded Recorded Occurrence Species Conservation Conservation during during Preferred Habitat Status Status* Status** SABAP1 SABAP2 floodplains along the Crocodile River. Necrosyrtes Endangered Endangered Yes Yes Lowveld areas; An irregular monachus mainly on game foraging visitor to (Hooded Vulture) farms and reserves the study area. Its occurrence is largely dependent on the presence of carcasses. Polemaetus Vulnerable Endangered Yes Yes Varied, from open A regular bellicosus karroid shrub to foraging visitor to (Martial Eagle) lowland savanna. the study area. Rostratula - Vulnerable No Yes Inundated An uncommon benghalensis grassland bordering visitor to the (Greater Painted seasonal wetlands alluvial Snipe) and pans. floodplains along the Crocodile River. Scotopelia peli - Endangered No No Dense riparian An uncommon (Pel's Fishing Owl) woodland along foraging visitor to Lowveld rivers the study area. Known to breed approx. 1.5 km downstream of the study area. Sagittarius Vulnerable Vulnerable Yes No Prefers open An uncommon to serpentarius grassland or lightly rare foraging (Secretarybird) wooded habitat. visitor to the study area, in particular the open savannoid grassland units. Terathopius Near - Endangered Yes Yes Lowveld and A common ecaudatus threatened Kalahari savanna; foraging resident. (Bateleur) mainly on game farms and reserves Torgos tracheliotus Vulnerable Endangered Yes Yes Lowveld and An irregular (Lapped-faced Kalahari savanna; foraging visitor to Vulture) mainly on game the study area. farms and reserves Its occurrence is largely dependent on the presence of

34 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Global Regional Recorded Recorded Occurrence Species Conservation Conservation during during Preferred Habitat Status Status* Status** SABAP1 SABAP2 carcasses. Trigonoceps Vulnerable Endangered Yes Yes Lowveld areas; A regular occipitalis mainly on game foraging visitor (White-headed farms and reserves on the study Vulture) area. Its occurrence is largely dependent on the presence of carcasses.

A brief account of confirmed species with a high likelihood of occurrence is presented below:

Alcedo semitorquata (Half-collared Kingfisher)

Alcedo semitorquata is globally least concern (BirdLife International, 2012a) but near- threatened in South Africa owing to habitat loss and siltation along rivers (Taylor, in press). It is a fairly widespread species with a preference for clear, fast-flowing perennial streams consisting of alternating riffle water and slower sections of deeper pools. Apart from the above, dense marginal vegetation (well-wooded) bordering the streams is a prerequisite. Although it is mainly resident, it appears to undergo seasonal movements since it is more common in the Kruger National Park during wet summers (del Hoyo et. al , 2001).

Although not confirmed from the proposed study area, the rocky islands upstream and downstream of the study area along the Crocodile River (c. 600 m downstream and 535 m upstream from the Timfenheni River confluence; Figure 14) provides suitable foraging habitat for this species to be present. Since it requires at least 1 km of river territory (del Hoyo et. al , 2001) to breed, it is anticipated to move/disperse along the section of the Crocodile River next to the proposed development, especially when communing between foraging habitat. However, the proposed development is unlikely to impact in any significant way on the habitat of this species although it could be temporarily displaced from utilising the immediate river habitat during construction.

35 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

a b

c d

Figure 14: (a) An image of the Half-collared Kingfisher ( Alcedo semitorquata ) (courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 2001) , (b - c) riffle water downstream and (d) upstream of the proposed development which provides suitable foraging habitat.

Scavenging Birds of Prey (genera Aquila, Gyps, Necrosyrtes, Terathopius, Torgos and Trigonoceps)

Five species of large-bodied scavenging raptors were recorded on the study area ( c. Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax , White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus , Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus , Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus and White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis ), while another species (Lapped-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotus ) is regarded as an irregular foraging visitor to the study area (Figure 15). All of these were formerly listed as vulnerable in South Africa (Barnes, 2000), although recent evidence according to regional declining trends has upgraded their status to the endangered category (Taylor, in press). However, these species were mainly observed soaring overhead, and the occurrence of these species in the study area is determined by the presence of food resources (e.g. carcasses).

These species are fairly common on major conservation areas corresponding to the Lowveld and Kalahari basin, especially on areas teeming with game. They are otherwise

36 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

rare and uncommon elsewhere. None of these species are currently breeding on the proposed development sites.

a b

c d

e f

Figure 15: (a) Tawny Eagle ( Aquila rapax ), (b) White-backed Vulture ( Gyps africanus ), (c) Hooded Vulture ( Necrosyrtes monachus ), (d) Bateleur ( Terathopius ecaudatus ), (e) Lapped-faced Vulture ( Torgos tracheliotus ) and (f) White-headed Vulture ( Trigonoceps occipitalis ) (images courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1994).

37 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Storks (Ciconiidae)

Three stork species of conservation concern were recorded from the alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River and nearby tributaries of the Crocodile River (e.g. the Matjulu River). These include the regionally endangered Saddle-billed Stork 7 (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), the vulnerable Black Stork ( Ciconia nigra ) and the regionally near-threatened Marabou Stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus ) (Figure 16). All these species are considered as regular foraging visitors to the alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River. However, none of these species were utilising the proposed development sites as breeding habitat. a b

c

Figure 16: (a) Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), (b) Black Stork (Ciconia nigra ) and (c) Marabou Stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus ) (images courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1992).

7 A detailed account of the status of the Saddle-billed Stork on the study area is provided at a later stage in this document.

38 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus)

P. bellicosus is globally listed as vulnerable (BirdLife International, 2013a) while a recent conservation assessment has upgraded the species from regionally vulnerable to endangered (Taylor, in press) due to rapid declines in South Africa during the last 10 years (owing to habitat loss and poisoning; Taylor, in press). Although it has an extensive range across most of sub-Saharan Africa, it is nowhere common and generally occurs at low densities.

P. bellicosus is a large and charismatic species (Figure 17) that is more numerous in large conservation bodies although it also occurs on large game farms, or areas where human densities and activities remain sparse. It is regarded as a regular foraging visitor in the study area and immediate surroundings, which is believed to be part of an extensive home range used by a local breeding pair of birds (pers. obs.). It requires exceptionally large home ranges in excess of 130 km2 (Brown et. al ., 1982) and sometimes even up to 1000 km 2, accentuating the importance of additional foraging habitat for the long-term survival of this species. During the investigation, a foraging adult bird was recorded near the Malalane Gate and a juvenile just north of the proposed lodge site.

Figure 17: Martial Eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994).

Lanner Falcon (Falco biarmicus)

F. biarmicus is a fairly common species within its global distribution range, where it occurs from south-eastern Europe to the Middle East, south-west Asia and across most

39 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge of Africa (Jenkins, 2005). The global population consists of more than 30 000 breeding pairs with approximately 1 400 pairs confined to the eastern parts of South Africa (Tarboton & Allen, 1984). It is was recently upgraded from near-threatened to vulnerable in South Africa due to persistent transformation of suitable foraging habitat (open areas) to make way for agricultural land (Figure 18).

This species is often associated with ridges and mountain ranges where it prefers to nest on cliffs. It prefers to forage over open terrain and will hunt indiscriminately on almost any open area with suitable prey (mainly other terrestrial birds such as francolins and lapwings). During the investigation a single adult bird was observed hunting alongside a flock of Amur Falcons ( Falco amurensis ) over open savannoid grassland. It is regarded as an irregular and occasional foraging visitor to the study area.

Figure 18: Lanner Falcon ( Falco biarmicus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994).

Gorsachius (=Calherodius) leuconotus (White-backed Night Heron)

G. leuconotus is a shy and secretive species and is most frequently encountered along flowing lowland rivers (Figure 19). It is listed as vulnerable in South Africa due to the continuous siltation of its preferred habitat and the reduction of water flow caused by damming of rivers (Taylor, in press). It prefers well-vegetated streams and rivers for roosting sites and intermittent sections of broken (riffle) water during nocturnal foraging bouts. Although not recorded during the survey, it is known to occur in the area ( pers. comm. , Jenny Lane) along the Crocodile River.

40 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

a b

Figure 19: (a) White-backed Night Heron ( Gorsachius leuconotus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1992) and (b) suitable foraging habitat at the Timfenheni-Crocodile River confluence.

Coracias garrulus (European Roller)

The European Roller ( Coracias garrulus ) was recorded from the open savannoid grassland units (Figure 20). However, this species is fairly unspecialised on its wintering (non-breeding) grounds, where it is prevalent in the open woodland. It is currently listed as near-threatened (BirdLife International, 2012b) owing to direct persecution while on migration over the Mediterranean (especially Oman) and Gujarat in India (del Hoyo et. al., 2001). It is also threatened by habitat loss, since large tracts of suitable breeding habitat are converted to agricultural monocultures. It is not considered to be threatened in its wintering habitat.

a b

Figure 20: (a) European Roller ( Coracias garrulus ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 2001) and (b) suitable foraging habitat corresponding to open savannoid grassland.

41 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Lissotis melanogaster (Black-bellied Bustard)

The Black-bellied Bustard (Lissotis melanogaster ) is near-threatened in South Africa with less than 5 000 individuals that are threatened by habitat loss and overgrazing (Allen, 2005; Taylor, in press) (Figure 21). Although not recorded during the investigation it is likely to occur in the tall dense Themeda triandra grassland corresponding to the open savannoid grassland units.

a b

Figure 21: (a) Black-bellied Bustard ( Lissotis melanogaster ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1996) and (b) suitable foraging habitat corresponding to open savannoid grassland.

4.7 Species deserving special attention

The following species are likely to occur in the area and deserves special attention according to the Terms of Reference.

4.7.1 Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis)

The Saddle-billed Stork (Figure 22) is regarded as globally least concern since the global population is estimated at roughly 1 000 to 25 000 individuals (BirdLife International, 2012c). It is argued that the population has an extremely large distribution range and hence does not approach the thresholds under the range size criteria (e.g. the extent of occurrence is not less than 20 000 km 2). Although the global population is declining, the declining trend is not sufficiently rapid enough to approach the thresholds under the trend criteria (the population has not declined by more than 30 % during the last 10 years). However, in South Africa the national population is small and estimated to be less that 150 breeding pairs (Anderson, 2005) with most of these occurring in Kruger National Park ( c. 20 breeding pairs in 1993; Anderson, 2005). For this reason the national population is Endangered (Taylor, in press).

42 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

It is a species which is associated with large lowland rivers and floodplains. It is a solitary breeder which pairs for life. It constructs a massive nest structure within the top part of a tree which is reminiscent to that of a large eagle or vulture, and for this reason very conspicuous. In addition, the pairs remain in the same area of their nest and although they may not breed successfully every year, they remain faithful to their nesting sites (Tarboton, 2001).

According to the SABAP2 database it is evident that Saddle-billed Stork ( E. senegalensis ) is a resident in the study area although it was fairly regularly observed in the region (based on reporting rates of between 8.8 - 11.63 %; Figure 23). During the investigation, a male and female bird was observed foraging within the Crocodile River floodplain, approximately 1.2 km downstream of the proposed lodge footprint (when measured from the confluence of the Timfenheni and Crocodile Rivers; Figure 24). A pair was also observed foraging along the Matjulu River, which could be the same pair that was observed downstream of the proposed lodge footprint. However, breeding (e.g. nest structures) was not observed on the study area, although suitable nesting habitat (e.g. the presence of isolated large trees/or breeding platforms within the alluvial floodplain of the Crocodile River) was observed 1.5 km downstream from the proposed lodge footprint where it is suspected to breed.

Figure 22: Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1992).

43 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 23: The current distribution of the Saddle-billed Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow.

44 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 24: A map illustrating the occurrence of the Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) on the study area.

4.7.2 Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli)

The Pel's fishing-owl is a large and charismatic bird of prey (Figure 25:a) which specialises in hunting fish. It is not globally threatened since the global population is reported to be large enough not to approach thresholds for the Vulnerable category (BirdLife International, 2012d). However, the national population is highly localised and uncommon, with an estimated 30 - 40 pair of which most occur along the Luvuvhu and Olifants Rivers (Kemp, 2005). The national population has decreased dramatically due to human disturbances, water abstraction and siltation of large lowland rivers, which placed this species in the endangered category (Taylor, in press).

It is a species restricted to low-lying rivers and floodplains flanked by tall dense riparian vegetation. It generally roosts in large shady trees with dark-green foliage such as Trichilia emetica, Diospyros mespiliformis, Xanthocercis zambesiaca and Kigelia africana and usually not more that 100 m from water. These roosting sites are often

45 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge marked by their diagnostic rufous feathers and droppings consisting of fish scales and bones. Nesting takes place in a riverine tree and the nesting site is typically placed within a cavity such as a rot-hole (especially in Ficus sycomorus ) or within a crotch formed by the junction of several large branches (especially in Diospyros mespiliformis ) (Tarboton, 2001).

S. peli was not recorded during the investigation based on intensive searching and inspection of suitable roosting trees (based on visual sightings or traces of feathers or droppings) along the Crocodile River. The investigation was also extended approximately 1 km up- and downstream of the proposed lodge footprint. Although many of the large trees (mainly Trichilia emetica and Diospyros mespiliformis ) in the area provide suitable roosting habitat (Figure 26:b-d), the alluvial floodplain provides important foraging habitat in the form of hunting perches (especially at the confluence of the Timfenheni and Crocodile Rivers (see Figure 19:b)). The absence of this species is highlighted by the lack of any reporting of this species during the SABAP1 and SABAP2 period (Figure 26).

Nevertheless, a confirmed nesting site is situated approximately 1.5 km downstream of the proposed lodge footprint (data kindly supplied by Mr S. Ronaldson of EWT). Therefore, it is very possible that individuals of this pair could hunt along the Crocodile River that corresponds to the study area. Based on the proximity of this nesting site to the proposed development, it is recommended that all construction and operational activities be placed more than 1.5 km from the nesting site (see Figure 27).

a b

46 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

c d

Figure 25: (a) Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et. al ., 1999), (b) suitable roosting habitat provided by a large Trichilia emetica as viewed south of the proposed lodge footprint, (c) suitable roosting habitat provided by a large Diospyros mespiliformis at the confluence of the Timfenheni and Crocodile Rivers and (d) a large rot-hole within a T. emetica tree which provides potential breeding habitat approximately 878 m downstream of the lodge footprint.

47 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 26: The current distribution of the Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli ) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow.

48 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 27: A map illustrating the approximate nesting locality of the Pel's Fishing-owl (Scotopelia peli ) near the study area (data kindly supplied by Mr. S. Ronaldson of EWT).

4.7.3 African Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer)

The African Fish-eagle ( H. vocifer ) is a locally common species (Figure 28:a) with a stable global population of around 100 000 to 200 000 pairs (BirdLife International, 2013b; Simmons, 2005). In Kruger National Park there is approximately 128 birds with an average distribution of 0.12 pairs/km along large rivers (Simmons, 2005).

It typically breeds in any large suitable tree ( c. 12-15 m) and constructs a large and conspicuous nest that is placed in the upper forked branches (Tarboton, 2001). This species was very conspicuous and vocal during the investigation. The occurrence of this species is substantiated by high reporting rates obtained during the atlas periods for the area ( c. 41.38-51.22 %; Figure 29). According to observations obtained during the investigation, the Crocodile River along the study area provides habitat for at least one pair of birds. In addition, a confirmed nesting site (Figure 28: b-c) is situated approximately 1.5 km downstream of the proposed lodge footprint. Therefore, based on

49 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge the proximity of this nesting site to the proposed development, it is highly recommended that all construction and operational activities be placed more than 1.5 km from the nesting site (see buffer area; Figure 30).

a b

c

Figure 28: (a) African Fish-eagle ( Haliaeetus vocifer ) (image courtesy of del Hoyo et al ., 1994) and (b - c) a nest located 1.5 km downstream of the proposed lodge footprint (see arrow).

50 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 29: The current distribution of the African Fish-eagle ( Haliaeetus vocifer ) based on SABAP2 reporting rates (image courtesy of the Animal Demography Unit). The study area is shown by the red arrow.

51 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 30: A map illustrating the approximate nesting locality of the African Fish-Eagle (Haliaetus vocifer ) near the study area and proposed buffer zone.

4.8 Avifaunal Sensitivity

4.8.1 Areas of high avifaunal sensitivity

Areas with High sensitivities include all riparian woodland units and the alluvial floodplain habitat along the Crocodile River (Figure 31):

• The alluvial floodplain and sandbars along the Crocodile River provide ephemeral foraging habitat for migratory wader and sedentary wading bird species. In addition, these habitat types contribute towards the regional avifaunal diversity; • The alluvial floodplains provide essential foraging habitat for regionally threatened and near-threatened stork taxa; • The riparian woodland along with the Crocodile and Timfenheni Rivers functions as important daily movement corridors for bird species between roosting and foraging habitat and ensure ecological connectivity along these linear systems;

52 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

• The riparian woodland along the Crocodile River provides potential roosting and breeding habitat for the vulnerable Pel's Fishing Owl ( Scotopelia peli ) and vulnerable White-backed Night-heron ( Gorsachius leuconotus ). It also provides potential breeding habitat for the endangered Saddle-billed Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ); and • Areas within the riparian woodland that composed of dense Grewia bicolor thickets provide ideal wintering habitat for the River Warbler ( Locustella fluviatilis ) and Thrush Nightingale ( Luscinia luscinia )8.

4.8.2 Areas of medium avifaunal sensitivity

Areas with Medium sensitivities include the mixed closed shrubland and open savannoid grassland units (Figure 31):

• The open savannoid grassland units are widespread in the region although providing foraging habitat for the regionally near-threatened Black-bellied Bustard (Lissotis melanogaster ). It also supports a wintering population of the globally near-threatened European Roller ( Coracias garrulus ); • The dead trees (mainly Senegalia nigrescens ) located within the mixed closed shrubland are an important breeding habitat for hole-nesting birds species; • The large trees at the "Park - and - Ride" facility provides potential breeding and roosting habitat for non-threatened colonial nesting species (e.g. members of the Ploceidae); and • The mixed closed shrubland is widespread in the region and supports high numbers of bird species. This habitat is ecological productive and has the inherent potential to sustain high richness values for bird taxa and high numbers of bird species.

4.8.3 Areas of low avifaunal sensitivity

Areas with Low sensitivities include the dense microphyllous shrubland (Figure 32):

• The floristic structure and composition of this habitat unit is the product of persistent disturbances caused by game; and • The bird richness on this habitat unit is poor when compared to the other units.

8 Both the River Warbler ( Locustella fluviatilis ) and Thrush Nightingale ( Luscinia luscinia ) is often overlooked based on their highly elusive and cryptic behaviour. These species were not detected/observed on the study area since they were not vocal. These species are primarily vocal in the late summer season (mainly March) prior to their northwards migration.

53 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 31: A sensitivity map illustrating the avifaunal importance and ecological function of the respective habitat units on the proposed lodge footprint and road alignment.

54 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Figure 32: A sensitivity map illustrating the avifaunal importance and ecological function of the respective habitat units on the proposed 'Park and Ride' area.

4.9 Potential impacts & mitigation

4.9.1 Overview

According to the proposed development activities, a number of impacts are expected to operate in a negative way on the avifaunal community in the study area and its immediate surroundings. The most important impacts associated with the proposed development will include (please refer to Appendix 2 for the methodology used during the assessment):

• Displacement of bird species (especially k-selected species and charismatic bird of prey species) and subsequent loss of avifaunal diversity due to a loss of woodland habitat. However, most of these species are irregular or uncommon visitors to the proposed footprint site, and the impact is regarded to be low. In many instances the impact is temporary of nature. Please note that the severity

55 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

of the impact is likely to increase (especially for large-bodied wading bird species such as storks and herons) if activities overspill onto the proposed buffer zones; and • Definite loss/displacement of bird taxa that are dependent on specialised habitat. This impact is mainly concerned with the loss of dead trees and subsequent breeding habitat utilised by hole-nesting species.

These impacts could cascade into a number of other impacts, which will include:

• Loss of habitat and resultant loss/displacement of threatened and near- threatened bird species during operation. The movement of visitors and operational activities on the lodge property could result in the localised displacement of bird species; • Increased fragmentation and loss of ecological connectivity among habitat identified to be of high avifaunal sensitivity (e.g. riparian woodland). The possibility that this impact could occur is low, although the potential loss of large canopy trees within the riparian woodland could disrupt the connectivity and dispersal ability of bird species, especially small-bodied passerine species; and • Changes in the bird community structure. The newly constructed facilities could attract bird species (e.g. feral species) to the lodge property which never occurred naturally in the area or at natural densities.

4.9.2 Construction impacts: Loss of habitat and displacement of bird species/assemblages

It is inevitable that habitat loss and disturbances will occur during the construction phase. These will especially be significant on areas of high avifaunal sensitivity or in close proximity to breeding or roosting sites, or where congregations of waterbirds occur. Although it is not anticipated to pose a significant impact, special care should be exercised to avoid alluvial floodplain habitat earmarked with high sensitivities. In addition, construction activities are generally associated with high ambient noise levels and could temporary displace bird species from particular areas. This will include the clearing of vegetation to accommodate the lodge infrastructure, transports of construction material to and from the proposed footprint sites, grading and earthmoving equipment (during the road construction).

Lodge : It is inevitable that part of the mixed closed shrubland will be replaced by lodge infrastructure. However, most of the bird species that are likely to be affected are widespread and relatively abundant in the area. However, it is only large-bodied species

56 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge and k-selected 9 birds species (e.g. birds of prey) that will temporarily vacate the area during construction activities. The latter species were evitable rare or uncommon on the study area. However, the impact is regarded as severe if construction activities overspill into the riparian habitat with the probability to displace the waterbird community that utilise the nearby alluvial floodplains. The most significant displacement of birds species will occur within the hole-nesting guild. The area was earmarked by a high density of dead trees, which contributed to an obvious and pertinent representation of hole-nesting species.

Road Re-alignment : It is inevitable that part of the mixed closed shrubland will be lost and replaced by road infrastructure. However, most of the bird species that are likely to be affected are widespread and relatively abundant in the area. Once again, it is possible that large-bodied bird species (especially if construction activities are proximal to large trees) become displaced, albeit of a temporary nature. The most significant changes in the habitat structure is anticipated at the crossing of the Timfenheni River whereby the ecological connectivity of the riparian woodland is at risk. In addition, the northern part of the road alignment is located within the proposed 1.5 km buffer zone. Therefore, construction activities could interfere with the breeding fitness of the African Fish-eagle, Saddle-billed Stork and Pel's Fishing Owl, although the significance is highly questionable since these species are nesting on island structures and are already habituated to noise emanating from sugarcane farming activities. The area is also characterised by many dead trees, and it is anticipated that some of these dead tree individuals will become lost during construction activities, including part of the hole- nesting guild.

'Park - and - Ride': The 'Park - and - Ride' area correspond to habitat types of low to medium avifaunal sensitivities. Therefore, the anticipated loss of habitat is regarded to be of low significance although it is possible that some colonial nesting species (mainly weaver taxa) are likely to become displaced during the removal of the large trees.

Mitigation

The following mitigation measures should be adhered to:

• The attached sensitivity map must be used as a decision tool to guide the layout design. Construction activities should be restricted to areas identified with low- medium avifaunal importance. Development on areas of high conservation importance should be avoided;

9 Species that have long generation turnover times and in general take a long time to reach sexual maturity. In most cases, these species have small clutch sizes and the fledgling period is prolonged.

57 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

• The proposed activities should strive to promote connectivity between important habitat types (e.g. riparian woodland units pertaining to the road-re-alignment). Natural corridors must be retained where possible to promote movement of bird species, especially during the construction process; • Where possible, the dead trees (pertaining to the lodge area and road re- alignment) should be retained since they provide critical important breeding habitat for hole-nesting bird species; • Where possible, large/canopy trees should be retained (pertaining to all development areas) since they provide critical important breeding habitat for bird species; • Development is not allowed to take place within any proposed buffer area (pertaining to the lodge development); • The width of the road should be kept to a minimum and should be left un- surfaced (gravel); • Infrastructure corresponding to the riparian woodland units (pertaining to the lodge site) must be kept to a minimum and should be of low-impact. It should cater only for pedestrians (e.g. walkways); • Limit construction activities to daytime only (pertaining to all areas); • All rehabilitation should make use of indigenous plant species, and preferably of species native to the study area and immediate surroundings. The species selected should strive to represent habitat types typical of the ecological landscape prior to construction (pertaining to the lodge site and 'Park - and - Ride' facility); • An alien and invasive plant eradication and control programme must be implemented along with a follow-up programme (pertaining to all development areas); • Checks must be carried out at regular intervals to identify areas where erosion is occurring. Appropriate remedial action, including the rehabilitation of the eroded areas, and where necessary, the relocation of the paths causing the erosion, are to be undertaken (pertaining to all development areas); • Where possible, a "walk-down" of the proposed re-alignment should be commissioned prior to construction to confirm any active nesting/breeding of birds of prey along the proposed route (within 200m of the proposed road). It is possible that some of the large trees in the area could provide nesting opportunities for birds of prey prior to the construction phase - these areas should be marked and road construction should only commence in the vicinity of the nesting site after the fledgling has left the nest; • During construction all labour or staff should be advised (induction) by means of environmental awareness training on the biodiversity importance of the area (pertaining to all development areas);

58 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

• Intentional killing of any faunal species should be avoided by means of awareness programmes presented to the labour force. The labour force should be made aware of the conservation issues pertaining to the taxa occurring on the study area. Any person found deliberately harassing any animal in any way should face disciplinary measures, following the possible dismissal from the site (pertaining to all development areas); and • Road construction within the proposed buffer zone should preferably correspond to the non-breeding season of the target species (preferably September - January).

4.9.3 Increased fragmentation and loss of ecological connectivity

The disruption of ecological corridors such as those found along river and drainage lines are important daily flyways for bird species, in particular waterbirds.

Road Re-alignment : A section of the road re-alignment will cross the Timfenheni River and corresponding riparian woodland habitat. During construction it is anticipated that some of the larger/canopy trees will become lost, thereby disrupting the ecological connectivity of the woodland unit. However, the impact is not considered to be highly significant since the road will only cater for a single vehicle to cross at a time. Therefore, the anticipated disruption of the canopy structure is likely to be small if the large canopy trees are retained (through proper planning).

Mitigation

The following mitigation measures should be adhered to: • Disturbances and clearing of riparian woodland should be kept to a minimum. All large canopy trees should be retained (possible through proper planning); • Limit construction activities to daytime; • Keep the width of the road to a minimum; and • Checks must be carried out at regular intervals to identify areas where erosion is occurring. Appropriate remedial action, including the rehabilitation of the eroded areas must be undertaken.

4.9.4 Operational impacts: Displacement of bird species

The displacement of bird species is less intrusive during the operation phase (owing to lower noise levels) and mainly due to human activities where the disturbance will occur at the level of the individual.

59 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Lodge : The impact will include the movement of visitors within the lodge perimeter and along designated walkways. Additionally, impacts will occur during the transport of visitors. However, since the use of electrically operated vehicles is proposed the effect of noise pollution and associated displacement of birds species are minimized.

Road-realignment : It is anticipated that traffic volumes will not differ significantly when compared to the status quo . Therefore, the anticipated impact is likely to remain indifferent to the status quo .

'Park - and - Ride' : The anticipated impact is considered to be low since most of the bird species that are likely to be present are opportunistic and frequently encountered near man-made structures.

Mitigation

The following mitigation measures should be adhered to: • All visitors should keep to designated walkways and should not be allowed to venture outside of the proposed boundary of the lodge/'Park - and - Ride' site (pertaining to the lodge and 'Park - and - Ride' sites); • Noise should be kept to a minimum at night (pertaining to the lodge site); and • Feeding of birds should not be allowed (all areas).

4.9.5 Operational impacts: Outside lighting and potential collision with infrastructure

It is often possible for nocturnal migrating birds (e.g. certain crakes and swallow species) to be attracted to and disorientated by outside lighting with the subsequent risk of colliding with infrastructure.

This impact is mainly of importance to the lodge site and the 'Park - and Ride' area.

Mitigation

The following mitigation measures should be adhered to: • Minimize exterior lighting and implement operational strategies to reduce "spill light". Outside features should be illuminated by using "down-lighting" rather than "up-lighting"; • Lights should be of longer wave lengths (550nm) and should contain preferably green or blue hues (see Sheppard, 2011). Outside lighting should not make use of fluorescent lights since these emit significant amounts of UV, which will attract invertebrates and possibly also birds; and • In addition, internal lights should be shielded by blinds/curtains.

60 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

4.9.6 Operational impacts: Changes to the local bird community composition

It is likely that the species composition will shift on areas that are cleared of vegetation due to an anticipated loss in habitat. In addition, it is predicted that more generalist species will dominate the study area. As mentioned above, it is believed that the densities of certain opportunistic species and species that are commensal to man-made habitat types could increase in the area. In addition, uncovered domestic waste products will attract scavenging taxa (e.g. Pied Crows Corvus albus ) to the area which could easily out-compete other less resilient species in the area.

This impact is mainly of importance to the lodge site and the 'Park - and Ride' area.

Mitigation

The following mitigation measures should be adhered to: • Domestic waste should not be stored on site and should be removed from the study area as soon as possible; and • Domestic waste should be appropriately covered to reduce the risk of colonization by bird species (e.g. Pied Crows Corvus albus ) with superior competitive abilities.

61 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Construction phase: Loss of habitat and displacement of bird taxa/assemblages. WOM - without mitigation and WM - with mitigation. Type of development Area Extent Duration Magnitude Probability Significance (WOM) Significance (WM) Lodge Mixed closed Low Short Moderate Definite Moderate Moderate shrubland Riparian woodland Low Medium High Probable Moderate Low Dead trees Very low Permanent High Highly probable Moderate Moderate Road Re -alignment Mixed closed Very low Medium Moderate Definite Moderate Moderate shrubland Riparian woodland Low Long High Definite High Moderate Open savannoid Very low Medium Moderate Definite Moderate Moderate grassland Dead trees Very low Permanent High Highly probable Moderate Moderate Buffer zone Low Permanent High Probable Moderate Moderate (displacement of threatened/breeding birds) Park - and - Ride Microphyllous Very low Permanent Low Definite Moderate Low shrubland Large trees Very low Permanent Moderate Definite Moderate Low (breeding habitat for colonial nesting Ploceus spp.)

Construction phase: Loss of ecological connectivity. WOM - without mitigation and WM - with mitigation. Type of development Area Extent Duration Magnitude Probability Significance (WOM) Significance (WM) Road Re -alignment Riparian woodland Medium Long High Highly probable High Moderate

62 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Operational phase: Displacement of bird taxa/assemblages. WOM - without mitigation and WM - with mitigation. Type of development Area Extent Duration Magnitude Probability Significance (WOM) Significance (WM) Lodge All areas Low Permanent Low Definite Moderate Low Road Re -alignment All areas Low Permanent Low Definite Moderate Low Park - and - Ride All areas Low Permanent Low Definite Low Low

Operational phase: Outside lighting and bird collisions with infrastructure. WOM - without mitigation and WM - with mitigation. Type of development Area Extent Duration Magnitude Probability Significance (WOM) Significance (WM) Lodge All areas Medium Permanent Moderate Probable Moderate Low Park - and - Ride All areas Low Permanent Low Definite Moderate Low

Operational phase: Changes to the local community composition. WOM - without mitigation and WM - with mitigation. Type of development Area Extent Duration Magnitude Probability Significance (WOM) Significance (WM) Lodge All areas Medium Long Moderate Highly probable Moderate Low Park - and - Ride All areas Medium Long Moderate Highly probable Moderate Low

63 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

5. REFERENCES

ALLEN, D.G. 2005. Black-bellied Bustard . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

ANDERSON, M.D. 2005. Saddle-billed Stork . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

BARNES, K.N. 1998. The Important Bird Areas of southern Africa . BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2013a. Polemaetus bellicosus . In: IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2013b. Haliaetus vocifer . In: IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2012a. Alcedo semitorquata . In: IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3 http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2012b. Coracias garrulus . In: IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2012c. Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis . In: IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL 2012. Scotopelia peli . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3.

BROWN, L.H., URBAN, E.K. & NEWMAN, K. 1982. The birds of Africa . Vol. 1. London: Academic.

BUCKLAND, S.T., ANDERSON, D.R., BURNHAM, K.P., LAAKE, J.L. 1993. Distance Sampling: Estimating abundance of biological populations . Chapman and Hall, London.

CHITTENDEN, H & WHYTE, I. 2008. Robert's bird guide: Kruger National Park and adjacent Lowveld . John Voelcker Bird Book Fund.

64 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

CLARKE, K.R. & WARWICK, R.M. 1994. Changes in marine communities: An approach to statistical analysis and interpretation . Natural Environmental Research Council, United Kingdom.

CRAIG, A.J.F.K. 2005. Burchell's Starling . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

DEL HOYO, J., ELLIOTT, A. & CHRISTIE, D.A. eds. 1992-2011. Handbook of the Birds of the World . Vol 1-16. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

DEL HOYO, J.; ELLIOT, A.; SARGATAL, J. 1992. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

DEL HOYO, J.; ELLIOTT, A.; SARGATAL, J. 1994. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

DEL HOYO, J.; ELLIOTT, A.; SARGATAL, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

DEL HOYO, J.; ELLIOTT, A.; SARGATAL, J. 1999. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

DEL HOYO, J., ELLIOTT, A. & SARGATAL, J. 2001. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 6: Mousebirds to Hornbills . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

DEL HOYO, J.; COLLAR, N. J.; CHRISTIE, D. A.; ELLIOTT, A.; FISHPOOL, L. D. C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World . Lynx Edicions BirdLife International.

GILL, F. & DONSKER, D. eds. 2012. IOC World Bird Names (v. 2.11).

HACKETT, S.J., KIMBALL, R., REDDY, S., BOWIE, R.C.K., BRAUN, E.L., BRAUN, M.J., CHOJNOWSKI, J.L., COX, W.A., HAN, K-L., HARSHMAN, J., HUDDLESTON, C.J., MARKS, B.D., MIGLIA, K.J., MOORE, W.S., SHELDON, F.H., STEADMAN, D.W., WITT., C.C. & YURI, T. 2008. A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history. Science 320: 1763-1767.

HARRISON, J.A., ALLAN, D.G., UNDERHILL, L.G., HERREMANS, M., TREE, A.J., PARKER, V. & BROWN, C.J. (eds.). 1997. The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Vol. 1 & 2. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.

65 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

HOCKEY, P.A.R., DEAN, W.R.J. & RYAN, P.G. (eds.) 2005. Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa , VII th ed. The Trustees of the John Voelker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014. http://www.iucnredlist.org/.

JENKINS, A. R. 2005. Lanner Falcon . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

KEMP, A.C. 2005. Pel's Fishing-owl . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

LEPAGE, D. 2014. Checklist of the birds of South Africa . Avibase, the world database.

MCLELAND, W. 2015. Terrestrial ecology assessment of the proposed Malelane hotel site& park-and-ride area. An updated report prepared for NuLeaf Planning and Environment.

MUCINA, L. & RUTHERFORD, M.C. (eds). 2006 . The vegetation map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19, South African National Biodiversity Institute.

SHEPPARD, C. 2011. Bird-Friendly Building Design . American Bird Conservancy, The Plains, VA.

SIBLEY, C.G. & AHLQUIST, J.E. 1990. Phylogeny and classification of birds . Yale University Press, New Haven.

SIMMONS, R.E. 2005. African Fish-eagle . In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. & Ryan, P.G. (eds) Roberts – Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.

SUTHERLAND, W.J., NEWTON, I. AND GREEN, R. E. 2004. Bird Ecology and Conservation . A handbook of techniques. Oxford University Press.

SUTHERLAND, W.J. 2006. Ecological census techniques. A handbook . 2 nd Edn. Cambridge University Press.

TARBOTON, W. 2001. A guide to the Nests & Eggs of Southern African Birds . Struik Publishers, Cape Town.

66 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

TARBOTON, W.R & ALLEN, D.G. 1984. The status and the conservation of birds of prey in the Transvaal. Transvaal Mus. Monograph 3.

TAYLOR, M.R. (ed.) in press . The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland . BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg. In press. www.sabap2.adu.org.za

67 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

6. APPENDICES

Appendix 1: A list of bird species observed on the study area during 19-21 January 2015. Scientific and common names were used according to Hockey et al . (2005).

Scientific Name Common Name Acrocephalus palustris Marsh Warbler Bradornis pallidus Pale Flycatcher Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Bubalornis niger Red -billed Buffalo -Weaver Trigonoceps occipitalis White-headed Vulture Bubo africanus Spotted Eagle-Owl Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher Bubo lacteus Verreaux's Eagle-Owl Alopochen aegyptiaca Egyptian Goose Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Amaurornis flavirostris Black Crake Buphagus erythrorhynchus Red -billed Oxpecker Amblyospiza albifrons Thick-billed Weaver Burhinus capensis Spotted Thick -knee Anaplectes melanotis Red-headed Weaver Burhinus vermiculatus Water Thick-knee Andropadus importunus Sombre Greenbul Buteo vulpinus Steppe Buzzard Anhinga rufa African Darter Butorides striata Green-backed Heron Anthoscopus caroli Grey Penduline -Tit Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter Hornbill Anthus caffer Bushveld Pipit Calendulauda sabota Sabota Lark Anthus cinnamomeus African Pipit Camaroptera brachyura Green-backed Camaroptera Apalis flavida Yellow-breasted Apalis Campephaga flava Black Cuckooshrike Apus affinis Little Swift Campethera abingoni Golden-tailed Woodpecker Apus caffer White -rumped Swift Campethera bennettii Bennett's Woodpecker Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle Caprimulgus fossii Square -tailed Nightjar Aquila spilogaster African Hawk-Eagle Centropus burchellii Burchell's Coucal Aquila wahlbergi Wahlberg's Eagle Erythropygia leucophrys White-browed Scrub-Robin Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Erythropygia quadrivirgata Bearded Scrub-Robin Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher Batis molitor Chinspot Batis Chalcomitra amethystina Amethyst Sunbird Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda Ibis Chalcomitra senegalensis Scarlet-chested Sunbird

68 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Charadrius tricollaris Three -banded Plover Dendropicos namaquus Bearded Woodpecker Chlorocichla flaviventris Yellow-bellied Greenbul Dicrurus adsimilis Fork-tailed Drongo Chrysococcyx klaas Klaas's Cuckoo Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed Puffback Ciconia episcopus Woolly -necked Stork Ardea alba Great Egret Ciconia nigra Black Stork Egretta garzetta Little Egret Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Violet -backed Starling Elanus caeruleus Black -shouldered Kite Cinnyris mariquensis Marico Sunbird Emberiza flaviventris Golden-breasted Bunting Cinnyris talatala White-bellied Sunbird Emberiza tahapisi Cinnamon-breasted Bunting Circaetus cinereus Brown Snake -Eagle Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis Saddle -billed Stork Cisticola chiniana Rattling Cisticola Estrilda astrild Common Waxbill Cisticola erythrops Red -faced Cisticola Euplectes albonotatus White -winged Widowbird Cisticola fulvicapilla Neddicky Euplectes axillaris Fan-tailed Widowbird Clamator jacobinus Jacobin Cuckoo Eurocephalus anguitimens Southern White-crowned Shrike Clamator levaillantii Levaillant's Cuckoo Falco amurensis Amur Falcon Colius striatus Speckled Mousebird Falco biarmicus Lanner Falcon Coracias caudatus Lilac -breasted Roller Falco subbuteo Eurasian Hobby Coracias garrulus European Roller Gallirex porphyreolophus Purple-crested Turaco Coracias naevius Purple Roller Glaucidium perlatum Pearl-spotted Owlet Corvinella melanoleuca Magpie Shrike Gyps africanus White -backed Vulture Corythaixoides concolor Grey Go -away -bird Halcyon albiventris Brown -hooded Kingfisher Cossypha heuglini White -browed Robin -Chat Halcyon chelicuti Striped Kingfisher Cossypha humeralis White-throated Robin-Chat Halcyon senegalensis Woodland Kingfisher Coturnix delegorguei Harlequin Quail Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-Eagle Creatophora cinerea Wattled Starling Hirundo abyssinica Lesser Striped Swallow Crecopsis egregia African Crake Hirundo dimidiata Pearl -breasted Swallow Crithagra mozambicus Yellow -fronted Canary Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Cypsiurus parvus African Palm-Swift Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow Dendrocygna viduata White-faced Duck Indicator indicator Greater Honeyguide Dendroperdix sephaena Crested Francolin Indicator minor Lesser Honeyguide Dendropicos fuscescens Cardinal Woodpecker Ispidina picta African Pygmy -Kingfisher

69 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Lagonosticta rhodopareia Jameson's Firefinch Microcarbo africanus Reed Cormorant Lagonosticta senegala Red-billed Firefinch Phoeniculus purpureus Green Wood-Hoopoe Lamprotornis australis Burchell's Starling Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler Lamprotornis nitens Cape Glossy Starling Pinarocorys nigricans Dusky Lark Lamprotornis chalybaeus Greater Blue -eared Starling Plocepasser mahali White -browed Sparrow -Weaver Lanius collurio Red -backed Shrike Ploceus cucullatus Village Weaver Leptoptilos crumeniferus Marabou Stork Ploceus intermedius Lesser Masked-Weaver Lophotis ruficrista Red-crested Korhaan Ploceus ocularis Spectacled Weaver Lybius torquatus Black -collared Barbet Ploceus velatus Southern Masked -Weaver Malaconotus blanchoti Grey -headed Bush -Shrike Pogoniulus chrysoconus Yellow -fronted Tinkerbird Megaceryle maximus Giant Kingfisher Poicephalus cryptoxanthus Brown -headed Parrot Melaenornis pammelaina Southern Black Flycatcher Polemaetus bellicosus Martial Eagle Melierax gabar Gabar Goshawk Polyboroides typus African Harrier-Hawk Merops apiaster European Bee -eater Prinia subflava Tawny -flanked Prinia Merops bullockoides White -fronted Bee -eater Prionops plumatus White -crested Helmet -Shrike Merops nubicoides Southern Carmine Bee -eater Prionops retzii Retz's Helmet -Shrike Merops pusillus Little Bee-eater Psophocichla litsitsirupa Groundscraper Thrush Milvus aegyptius Yellow-billed Kite Pternistis natalensis Natal Spurfowl Motacilla aguimp African Pied Wagtail Pternistis swainsonii Swainson's Spurfowl Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatcher Pterocles bicinctus Double -banded Sandgrouse Myioparus plumbeus Grey Tit -Flycatcher Pycnonotus tricolor Dark -capped Bulbul Necrosyrtes monachus Hooded Vulture Pytilia melba Green-winged Pytilia Nilaus afer Brubru Quelea quelea Red-billed Quelea Numida meleagris Helmeted Guineafowl Rhinopomastus cyanomelas Common Scimitarbill Nycticorax nycticorax Black -crowned Night -Heron Sarkidiornis melanotos Comb Duck Oriolus larvatus Black -headed Oriole Scleroptila shelleyi Shelley's Francolin Pandion haliaetus Osprey Scopus umbretta Hamerkop Parus niger Southern Black Tit Sigelus silens Fiscal Flycatcher Passer diffusus Southern Grey -headed Sparrow Streptopelia capicola Cape Turtle -Dove Petronia superciliaris Yellow -throated Petronia Streptopelia semitorquata Red -eyed Dove

70 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Sylvietta rufescens Long -billed Crombec Tchagra australis Brown-crowned Tchagra Tchagra senegalus Black-crowned Tchagra Chlorophoneus sulfureopectus Orange -breasted Bush -Shrike Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur Terpsiphone viridis African Paradise -Flycatcher Tockus rufirostris Southern Red-billed Hornbill Tockus leucomelas Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill Tockus nasutus African Grey Hornbill Trachyphonus vaillantii Crested Barbet Treron calvus African Green -Pigeon Tricholaema leucomelas Acacia Pied Barbet Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Turdoides jardineii Arrow -marked Babbler Turdus libonyanus Kurrichane Thrush Turtur chalcospilos Emerald -spotted Wood -Dove Tyto alba Barn Owl Upupa africana African Hoopoe Uraeginthus angolensis Blue Waxbill Urocolius indicus Red -faced Mousebird Vanellus armatus Blacksmith Lapwing Vanellus coronatus Crowned Lapwing Vanellus senegallus African Wattled Lapwing Vidua chalybeata Village Indigobird Vidua macroura Pin -tailed Whydah

71 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

Appendix 2: Required methodology for assessment of impacts.

72 January 2015 Avifaunal Evaluation Malelane Safari Lodge

73 January 2015