The Nature of Calcareous Rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo; Bed-By-Bed Study of the Katian Solvang Formation

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The Nature of Calcareous Rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo; Bed-By-Bed Study of the Katian Solvang Formation FACULTEIT WETENSCHAPPEN Opleiding Master in de Geologie The nature of calcareous rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo; bed-by-bed study of the Katian Solvang Formation Wout Salenbien Academiejaar 2012–2013 Scriptie voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad Van Master of Science in de geologie Promotoren: Dr. T. Vandenbroucke, Prof. Dr. J. Verniers Leescommissie: Prof. Dr. M. De Batist, Prof. Dr. S. Louwye Nature is wont to hide herself Ηράκλειτος Wout Salenbien The nature of calcareous rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo 2012 - 2013 NEDERLANDSTALIGE SAMENVATTING INLEIDING - DE WERELD GEDURENDE HET ORDOVICIUM Het Ordovicium, gesitueerd tussen 485,4 ± 1.9 Ma en 443,4 ± 1.5 Ma (Gradstein et al., 2012), geldt als een van de interessantere periodes in de aardgeschiedenis. Gedurende het Ordovicium werd de Aarde geconfronteerd met diepgaande veranderingen in biodiversiteit, biocomplexiteit, geochemische balans en ingrijpende veranderingen in het klimaat. De paleogeografie tijdens het Ordovicium werd gekenmerkt door de overgang van het supercontinent Rodinia naar Pangea, het recentste supercontinent. De dispersie van de continenten, die reeds was ingezet gedurende het Neoproterozoïcum (Li et al., 2008), hield gedurende het Ordovicium aan tot de eerste aanzet voor de vorming van Pangea door de collisie van Avalonië met Baltica omstreeks de Ordovicium-Siluur overgang, 443 Ma (Cocks & Torsvik, 2006; Torsvik & Rehnstrӧm, 2003). Gedurende het Ordovicium verschoof Baltica van een positie nabij de zuidelijke pool richting de paleo-evenaar om tegen het einde van het Ordovicium ongeveer 30° zuiderbreedte te bereiken (Cocks & Torsvik, 2005). De algemene visie op het klimaat tijdens het Ordovicium veranderde van een monotoon warme periode met intens broeikaseffect en een korte, krachtige glaciatie aan het eind, op aanwijzing van isotopische excursies (Munnecke et al., 2010), naar het beeld van een tijdperk met grote veranderingen in oceaan- biosfeer interacties en mogelijks dus ook in klimaat. Het Ordovicium is ook het tijdperk waarin één van de grootste toenames in biodiversiteit voor mariene leven is geregistreerd (The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event, GOBE), gevolgd door een grootschalige extinctie aan het eind van het Ordovicium die toegeschreven wordt aan de Hirnantiaan glaciatie. Uit zeespiegelreconstructies (Haq & Schutter, 2008) blijkt dat het Ordovicium gekenmerkt werd door de mogelijks hoogste zeespiegelstanden van het Paleozoïcum. Dit, in combinatie met de extensieve dispersie van de landmassa’s, creëerde een grote toename in gebieden ingenomen door continentaal plat en ondiepe zeeën. Indicaties voor intense magmatische en tektonische activiteit, snelle plaatreconfiguraties en grootschalig vulkanische activiteit bouwen mee aan het beeld van het Ordovicium als dynamische wereld (Harper, 2006). Mede door de dispersie van de landmassa’s was de paleogeografische dispersie hoog en dit creëerde mogelijkheden voor allopatrische en sympatrische speciatie wat resulteerde in een toename in biodiversiteit. Deze samenloop van omstandigheden wordt verondersteld aan de basis gelegen te hebben van de GOBE, die plaats vond op verschillende tijdstippen op verschillende paleocontinenten (Servais et al., 2010). Dit zorgde ook voor de totstandkoming van de Paleozoïsche Evolutionaire Fauna (Sepkoski, 1981). Die fauna werd gekenmerkt door de ontwikkeling van kust-nabije innovaties zoals suspensie-voeding en de inname van de, voordien grotendeels niet-gebruikte, watermassa’s van de oceaan door phyto- en zoӧplankton. Deze toename in biodiversiteit werd beëindigd door de op-één-na grootste massa-extinctie die 85% van alle mariene soorten van de Aarde wegveegde. In de klassieke visie (Brenchley et al., 1994) werd de extinctie verklaard als een dubbele piek met een eerste I Wout Salenbien The nature of calcareous rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo 2012 - 2013 uitstervingsgolf door de glaciatie en zeespiegeldaling en een tweede golf door het plotse stijgen van de zeespiegel bij het afsmelten die een stagnatie van de oceaancirculatie veroorzaakte (Sheehan, 2001b). Recent onderzoek (Harper et al., 2013) wees er echter op dat een afkoeling onvoldoende is om de extinctie te verklaren en dat de aanleiding gevende factoren gecompliceerder zijn. Daarenboven is het klassieke beeld van het Ordovicium onderhevig aan veel kritiek en aan een herziening toe. EEN VERNIEUWDE BLIK OP HET LAAT-ORDOVISISCHE KLIMAAT Gedurende de laatste jaren zijn een veelvoud aan technieken, afkomstig uit verschillende disciplines van de aardwetenschappen, toegepast op de studie van het Laat-Ordovisische klimaat en de aanzet tot de Early Paleozoic Icehouse (EPI). Het overgrote deel van die studies wijst op een vroegere start van de afkoeling die aanzet gaf tot de start van de EPI dan eerder werd aangenomen. Dit is gebaseerd op argumenten afkomstig uit geochemische studies (Saltzman & Young, 2005; Trotter et al., 2008; Bergstrӧm et al., 2011), Algemene Circulatie Modellen (GCM’s, Hermann et al., 2004; Nardin et al., 2011), sequentie-stratigrafie (Turner et al., 2011, 2012; Loi et al., 2010) en assemblagestudies van fossiel zoӧplankton (Vandenbroucke et al., 2009, 2010). Andere studies tonen aan dat de glaciaties persisteerden tot in het Siluur (Díaz-Martínez & Grahn, 2007; Page et al., 2007). GEOCHEMISCHE DATA Geochemische proxies zijn gedurende laatste jaren ontwikkeld tot frequent gebruikte technieken om een gedetailleerd beeld te schetsen van het Ordovicium en andere tijdsperiodes. Deze technieken worden toegepast om stratigrafische correlaties te onderbouwen aangezien veel milieuveranderingen hun invloed hebben op de geochemische samenstelling van de oceanen en de atmosfeer. Aangezien de mengtijden voor de meeste isotopen ogenblikkelijk zijn ten opzichte van een geologische tijdschaal, kunnen sommige veranderingen in de isotopische samenstelling van gesteenten en fossielen, onder bepaalde omstandigheden, informatie verschaffen over verandering in milieu en klimaat doorheen de 18 tijd. Trotter et al. (2008) argumenteert aan de hand van δ Oapatiet waarden dat de temperatuur van oppervlaktewaters tegen het Midden- en Laat-Ordovicium overeenkomstig is met de huidige temperatuur van oppervlaktewaters nabij de evenaar. Dit contrasteert met de eerdere visie dat het Ordovicium gekenmerkt werd door een superbroeikaseffect. Saltzman & Young (2005) argumenteren op 13 basis van δ C data dat de verhoogde sequestratie van organisch koolstof de atmosferische CO2 deed dalen tot beneden de grenswaarden voor de initiatie van ijskapgroei. II Wout Salenbien The nature of calcareous rhythmites in the Ordovician of Oslo 2012 - 2013 STRATIGRAFISCHE ARGUMENTATIE Loi et al. (2010) en Turner et al. (2011, 2012) rapporteerden zeespiegelcurves, gebaseerd op sequentiestratigrafische studies, die aanwijzing geven tot cycliciteit in zeespiegelveranderingen die enkel verklaard kunnen worden door glacio-eustasie gezien de amplitude en frequentie van de schommelingen. Loi et al. (2010) deden dit voor het Katiaan, maar Turner et al. (2011, 2012) gingen zelfs terug tot het Tremadociaan en Floiaan en argumenteren voor het reeds bestaan van kleine ijskappen in het Vroeg-Ordovicium. Een nadeel van de huidige stratigrafische studies zijn de onzekerheden in datering van de stratigrafische sequenties, wat zijn weerslag heeft op de nauwkeurigheid en correleerbaarheid van de studies, wat dus noopt tot verbetering. BIOGEOGRAFISCHE RECONSTRUCTIES VAN PLANKTONISCHE ORGANISMEN Gezien de distributie en abundantie van planktonische organismen gecontroleerd wordt door temperatuur, saliniteit en andere factoren, kunnen gegevens omtrent de distributie en abundantie aangewend worden om de verspreiding van planktonische soorten doorheen de tijd te documenteren en zodoende laten ze toe om een reconstructie van de oppervlaktewatertemperatuur te creëren. Dit principe is toegepast door Vandenbroucke et al. (2009, 2010), gebruikmakend van graptolieten en Chitinozoa om een beeld te schetsen van de klimaatsgradiënt van plankton ten tijde van het Sandbiaan. Beide studies besluiten dat de steile gradiënt veel overeenkomsten vertoont met de huidige verdeling van de klimaatgordels en argumenteren voor een koel Ordovicium in het vroeg Laat-Ordovicium. Wanneer deze data verwerkt wordt in Algemene Circulatie Modellen (Herrmann et al., 2004), suggereren deze CO2-waarden van acht maal het huidige atmosferische niveau (8 x PAL; PAL = 280 ppmv). Helaas ontbreken op dit moment gelijksoortige studies voor andere tijdsperiodes gedurende het Ordovicium. PLAATSING EN MOTIVERING VAN HET ONDERZOEK Elk van bovenstaande methodes suggereert het bestaan van Vroeg- of Midden-Ordovisische ijskappen, maar geen enkele kan op zich gelden als sluitend bewijs. Daarom is er nood aan bijkomend onderzoek, dat zich in deze studie richt op de Oslo-Asker regio in zuidelijk Noorwegen. De Ordovisische successie in Oslo-Asker is grotendeels opgebouwd uit afwisselend mudstone- en kalksteenformaties. Een gedetailleerde beschrijving van de lokale stratigrafie kan teruggevonden worden in Owen et al. (1990). De formatie die van belang is voor dit onderzoek is de ~12 meter dikke Solvang Formatie van midden- Katiaan ouderdom. De Solvang Formatie en andere kalksteenformaties - in feite afwisselingen tussen kalksteenbanken en mudstonelagen - worden door Nielsen (2004), geïnterpreteerd als representatief voor een zeespiegellaagstand in zijn zeespiegelreconstructie voor Baltica (Solvang Lowstand Event). De afwisseling tussen deze kalksteenformaties en tussenliggende mudstoneformaties
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