remote sensing

Article New Insights of Geomorphologic and Lithologic Features on Wudalianchi Volcanoes in the Northeastern from the ASTER Multispectral Data

Han Fu 1,2, Bihong Fu 1,* , Yoshiki Ninomiya 3 and Pilong Shi 1

1 Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100094, China; [email protected] (H.F.); [email protected] (P.S.) 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China 3 Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-10-8217-8096

 Received: 17 October 2019; Accepted: 12 November 2019; Published: 14 November 2019 

Abstract: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) imaging system onboard NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s) Terra satellite is capable of measuring multispectral reflectance of the earth’s surface targets in visible and infrared (VNIR) to shortwave infrared (SWIR) (until 2006) as well as multispectral thermal infrared (TIR) regions. ASTER VNIR stereo imaging technique can provide high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) data. The DEMs data, three-dimensional (3D) perspective, and ratio images produced from the ASTER multispectral data are employed to analyze the geomorphologic and lithologic features of Wudalianchi volcanoes in the northeastern China. Our results indicate that the 14 major conical volcanic craters of Wudalianchi volcanoes are arranged as three sub-parallel zones, extending in a NE (Northeast) direction, which is similar to the direction of regional fault system based on the ASTER DEMs data. Among the 14 volcanic craters in Wudalianchi, the Laoheishan, and Huoshaoshan lavas flows, after the historic eruptions, pouring down from the crater, partially blocked the Baihe River, which forms the Five Large Connected Pools, known as the Wudalianchi Lake. Lithologic mapping shows that ASTER multispectral ratio imagery, particularly, the Lava Flow Index (LFI) (LFI = B10/B12) imagery, can clearly distinguish different lava flow units, and at least four stages of volcanic eruptions are revealed in the Wudalianchi Quaternary volcano cluster. Thus, ASTER multispectral TIR data can be used to determine relative dating of Quaternary volcanoes in the semi-arid region. Moreover, ASTER 3D perspective image can present an excellent view for tracking the flow directions of different lavas of Wudalianchi Holocene volcanoes.

Keywords: 3D perspective view; morphology; lithology; Wudalianchi volcano; ASTER multispectral data

1. Introduction Remote sensing can provide a certain resolution of spectral, spatial, and temporal coverage based on the type of sensor for geologic mapping and monitoring at numerous volcanoes throughout the world [1,2]. The use of spaceborne and airborne remote sensing data to monitor the volcanoes and map the products of eruptions has been ongoing for decades [3]. Satellite remote sensing data have been widely used to detect or monitor the eruption of volcanoes [4–6]. However, how to document the products of volcanic eruptions and morphology using satellite remote sensing data is another challenge for geoscientists [6,7]. The weathering of active lava flows in arid and semi-arid environments is

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663; doi:10.3390/rs11222663 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 2 of 16 accompanied by changes in their thermal infrared emittance spectra [8,9]. The spectral differences caused by the weathering can be measured and mapped with multispectral imaging system [8]. The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) sensor was launched in 18 December, 1999, onboard the first NASA’s Earth Observation System (EOS) series of satellites, Terra [10,11]. The ASTER covered a wide spectral region with 14 bands from visible to thermal infrared with high spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution as shown in Table1. Three visible and near infrared (VNIR) bands, six shortwave infrared (SWIR) bands (until 2006), and five thermal infrared (TIR) bands with the spatial resolution of 15 m, 30 m, and 90 m, respectively. In addition, the bands 3N and 3B in near infrared bands have a stereoscopic capability, which can be used to generate DEM [12]. ASTER-TIR is the first satellite-borne multispectral TIR remote sensing system with spectral, spatial, and radiometric resolutions adequate to be used for geologic applications, such as determining the relative age dating of lavas [13,14]. Compared with two bands of Landsat TM or ETM in the SWIR region (between 1.6 to 2.5 microns), the ASTER SWIR sensor has six bands in this region and has the capability to identify mineral component of surface rocks in the semi-arid to arid region [15,16]. The ASTER multispectral SWIR and TIR sensors can provide an important tool for monitoring heat flow related to volcanic activities [4,5]. Therefore, ASTER can provide a potential tool for mapping the products from active volcanoes from regional to global scales.

Table 1. Wavelength Range of The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Data [10,12].

Band Wavelength Range (µm) Band Type Spatial Resolution (m) B1 0.52–0.60 VNIR (visible and near infrared) 15 B2 0.63–0.69 VNIR 15 B3N 0.76–0.86 VNIR 15 B3B 0.76–0.86 VNIR 15 B4 1.60–1.70 SWIR (shortwave infrared) 30 B5 2.145–2.185 SWIR 30 B6 2.185–2.225 SWIR 30 B7 2.235–2.285 SWIR 30 B8 2.295–2.365 SWIR 30 B9 2.36–2.43 SWIR 30 B10 8.125–8.475 TIR (thermal infrared) 90 B11 8.475–8.825 TIR 90 B12 8.925–9.275 TIR 90 B13 10.25–10.95 TIR 90 B14 10.95–11.65 TIR 90

There are two Quaternary volcanoes with historic eruptions in northeastern China (Figure1a, WD, Wudalianchi Volcano; TC, Changbaishan Tianchi Volcano). Petrology, chronology, and geochemistry of these Quaternary volcanoes have been widely addressed by researchers [17–20]. However, general research on the topographic and geomorphologic features of these Quaternary volcanoes is still lacks. Furthermore, no detailed map shows the distribution of lava flows from these different stages. Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 3 of 16 Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

(a)

(b)

FigureFigure 1. 1.(a ()a Topographic) Topographic map map generatedgenerated from the USGS USGS (United (United States States Geological Geological Survey) Survey) SRTM SRTM (Shuttle(Shuttle Radar Radar Topography Topography Mission)Mission) DEM DEM (Digital (Digital Elevation Elevation Model) Model) data, data, showing showing the locations the locations of ofWudalianchi Wudalianchi (WD) (WD) and and Tianchi Tianchi (TC) (TC) volcanoes volcanoes in northeast in northeast China. China. (b) ASTER (b) ASTERthermal thermalinfrared (band infrared (band13) image 13) image observed observed at 6 April, at 6 2004 April, in the 2004 Wudalia in thenchi Wudalianchi volcanic region. volcanic WH: region. Wohushan; WH: SG: Wohushan; SG:Gelaqiushan; South Gelaqiushan; NG: North NG:Gelaqiushan; North Gelaqiushan; B: Bijiashan; L: B:Laoheishan; Bijiashan; H: L: Huoshaoshan; Laoheishan; W: H: Weishan; Huoshaoshan; WJ: W:West Weishan; Jiaodebushan; WJ: West Jiaodebushan;EJ: East Jiaodebushan; EJ: East Jiaodebushan;X: Xiaogushan; X: Xiaogushan;WL: West Lo WL:ngmenshan; West Longmenshan; EL: East EL:Longmenshan; East Longmenshan; M: Molabushan; M: Molabushan; Y: Yaoquanshan. Y: Yaoquanshan.

InIn this this study, study, we documentedwe documented the productsthe products of eruptions of eruptions and morphology and morphology of Quaternary of Quaternary volcanoes involcanoes northeast in China northeast using China satellite using remote satellite sensing remote sensing techniques. techniques. The The main goal goal of this of this study study is to is to verify how to map geomorphologic features and lava flows of Quaternary volcanoes using verify how to map geomorphologic features and lava flows of Quaternary volcanoes using ASTER ASTER multispectral data. A field investigation was conducted around the Wudalianchi volcanoes multispectral data. A field investigation was conducted around the Wudalianchi volcanoes from late from late July to early August, 2005 as part of a collaborative project between the Institute of Geology July to early August, 2005 as part of a collaborative project between the Institute of Geology and and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Geological Survey of Japan, The National Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Geological Survey of Japan, The National Institute Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. During the field investigation, we observed of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. During the field investigation, we observed the the difference of vegetation coverage in the Wudalianchi volcanoes, which can provide useful diffinformationerence of vegetation to understand coverage the in spectral the Wudalianchi difference volcanoes, of the lava which flows can providein the Laoheishan useful information and toHuoshaoshan understand thelava spectral flow regions. difference of the lava flows in the Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan lava flow regions.

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 4 of 16 Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

2. Geologic Geologic Setting Setting The Wudalianchi Wudalianchi and and Changbaishan Changbaishan volcanoes volcanoes in northeastern in northeastern China Chinahave been have widely been studied widely [18–22].studied Previous[18–22]. Previousstudies indicated studies that indicated they are that intraplate they are volcanoes intraplate far volcanoes from the farWest from Pacific the Plate West subductionPacific Plate zone subduction [22–24]. zone [22–24]. The Wudalianchi volcanic cluster is is located located on on Wudalianchi Wudalianchi city, city, about 350 km north north of of , Harbin, 2 capital of of Heilongjiang Province Province (Figure (Figure 1a).1a). Th Thee volcanic volcanic group group covers covers an anarea area of about of about 800 800km2 km and isand composed is composed of 14 of major 14 major volcanic volcanic cones cones (Figure (Figure 1b).1 Theseb). These lava lava rocks rocks in the in theWudalianchi Wudalianchi region region are strongare strong alkaline alkaline potassium-rich potassium-rich volcanic volcanic rock rock with with an an average average KK (Potassium) (Potassium) content content of of 5.28% 5.28% and average SiO 2 contentcontent of of 50.46%. 50.46%. [17,25]. [17,25]. The K-Ar (Potassium-Argon) dating of Wudalian Wudalianchichi monogenetic volcanic products suggested three stages of eruptions: Early-middl Early-middlee Pleistocene (circa(circa 1.331.33 ± 0.08 to 0.8 ± 0.020.02 Ma), Ma), Late Late Pleistocene Pleistocene ± ± (circa 0.63–0.3 Ma), and historic periods [18,26]. [18,26]. Am Amongong the the 14 14 volcanoes volcanoes in in the the Wudalianchi Wudalianchi volcanic cluster, thethe lavalava flows flows distributed distributed around around Xiaogushan Xiaogushan (X), (X), Yaoquanshan Yaoquanshan (Y), (Y), Wohushan Wohushan (WH), (WH), and Westand WestJiaodebushan Jiaodebushan (WJ) are(WJ) alkaline are alkaline basalt basalt that belongs that belongs to the to Early-middle the Early-middle Pleistocene; Pleistocene; the lava the flows lava flowsfrom Molabushanfrom Molabushan (M), Bijiashan (M), Bijiashan (B), South (B), Gelaqiushan South Gelaqiushan (SG), North (SG), Gelaqiushan North Gelaqiushan (NG), Weishan (NG), (W), Weishanand East Jiaodebushan(W), and East (EJ)Jiaodebushan are alkaline (EJ) basalt are alkaline that belongs basalt to that the belongs Late Pleistocene to the Late [27 Pleistocene]. However, [27]. it is However,still a big debateit is still on a big the debate historic on volcanic the historic activity. volcanic Some activity. researchers Some indicated researchers that indicated the most that recent the mostmajor recent explosive major eruption explosive occurred eruption between occurred 1719–1721 between AD 1719–1721 and formed AD craters and formed of the Laoheishan craters of the (L) Laoheishanand Huoshaoshan (L) and (H) Huoshaoshan volcanoes [ 17(H),28 volcanoes]. Historical [17,28 local]. documentsHistorical local suggest documents that the suggest lava flows that from the lavaLaoheishan flows from and HuoshaoshanLaoheishan and craters Huoshaoshan were mainly crat occurreders were in mainly 1719–1721 occurred AD and in 1719–1721 1776 AD [ 26AD,27 and,29]. 1776Tectonically, AD [26,27,29]. the Wudalianchi Tectonically, volcanic the Wudalianchi cluster is located volcanic in thecluster triangular is located area in formed the triangular by the threearea formedstructural by unitsthe three of the structural Greater units Khingan of the uplift, Greate ther Khingan Lesser Khingan uplift, the uplift Lesser and Khingan the Songliao uplift and faulted the Songliaobasin. Previous faulted studiesbasin. suggestedPrevious studies that the suggested distribution that of the 14 volcanoesdistribution in theof 14 Wudalianchi volcanoes areain the is Wudalianchiassociated with area the is Northeast associated (NE)-striking with the Northe faults,ast Northwest (NE)-striking (NW)-striking faults, Northwest faults and (NW)-striking near Eastwest faults(EW)-striking and near faults Eastwest or fracture (EW)-striking zones [30 ,31faults]. However, or fracture the geologicalzones [30,31]. interpretation However, of the ASTER geological DEM interpretationimage (Figure 2of) showsASTER that DEM the image NE and (Figure NW-striking 2) shows faultsthat the are NE major and structureNW-striking in the faults Wudalianchi are major structurevolcanicfield. in the The Wudalianchi most of volcanoes volcanic are field. extending The most as NE-striking of volcanoes direction are extending (such as L, as B, NE-striking M and WH directionin Figure 2(such). We as inferred L, B, M that and these WH in conjugate Figure 2). faults We mightinferred provide that these the pathwayconjugate for faults magma might migration provide theduring pathway the volcanic for magma eruption. migration during the volcanic eruption.

Figure 2. GeologicalGeological sketch sketch showing showing the the relation relation betw betweeneen tectonic tectonic context context and and volcanism in the Wudalianchi region. LettersLetters refer to name of volcanic craters are same asas FigureFigure1 1b.b.

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 5 of 16

Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16 Concerning the geodynamics of the formation of the Wudalianchi volcanoes, some studies Concerning the geodynamics of the formation of the Wudalianchi volcanoes, some studies suggested that they are the intraplate volcano associated with the westward extending subduction suggested that they are the intraplate volcano associated with the westward extending subduction slab of the West Pacific Plate [22–24]. Based on analysis of the topographic image as well as the slab of the West Pacific Plate [22–24]. Based on analysis of the topographic image as well as the previous data given by seismic evidence [32,33], we have drawn a three-dimensional geodynamic previous data given by seismic evidence [32,33], we have drawn a three-dimensional geodynamic sketch map using Artificial Intelligence (AI) software, which shows the relationship between the active sketch map using Artificial Intelligence (AI) software, which shows the relationship between the intraplate volcanoes in NE China and the deep subduction of the Pacific slab as shown in Figure3. active intraplate volcanoes in NE China and the deep subduction of the Pacific slab as shown in This geodynamic sketch map implies that the intraplate volcanoes in the interior of the Asian continent Figure 3. This geodynamic sketch map implies that the intraplate volcanoes in the interior of the are not the back-arc volcanoes related to the subducting Pacific slab such as the Japanese Islands, Asian continent are not the back-arc volcanoes related to the subducting Pacific slab such as the but the continental volcanoes are likely induced by the deep subduction and dehydration of the west Japanese Islands, but the continental volcanoes are likely induced by the deep subduction and Pacific stagnant slab, possibly through hot and wet upwelling in the big mantle wedge under the NE dehydration of the west Pacific stagnant slab, possibly through hot and wet upwelling in the big China as suggested by the geophysical studies [34–37]. mantle wedge under the NE China as suggested by the geophysical studies [34–37].

FigureFigure 3. 3. TheThe three-dimensional three-dimensional (3D) (3D) geodynamic geodynamic sketch sketch map map showing showing that that the the active active volcanoes volcanoes in Northeasternin Northeastern Asia Asiaare induced are induced by the bydeep the subducti deep subductionon of the western of the Pacific western stagnant Pacific and stagnant subducting and slabs.subducting slabs.

TheThe Wudalianchi Wudalianchi volcano volcano was was successfully successfully select selecteded as as one one of of the the UNESCO UNESCO (United (United Nations Nations Educational,Educational, Scientific Scientific and and Cultural Cultural Organization) Organization) Gl Globalobal Geoparks Geoparks in in 2003. 2003. The The major major reason reason is is that that thethe lava lava flow flow composition composition of of the the Wudalianchi Wudalianchi volcanic volcanic belt belt is is very special special and and is is characterized characterized by by strongstrong alkaline alkaline potassium-rich potassium-rich volcanic volcanic rock rock [38]. [38]. Its Its color color ratio ratio (40%–55%) (40%–55%) is is higher higher than than the the coarse coarse porphyry and ring rock (35%–20%), while at the same time, it does not contain basic plagioclase, which basalt should have; thus, it is neither a rough rock nor an alkaline basalt.

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 6 of 16

Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16 porphyry and ring rock (35%–20%), while at the same time, it does not contain basic plagioclase, whichMoreover, basalt should Laoheishan have; thus, and itHuoshaoshan is neither a rough are the rock la nortest anvolcanoes alkaline in basalt. the Wudalianchi volcanic group,Moreover, whose most Laoheishan recent eruption and Huoshaoshans occurred in are 1719–1721 the latest AD volcanoes and 1776 in AD the as Wudalianchi recorded by volcanic historic group,documents. whose Thus, most their recent lava eruptions flows formed occurred by inthe 1719–1721 eruptions AD are and bare, 1776 well AD preserved, as recorded and by the historic lava documents.flows characteristics Thus, their are lava clear. flows As formed the geomorpholog by the eruptionsic and are lithologic bare, well features preserved, of andthe theeruptions lava flows on characteristicsLaoheishan and are Huoshaoshan clear. As the geomorphologic are well preserved, and lithologicthe Wudalianchi features ofvolcano the eruptions has the on reputation Laoheishan of and“Volcano Huoshaoshan Natural areMuseum” well preserved, [39,40], the which Wudalianchi is another volcano important has the reason reputation for ofits “Volcanoselection Natural in the Museum”UNESCO Global [39,40], Geoparks. which is another important reason for its selection in the UNESCO Global Geoparks.

3. Methodology Three scenes of relatively cloud-free ASTER data covering the Wudalinchi region were used in this study. The DEM data, which belongs to the ASTER Level-3A product, were derived from the ASTER Level-1A data, with a vertical accuracy of 20 m [[10,12].10,12]. See Table2 2 for for details. details. TheThe datasetsdatasets used in this study is described in a flowchartflowchart (Figure(Figure4 4).).

Table 2.2. Details of ASTER data.

VerticalVertical Accuracy Accuracy of of ObtainedObtained Date Date Central Central Point Point Product Product Level Level DigitalDigital Elevation Elevation Model Model

7 March,7 March, 2002 2002 48.87°N, 48.87 126.42°E◦N, 126.42 ◦E orthorectified orthorectified Level-3A Level-3A 20 20m m 6 September,6 September, 2002 2002 48.73°N, 48.73 125.82°E◦N, 125.82 ◦E orthorectified orthorectified Level-3A Level-3A 20 20m m 6 April,6 April, 2004 2004 48.60°N, 48.60 125.98°E◦N, 125.98 ◦E orthorectified orthorectified Level-3A Level-3A 20 20m m

Figure 4. TheThe flowchart flowchart of the datase datasetsts used in this study.

3.1. The Generation of Contour Image and 3D Perspective View Image A contourcontour image image was was derived derived automatically automatically from fr ASTERom ASTER Level-3A Level-3A DEM DEM data by data using by ER-Mapper using ER- (EarthMapper Resource-Mapper) (Earth Resource-Mapper) software. software. Three-dimensional Three-dimensional (3D) perspective (3D) perspective view image view was image generated was throughgenerated superimposing through superimposing a three bands a three color compositebands color image composite (the bands image 2, 3,(the and bands 1 assigned 2, 3, inand red, 1 ,assigned and in blue, red, green, respectively) and blue, on therespectively) ASTER DEM on the data ASTER by using DEM the data same by software. using the same software.

3.2. Laboratory Measurement for the Emissivity of Lava Fows 3.2. Laboratory Measurement for the Emissivity of Lava Fows The laboratory emissivity of typical lava rocks from the Wudalianchi region were measured by The laboratory emissivity of typical lava rocks from the Wudalianchi region were measured by using portable FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer) spectrometer (µ-FITR, Model 102) using portable FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer) spectrometer (µ-FITR, Model 102) manufactured by Designs and Prototypes, Ltd., USA, in Nimoiya’s Spectral Lab. of Geological Survey of manufactured by Designs and Prototypes, Ltd., USA, in Nimoiya’s Spectral Lab. of Geological Survey Japan. The emissivity measurements of the samples of relatively low temperature (typically < 60 degree of Japan. The emissivity measurements of the samples of relatively low temperature (typically < 60 in Celsius) at the natural surfaces are difficult in achieving high S/N (Signal-Noise) ratio, thus, degree in Celsius) at the natural surfaces are difficult in achieving high S/N (Signal-Noise) ratio, thus, the measurements were generally made for the polished surfaces of the highly heated samples using the measurements were generally made for the polished surfaces of the highly heated samples using the plate heating pot in the laboratory. This instrument provides spectral coverage from 2 to 16 µm with 6 cm-1 spectral resolution (which means band width) [41]. We collected three samples around

RemoteRemote Sens. Sens.2019 2019, 11, 08, 2663, x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of of 16 16

Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan; the lithologic characters of these samples are listed in Table 3. As theshown plate in heating Figure pot 5, the in the emissivity laboratory. curve This of instrument sample WD- provides2w is displaying spectral coverage as flat one, from which 2 to 16 isµ them 1 withweathered 6 cm− surfacespectral of resolution lava covered (which by some means dry band lichen-a width) symbiotic [41]. We complex collected of three algae samples and fungi around [42]. LaoheishanAs for the other and Huoshaoshan; samples, the high the lithologic emissivity characters is located of thesearound samples ASTER are band listed 10, in and Table low3. Asemissivity shown inof Figure these 5lavas, the emissivitylocated around curve ASTER of sample band WD- 12 2was isshown displaying in Figure as flat 5. one,Moreover, which isthe the depth weathered of low surfaceemissivity of lava near covered 9.6 µm for by these some sa drymples lichen-a is quite symbiotic different complex (such as of WD algae-3c and and WD fungi-3w), [which42]. As indicates for the otherthat there samples, is a spectral the high difference emissivity with is located increase around of weathered ASTER banddegree. 10, So and far, low we emissivitycan highlight of thesethese lavaslava flows located by around using Lava ASTER Flow band Index 12 (LFI) as shown of B10/B12 in Figure in order5. Moreover, to distinguish the depth whether of low the emissivity lava flows nearare fresh 9.6 µ mone for or these weathered samples one is quitecovered diff erentby dry (such lichen as or WD low-3c andvegetation. WD-3w), This which is different indicates from that thereusing isthe a spectralMafic Index difference (MI with= B12/B13) increase to of extract weathered litholog degree.ic information So far, we canfor highlightmafic-ultramafic these lava rocks, flows as bysuggested using Lava by Ninomiya Flow Index et (LFI)al. [14]. of B10 /B12 in order to distinguish whether the lava flows are fresh one orDetailed weathered description one covered of samples by dry lichenWD1, WD or low2, and vegetation. WD3 see Table This is 3. di fferent from using the Mafic Index (MI = B12/B13) to extract lithologic information for mafic-ultramafic rocks, as suggested by Ninomiya et al.Table [14 3.]. Lithologic characters of samples collected from the Wudalianchi volcanoes. Detailed description of samples WD , WD , and WD see Table3. Sample No. Lithologic1 Characters2 3 Location Table 3. Lithologic characters of samples collected from the WudalianchiSouth part volcanoes. of WD-1 fresh surface of black lava Huoshaoshan Sample No. Lithologic Characters Location WD-2c fresh cut surface of lava North part of Laoheishan WD-1 weatheredfresh surface surface of of black lava lava covered South part of Huoshaoshan WD-2w North part of Laoheishan WD-2c freshby some cut surface dry lichen of lava North part of Laoheishan WD-2w weathered surface of lava covered by some dry lichen North part of Laoheishan WD-3c fresh cut surface of lava South part of Laoheishan WD-3c fresh cut surface of lava South part of Laoheishan WD-3w WD-3w weatheredweathered surfacesurface of of lava lava South p Southart of part Laoheishan of Laoheishan

Figure 5. Emissivity of typical rock samples collected from Wudalianchi. Figure 5. Emissivity of typical rock samples collected from Wudalianchi. Furthermore, band ratios of 2/1 and 4/6 in the VNIR and SWIR regions are used to highlight Furthermore, band ratios of 2/1 and 4/6 in the VNIR and SWIR regions are used to highlight hematite and altered Al(OH)3 bearing minerals considering that weathered volcanic lavas may contain hematite and altered Al(OH)3 bearing minerals considering that weathered volcanic lavas may Hematite and Al(OH)3. Moreover, the band ratios of B2/B1 for displaying as green could highlight the contain Hematite and Al(OH)3. Moreover, the band ratios of B2/B1 for displaying as green could area covered by snow and ice, which is helpful to distinguish the lave flows from snow and ice. highlight the area covered by snow and ice, which is helpful to distinguish the lave flows from snow 4.and Results ice.

4.1.4. Results Topographic and Geomorphologic Features of Quaternary Volcanoes The ASTER DEMs image shows that the study area is at an elevation range of 175–578 m above sea 4.1. Topographic and Geomorphologic Features of Quaternary Volcanoes level as shown by elevation bar in Figure6a. The 14 major conical volcanic craters are arranged as three sub-parallelThe ASTER zones, DEMs extending image NE shows direction, that whichthe study is similar area is to at the an direction elevation of range regional of 175–578 fault system m above [19] sea level as shown by elevation bar in Figure 6a. The 14 major conical volcanic craters are arranged

Remote Sens. 2019,, 1108,, 2663x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16 as three sub-parallel zones, extending NE direction, which is similar to the direction of regional fault systemand thus, [19] imply and thus, that theyimply are that associated they are associat with NE-strikinged with NE-striking normal fault normal system. fault The system. east volcanicThe east volcaniczone consists zone ofconsists three shield of three volcanoes shield with volcanoes six conical with craters six conical (Molabushan, craters East(Molabushan, Longmenshan, East WestLongmenshan, Longmenshan, West Xiaogushan,Longmenshan, East Xiaogushan, Jiaodebushan, East West Jiaodebushan, Jiaodebushan), Westthe Jiaodebushan), central zone the composed central zoneof four composed shield volcanoes of four shield (Weishan, volcanoes Laoheishan, (Weishan, Huoshaoshan, Laoheishan, Wohushan)Huoshaoshan, and Wohushan) two isolated and cones two (Bijiashan,isolated cones Yaoquanshan), (Bijiashan, Yaoquanshan), and the west zone and the consists west ofzone a large consists shield of a volcano large shield (North volcano Gelaqiushan, (North Gelaqiushan,South Gelaqiushan) South Gelaqiushan) (Figure7a). A(Figure shield 7a). volcano A shield always volcano has always a low slope,has a low generally slope, generally less than less 5 ◦, whilethan 5°, the while diameter the diameter of the volcanic of the volcanic pedestal pedestal is large, generallyis large, generally more than more 3 km. than While 3 km. the While cone the volcano cone volcanois mainly is composed mainly composed of basalt of and basalt the volcanicand the volcanic cone has cone a relative has a heightrelative di heightfference difference of 50 m to of 750 50 m.m Theto 750 shape m. The ofcone shape volcano of cone is volcano just like is a just cone like [43 a]. cone [43]. A contour imageimage can can highlight highlight topographic topographic features features of these of these Quaternary Quaternary volcanoes volcanoes (Figures (Figures6b and 76b). and 7).

Figure 6. (a) ASTER DEM image, assigned a step color mode, showing the 1414 cone-shapedcone-shaped volcanic craters in the Wudalianchi region. The DEM data obtained on 7 March, 2002. Letters refer to name of volcanic craters are same as Figure1 1b.b. ((b) Contour image derived from ASTER DEM data showing topographic features features of of the the Laoheishan Laoheishan and and Huosha Huoshaoshanoshan volcanoes. volcanoes. Contour Contour interval interval is 20 is m, 20 and m, summitsand summits of these of these craters craters are indicated are indicated by five-shaped by five-shaped stars. stars.

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 9 of 16 Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Figure 7. EnlargedEnlarged contour contour image derived from ASTER data showing the topographic features of volcanic craters in the WudalianchiWudalianchi volcanic zone. Letters refer to name of volcanic craters are same as Figure 11b,b, andand contourcontour intervalinterval isis20 20 m. m. ((a) The easteast WudalianchiWudalianchi volcanicvolcanic zone.zone. ( (b)) The west Wudalianchi volcanic zone.zone.

From Figure Figures 6a6a and and Figure7, Laoheishan 7, Laoheishan volcano volcano is located is located on southeast on southeast and itand is aboutit is about 505 m505 in m inheight. height. Meanwhile, Meanwhile, there there is a deepis a deep crater crater with anwith elevation an elevation of 385 mof to385 west m ofto thewest summit. of the However,summit. However,the Huoshaoshan the Huoshaoshan volcano appears volcano as a appears northward-facing as a northward-facing horseshoe-shaped horseshoe-shaped volcanic landform volcanic with landformtwo summits with about two summits 355 m in about height 355 (as m indicated in height by (as five-shaped indicated by stars five-shaped in Figure6 starsb). There in Figure are four 6b). Therestriking are shield four volcanoesstriking shield as shown volcanoes in Figure as shown7a. The in most Figure remarkable 7a. The most shield remarkable volcano with shield a diameter volcano withof 2 km a diameter is located of in 2 middlekm is located of image, in middle which consists of image, of which three craters consists (EL, of WL,three and craters X in Figure(EL, WL,7a). and Two X inof Figure them (WL 7a). andTwo EL) of them appear (WL as oneand pairEL) appear of nearly as eastwestone pair extendingof nearly eastwest glasseswith extending a diameter glasses of with circa a400 diameter m in the of middle circa 400 eastern m in the part, middle and the eastern crater part, of Xiaogushan and the crater (X inof FigureXiaogushan7a) in the(X in south Figure flank 7a) ofin theEL cratersouth appearsflank of asEL a crater northeastward-facing appears as a northeas horseshoetward-facing shape with horseshoe a diameter shape of 200with m. a Thediameter highest of 200elevations m. The of highest these three elevations carters of are these 565 m, three 570 m,cart anders 445are m565 (WL, m, EL,570 andm, and X, respectively, 445 m (WL, in EL, Figure and7 a).X, respectively,In the north ofin thisFigure large 7a). shield In the volcanic north of landform, this large there shield is avolcanic ring shield landform, volcano there with is aa diameterring shield of volcanoabout 1000 with m a and diameter summit of heightabout 1000 of 505 m mand (M summit in Figure height7a). Theof 505 shield m (M volcano in Figure in the7a). southwestThe shield partvolcano of image in the consistssouthwest of twopart craters of image with consists summits of two of 515 craters m and with 465 summits m, respectively of 515 m (EJ and and 465 WJ m, in respectivelyFigure7a). Another (EJ and shield WJ in volcanoFigure 7a). has Another a diameter shield of 1250 volcano m and has a a summit diameter of 495of 1250 m, appearingm and a summit in the oftop-left 495 m, of appearing image (W inin Figurethe top-left7a). Figure of image7b shows (W in that Figure an NNE 7a). Figure striking 7b shield shows landform that an withNNE a striking pair of shield landform with a pair of cones distributes along the western volcanic zone. The southern zone (SG) exhibits a westward-facing horseshoe shape and the northern zone (NG) exhibits a circular

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 10 of 16

cones distributes along the western volcanic zone. The southern zone (SG) exhibits a westward-facing Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16 horseshoe shape and the northern zone (NG) exhibits a circular shape with a diameter of 500 m and shape220 m, with respectively. a diameter The of summits 500 m and are about220 m, 560 respectively. m and 525 mThe above summits sea level are (SGabout and 560 NG m in and Figure 5257 mb) aboveaccording sea level to the (SG ASTER and NG DEMs in Figure contour 7b) image. according to the ASTER DEMs contour image. Three-dimensionalThree-dimensional (3D)(3D) perspective perspective view view image image can provide can anprovide excellent an view excellent for geomorphologic view for geomorphologicfeatures of geologic features targets of geologic from di targetsfferent from view di directionsfferent view [44 directions]. Figure 8[44]. represents Figure 8 an represents ASTER an3D ASTER perspective 3D perspective view image view of image the Laoheishan of the Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes volcanoes and adjacent and adjacent region, region,which exhibitswhich exhibits geomorphologic geomorphologic features features of these of historic these historic volcanoes volcanoes clearly (Figureclearly 8(Figure). 8).

FigureFigure 8. 8. ASTERASTER 3D 3D perspective perspective view view image image (taken (taken on on 6 6 Sepember, Sepember, 2002, 2002, with with a a three-time three-time vertical vertical exaggeration),exaggeration), showing showing lava lava flow flow and and morphology morphology of of the the Laoheishan Laoheishan and and Huoshaoshan Huoshaoshan volcanoes. volcanoes. ThreeThree bands bands of of ASTER ASTER VNIR VNIR data data used used to to generate generate false false color color composite composite image image (bands (bands 2, 2, 3, 3, and and 1 1 assignedassigned inin red,red, green, green, and and blue, blue, respectively). respectively). Green Green and dark and blue dark color blue patterns color representpatterns vegetationrepresent vegetationand water body,and water and thebody, five and lakes the are five marked lakes byare numbers marked 1by to numbers 5. Southward-looking 1 to 5. Southward-looking view. The red view.and cyan The arrowred and marks cyan represent arrow marks two di representfferent types two ofdi flowfferent directions types of of flow lavas directions from Laoheishan of lavas craterfrom Laoheishanand the white crater arrow and marks the white represent arrow the marks flow repres directionent the of lavasflow direction from Huoshaoshan of lavas from crater. Huoshaoshan crater. Laoheishan crater covered with green vegetation exhibits a cone and locates in the central of the Three-dimensional (3D) perspective view image (Figure8). About 2.5 km northeast of Laoheishan, Laoheishan crater covered with green vegetation exhibits a cone and locates in the central of the Huoshaoshan crater shows a much more broken cone with a half-size of Laoheishan crater (Figure8). Three-dimensional (3D) perspective view image (Figure 8). About 2.5 km northeast of Laoheishan, Another geomorphologic feature is lava flows from these two historic volcanoes as shown in Figure8. Huoshaoshan crater shows a much more broken cone with a half-size of Laoheishan crater (Figure Based on different color tones and texture characteristics displayed on remote sensing images, different 8). Another geomorphologic feature is lava flows from these two historic volcanoes as shown in lavas of Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan can be distinguished. Lava flows from Laoheishan crater can be Figure 8. Based on different color tones and texture characteristics displayed on remote sensing classified into two types: one is the reddish grey lava exhibiting a radial pattern and flowing as far as images, different lavas of Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan can be distinguished. Lava flows from 15 km (indicated by red arrows in Figure8), and the other is the darkish grey to black lava distributed Laoheishan crater can be classified into two types: one is the reddish grey lava exhibiting a radial around the crater (indicated by blue arrows in Figure8). Black lava from the Huoshaoshan crater pattern and flowing as far as 15 km (indicated by red arrows in Figure 8), and the other is the darkish mainly flowed northward and southward (indicated by white arrows in Figure8). Flow directions grey to black lava distributed around the crater (indicated by blue arrows in Figure 8). Black lava of lavas can be distinguished clearly according to the 3D perspective view image combined with the from the Huoshaoshan crater mainly flowed northward and southward (indicated by white arrows field observation, although over 280 years has passed. The 3D perspective view image also shows that in Figure 8). Flow directions of lavas can be distinguished clearly according to the 3D perspective several lakes distribute around the north and east part of these two volcanoes. The Wudalianchi is view image combined with the field observation, although over 280 years has passed. The 3D perspective view image also shows that several lakes distribute around the north and east part of these two volcanoes. The Wudalianchi is named after the Five Large Connected Pools, encircling Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan, as shown in Figure 8. The lakes were formed after the historic eruptions, when molten lava flows, pouring down from the crater, partially blocked the Baihe River.

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 11 of 16 named after the Five Large Connected Pools, encircling Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan, as shown in RemoteFigure Sens.8. The 2019 lakes, 08, x FOR were PEER formed REVIEW after the historic eruptions, when molten lava flows, pouring down11 of 16 from the crater, partially blocked the Baihe River. 4.2. Lithologic Mapping of Lava Products and Their Relative Age Dating 4.2. Lithologic Mapping of Lava Products and Their Relative Age Dating A false color composite image of B10/ B12, B2/B1, and B4/B6, assigned as R, G, and B, was derived to enhanceA false subtle color composite spectral change image ofof B10 products/ B12, B2 from/B1, andlava B4 flows/B6, assigned in different as R, stage G, and of B, eruptions, was derived as shownto enhance in Figure subtle 9. spectral Figure change 9 shows of productsthat the volcanic from lava lava flows flows in di havefferent quite stage different of eruptions, color aspatterns shown (purplishin Figure9 red. Figure to bright9 shows red), that which the volcanicmay represent lava flows lava have flows quite formed di ff inerent different color patternseruptive (purplishstages as indicatedred to bright by red),Kahle which et al.may [8] for represent Hawaiin lava lava flows flows formed by using in diff airborneerent eruptive TIMS stages(Thermal as indicated Infrared Multispectralby Kahle et al. Scanner) [8] for Hawaiin images. lava In flowsthe Wudalianchi by using airborne region, TIMS the (Thermallava rocks Infrared are strong Multispectral alkaline potassium-richScanner) images. volcanic In the Wudalianchi rock with an region, average the lavaK (Potassium) rocks are strong content alkaline of 5.28% potassium-rich and average volcanic SiO2 contentrock with of an 50.46%. average The K (Potassium)mineral composition content of has 5.28% not and big averagedifference. SiO 2Therefore,content of we 50.46%. consider The that mineral the differentcomposition eruptive has not stages big diff erence.are mainly Therefore, responsi we considerble for thatthese the color different patterns. eruptive During stages arethe mainly field investigation,responsible for we these had color observed patterns. the difference During the in fieldvegetation investigation, coverage, we which had observed can also affect the di thesefference color in vegetationpatterns in coverage,the Wudalianchi which canarea. also affect these color patterns in the Wudalianchi area.

Figure 9.9. ASTERASTER composite composite image image (taken (taken on 7on March, 7 March, 2002), 2002), band ratiosband ofratios 10/12, of 2 /1,10/12, and 42/1,/6 displayed and 4/6 displayedas red, green, as red, and blue,green, respectively, and blue, respectively, showing the lithologicshowing the units lithologic in the Wudalianchi units in the region. Wudalianchi Letters region.refer to Letters volcanic refer craters to volcanic are same craters as Figure are 1sameb. Letters as Figure “a”, 1b. “b”, Letters “c”, and “a”, “d” “b”, refer “c”, to and relative “d” refer dating to relativefor Quaternary dating for lava Quaternary flows. “WD lava1”, “WDflows.2”, “WD “WD1”,3” “WD refer2 to”, “WD the location3” refer ofto samples. the location “K1 ”of shows samples. the “KCretaceous1” shows sandstonesthe Cretaceous and argillites.sandstones Bright and greenargillites. color Bright patterns green represent color patterns snow and represent ice. The snow five lakes and ice.of Wudalianchi The five lakes are of marked Wudalianchi by numbers are marked 1 to 5. by numbers 1 to 5.

According toto thethe results results shown shown in Figurein Figure9, the 9, Wudalianchi the Wudalianchi Quaternary Quaternary lava flows lava can flows be divided can be dividedinto at least into fourat least stages. four Comparedstages. Compared with the with published the published maps of maps these of flows these in flows [27], in the [27], four the stages four stagesare: (1) are: historic (1) historic lava flows lava from flows Laoheishan from Laohei andshan Huoshaoshan and Huoshaoshan craters showingcraters showing a bright a red bright pattern red (indicatedpattern (indicated by letter by a inletter Figure a in9 ),Figure which 9), formed which by formed the most by the recent most eruptions recent eruptions in 1719–1721 in 1719–1721 AD and 1776AD and AD 1776 as recorded AD as byrecorded historic by documents historic document [17,28]; (2)s lava[17,28]; flows (2) distributed lava flows arounddistributed the west around flank the of Westwest Longmenshanflank of West Longmenshan (WL) and north (WL) flank and of Molabushannorth flank of showing Molabushan a reddish showing pattern, a reddish which represent pattern, youngerwhich represent volcanoes younger (indicated volcanoes by letter (indicated b in Figure by9 letter) and b belong in Figure to the 9) Holoceneand belong [ 27 to]; (3)the lavaHolocene flows [27];showing (3) lava a pink flows pattern showing in Figure a pink9 (indicated pattern in byFigu letterre 9 c),(indicated which may by representletter c), which the product may represent of third thestage product abruptions, of third which stage is abruptions, the alkaline which basalt is belonging the alkaline to the basalt Late belonging Pleistocene to [the27]; Late (4) the Pleistocene purplish [27]; (4) the purplish blue pattern shows the products from the oldest eruption in the Wudalianchi region (indicated by letter d in Figure 9), which is the alkaline basalt belonging to the Early-middle Pleistocene [27]. In addition, the regions with a purplish red pattern show the Cretaceous sandstones and argillites as observed in the field (indicated by the letter K1 in Figure 9). Our results are consistent

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 12 of 16

blue pattern shows the products from the oldest eruption in the Wudalianchi region (indicated by letter

Remoted in Figure Sens. 20199),, which08, x FOR is PEER the alkaline REVIEW basalt belonging to the Early-middle Pleistocene [ 27]. In addition,12 of 16 the regions with a purplish red pattern show the Cretaceous sandstones and argillites as observed within the the field regional (indicated geological by the map letter [27], K except1 in Figure that they9). Oursuggested results the are lava consistent flows among with theMolabushan regional (M)geological belong mapto the [27 Late], except Pleistocene, that they while suggested our resu thelts lava demonstrated flows among that Molabushan they are at (M) the belong same tostage the withLate the Pleistocene, lava flows while distributed our results around demonstrated west flank thatof West they Longmenshan are at the same (WL), stage which with thebelong lava to flows the Holocene.distributed around west flank of West Longmenshan (WL), which belong to the Holocene. TheThe enlargedenlarged ASTER ASTER image image (Figure (Figur 10e) displays10) displays more detailedmore detailed lithologic lithologic features offeatures the Laoheishan of the Laoheishanand Huoshaoshan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes. Althoughvolcanoes. the Although lava flows the around lava flows the Laoheishan around the and Laoheishan Huoshaoshan and Huoshaoshanvolcanoes belong volcanoes to the samebelong stage, to the their same color stage, tones their still color have tones subtle still di ffhaveerences. subtle differences.

FigureFigure 10. 10. EnlargedEnlarged ASTER composite imageimage (taken(taken on on 6 6 April, April, 2004), 2004), band band ratios ratios of of 10 /10/12,12, 2/1, 2/1, and and 4/6 4/6displayed displayed as red,as red, green, green, and and blue, blue, respectively, respectively, showing showing the detailedthe detailed lithologic lithologic units units of historical of historical lava lavaflows. flows. Letters Letters refer refer to volcanic to volcanic craters craters are same are assame Figure as Figure1b. The 1b. five The lakes five of lakes Wudalianchi of Wudalianchi are marked are markedby numbers by numbers 1 to 5. 1 to 5.

5. Discussion 5. Discussion The quality of the available digital elevation models (DEMs) is crucial for the mapping topographic The quality of the available digital elevation models (DEMs) is crucial for the mapping and geomorphologic features of Quaternary volcanoes. ASTER stereo imaging system can provide high topographic and geomorphologic features of Quaternary volcanoes. ASTER stereo imaging system quality DEMs data as shown in Figures6 and7. Contour images (Figures6b and7) in the Wudalianchi can provide high quality DEMs data as shown in Figures 6 and 7. Contour images (Figures 6b and 7) volcanic region demonstrate that ASTER DEMs data have a high vertical accuracy of 20 m without in the Wudalianchi volcanic region demonstrate that ASTER DEMs data have a high vertical accuracy ground control points [12]. It can provide detailed topographic and geomorphologic features of the of 20 m without ground control points [12]. It can provide detailed topographic and geomorphologic volcanic landforms with a low relief contrast (50–160 m) in the Wudalianchi region. The resolution of features of the volcanic landforms with a low relief contrast (50–160 m) in the Wudalianchi region. ASTER VNIR data up to 15 m is perfectly suited for large overviews of volcanoes. 3D perspective view The resolution of ASTER VNIR data up to 15 m is perfectly suited for large overviews of volcanoes. 3D perspective view image generated from ASTER VNIR and DEMs data provides excellent views for geomorphologic feature of the volcanoes (Figure 8).

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 13 of 16 image generated from ASTER VNIR and DEMs data provides excellent views for geomorphologic Remote Sens. 2019, 08, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16 feature of the volcanoes (Figure8). According to the ASTER DEMs (Figures2,6 and7), the most of volcanoes are distributed along According to the ASTER DEMs (Figures 2, 6 and 7), the most of volcanoes are distributed along the NE-trending faults. We inferred that these conjugate faults might provide the pathway for magma the NE-trending faults. We inferred that these conjugate faults might provide the pathway for magma migration during the volcanic eruption [19]. migration during the volcanic eruption [19]. As shown in Figure9, lava flows from di fferent eruption stages show different color patterns in As shown in Figures 9, lava flows from different eruption stages show different color patterns ASTER multispectral ratio images. Interpretations of these images suggest that at least four stages of in ASTER multispectral ratio images. Interpretations of these images suggest that at least four stages volcanic eruptions occurred during the Quaternary. This interpretation for relative dating has a good of volcanic eruptions occurred during the Quaternary. This interpretation for relative dating has a agreement with geologic mapping given by [27], except for the different judgments of what stage that good agreement with geologic mapping given by [27], except for the different judgments of what the lava flows around Molabushan (M) should belong to. However, early studies suggested that there stage that the lava flows around Molabushan (M) should belong to. However, early studies suggested were three stages of lava flows: Early-middle Pleistocene (circa 1.33 0.08 to 0.8 0.02 Ma (million that there were three stages of lava flows: Early-middle Pleistocene (circa± 1.33 ± 0.08± to 0.8 ± 0.02 Ma years), Late Pleistocene (circa 0.63–0.3 Ma), and historic periods [18,26]. Therefore, it is necessary to (million years), Late Pleistocene (circa 0.63–0.3 Ma), and historic periods [18,26]. Therefore, it is remeasure age for the lava flows in the Wudalianchi volcanic results revealed by this study. necessary to remeasure age for the lava flows in the Wudalianchi volcanic results revealed by this Another point that needs to be addressed is the subtle differences of lava flows’ color tones among study. the Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes. Concerning the different color pattern in ASTER image Another point that needs to be addressed is the subtle differences of lava flows’ color tones of these lava flows represent the TIR spectral differences, we suggest that at least two different aspects among the Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes. Concerning the different color pattern in ASTER may have been responsible for subtle spectral differences: image of these lava flows represent the TIR spectral differences, we suggest that at least two different aspects(1) The may eff haveects of been terrestrial responsible weathering for subtle of lavaspectral flows. differences: There is a spectral difference with increase 1)of weatheredThe effects degreeof terrestrial as shown weathering in Figure of lava5 and flow Tables. There3. Similar is a spectral results difference also revealed with thatincrease the weatheringof weathered of Hawaiian degree as basalts shown has in causedFigure their5 and spectral Table 3. changes Similar [results8,9]. also revealed that the (2) Theweathering presence of of vegetation Hawaiian on basalts lava flows. has caused Spectral their measurement spectral changes shows that[8,9]. the value of emissivity 2) The presence of vegetation on lava flows. Spectral measurement shows that the value of in band 12 increases comparing weathered surface covered by the lichen (WD-2w) with cut surface emissivity in band 12 increases comparing weathered surface covered by the lichen (WD-2w) of same sample (WD-2c in Figure5). Field investigation shows that some lava flows are indeed coveredwith bycut dry surface lichen of or same low brushessample although(WD-2c in vegetation Figure 5). isField sparsely investigation in the Wudalianchi shows that volcanic some regionlava (Figure flows are 11). indeed covered by dry lichen or low brushes although vegetation is sparsely in the Wudalianchi volcanic region (Figure 11).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 11. 11. FieldField photographs photographs (tak (takenen on on August August 2005). 2005). (a (a) )The The crater crater of of the the Laoheishan Laoheishan and and lava lava flows flows fromfrom 1719–1721 1719–1721 AD AD eruptions. eruptions. Northward-looking. Northward-looking. (b (b) )The The lava lava flows flows of of 1719–1721 1719–1721 AD AD eruptions eruptions fromfrom the the Huoshaoshan Huoshaoshan volcano. volcano. The The crater crater is is the the Huoshaoshan Huoshaoshan in in the the north north part. part. Northeast-looking. Northeast-looking. NoteNote lava lava flows flows covered covered by by sparse sparse vegetation. vegetation.

6.6. Conclusions Conclusions ASTERASTER DEMs DEMs data data can can provide provide detailed detailed topographic topographic features features for for describing describing volcanic volcanic landforms. landforms. TheThe resolution resolution of of ASTER ASTER VNIR VNIR data data up up to to 15 15 m m is is perfectly perfectly suited suited for for large large overviews overviews of of volcanoes. volcanoes. InIn this this paper, throughthrough aa seriesseries of of processing processing of of ASTER ASTER images images and and field field investigation, investigation, it is it implied is implied that thatthe Wudalianchithe Wudalianchi volcanoes volcanoes are extending are extending in a NE in direction,a NE direction, which iswhich likely is influenced likely influenced by the regional by the regionalconjugate conjugate faults. faults. ASTER 3D perspective view images can provide excellent view for geomorphologic features of volcanoes, and thus, ASTER stereo imaging gives geoscientists a comprehensive tool for generating high quality topographic images of Quaternary volcanoes. Among the 14 volcanic craters in Wudalianchi region, the molten lava flows of Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes partially

Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 14 of 16

ASTER 3D perspective view images can provide excellent view for geomorphologic features of volcanoes, and thus, ASTER stereo imaging gives geoscientists a comprehensive tool for generating high quality topographic images of Quaternary volcanoes. Among the 14 volcanic craters in Wudalianchi region, the molten lava flows of Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan volcanoes partially blocked the Baihe River, which forms the Five Large Connected Pools, known as the Wudalianchi Lake. Lithologic mapping indicates that at least four stages of volcanic eruptions are revealed in the Wudalianchi Quaternary volcano cluster. The lava flows from different stages of Quaternary volcanic eruptions are mapped successfully in the Wudalianchi volcanic cluster. These results demonstrate that ASTER multispectral data, particularly, the Lava Flow Index (LFI) (LFI = B10/B12) imagery, can be used to map subtle spectral variations caused by the surface weathering. Mapping of these lava flows on the basis of spectral properties may allow us to discriminate the relative age of the lava units in the sparsely vegetated region with arid and semi-arid climate conditions on the earth. Although this study successfully distinguished four different formation stages of Wudalianchi volcanic lavas, it is still necessary to remeasure age and mineral component for the lava flows in the future research, to figure out what the major reason for these lava flows is with different color patterns in the ASTER image, which represent spectral differences. In general, ASTER covers a wide spectral region with 14 bands from visible to thermal infrared with high spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolution. Therefore, ASTER can provide an effective approach for mapping the products from late Quaternary volcanoes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.F. and Y.N.; methodology, B.F. and Y.N.; software, B.F.; validation, B.F. and Y.N.; formal analysis, H.F. and B.F.; investigation, B.F. and Y.N.; resources, B.F., Y.N., H.F. and P.S.; data curation, B.F., Y.N., H.F. and P.S.; writing—original draft preparation, H.F. and B.F.; writing—review and editing, H.F. and B.F.; visualization, H.F. and B.F.; supervision, B.F.; project administration, B.F.; funding acquisition, B.F. Funding: This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDA 20070202) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41761144071). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Ramsey, M.S.; Fink, J.H. Estimating silicic lava vesicularity with thermal remote sensing: A new technique for volcanic mapping and monitoring. Bull. Volcanol. 1999, 66, 32–39. [CrossRef] 2. Francis, P.; Rothery, D. Remote sensing of active volcanoes. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2000, 28, 81–106. [CrossRef] 3. Abrams, M.; Glaze, L.; Sheridan, M. Monitoring Colima volcano, Mexico, using satellite data. Bull. Volcanol. 1991, 53, 571–574. [CrossRef] 4. Pieri, D.; Abrams, M. ASTER observations of thermal anomalies preceding the April 2003 eruption of Chikurachki volcano, Kurile Islands, Russia. Remote Sens. Environ. 2005, 99, 84–94. [CrossRef] 5. Urai, M.; Machida, S. Disclored seawater detection using ASTER reflectance products: A case study of Satsuma-Iwojima, Japan. Remote Sens. Environ. 2005, 99, 95–104. [CrossRef] 6. Urai, M.; Geshi, N.; Staudacher, T. Size and volume evaluation of the caldera collapse on Piton de la Fournaise volcano during the April 2007 eruption using ASTER stereo imagery. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34, L22318. [CrossRef] 7. Cater, A.J.; Ramsey, M.S.; Belousov, A.B. Detection of a new summit crater on Bezymianny Volcano lava dome: Satellite and field-based thermal data. Bull. Volcanol. 2007, 69, 811–815. [CrossRef] 8. Kahle, A.B.; Gllispie, A.R.; Abbott, E.A.; Abrams, M.J.; Walker, R.E.; Hoover, G.; Lockwood, J.P. Relative dating of Hawaiian lava flows using multispectral thermal infrared images: A new tool for geologic mapping of young volcanic terranes. J. Geophys. Res. 1988, 93, 15239–15251. [CrossRef] 9. Abrams, M.; Abbott, E.; Kahle, A. Combined use of visible, reflected infrared and thermal infrared images for mapping Hawaiian lava flows. J. Geophys. Res. 1991, 98, 475–484. [CrossRef] 10. Yamaguchi, Y.; Kahle, A.B.; Tsu, H.; Kawakami, T.; Pniel, M. Overview of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 1998, 36, 1062–1071. [CrossRef] Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 15 of 16

11. Abrams, M.; Yamaguchi, Y. Twenty years of ASTER contributions to lithologic mapping and mineral exploration. Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 1394. [CrossRef] 12. Fujisada, H.; Bailey, G.B.; Kelly, G.G.; Hara, S.; Abrams, M.J. ASTER DEM performance. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 2005, 43, 2707–2714. [CrossRef] 13. Ninomiya, Y.; Fu, B. Extracting lithologic information from ASTER multispectral thermal infrared data in the northeastern Pamirs. Xinjiang Geol. 2003, 21, 22–30. 14. Ninomiya, Y.; Fu, B.; Cudahy, T.J. Detecting lithology with Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Refection Radiometer (ASTER) multispectral thermal infrared “radiance-at-sensor” data. Remote Sens. Environ. 2005, 99, 127–139. [CrossRef] 15. Rowan, L.C.; , J.C. Lithologic mapping in the Mountain Pass, California area using Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data. Remote Sens. Environ. 2003, 84, 350–366. [CrossRef] 16. Fu, B.; Zheng, G.; Ninomiya, Y.; Wang, C.; Sun, G. Mapping hydrocarbon-induced mineralogical alterations in the northern Tian Shan using ASTER multispectral data. Terra Nova 2007, 19, 225–231. [CrossRef] 17. Feng, M.; Whitford-Sttark, J.L. The 1719–1721 eruptions of potassium-rich lavas at Wudalianchi, China. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 1986, 30, 131–140. [CrossRef] 18. Wei, H.; Sparks, R.S.J.; Liu, R.; Fan, Q.; Wang, Y.; Hong, H.; Zhang, H.; Chen, H.; Jiang, C.; Dong, J.; et al. Three active volcanoes in China and their hazards. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2003, 21, 515–526. [CrossRef] 19. Wang, Y.; Chen, H. Tectonic controls on the Pleistocene-Holocene Wudalianchi volcanic field (northeastern China). J. Asian Earth Sci. 2005, 24, 419–431. [CrossRef]

20. Xu, S.; Zheng, G.; Nakai, S.; Wakita, H.; Wang, X.; Guo, Z. Hydrothermal He and CO2 at Wudalianchi intra-plate volcano, NE China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2013, 62, 526–530. [CrossRef] 21. Zhou, X.; Armstrong, R.L. Cenozoic volcanic rocks of eastern China-secular and geographic trends in chemistry and strontium isotopic composition. Earth Planet. Sci Lett. 1982, 58, 301–329. [CrossRef] 22. Liu, J.; Han, J.; Fyfe, W.S. Cenozoic episodic volcanism and continental rifting in northeast China and possible to Japan Sea development as revealed from K-Ar geochronology. Tectonophysics 2001, 339, 385–401. [CrossRef] 23. Revenaugh, J.; Sipkin, S.A. Mantle discontinuity structure beneath China. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99, 21911–21927. [CrossRef] 24. Lei, J.; Zhao, D. P-wave tomography and origin of the Changbai intraplate volcano in Northeast Asia. Tectonophysics 2005, 397, 281–295. [CrossRef] 25. Fan, Q.; Liu, R.; Sui, J. Petrology and geochemistry of rift-type Wudalianchi K-rich volcanic rock zone. Geol. Rev. 1999, 45, 358–368. (In Chinese with English abstract) 26. Chen, H.; Ren, J.; Wu, X. Volcanic eruptive processes and characteristics of the current volcanoes in the Wudalianchi volcano clusters known from Manchurian-langanauge historical archives discovered at present. Geol. Rev. 1999, 45, 409–413. (In Chinese with English abstract) 27. Geological Museum of the Ministry of Geology. Wudalianchi Volcano, China; Science and Technology Press: Shanghai, China, 1979; p. 3. (In Chinese with English introduction) 28. Ji, F.J.; Li, Q. The TL chronological evidence of the recent eruption in Wudalianchi volcanic cluster. Seismol. Geol. 1998, 20, 302–304. (In Chinese with English abstract) 29. Wu, X. Some Mongolian archives about eruption history in Wudalianchi volcanoes. North. Cult. Relics 1998, 2, 90–91. (In Chinese with English abstract) 30. Lu, Z. Modern volcanic structure and its formation mechanism of the Wudalianchi volcanic group in Heilongjiang Province. J. Spectrosc. Miner. 1994, 1, 5–21. 31. Mao, X.; Li, J.; Gao, W. A new understanding of the relationship between volcanic distribution and faults in the Wudalianchi volcanic group of Heilongjiang Province. J. Geol. Geol. 2010, 16, 226–235. 32. Tatsumi, Y.; Maruyama, S.; Nohda, S. Mechanism of backarc opening in the Japan sea: Role of asthenospheric injection. Tectonophysics 1990, 181, 299–306. [CrossRef] 33. Huang, J.; Zhao, D. High-resolution mantle tomography of China and surrounding regions. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111, B09305. [CrossRef] 34. Zhao, D.; Hasegawa, A.; Kanamori, H. Deep structure of Japan subduction zone as derived from local, regional, and teleseismic events. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 1994, 99, 2313–22329. [CrossRef] Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 2663 16 of 16

35. Zhao, D.; Xu, Y.; Wien, D. Depth extent of the back-arc spreading center and its relation to subduction processes. Science 1997, 278, 254–257. [CrossRef] 36. Zhao, D.; Mishra, O.P.; Sanda, R. Influence of fluids and magma on earthquakes: Seismological evidence. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 2002, 132, 249–267. [CrossRef] 37. Wei, W.; Hammond, J.O.S.; Zhao, D.; Xu, J.; Liu, Q.; Gu, Y. Seismic evidence for a mantle transition zone origin of the Wudalianchi and Halaha volcanoes in northeast China. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2019, 20, 398–416. [CrossRef] 38. Qiu, J.; Wu, Z.; Du, X. Study on the mantle inclusions in the Erkeshan-Wudalianchi-Kolofu potassium volcanic rocks in Heilongjiang Province. Mod. Geol. 1987, 3, 44–356. 39. Peng, N. Study on Dynamic Stability of Volcanic Magma Chamber in Wudalianchi New Period. Ph.D. Thesis, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China, 2004. (In Chinese with English abstract) 40. Qin, H. The Cracking Characteristics and Genesis of the Lava Flow in the Western Heilongjiang, Wudalianchi. Master’s Thesis, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China, 2009. (In Chinese with English abstract) 41. Hook, S.J.; Kahle, A.B. The micro Fourier Transform Interferometer (µFTIR)—A new field spectrometer for acquisition of infrared data of natural surfaces. Remote Sens. Environ. 1996, 56, 172–181. [CrossRef] 42. Cornelissen, J.H.C.; Callaghan, T.V.; Alatalo, J.M.; Michelsen, A.; Graglia, E.; Hartley, A.E. Global change and arctic ecosystems: Is lichen decline a function of increases in vascular plant biomass? J. Ecol. 2001, 89, 984–994. [CrossRef] 43. Zou, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Fan, Y. Volcanic eruption methods and types of disasters in the Wudalianchi volcanic belt. Seismol. Geol. 2019, 41, 192–210. (In Chinese with English abstract) 44. Fu, B.; Ninomiya, Y.; Lei, X.; Toda, S.; Awata, Y. Mapping the active strike-slip fault triggered the 2003 Mw 6.6 Bam, Iran, earthquake with ASTER 3D images. Remote Sens. Environ. 2004, 92, 153–157. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).