The Balance Between Values Cultural Tensions Surrounding Thai Comedy

RACHEL FILBECK MFA Student in Theatre and Dance University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa

Abstract Thai culture in general finds reasons to celebrate and have fun — anything can be turned into a reason to have a good time. Humor in Thailand, however, exists on a spectrum, and can sometimes be controversial. There is a marked tension between what is considered proper conduct and what is “sanuk” or “fun.” Of course, there is always a proper way to have fun, but Thai humor often finds itself reaching for the taboo. This paper aims to explore the cultural evolution of Thai comedy in performance, analyzing different contexts and forms, and tracing how the values of sanuk and being a proper Thai have influenced performance in Thailand over time.

Countless times, I’ve tried to share commentary that would be considered rude the delight of a Thai commercial with my if they were not in the context of American peers, only to be met with entertainment. Set up a stage, however, and confusion. To be fair, I perceive some Thai the rules change. humor as bordering on absurdity, so their I lived in Chiang Mai, a bustling city reaction is not necessarily unjustified. For full of art and culture, until I was 18. When someone familiar with the Thai life and I was young, I picked up the northern language, however, the Thai sense of humor dialect quickly and would often translate for has a unique charm and spirit that I’ve never my mother. There were years during my encountered anywhere else. The best part childhood when my parents would provide for me, as a foreign expat who was born and housing for their Thai students in our own raised in Thailand, was witnessing Thais home — a lack of educational opportunities poke fun at their own incongruities. Thai in rural regions often meant that young humor is filled with puns and social people would come to THE BALANCE BETWEEN VALUES RACHEL FILBECK

the city without a support network, and few BOY: So, that’s a jackfruit ghost, housing options. My parents would often right? take these young people in: at one point, we FATHER (hushed): No, that’s a had thirteen students living with us. As I transvestite (kathoey).1 grew older, I attended an international BOY: Oh. Got it. school where I studied the Central Thai language and became friends with children FATHER: Good. of high-ranking diplomats and businessmen. BOY: Dad! A blue ghost! This gave me a unique perspective on the The blue ghost runs. The camera social value systems of Thailand, having pans to show two very long legs. lived alongside people from both the lower and upper economic and social classes. FATHER (nonchalant): Hey, a tall For an American, the Thai expres- ghost. (To the ghost:) What the hell sion of comedy can sometimes flirt with are you standing here for? We are political incorrectness — often too much for having dinner. Go away! comfort. Take, for example, this 2007 The ghost walks away. The image commercial for Sylvania light bulbs. The shifts to a wide shot of the family scene opens with a family sitting outside surrounded by the ghosts. having a picnic. A young boy asks his father ing the ghosts, a series of questions. FATHER (ignor throwing a rock at an off-screen dog who is barking): Damn … Shut up! BOY (pointing): What’s that? The commercial cuts to the light FATHER: That’s a Thai ghost called bulbs being advertised. “Kra-Sue”; it’s looking for things to eat at night time. NARRATOR. Under the light, BOY (pointing): Dad? nothing seems to be scary. FATHER: Another ghost called The lights flicker off and the scene “Kra-Hung”; it always flies around. goes dark; the family starts to scream. BOY (referencing a ghost holding a (JEH United Ltd.) bunch of bananas): Can I have that banana? For many Americans, it might be unthinkable to make a joke regarding FATHER: No son, that belongs to the banana ghost. gender non-conformity; this is the jarring political incorrectness that I referred to earlier. This can be understood as an

1 The Thai word kathoey used in this commercial refers to a character who is male dressed as a female. This word has been understood differently over the course of time and is often used to refer to a general “third gender” category, under which several identities might fall. (Taweewuttichai 9)

58 Explorations Volume 15, 2019 THE BALANCE BETWEEN VALUES RACHEL FILBECK example of how “benign violation theories of Thai comedy is charming, there is also an of humor” are subjective to the audience. intriguing clash of value systems not just Benign violation theory suggests that a between cultures (such as the American violation of a rule can be humorous if reaction to some Thai humor) but also accompanied by an element that suggests within the culture itself. These internal that its violation is benign. When a certain value systems at work are evolving, and emotional attachment is formed to the responding to the modernization of a construct poised for violation, however, an country rich in tradition. Contemporary intended joke is not well received by its politics, tourism, and trade collide with audience (Oring 57). Individuals carry heritage, religion, and national identity, varying emotional attachments to perceived resulting in wide array of comic expres- norms, rules, and expectations; I propose sions. This paper will touch upon some of that the same is true for cultural groups. the ways in which value systems have either Studies suggest that humor and joking evolved or remained the same within Thai function to establish a community — the comic performance, giving specific focus to joke being a way to determine if an the two often-conflicting values of sanuk individual is intellectually, socially, and and respectable behavior for Thai people. emotionally compatible with the group The study will incorporate both Thai and while also establishing commonalities for non-Thai scholarly perspectives, as well as cohesion (Fine and De Soucey 2). It would my own extensive observations and experi- be an interesting line of inquiry to explore ence in Thailand. the Thai reaction to the joke from that It is a common understanding to particular advertisement. Even though Thais those with any experience in Thailand that might demonstrate a higher tolerance for “fun” is an important part of Thai life certain brands of humor than Americans, (Kislenko, 175). Celebrations can last for there is still a tension within Thai culture days, weeks, or even months longer than concerning what kinds of humor are they would in other cultures. There is at appropriate inappropriate. This raises two least one celebration observed each month ideas I hope to pursue further in this paper. of the year, if not more (166); I remember The first is the emphasis placed on the telling someone once that it felt as if the importance of “fun,” or sanuk, in Thai Thai invented reasons to throw parties. culture. The second is the Thai value placed Historically, the value of sanuk permeated on proper conduct and appearance. There is even some of the most serious of circum- a brashness in some Thai comedy that stances, including various religious rites. would be considered indecent or lewd by Some of the earliest accounts of Thai comic Thai standards. Comedy itself is a contro- performance have been recorded as versial form in many cultures, because it interludes between somber eulogies and tends to push boundaries; and the same is rituals during funerals. These comedic true for Thailand. So while a good portion performances are known as suat Phra Malai

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(Polachan 440). Up until the reign of King monks during childhood; they would leave Rama V (1873-1910), suat Phra Malai the monkhood at an appointed time, but contained brash humor, such as jokes would still offer their knowledge as a regarding male genitalia, to keep audiences service to the community. The events or engaged (441). This is already a stark rituals requiring this potency were not to be contrast to the American system for taken lightly: they were regarded as events mourning, in which coarse joking would attracting evil spirits that posed a significant usually be considered inappropriate at threat to the safety of those involved. The events such as funerals or venues such as Thai shadow theatre, commonly known as churches. In Thailand, however, Buddhist nang tulung, often accompanied spiritually temples were where the fun began. Temples significant events such as a kae bon historically supported the art of shadow ceremony, the formal releasing from a vow puppetry, and are still renowned for their (Koanantakool 45). Other instances would festivals (Tawalongsri 12) — I have include the rites associated with cremation, childhood memories of lying awake at night wake ceremonies, or ordination into the with a pillow over my head as the temple monkhood (47). Potency usually involved a next door blasted the neighborhood with formula or incantation performed by the music and laughter until sunrise. puppeteer; but according to Vandergeest and It is important to note that joking Chalermpow-Koanantakool, the comedy of and laughter associated with traditional Thai the clown characters found in nang tulung Buddhist ritual was not necessarily separate was also a vital component of this potency from the power or potency of that ritual. To (309). Other scholars have noted that many employ humor was not to suggest that the highly revered puppeteers have claimed that ritual was not sacred; in fact, some scholars the comic element is one of the most have noted that humor was an important important experiences of a shadow play, part of the ritual vehicle. Peter Vandergeest second only to music (Dowsey-Magog 191). and Paritta Chalermpow-Koanantakool refer How exactly humor is linked to potency is to a term called saskit 2 in their article largely speculative in my current research. reviewing the historical contexts of Thai Some scholars note the potency of the shadow puppetry. According to Vandergeest clown puppets in nang tulung, giving and Chalermpow-Koanantakool, saskit was reference to the order in which they are a kind of potency available to the lower stored: below the rusi (wise men or class, associated with healing, midwifery, teachers) but above the heavenly beings. and performance (315). Men who practiced They also speak about certain clown rituals with this potency often obtained their characters from other traditions that are knowledge from their time spent as novice considered potent, such as Semar in

2 The authors do not provide the Thai spelling of this word, and there is reason to question its transliteration. In my research, I found no other source using the term “saskit”; but I am aware of a similar word “sakti,” which is commonly translated to mean “power.”

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Javanese shadowplay, who is said to be a presenting itself in both behavior and god born on earth (Vandergeest and appearance. Chalermpow-Koanantakool 313). While this An example of sanuk conflicting does little to explain why such a value is with maw-som is seen with the ascent of reserved for the clown characters, it does King Rama V into power. The king viewed indicate that their potency is acknowledged. suat Phra Malai as religiously irreverent One potential explanation involves and banned any form of coarse humor the timing of these rituals. Certain mile- connected to religious practice, threatening stones or situations in the human lifespan to decommission monks who violated his might attract the attention of an evil spirit, ban on comedic performance during according to the Thai-Buddhist worldview religious ceremonies. Many monks chose to (Kislenko 37). Ways of diverting spirits retire from religious life as a way to keep from inflicting harm often involve tricking those comic traditions alive (Polachan 3). the spirits. For example, someone might call This illustrates a cultural tension that a baby ugly to make the child seem less of continues in modern Thai culture. an attractive target for a spirit wanting to Since the early incarnations of inflict harm (38). If humor is indeed part of comic performance, Thai comedy has the potency of a ritual, perhaps it functions branched out from its Buddhist roots, as a distraction or even a pleasurable Though it now operates in the secular world experience for the spirits as well. Or of political and social satire, the tension perhaps a good sense of humor accompanies between sanuk and respectful conduct is just potency as a general rule. This topic as much of a concern as in the days of King certainly warrants further research. Rama V. How is it possible for humor to One example of comedic forms that infiltrate sacred spaces and events in a challenge the concept of proper conduct manner that maintains respect and proper would be talok café. This form of comedy conduct? Another significant Thai value rose from the migration of workers of lower that is just as strong as the value of sanuk is social standing from the Isan provinces to the value of proper conduct and appearance. Bangkok. Today, talok café has a tendency Though there are several words that could towards obscene sexual humor — but define the parameters of propriety, there are Wangkawan Polachan comments in her two key terms that I will focus on to article “Buddhism and Thai Comic Perfor- examine what it means to be a respectable mance” that the lewdness of talok café has Thai. “Maw-som” refers to respectable often prevented the presence of respectable behavior, while the term riap roy refers to Thai women in the audience (446). This modest attire, polite manners, and refined would be an example where the Thai speech (Zefreys 71). My experience concept of proper conduct, and the idea of growing up in Thailand leaves me with the what it means to be a respectable Thai impression that propriety is twofold,

61 Explorations Volume 15, 2019 THE BALANCE BETWEEN VALUES RACHEL FILBECK woman, clash with certain comedic genres understood way of speaking, it is not of performance. uncommon for this manner of speaking to Another prime example of how become the butt of a joke in Thai comedy cultural expectations for propriety battle the (323). There are even tonal differences presence of fun in Thai comedy is evident in between dialects that contribute to the treatment of a well-known clown humorous moments of confusion: the character in nang tulung, Theng. There has Southern Thai dialect can have up to eight been a recent movement to popularize the tones, which may confuse those who speak clown character by making him appropriate the Central Thai dialect, which only has five for children. However, Theng has tradition- tones (Dowsey-Magog 200). In addition, ally been anything but child-appropriate; his just as Thais have no qualms about mocking original form as a shadow puppet involves their own dialectic differences, they have no one of his fingers being shaped like a penis. qualms about mockery of foreigners. In the The tamed rendition of Theng excludes his days when suat Phra Malai was banned by vulgar sense of humor and presents him King Rama V, there was a verbal type of without physical deformity. Known as humor known as o’k phasa. This humor “Uncle Theng,” his presence in children’s mocked foreigners’ pronunciation of Thai literature reinforces cleanliness and personal words (Polachan 441). From the American hygiene, which is an element of riap roy point of view, such mockery might be seen ( Va n d e r g e e s t a n d C h a l e r m p o w - as racist or ethnocentric and generally Koanantakool 324). unacceptable; to the Thai, however, there Within Thai comedic forms we also are two functions to this kind of jesting. The see a light mockery of Thai society, which is first is the creation of a group identity — incongruent with the value of proper separating the foreign from the collective conduct. A “proper” Thai is expected to and reinforcing group cohesion (440). The have a strong command of the Thai second is that light mockery is considered language, with clear pronunciation. Yet good-natured in regards to language in Va n d e r g e e s t a n d C h a l e r m p o w - general, Thai or otherwise; and it would not Koanantakool point out that although there be uncommon to find, say, someone from is a central dialect that is regarded as the the Isan province willingly doling out jokes correct way to speak Thai, there are dialects about his own pattern of speech and cultural of Thai that are vastly different from each idiosyncrasies (441). It would be hard to other; this often results in miscommu- justify the mockery of a foreigner to an nication between native Thai speakers from American, however, which makes this different regions. A foreigner learning to aspect of Thai culture distinctly different. speak Thai might notice that different Thai There are other elements found in people vary in their pronunciation of words. Thai comedy that are generally viewed as Sometimes a rolling “r” becomes an “l” benign and acceptable forms of entertain- sound; and though this is a widely ment, but which challenge the limits of what

62 Explorations Volume 15, 2019 THE BALANCE BETWEEN VALUES RACHEL FILBECK is appropriate from an American standpoint. misconception that Thailand is completely There are various comic characters that are friendly toward the LGBTQ+ community, popular among the Thai, such as characters but Expósito-Barea is more critical in with unique physical attributes or lower assessing the nature of Thai tolerance. He intelligence, Khatoey characters, or persons explains that, although Thailand is known with Down Syndrome (Polahan 446-447). for its “ladyboy” cabarets and its sex trade This is something that might shock the industry, the status of being homosexual or common American audience, where it transgender is not necessarily celebrated. would be considered inappropriate to make Buddhism, though the largest reason for any person with different qualities the tolerance of the LGBTQ+ community in punchline to a joke. As with the Isan Thailand, also contributes to a stigma comedian making light of his own linguistic against members of that community. Since idiosyncrasies, however, it is not uncommon Buddhism’s main goal is to control desires, to find a person with Down Syndrome as a having sex at all is seen as a barrier to willing actor in his role (447). achieving enlightenment — even more so if As previously discussed, one group the sexual behavior seems to violate a that is often targeted in Thai comedy is the “natural order.” Expósito-Barea also points LGBTQ+ community. Milagros Expósito- out that Thai Buddhists will often contend Barea speaks to the level of acceptance that if one is attracted to the same gender, or versus tolerance of the LGBTQ+ commu- feels as if their gender identity does not nity in Thailand. On the one hand, Thai “match” their physical biology, it is because cinema has made the effort to increase they are working out bad karma from a empathy for the LGBTQ+ population by previous life (192-193). So there seems to creating stories that show the struggle of be a negative stigma attached to same-sex being tolerated, but not accepted, by society. attraction and transgendered people, even For the most part, however, transgendered though the country boasts a high tolerance or homosexual characters remain popular of people identifying as LGBTQ+. comic relief characters, which Expósito- Expósito-Barea also makes a connection Barea suggests is a huge component in between traditional identities and modern reinforcing stereotypes (193). Polachan, progress in the representation of LGBTQ however, while addressing the same issue, people in the media: claims that such joking is not meant to A very common theme in mock transgender people or homosexuals, Thai cinema is the opposition but rather to make fun of the comedian who of urban versus rural. Rural is in the role (449). These differing analyses areas are presided [sic] by a are an excellent example of the ways in series of connotations such which scholars from different cultures might as the traditional idea of the have different perspectives on the same foundation of Thai society on social issues. Both scholars speak to the basic principles of harmony

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between man and nature. different interpretations such as this could Conversely, in the urban point to the idea that taking offense or environment of the city, perceiving certain social injustices might be people forget their origins a cultural construct. If, in a culture, the and set themselves free from making of jokes based on physical features tradition, embracing the or cognitive shortcomings is a way of influence of modernity and integrating, accepting, and celebrating the extravagant behaviors. In different, it may not in fact inflict the same most of the films mentioned harm as it would within a culture that makes above, kathoey migrate from these jokes as a way of exercising power. the countryside to cities Thai comedy tends to challenge oppressive where they come out of the forces or authorities of power. This could closet and freely express inform the tensions between what is fun and t h e i r s o -c a l l e d s e x u a l what is proper. deviation (200). There was a time when the Thai This poses the question: is the idea of government responded to the unabashed proper conduct changing in Thailand to humor of nang tulung by trying to regulate reflect an inclusivity of various sexual its content. Pamphlets were distributed orientations and identities? If this is so, giving detailed instruction for the proper how much longer will the existence of a exercise of shadowplay (Vandergeest and transgender or homosexual comic relief Chalermpow-Koanantakool 325), and gov- character be an acceptable source of humor? ernment officials would honor the more Polachan, however, speaks to the traditional and “proper” puppeteers — an ways in which the portrayal of transgender example would be the designation of Nang people and homosexuals is not congruent Kan, a famous traditional puppeteer, as with how these demographic groups present “Folk Artist of the Nation” in 1985 (328). It themselves in Thai society. The comic could be said that the concept of riap roy characters are known to be lewd and brash, holds strongly with the elite, whereas the but Polachan contends that transgender value of sanuk finds a stronger footing with people and homosexuals usually strive to be the working class. That does not mean that polite members of Thai society (449). there is not a presence of both values among If this is the case, then which scholar each class; but it may suggest that the is more accurately representing the issue? distribution of power influences the nature Does cultural proximity to the issue and content of comedic performance — the necessarily mean a clearer perspective? ebb and flow between proper conduct and Does an outside perspective necessarily fun. have a full understanding either? The comedic elements in nang Though the function of such tulung also rely heavily on improvisation, characters in Thai culture is debatable, which allows for a special kind of

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communication to take place between the are more traditional performances, known performer and the audience — dialogue can as nang booran, where the focus is on the be fluid enough to remain relevant and potency of the ritual and the didactic respond to the social dynamics of the elements of the story (Dowsey-Magog 186). community without disrupting the story line Nang Kan, for example, is a puppeteer who (Koanantakool 43). For jokes of this nature attributes his success to being “gentle, good to fly, it would require that the puppeteer be mannered, and avoiding improprie- familiar with the culture of his audience and ty” (Koanantakool 50). Then there are the issues that apply to their lives. This performances, referred to as nang samai, might also have contributed to the that strive to keep up with modern progress government’s need to enforce stricter rules (Dowsey-Magog 186). These performances regarding nang tulung performances, since are produced for their entertainment value, improvisation is not scripted and therefore and puppeteers often prioritize creating cannot be held accountable to any set content that sells (Vandergeest and standards prior to a performance. Chalermpow-Koanantakool 319). Modern Another aspect of nang tulung that forms of nang tulung also have more of a may also demonstrate the tensions between tendency to follow the stories and characters humor and conduct would be the nature of of film and literature. Nang Phrom Noi, for the genre’s clowns. Clown characters are example, draws much of his inspiration prominent in Thai shadowplay, driving from comic books and Indian television much of action with their comedic dialogue. (Dowsey-Magog 189). A subcategory of There are six clown characters that are nang samai is known as nang kan muang, constant across all variations of nang translated as “political shadowplay.” Nang tulung. A distinctive feature common to all Phrom Noi was a significant contributor to six clowns is their rough appearance and the genre during the time of the 1976 coup; association with the working class in common themes in his work included Southern Thailand. All clowns speak in the corruption among government officials, and southern dialect and are primarily con- the younger generation teaching the older cerned with their basic human needs. This generation about modern progress provides an excellent opportunity for satire ( Va n d e r g e e s t a n d C h a l e r m p o w - to develop, as the actions of the clowns are Koanantakool 319). contrasted with the refined actions of noble The concept of the “younger characters (Vandergeest and Chalermpow- teaching the elder” was something I found Koanantakool 312-313). surprising. To understand my reaction, one Issues surrounding the nang tulung has to first look at the three pillars of Thai performance style provide another example national identity: language, religion, and the of the tensions between having fun and monarchy (317). Social behavior toward being proper. There are two schools of anyone embodying these symbols observes thought in the making of nang tulung. There a strict code of conduct. For example, I was

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raised with the knowledge that the position stated, though comedy enhances the of my wai – where I placed my hands when entertainment value of a performance, in I greeted a person – should change based on many cases it also has a didactic element their status in society. Growing up, I was (Koanantakool 44-45). This is important to told that should I ever be granted an understand within the context of Thai audience with the King, I would have to culture. Harkening back to my previous approach him on my hands and knees, discussion concerning codified behavior placing my wai above my head. It was towards people of status, I was taught that emphasized to me that to challenge or mock there were certain levels of rank in society any office that carries symbols of national for various vocations. A teacher, for identity is a bold action with severe example, was regarded with the same consequences, punishable by law. I was also respect as a doctor; and it is my experience raised with the notion that ruling authorities that teachers are given a higher status in are regarded as “fathers” or “mothers” of Thai society than in American society. So to the nation. I’ve made the observation, over say that a performer also carries the my time spent in Thailand, that this responsibility of a social and moral teacher reverence trickles down from sacred would carry a significant weight for the national identity to roles executed within the Thai people. This could be why the nuclear family. It has been my experience conversation about what is appropriate for that fathers and mothers within households nang tulung carries so much significance for are expected to be given a reflection of the those who value the art form’s traditional kind of reverence one might have for a role. governing authority; so the idea of the Lastly, it would be a mistake to “younger” educating the “older” could be neglect the most popular form of folk seen as counter-cultural. This takes the theatre known to Thailand: likay. Some often-didactic role of the puppeteer into new scholars claim that likay has religious roots, waters. Traditionally, Thai culture looks to stemming from the Malaysian Muslim these art forms as educational resources, tradition (Smithies 36). It is said that as the which leaves audiences vulnerable to the Malay tradition progressed, jokes were influence of a modern performance intended interwoven with prayers and that the Thai to provide commentary rather than people saw this as an opportunity for education. Traditional artists argue that entertainment and started to imitate the shadowplay is losing its identity, and they Malaysian form (Maha HH Prince accuse Nang Phrom Noi for disrupting the Dhaninivat Vajiravudh and Bibyalabh 3). If unity of their nation (Vandergeest and this is true, it demonstrates that the value of Chalermpow-Koanantakool 321-322). sanuk has had a long-standing influence on This speaks to the tensions that exist the development of Thai entertainment over between the role of teacher and entertainer the course of history. in nang tulung performance. As previously

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Other scholars, however, contend face the threat of extinction as film gains that likay may have Indian origins, and are popularity. Sanuk is a value that seems to reluctant to fully support theories tying the carry over well into modern forms — form to Malaysia (Smithies 37). Likay’s comedic elements keep audiences engaged. form today, however, is a far cry from its Nang tulung, for example, has survived into origin as a form of worship. Michael the modern era because many puppeteers Smithies describes it as a bawdy form of have decided to cater to audiences drawn to improvisational theatre with loose choreo- spectacle and comedy. By no means does graphy and musical elements (35). this imply that the Thai are abandoning their Interestingly, however, the modern likay values of proper social conduct in favor of audience is largely comprised of women, what is popular and fun; it is simply an with plotlines designed for their interests. observation regarding what elements seem This is an interesting contrast when to be contributing to the perpetuation of compared to talok café, which is geared traditional forms in the modern era, when toward a largely male audience. Likay has film and television are major competing not necessarily been described as appro- industries. priate or proper by authorities on the One element of culture that will subject; it is referred to by Prince always remain true is that its forms will Vajirāvudh as “vulgar” (9), while Smithies change — culture is not static. Change is notes that the actors involved in likay are bound to happen, creating a cycle of losing typically seen as “morally loose by the culture, preserving culture, and making upper class” (60). culture. The value of being “a proper Thai” Likay is in decline due to the rising assists in preserving art forms through popularity of television. Smithies suggests traditional performance styles with sacred that this could be because likay produced significance, while the value of sanuk for television has been cleaned up from its assists in preserving the forms through thrown-together and low-budget aesthetic to reinventing the content and engaging be more polite and respectable (61). It is audiences in an entertainment context. As unclear whether this shift is due to the society changes, newer art forms also arise attempt to appeal to a wider audience, since — borrowing from their predecessors on the improvisational nature of likay doesn’t occasion, but standing alone with unique translate well to scripted television, or if this conventions. In all cases, however, it is clear is because there is a cultural expectation for that in Thailand these two values remain television programming to maintain a constant, with their natural tension creating certain level of decorum. dynamic avenues for comic relief. Regardless, all forms of traditional Thai performance, whether comedic or not,

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Bibliography Dowsey-Magog, Paul. “Popular Workers’ Shadow Theatre in Thailand.” Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 19, no. 1, 2002, pp. 184-211. doi:10.1353/atj.2002.0002. Expósito-Barea, Milagros. “From the Iron the Lady: The Kathoey Phenomenon in Thai Cinema.” Sesión no Nemurada: Revista de Letras y Ficción Audiovisual, no. 2, 20012, pp. 190-202. Fine, Gary Alan, and Michaela De Soucey. “Joking Cultures: Humor Themes as Social Regulation in Group Life.” Humor – International Journal of Humor Research, vol. 18, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1-22. doi:10.1515/humr.2005.18.1.1. JEH United Ltd. “Sylvania Light Bulbs.” YouTube, uploaded by Lech Velasco, 22 June 2008. www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PbWiSp5Ayw. Kislenko, Arne. Culture and Customs of Thailand. Greenwood Press, 2004. Koanantakool, Paritta Chalermpow. “Relevance of the Textual and Contextual Analyses in Understanding Folk Performance in Modern Society: A Case of Southern Thai Shadow Puppet Theatre.” Asian Folklore Studies, vol. 48, no. 1, 1989, pp. 31-57. doi:10.2307/1178533. Oring, Elliott. Joking Asides: The Theory, Analysis, and Aesthetics of Humor. Utah State U P, 2016. Polachan, Wankwan. “Buddhism and Thai Comic Performance.” Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 31, no. 2, 2014, pp. 439-456. doi:10.1353/atj.2014.0041. Smithies, Michael. Likay: A Note on the Origin, Form and Future of Siamese Folk Opera. JSS: Journal of the Siam Society, vol. 59, pt. 1, 1971, pp. 33-65. Tawalwongsri, Sun. “The Creative Choreography for Nang Yai (Thai Traditional Shadow Puppet Theatre) Ramakien, Wat Ban Don, Rayong Province.” Fine Arts International Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, 2010, pp. 5-14. Taweewuttichai, Punnakorn. The Representation of Kathoey Characters in Thai Commercial Films. 2016. Assumption University, Master’s Thesis. www.repository.au.edu Vajirāvudh, Mahā HH Prince Dhaninivat and Kromamun Bidyalabh. “Notes on the Siamese Theatre.” The Siamese Theater: Collection of Reprints from Journal of Siam Society, edited by Mattani Rutnin, Siam Society, 1966, pp. 1-28. Vandergeest, Peter, and Paritta Chalermpow-Koanantakool. “The Southern Thai Shadowplay Tradition in Historical Context.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 24, no. 2, 1993, pp. 307-329. doi:10.1017/s0022463400002654. Zefreys, Marlene. Thai Customs and Etiquette. Marshall Cavendish International (Asia), 2008. www.ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uhm/detail.action?docID=624843.

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