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The Politics of Identity in Kisama, Angola, and Its Diasporas in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

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The Politics of Identity in Kisama, Angola, and Its Diasporas in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries “They Glorify in a Certain Independence”: The Politics of Identity in Kisama, Angola, and Its Diasporas in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries By Jessica A. Krug A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) at the UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON 2012 Date of final oral examination: 09/18/12 The dissertation is approved by the following members of the Final Oral Committee: James Sweet, Professor, History Florence Bernault, Professor, History Neil Kodesh, Associate Professor, History Francisco Scarano, Professor, History Luis Madureira, Professor, Spanish and Portuguese © Copywright by Jessica A. Krug 2012 All Rights Reserved i Acknowledgments My presence in academia and the existence of this dissertation are testimony to the generosity, good will, and faith of more people than I can properly thank. The most important of these will never read these words; they have either passed away, or never knew how to read in the first place. I can only trust that there are other ways of expressing gratitude that will reach them. John Tidwell, Kevin Wilmott, and Novotny Lawrence invested a wealth of time, energy, and heart in helping me transition from book-obsessed street kid to university student. Kofi Agorsah changed my life forever by introducing me to maroon history and by taking me with him to Suriname, where I spent countless hours digging holes in the mud and learning how to conduct historical research in an ethically responsible way. John Ott has not only role modeled superb teaching and advising, but guided me through my first stumbling attempts to work with primary sources. His continued friendship, intellectual engagement, and advice are invaluable. The Diversity Achievement Scholarship at Portland State University made it possible for me to be the first person in my family to attend and graduate from college, and the McNair Program allowed me to aspire to graduate school. In graduate school, I have benefited greatly from my advisor, Jim Sweet, and other committee members’ – Florence Bernault, Neil Kodesh, Francisco Scarano, and Luis Madureira -- willingness to provide detailed feedback on all of my writings and careful and thoughtful discussion of research ideas, methods, and theory. As I travelled throughout the world, they have always tried to steer me towards productive and ethical research practices, and have been commendably patient with me. It is truly only in ii finishing this dissertation that I have realized how intellectually indebted I am to them, and to what degree their training during my seven years as a graduate student has shaped me. Beyond benefitting from their close engagement with me and my ideas, they have also introduced me to a world of ideas that closely approximates what I always imagined heaven to be. In addition, I am grateful to the University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Advanced Opportunity Fund, Federal Language and Area Studies Fellowships, the Social Science Research Council and the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship for supporting me throughout my graduate study, language learning, and dissertation research. My research in Jamaica, Angola, and Brazil, would not have been possible if not for the patience of those in Accompong, Moore Town, communities throughout Kisama, Oriximiná, and Bacabal, and it is to them that I owe my greatest debt. By their requests, however, most of those who generously housed me, fed me, introduced me to their friends and families, and indulged my endless questions will remain unnamed here. In Kisama, however, Ngana António Sondoka remains tireless in his pursuit of local historical knowledge and fervent in his efforts to guard the documentary record of nineteenth- and twentieth-century Kisama history. I hope that I can use my power as an academic in the United States to help him continue in his work and disseminate his perspectives. In Luanda, Sr. Mateus Neto and Dr. Manuel Ndonga made it possible for me to work in the national archives and to learn Kimbundu, and also to navigate the vida luandense. I have benefited enormously from the intellectual generosity the Angolanist community, including John Thornton, who has read countless drafts and answered iii innumerable questions and pleas for primary sources, Linda Heywood, Mariana Candido, Marissa Moorman, Joe Miller, Daniel Domingues Da Silva, and Roquinaldo Ferreira, who has likewise provided me feedback on my own writing and shared sources, and Carolyn Vieira-Martinez, who has answered many language questions. Jan Vansina has patiently explained complicated linguistic matters. José Curto agreed to include me in the Angola Resgate project, allowing me access to archival sources without which this project would have been impossible. Pablo Gomez has also read earlier drafts and helped me unravel the unfamiliar terrain of seventeenth-century New Grenada. Without Kathryn McKnight’s generosity in sharing her transcriptions of nearly a thousand pages of Spanish archival documents, the fourth chapter of this dissertation would not exist. My family includes both those within academia and without. My West Coast people, including Allen Sanders, Shirley Peterson, Patrick Morris, and Erin Murphy, know what they did by helping me from the streets inside, and Kristi Rothenbucher helped me stay there. In the Midwest, Tia Tanzer, Nikki Eggers, and Annie Helke are my sisterhood. Abby Neely is forever a reservoir of calm and perspective, and I am lucky to have entered graduate school with her and Nikki. My East Coast people, including TJ Desch-Obi, Olayinka Fadahunsi, Anne Eller, Jamila Moore-Pewu, and Akissi Britton, have enriched me with their friendship. My bomba crew, including Tito Rodriguez, Jessica Rodriguez, Amanda Holman, Hector Rivera, Manuela Arciniegas, Alex LaSalle, Fidel Tavarez, and the inestimable Raquel Rivera have both inspired me and ensured my continuing sanity. Angel and Janette Rodriguez, you gave me shelter. Gary Kemp, you have given me a home. I dedicate this dissertation to you. iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: Kafuxi Ambari and Kisama Identity in Angola, c. 1580-1630 36 Chapter Three: “They Publicize to the Neighboring Nations that the Arms of Your Majesty Do Not Conquer”: Fugitive Politics and the War of 1655-1658 75 Chapter Four: (Mis)Taken Identities: Kisama and the Politics of Naming in the Palenque Limón, New Grenada, c. 1570-1634 127 Chapter Five: The Kisama Meme: Fugitive Angola and the Politics of Angola and Brazil 181 Chapter Six: Conclusions 226 Bibliography 232 1 Chapter One: Introduction In 1632, seven Portuguese captains ventured north from Rio de Janeiro into a region of Brazil as yet unexplored by Europeans. There, they encountered a group of indigenous people and among them, one black (“preto”) man. Because this meeting took place at a great distance from any established towns or plantations, the Portuguese captains were “perplexed” and asked the man “who he was and how he came to be” in the area. When he responded that he was an emancipated slave, the Portuguese asked him if he was Brazilian-born. He replied that he was not, but was rather “of the nation of Quissamã.”1 After noting that they did not see the man afterwards, and surmising that he had fled from his master and was wary of their queries, the Portuguese captains named the location after him. It bears the name Quissamã to this day.2 The same year, the former governor of the Portuguese colony of Angola, Fernão de Sousa, wrote from Luanda of the fragility of the Portuguese military, slave-raiding and trading, and plantation enterprises in the region, complaining that the “souas on whom we border are 1 As is true for historical transcriptions of words in most African languages by European authors, the orthographic representation of Kafuxi Ambari varies wildly, and includes Cafushe, Cafuchy, Cafuxe, Cafuxhe Cambare, Kafuxi kya Mbari, and others. This is also the case for words like Kisama (Quissama, Quisama, Quiçama, Quissamã, Quisyma), and soba (sóva, sova), and many others. Unless quoting an original source, in which case I use the orthography as it appears in the text, I write “Kafuxi Ambari,” “Kisama,” and “soba” in accordance not only with the most recent rules on Kimbundu orthography but also with the most current pronunciation within Kisama. 2 Miguel Ayres Maldonado and Jozé de Castilho Pinto Pinto, "Descripção que faz o Capitão Miguel Ayres Maldonado e o Capitão Jozé de Castilho Pinto e seus compaheiros dos trabalhos e fadigas das suas vidas, que tiveram nas conquistas da capitania do Rio de Janeiro e São Vicente, com a gentilidade e com os piratas n’esta costa," Revista Trimensal do Instituo Histórico e Geographico Brazileiro 56(1893): 379. 2 many and powerful, and warlike; in the province of Quissama... [they are] all non- Christians and our enemies.”3 What did these geographically and socio-politically disparate seventeenth-century men mean when they identified “Kisama,” either as a nation of origin or as the center of anti-Portuguese resistance? What did the Brazilian man mean when he spoke of himself as part of a “nation” which -- even by seventeenth-century standards – without centralized political authority, common political institutions, or shared linguistic identities, hardly qualified? To gloss Kisama as a simple toponym referring to the arid lands between Angola’s Kwanza and Longa Rivers is to miss the cross-regional, trans- Atlantic political processes through which thousands of the most individually weak and vulnerable people in sixteenth- and seventeenth century Angola collectively forged a dynamic political identity predicated on resistance to slavery and the slave trade. Whatever Kisama may have meant in its first appearance in the written record, in a 21 February 1535 pledge of obedience to the pope by the king of the Kongo, Mvemba a Nzinga (Afonso I), its meaning had certainly changed a century later.4 We know this 3 “Relação da costa de Angola e Congo pelo ex-governador Fernão de Sousa,” 21 February 1632, in Antonio Brásio, ed.
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