HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SINDH BY Prof. M. B. PITHAWALA. F.G.S., M.R.A.S. Research Certificate, University of London Reproduced By Sani H. Panhwar (2018) FEW WORDS FROM COMPILER. This book contains three different articles By: Prof. M, B. Pithawalla, F.G.S., M.R.A.S. completed between 1936 & 1939. 1. "A Geographical Analysis of the Lower Indus Basin (Sindh)" — Part I. 2. "Historical geography of Sindh. Part II."— Prehistoric and Early Historic Periods. 3. "Historical Geography of Sindh Part III" — Historic Period A.D. I. I am reproducing this material hoping the younger generation will benefit from Prof. Pithawalla's work. Sani H. Panhwar November 17, 2018 A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LOWER INDUS BASIN (SINDH). BY PROF. MANECK B. PITHAWAI,A, B.A., B.Sc., L.C.P., F.G.S., Research Certificate, University of London. Received July 20, 1936. (Communicated by Prof. D. N. Wadia, M.A., V.R.G.S.,) CHAPTER I.—PHYSIOGRAPHY. I. The Region as a Whole. Boundaries.—The region, mainly characterized by the growth of the Indus delta, occupies the lower valley of the river. It covers 52,994 sq. miles including the Khairpur State. It is bounded on the west by the Kirthar Range (misnamed Hala), along with a chain of minor hill ranges as far as Cape Monze, and on the east delimited by the Rajputana Desert. The Arabian Sea forms its southern boundary, while to the north it extends upto the foot of the Suleiman Range and the extreme apex of the delta—a narrow neck of the Indus Valley, between the mountains on the right and the sand-hills on the left. (See Plates 1 and 16.) Two of these boundaries—the northern and the eastern—are only political and not physiographic, as they are to be extended into the neighboring States. It is expected that when the physiographic divisions of the rest of India are made, these boundaries will be definitely settled on physio-graphic lines. Distinguishing Features.—The following are the outstanding features of the Lower Indus Basin:— (1) The area includes the old valley of the Indus, which has reached its base-level of erosion and in which aggradation is more or less complete. It is in continuation of the Khadar alluvium of the Indus in the upper region. (2) The rocks within the region are mainly Tertiary, thrown into anticlinal folds, which are being continually eroded by sub-aerial agencies. Historical Geography of Sindh; Copyright © www.sanipanhwar.com 1 (3) There is an extraordinarily large number of thermal springs, some of which show a temperature as high as 126° F. and evolve sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Although there are some extinct volcanic cones noticeable in Makran and Baluchistan, no volcanic eruption has taken place in the region within historic times. The surrounding mountains being young and highly folded, are still in unsettled equilibrium and so earthquakes are not uncommon. (4) The vagaries of the Indus River and its tributaries in the upper region (the Punjab) have also affected this area to a considerable extent. Due to these hydrographical changes, as also to the fact that a whole river, called the Hakra, has dried up, a large portion of the alluvial plain has been converted into a desert, entrenched with old river beds, which remain dry during the greater part of the year, due to the scanty precipitation in Sindh. Drought and famine have been frequent in certain parts of it. (5) Climatically, the region is said to be "between the two monsoons" —the S.W. from the Indian Ocean and the N.'E. or "retreating" monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayan mountains,—and escapes the influence of both. The average annual rainfall is only 6 inches. (6) But what is lost by the region during the two seasons is, however, regained for it by the Indus, the main artery of Sindh, in the form of inundations, caused twice a year, by the spring and summer melting of the snows on the Himalayan heights and by rainfall during the monsoon season. Variations of diurnal and seasonal temperatures are also great. (7) The growing and advancing delta is a characteristic feature, a large part of the existing deltaic lands being reclaimed during historic times. Small and large towns, which once stood on the numerous successive mouths of the Indus in highly prosperous olden times, are now completely thrown inland in a barren state and replaced by the present rock-bounded harbor of Karachi. (8) Although there are no good mineral resources in the province of Sindh, its chief asset is its rich alluvial soil, which requires little tillage or manuring, for yielding crops of grain as well as fodder throughout the year. (9) Parts of the sandy desert are overspread with natron-producing lakes called Dhands, which are characteristic of the Thar Desert. Salt and sand are continuously blown in from the Rann of Cutch by the agency of wind, and there are rich deposits of common salt (NaCl) and other salts found buried under sand-hills. Historical Geography of Sindh; Copyright © www.sanipanhwar.com 2 (10) Rain in the Thar Parkar area is not altogether absent; on the contrary in years of cyclonic storms, there is excessive precipitation. The result is that the so-called desert land is, for the time being, turned into grassland, giving rise to herd life and migration of population in intermittent seasons. (11) Earthquakes and cyclones are not unknown:— The Basin is very near the earthquake zone passing through the Northern Highlands. In 962 A.D. the Indus River deserted Aror and even towns like Bahmanabad were destroyed. 1819—Extensive changes took place in the Rann of Cutch,1 affecting Sindh. From 1845 to 1861 not less than 7 earthquake shocks were recorded.2 15th October 1896.—Shahbandar to Khanjuand through Thar Parkar. 14th January 1903.—Thar Parkar and Shahjanbad District. Fissures in Badin and Moghulbin Taluka; eruption of warm water and muds of 12 hours' duration. Geyser- like blow-holes left, 15-20 feet in diameter and 8-10 feet deep. May 1905.—Dead fish washed off Clifton. A layer 5-15 feet thick and several miles long. Cyclones also occur at times: (e. g.) (1) 13th May 1902. (2) 13th June 1902. Wind velocity estimated to be 100 miles per hour. Tide rose 7' 2" on 16th June 1902. (3) 1903 Tidal wave. — Shahbandar Taluka. A tidal wave rose near the town of Sindree, situated where a branch of the Indus joins the Rann, which was permanently submerged on the occasion, a number of small cones, six or eight feet in height, burst up from the ground and continued, for many days, to emit bubbles of air and mud from their summits. Scenery.—The scenery of Western Sindh is that of low undulating plains, the relief being mainly dependent upon 1 Mew. Geol. Sur. Ind., 1926, Vol. XLVI, Pt. 2, 1926. 2 Bease George, The Sindh Directory, Bombay Gazette Press, 1862. Historical Geography of Sindh; Copyright © www.sanipanhwar.com 3 (1) the folded structure of the rocks, (2) the soft and jointed nature of the rocks, with consequent rapid weathering, (3) the erosion due to wind-currents combined with high aridity and scanty rainfall, (4) low dips of strata. The windward sides of the hills are generally eroded and steeply scarped, while the leeward sides are smooth and gently sloping. There are, here and there, synclinal hills and anticlinal valleys. Detached hills with low dips are common in the plains; while massive wall-like cliffs and precipices are found in the mountainous parts. Along the coast-line and in the interior of Eastern Sindh there are transverse and longitudinal sand-hills, which are characteristic of the Thar Desert. Most of the streams in Sindh have their beds dry during the greater part of the year. The main artery of the Indus itself is as shifting as any other alluvial river, and as it is a highly aggrading stream in these parts, the main valley is nearly flat, having long before reached its base level of erosion. The hard rocks in it are covered over with river alluvium, which has been accumulating since the Pleistocene period. Origin of the Indus Plain.—To understand the nature of this Indus basin, it is necessary to know its origin. Although the Indus has been considered to be an antecedent river, having existed long before the Himalayas come into being, the formation of the Indo- Gangetic depression is, without doubt, connected with the upheaval of these mountains during the Tertiary epoch. Resting upon the three or four primitive nuclei or fragments of an ancient land-mass, the land of Asia embraced the folded mountain belt from Asia Minor to the East Indies, across Persia, Tibet and China and grew, in the end, into the largest continent in the world. The conception of the crust of the earth floating on the molten magma underneath is assumed by many geologists. In the gigantic process of building the continents by means of the drifting and fusing of ancient landmasses with the mountain chains, there are local depressions and isolations noticeable. Discussing the structure of the whole continent of Asia, Prof. J. W. Gregory asserts, " During the process of deformation of the earth, the great mass of Africa acted as the hinterland or back-land, which pressing northward against Southern Europe, crumpled it against the Northern forelands and that in Asia the direction was reversed, because the great mass which acted there as the driving hinterland, lay to the North and the great depression in the crust lay to the South.