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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses `A Dream of Darien': Scottish Empire and the Evolution of Early Modern Travel Writing. MACFARLANE, CAMERON,ALASDAIR How to cite: MACFARLANE, CAMERON,ALASDAIR (2018) `A Dream of Darien': Scottish Empire and the Evolution of Early Modern Travel Writing., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/12881/ Use policy This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 (CC BY) Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Cameron Alasdair Macfarlane ‘A Dream of Darien’: Scottish Empire and the Evolution of Early Modern Travel Writing. Abstract: This thesis addresses the evolution of early modern travel writing and attendant developments in credible representation in seventeenth-century print, as expressed through case studies of Scottish colonialism, to argue for the role of print in the imaginative conception and expression of Scottish colonial rhetoric. The primary case studies are the attempted settlement of Nova Scotia, as promoted by Sir William Alexander and Robert Gordon in the 1620s, the settlement of East New Jersey and Carolina in the 1680s by the Scottish proprietors of East New Jersey, and the ‘Darien Scheme’ – the attempted settlement of the Isthmus of Darien in Panama by the ‘Company of Scotland’ from 1696-1701. In an interdisciplinary approach combining literature and history scholarship, this thesis first posits the role of ‘historic memory’ in promotional materials around Nova Scotia as articulating a reconceptualization of Scotland as a colonial power. Scottish colonial rhetoric had to adapt to the political developments that followed from the Cromwellian Protectorate and the return of the Stuart Monarchy in 1660, and to attendant developments in credible representation in print. The use of scientific signifiers and other markers of authenticity within ‘buccaneer ethnographies’, which informed plans for colonial settlements, are shown to also serve to rehabilitate the perception of otherwise suspect accounts, highlighting the overlapping association of promotion and deception. Culminating around the promotion of the Darien Scheme in print ballads and newsprint, this thesis argues for the accelerating effect of print and print culture in seventeenth-century Scotland on the expression of colonial attitudes. By applying literary scholarship on the rise of verisimilitude and ‘realistic fictions’ in seventeenth-century print, to materials related to travel and the promotion of overseas colonial enterprise, this thesis focuses on how Scottish colonies were promoted in print, and in turn, how Scottish imperialism was imagined. ‘A Dream of Darien’: Scottish Empire and the Evolution of Early Modern Travel Writing. Cameron Alasdair Macfarlane Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD English Studies University of Durham 2018 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the author's prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 1 Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………...3 Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………….…………….4 - Exploring the Boundaries of a Definition……………………………………………………6 - Overview: The Paradigm Shift of Verisimilitude……………………………………………9 - Overview: Scottish Appetite for Empire……………………………………………………15 - Chapter Breakdown……………………………………………………………….………...22 Chapter Two: ‘New Scotland’ and Nova Scotia………………………………….………..34 - The Weight of Literature……………………………………………………………………37 - The Reorientation of Historic Memory……………………………………………………..47 - Inheriting the New World…………………………………………………………………..54 - ‘Be We So Inferior?’………………………………………………………………………..59 - Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………64 Chapter Three: ‘Far-Fetched Fowls have Fair Feathers’…………………………..……..67 - Lying by Authority and Lying to Advantage……………………………………………….67 - The ‘Approbation of Testimony’…………………………………………………………...71 - Confidence in Compilations………………………………………………………………..78 - Print Culture, Authority, and Literary Deception…………………………………………..85 - A ‘True’ Hoax………………………………………………………………………………87 - Conclusion: The Lesson of ‘Letters from a Gentleman’……………………………………91 Chapter Four: East New Jersey and Carolina…………………………………………….95 - Under New Management: The East Jersey Proprietorship…………………………………95 - ‘Merchant’ Adventurers…………………………………………………………………….99 - A Transformative Proposition…………………………………………………………..…104 - The Scots Gard’ner………………………………………………………………………..107 - A Gardener in the ‘Garden State’…………………………………………………………116 - Testimony and Cross-Examination………………………………………………………..120 - Countering Carolina……………………………………………………………………….124 - Conclusions: Pirates and the Periphery……………………………………………………129 2 Chapter Five: Travel to the South Seas…………………………………………………...133 - The Isthmus as Rubicon………………………………………………………………...…135 - Drake’s Memetic Legacy………………………………………………………………….140 - The Nature of the Buccaneers……………………………………………………………..142 - Manuscript Matters………………………………………………………………………..149 - Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………..155 Chapter Six: Lionel Wafer………………………………………………………….……..160 - The First Edition: ‘Surgeon’ and ‘Scientist’………………………………………………162 - The Manuscript……………………………………………………………………………169 - Private Testimony…………………………………………………………………………173 - Secret Report………………………………………………………………………………175 - The Second Edition………………………………………………………………………..178 - Conclusion: Literary Afterlives………………………………………………..….……….182 Chapter Seven: Boardroom Ballads–The Poetics of the Early Company of Scotland…185 - Upon the Undertaking……………………………………………………………………..187 - Trade’s Release……………………………………………………………………………199 - The Welcome News……………………………………………………………………….212 - Golden Island, or the Darien Song………………………………………………………...220 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….…...224 Chapter Eight: Travelling News and Travel Writing…………………………………...226 - The First Reports of Darien……………………………………………………………….228 - Darien’s Composite Narratives……………………………………………………………236 - Questionable Accounts……………………………………………………………………245 - Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………..254 Chapter Nine: Conclusions………………………………………………………………..258 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………….….……...266 Figures Fig 1 - ‘Arms of the Scottish Company Trading to Africa and the Indies’.............................21 Fig 2 - ‘Map of Nova Scotia’ (1624)………………………………………………………...63 Fig 3 - ‘The Scots Gard’ner’………………………………………………………………..110 Fig 4 - ‘A Map of the Isthmus of Darien & Bay of Panama’…………………………….…243 List of Abbreviations: Glasgow University Library, Spencer Collection – Sp Coll. Glasgow University Library, Special Collections General Manuscripts – MS Gen British Library, Sloane Manuscripts – Sloane MS 3 Acknowledgements Inevitably, there will be too many people to name in full who directly or indirectly led to this point. But here are a few: I’d like to thank my supervisors: Dr Gillian Skinner (Literature), Dr Adrian Green (History), and Dr Patrick Gray (Literature). To Gillian and Adrian, I don’t know if you were quite aware of what you were getting yourself into when I first knocked on your doors with a bright idea. Thank you for your patience, your feedback, and for allowing me the freedom to pursue this on my terms while guiding me towards something vaguely sensible. I’m incredibly grateful to you both. To Patrick, who was also the supervisor to my MA dissertation which led in to this project, thank you for stepping in to help in second year when help was needed. I’d like to thank the Northern Bridge Doctoral Training Partnership (AHRC award ref - 1684390) for supporting me throughout my PhD. I would not have been able to afford this undertaking without your support. I’d also like to thank the anonymous student who turned down the offer of funding from Northern Bridge at Durham to go elsewhere, and whose place I then took. It is remarkable to think how much my present trajectory in life owes to that decision. To my incredible partner, Mhairi Macfadyen, who not only completed her four-year PhD in immunology six months before this was even printed but was also immediately employed. I want to be just like you when I grow up. I’d also like to thank Donald Mackenzie of Glasgow University (retired). My interest in travel writing and national identity owes much to a lecture you gave on the Aeneid in my second year. I loved every seminar and lecture you gave, and I sorely miss having you to talk to. I’d like to thank my family, who still aren’t entirely sure what I get up to everyday but are nevertheless vaguely proud of the accomplishment. I’d like to thank Norma of ‘Toast’ coffee in Durham’s Market Hall. Without you this thesis would have felt like it took twice as long. I’d like to acknowledge St Cuthbert’s Society – and especially Cuths’ Boatclub, without whom this really would have been finished in half the time. And lastly, I’d like to thank Imposter Syndrome. You were with me every step of the way. 4 Chapter One: Introduction This thesis addresses the evolution of early modern travel writing and attendant developments in credible representation in seventeenth-century print, as expressed through case studies of Scottish colonialism, to argue for the role of print in the imaginative conception and expression of Scottish colonial rhetoric. By applying literary scholarship on the rise of verisimilitude and ‘realistic fictions’ in seventeenth-century print, to materials related to travel and the promotion of overseas colonial
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