SAFERWORLD september 2014 PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES briefing A girl reconnects with friends who were also displaced by conflict in the Philippines. In March 2014, a peace deal was signed after 17 years of violence-interrupted talks during which tens of thousands were killed and over 3.5 million people were displaced. © jason gutierrez/irin/cerf SAFERWORLD PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES

SAFERWORLD PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES FROM THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS TO THE POST-2015 DEVELOPMENT AGENDA: SABUILDINGFERWORLD A CONSENSUS FOR PEACE PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES

The question of how issues related to peace, governance and justice WHAT DO WE MEAN BY PEACE? fit into the post-2015 development framework – indeed whether they Saferworld’s priority is people – we should be included at all – was the longest-debated and most divisive believe that everyone should be able issue during the debates of the Open Working Group on the Sustainable to lead peaceful, fulfilling lives, free Development Goals. The final outcome document included a goal to from violent conflict and insecurity. “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, The peace we seek to promote provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and through the post-2015 development inclusive institutions at all levels”. This represents a significant step framework is focused on people in countries currently experiencing or forward. Yet there remains opposition from some Member States to emerging from violent conflict. including these issues in the new development framework. However, this is only part of our vision: the mere absence of violence – This briefing paper presents a summary of most vocally opposed, it examines key referred to as “negative peace” – can the state of play regarding peace and the concerns that have been put forward and often mask latent instability. As such, post-2015 development agenda. While responds to the arguments made against we believe that all countries must there is a growing acknowledgement the inclusion of peace. To help reconcile reduce the risks of violent conflict that peace should be one of the global these perspectives, the paper proposes a through focusing on a range of issues priorities addressed within the new number of principles on which consensus such as governance, justice and equal development framework, some United could be built. It concludes with a series access to economic opportunities, in Nations (UN) Member States still have of practical suggestions for securing order to build a positive peace that substantive concerns about its inclusion. inclusive agreement on a framework is sustainable. Furthermore, we are This paper reviews the political debate: that is effective in promoting peace. also conscious that people across the first recapping the evidence on why This is of paramount importance as the world face violent insecurity – this can peace should be included and exploring participation of the widest possible range be different to violent conflict but is how it can most effectively be integrated of Member States – including key actors equally detrimental to both individuals into the post-2015 framework. Building from the Global South – in framing the and societies. A holistic approach to on a year-long process of research new development agenda is essential if building sustainable peace should and dialogue with a range of Member the selected goals and targets are to be aim to address all types of conflict, States, including those who have been legitimate and effective. violence and insecurity. KEY 2 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace PROCESSES 2012 20133 | saferworld briefing Building2014 a consensus for peace 2015

United Rio+20 UN Conference Opening of the UNPGA Thematic Opening of the 69th Report of the UNSG, Negotiations on Opening of the Nations on Sustainable 68th UNGA, Debates & High- UNGA, September 2014 (date tbc) the Post-2015 70th UNGA, Development, September 2013 Level Events, The theme will be The report will cover Development September 2015 May–June 2012 Member states decided February–June 2014 “Delivering on and “vision, principles, Agenda, (date tbc, A critical moment Agreement by to bring together the To assist with Implementing a goals and targets expected to start from when the post-2015 Member States to Rio+20 SDGs process elaboration of Transformative Post- of the post-2015 January and last until development agenda develop a set of SDGs with post-2015, calling priority areas for 2015 Development development September 2015) is likely be formally through an “inclusive for “a single framework the post-2015 Agenda”. There will also agenda”. It is adopted – it might and transparent and set of goals – development be a UNPGA High Level expected to draw on include an extra- intergovernmental universal in nature agenda. Stocktaking Event on the the OWG on SDGs ordinary session of process open to all and applicable to all Post-2015 Development and the work of the the High Level Political stakeholders”. countries.” Agenda. It is expected ICESDF. Forum on Sustainable that the exact modalities Development at head for negotiations and of government level. Global Thematic Focused on 11 different themes status of the OWG Consultations, including ‘Conflict, Violence and Outcome Document will May 2012–June 2013 Disaster’, which affirmed peace as an be further clarified by THE STATE OF PLAY enabler and an end in itself. this stage. un Open OWG on SDGs, March 2013–July 2014 Working Group Tasked with proposing goals and targets for consideration by the on Sustainable UN General Assembly, the OWG was comprised of 70 member The inclusion of a goal on peace, justice one of the most keenly contested of the Development states sharing 30 seats. The Outcome Document included 17 goals and governance in the Outcome Document OWG discussions. Goals and 169 targets. of Open Working Group (OWG) on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Peace as a ‘Goal’ or as ‘Targets’ Finance , , agreed in July 2014 has been hailed as a During the OWG deliberations Member Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing Third Conference on Financing for Development March 2013–August 2014 July 2015 significant step towards changing the lives States typically articulated one of the Comprised of 30 experts nominated by different regional groupings, the committee A critical moment for the post-2015 development of some 1.5 billion people currently living following four positions: was tasked with assessing financing needs, existing financial instruments and agenda – high-level meeting will discuss array in countries experiencing high levels of frameworks, with a view to preparing a report proposing options on an effective of issues including progress made in the 1. Rejection of any reference to peace in sustainable development financing strategy to facilitate the mobilization of implementation of the Monterrey Consensus violence. However, from a close analysis of the goals and targets; resources for sustainable development. and the inter-relationship of all sources of the OWG discussions it is clear that there development finance. 2. Opposition to a standalone peace goal, is still considerable work to do to ensure but support for some peace-related that peace features in the new post-2015 targets under other goals; Climate UN Climate Summit, COP 20 of the development framework. COP 21 of the UN September 2014 UN Framework Framework Convention 3. Support for at least one goal with a Convention on The interdependence between peace, Hosted by the UNSG, on Climate Change, focus on peace; or at head of government Climate Change, December 2015 security and development has long been December 2014 4. Support for two goals, one on peace level – intended to raise A critical moment to decide a key part of the discussions on the post- ambition for COP 21 in on global climate policy and one on governance. 2015 development agenda. The High- Paris in December 2015. from 2020 onwards. Level Panel (HLP) report on the post-2015 The vast majority of Member States, development agenda published in multilateral and regional groupings Other G20 Summit, World G20 Summit, AU Summit, May 2013, for example, described the including the African Union (AU), the November 2014 Economic (tbc) (tbc) promotion of peace as one of its “five big, Least Development Countries, the G7+, Hosted by Australia. Forum, Hosted by Will include January transformative shifts” on the basis that the EU, as well as the likes of , Turkey, could focus on 2015 include focus on post-2015 such issues comprise the “core elements India and Brazil positioned themselves post-2015 and development of wellbeing, not optional extras.”1 in categories 2, 3 and 4. The variation development In addition, the Outcome Document between Member States’ positions were cooperation. for the Special Event on the Millennium largely attributable to concerns about Development Goals (MDGs) held in the potential effects of including peace INPUTS UN System Task Team, Dili Consensus, March 2013 Common African September 2013, which all Member States within the SDGs, which are explored in Members of the South African contingent of the June 2012 G7+ and Pacific Island countries Position on the United Nations Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) signed up to, stated that the new develop- greater depth later in this briefing. Key recommendations: called for the new agenda to Post-2015 patrol the area near the Kalma Internally Development Agenda, ment framework should “promote peace However, three key concerns and A more holistic approach promote peace, stability and the Displaced Persons (IDP) Camp. February 2014 including: (1) inclusive rule of law. © un photo/stuart price and security, democratic governance, the arguments are worth highlighting, as social development; Sets out vision of 54 rule of law, gender equality and human they are very likely to recur once (2) inclusive economic UNSG’s High-Level Panel, African Member States May 2013 rights for all”.2 negotiations on the post-2015 frame- development; on how to end poverty (3) environmental Proposed five shifts: (1) leave in all its forms and work commence. These are: The statements and positions of a wide- sustainability; and no-one behind; (2) sustainable achieve an integrated, 1. Including peace could lead to the (4) peace and security. development; (3) jobs and prosperous, stable and range of UN Member States have also inclusive growth; (4) build peace peaceful . highlighted the importance of peace ‘securitisation’ of the development and effective institutions; and agenda; (5) a new global partnership. EC Communique: for sustainable development. Speaking A Decent Life for All, at the opening of the 68th UN General 2. Peace falls outside the Rio+20 agenda, Sustainable Development February 2014 Solutions Network, June 2013 Assembly (UNGA), for example, China’s which some see as defining the EU common position Ten priority areas that sustainable on the post-2015 Foreign Minister Wang Yi colourfully parameters of the post-2015 discussions; development must address development agenda remarked, “in advancing the develop- and including the need to transform proposed 17 priority ment agenda, we must cherish peace global governance. areas, emphasising 3. Development leads to peace, not that the new framework 3 as we do our eyes”. Most notably, the vice-versa. UN Global Compact, June 2013 should promote good Common African Position launched in Proposed goals on four areas: governance, democracy (1) poverty; (2) health and and the rule of law February 2014 – representing the views education; (3) resources; and (4) and address peaceful of 54 African Member States – included enabling environment including societies and freedom KEY a pillar on peace and security.4 However, governance, peace and stability. from violence. AU African Union OWG Open Working Group despite the growing political and expert Listening to 1 Million Voices, COP Conference of Parties SDGs Sustainable Development Goals consensus, the debate over whether and September 2013 EC European Commission UNGA UN General Assembly how to include peace in the SDGs was Report examined what over one million people from across the ICESDF Intergovernmental Committee of Experts UNPGA UN President of the General Assembly globe want to address in the post- on Sustainable Development Financing UNSG UN Secretary General 2015 development agenda. 4 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 5 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

Goal 16: promote peaceful Targets under Goal 16 and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide 16.1 significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates access to justice for all and everywhere build effective, accountable and 16.2 end abuse, exploitation, trafficking inclusive institutions at all levels and all forms of violence and torture Open Working Group outcome document, July 2014 against children 16.3 promote the rule of law at the national and international levels, and ensure equal access to justice for all WHY SHOULD PEACE 16.4 by 2030 significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen WHAT NEXT? recovery and return of stolen assets, and BE INCLUDED? combat all forms of organized crime 16.5 substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all its forms It is clear that there is still substantial are simply too vague to be actionable as 16.6 develop effective, accountable and currently formulated (see, for example, work to be done to design a goal that will transparent institutions at all levels FOR THE FIRST TIME SINCE effectively promote peaceful and inclusive target 16.8), while some targets could 16.7 ensure responsive, inclusive, societies, while also commanding genuine even lend themselves to coercive WORLD WAR II, MORE participatory and representative CURRENT LEVELS OF THAN 50 MILLION PEOPLE – RESPONDING TO VIOLENCE political buy-in from the largest possible approaches to security such as target 16.a, decision-making at all levels COST US$ 9.46 TRLLION IN number of Member States. Several issues which commits to “building capacities at VIOLENCE MUST BE REDUCED MORE THAN HALF OF THEM 8 16.8 broaden and strengthen the 2012 with a critical bearing on whether these two all levels… for preventing violence and CHILDREN – ARE CURRENTLY participation of developing countries in 7 objectives can be reconciled are outlined combating terrorism and crime”. the institutions of global governance FORCIBLY DISPLACED below: 16.9 by 2030 provide legal identity for 2. Global governance and external all including birth registration 1. Fewer targets, stronger language stresses 16.10 ensure public access to One of the recurring themes throughout Another critical aspect of the OWG information and protect fundamental the OWG discussions was the need to debate on the inclusion of peace relates freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements “AN ENVIRONMENT OF BY 2030, 75% OF PEOPLE reduce the number of targets in the goal to what developed countries are STABILITY AND PEACE IS on peace, justice and governance. 16.a strengthen relevant national IN EXTREME POVERTY WILL prepared to do to promote peace and ERADICATING POVERTY IS ESSENTIAL FOR BE LIVING IN COUNTRIES AT foster good governance. Many developing institutions, including through IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT PEACE international cooperation, for building DEVELOPMENT” RISK FROM HIGH LEVELS OF Number of peace & governance targets countries articulated the position that 10 capacities at all levels, in particular in 9 BRAZIL’S STATEMENT AT THE 8TH OWG MEETING VIOLENCE reform of global governance institutions developing countries, for preventing OWG 10 25 is a critical component of any goal on violence and combating terrorism and OWG 11 11 peace, justice and governance on the crime OWG 12 23 basis that key global institutions (e.g. 16.b promote and enforce non- Outcome Document 12 the UN Security Council [UNSC] and the discriminatory laws and policies for International Monetary Fund), which sustainable development AS OF AUGUST 2014, “… PEACE AND SECURITY While the number of targets did make decisions that have a profound 3.2 MILION PEOPLE HAVE ARE ESSENTIAL FOR THE decrease, the final overall total of 17 impact on peace and governance around PEACE IS A PRIORITY FOR VOTED IN THE MY WORLD 3. Modalities for negotiations ACHIEVEMENT OF THE goals and 169 targets for the Outcome the world, are dominated by a select PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENTS SURVEY PLACING CONTINENT’S DEVELOPMENT Document (compared with 8 MDGs and unrepresentative group of countries. There are still several unresolved questions AROUND THE WORLD ‘PROTECTION AGAINST and 21 targets) is likely to come under While target 16.8 alludes to the need about modalities of the post-2015 ASPIRATIONS” CRIME AND VIOLENCE’ 12 renewed pressure as negotiators seek for reform of institutions of global negotiations, including: 6TH OUT OF 16 PRIORITIES11 THE COMMON AFRICAN POSITON to design a framework that is both governance, this will be a key area of 1. What is the status of the OWG communicable and actionable. Given debate once negotiations on the post- Outcome Document? Will this serve that the inclusion of a goal on peace, 2015 development agenda start. Another as the ‘zero draft’ for the post-2015 justice and governance was hotly unresolved question is how far developed negotiations? A COUNTRY THAT debated, targets under this goal could countries are prepared to go in addressing 2. How will the new development VIOLENT CONFLICT AND EXPERIENCED MAJOR 7 COUNTRIES ARE UNLIKELY be especially vulnerable. transnational conflict factors, such as illicit agenda be adopted? Will it have to be VIOLENCE BETWEEN 1981 TO MEET A SINGLE MDG BY Another concern that applies across financial flows and the arms trade.5 While INSECURITY HAVE unanimously agreed? AND 2005 HAS A POVERTY 2015 – ALL OF THESE HAVE the OWG Outcome Document is that many many of these countries have pushed for PREVENTED ACHIEVEMENT 3. Will there be a place for civil society RATE 21% HIGHER THAN A BEEN AFFECTED BY HIGH of the targets are focused on capacities the inclusion of such issues in the OWG OF THE MDGs 14 within the negotiations? COUNTRY WHICH SAW NO LEVELS OF VIOLENCE and processes rather than on actual discussions, it is uncertain whether there 13 outcomes. During OWG discussions, many will be appetite to tackle them when It is expected that many of these issues VIOLENCE developing countries favoured a focus on doing so may conflict with other national will be addressed during the 69th UNGA, support to institutional capacities. While interests. but their resolution will have obvious and an emphasis on capacities and processes potentially far-reaching implications for will be a necessary component of the Illicit financial flows pour out of the post-2015 negotiations. For example, post-2015 development agenda, there developing country economies at a if the OWG Outcome Document does RIOTS IN AUGUST is a risk that such a focus obscures what staggering rate. Estimated at roughly serve as the zero draft it poses the NO COUNTRY IS OVER HALF A MILLION PEOPLE it is that these capacities and processes $1 trillion per year, they dwarf Official question of whether the goals and targets 15 2011 COST AN ESTIMATED INVULNERABLE TO VIOLENCE DIE VIOLENTLY EVERY YEAR 16 are intended to achieve, and also that Development Assistance and Foreign should be left as they are or if there £300 MILLION such goals are disconnected from the Direct Investment.6 should be further revisions – which could lives of citizens across the globe, thereby result in changes to the goal on peace, diminishing accountability. Other targets justice and governance. 6 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 7 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

Indicator option 3

Indicator option 2

Indicator option 1 perceptions

‘OBJECTIVE’

HOW COULD PEACE target SITUATION

Indicator option 1 Indicator option 1 CAPACITIES BE INCLUDED? Indicator option 2 Indicator option 2 Indicator option 3 Indicator option 3

If the ‘Why peace?’ arguments hold, 4. Peace should focus on drivers What should targets on peace None of these indicators will by itself the next question is how peace can be of conflict that lead to violence focus on? present a full, reliable picture but, when articulated as a coherent set of global No single factor will inevitably lead Based on these insights, most actors combined, each indicator type can policy priorities – in goal, target and to violence in every context; however, participating in the debate on these validate the other – helping to avoid indicator format. This is challenging there are a number of drivers of conflict issues – whether in the UN system, across misleading results and perverse incentives. because all incidences of violent conflict that tend to lead to violence in context global civil society, between regional and It is crucially important that and insecurity are complex and need to after context. These include a number global groupings of Member States and indicators in the post-2015 development be addressed in a context-specific way. of governance-related issues, including among experts – have recognised the framework are not reduced to one or However, a number of insights have under- vulnerability to insecurity, grievances following as core elements of the post- two ‘catch-all’ proxies that are supposed pinned progress in this debate: related to injustice, corruption, competi- 2015 peace agenda: to show progress in addressing violent conflict and insecurity. tion for resources, poor mechanisms for n Working to , and ensure 1. Peace is about more than the reduce violence An example can help to clarify this: mediating between competing interests, the public feels safe, absence of violence denial of a say in political processes and to measure progress in the thematic area n Ensuring fair access to justice, Sustainable and ‘positive’ peace depends inequalities between social groups. Such of justice, increases in the capacity of the both on ending violence and on making issues will need to be addressed across n Ensuring access to livelihoods, resources judicial system (such as the number of progress in addressing the drivers of the new development framework, not and services between different social judges per violent death) are a step in conflict. The absence of violence can just under a goal on peace, justice and groups, the right direction. As improvements in justice take time to be achieved in mask latent instability – often as a result governance. n Enabling voice and participation in practice, help show of unaccountable governance, corruption, decision making, and constructive capacity indicators impunity and injustice – which can 5. Peace must be broadly owned at resolution of grievances, and give credit for the level of progress result in political crises, humanitarian that is being made. But the effects of this country and local level n Addressing lower levels of corruption emergencies, costly interventions and capacity in terms of improved judicial Promoting sustainable peace is not , and bribery performance will not be clear unless the derailment of development gains. about what the international community n Significantly reducingexternal stresses clarified by improvement in an does to individual countries, but what ‘objective’ 2. Peace should focus on (including flows of arms, drugs, conflict (such as a criminal countries do for themselves and how the situation indicator preventative approaches to conflict commodities and illicit finance). justice score that includes measures of international community can best support effectiveness, timeliness, impartiality, and violence them. Implementation of the peace Variations on these elements of the peace due process and the rights of the accused A preventative developmental approach agenda thus requires broad ownership agenda have been consistently included or rights violations). However, such would complement the more reactive by all actors involved at the country level. in almost all key contributions to the statistics are often politicised and can be and security-focused institutions in the Member States should develop their own post-2015 debate thus far. Vulnerability to violence is a universal issue: manipulated. Therefore, a perceptions- multilateral architecture (such as the baselines and benchmarks for indicators. 7. Focus on outcomes London suffers rioting and looting in August 2011. UNSC) and potentially ease the financial © demotix How should indicators for targets based indicator showing how the public Targets on peace, justice and governance burden, as military expenditure on on peace be designed? actually feels about their judicial system 6. Peace must be universal issues should be framed as outcomes, not responding to outbreaks of conflict No single indicator can in every context can validate trends in the indicators While some countries have been seriously processes or capacities, to ensure clarity would be reduced. tell a full, fair and reliable story about on capacity and the objective situation – affected by armed conflict, people every- on their purpose and accountability. progress. Peace, justice and governance illustrating whether the ultimate where face insecurity in their lives. Any While state capacity often plays a critical 3. Peace should not lead to coercive targets will need to monitored using a outcome is actually being attained. goal on peace, justice and governance role in creating peaceful societies, approaches to security basket of indicators that combine: should look beyond what some Member individual targets on this specific issue Targets that promote peaceful and States refer to as “special situations” risk being overly prescriptive and under- n Capacity – is capacity developing to inclusive societies should emphasise and ensure that freedom from fear is mining the framework’s universality and address the key issue? people-centered outcomes such as promoted in all countries. sensitivity to differences between country n ‘Objective’ Situation – do statistical “people from all social groups feel safe contexts. measures of key outcome indicators and have confidence in security provision” show that improvements are being rather than simply focusing on strength- achieved? ening the capacities of security forces, n – do people feel that such as the police, so as to mitigate the Public Perception the situation is improving? risk of promoting coercive approaches to security. 8 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 9 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

“We also reaffirm the importance of freedom, peace and security, respect for all human rights, including the right to development and the right to an adequate standard of living, including the right RESPONDING TO to food, the rule of law, gender equality, women’s empowerment and the overall commitment to just and democratic societies for development.” CONCERNS ABOUT PEACE The Future We Want, 201222

Including peace could put the broader development The concerns about ‘securitisation’ are well founded. However, “Inserting security issues in the Concern 1 response 1 “This is not about the discussion about the post-2015 framework at risk of becoming securitised – i.e. aid rather than rejecting the inclusion of peace, constructive securitization of development. development agenda … runs the risk The inclusion of being used to advance the national security agendas There is plenty of engagement by Member States that are apprehensive about the We maintain that peace and of jeopardizing a process that can be peace will lead to of particular states rather than to promote people’s scope to frame peace- peace agenda could help to ensure that this risk is mitigated. This stability are critical for the extremely beneficial to development.” ‘securitisation’ of development. related goals and could be achieved by careful framing of peace-related targets, in reduction of poverty, the Brazil and Nicaragua at OWG 817 the development targets to mitigate particular, ensuring that they focus on people’s security – while least developed countries and agenda any such risk avoiding issues of national security and international peace and sustainable development.” security. South Africa at OWG1023

Including peace might give scope for external The post-2015 development framework is about how individual “The discussion of relevant issues Concern 2 response 2 “We recognise that national should not involve internal affairs... interference on issues which are the responsibility countries can help themselves – rather than what the ownership is essential if we In the context of the post-2015 A goal on peace could of the state. Some have even cautioned that Implementation international community can impose. Implementation of all are to tackle these challenges development agenda, the discussion lead to the violation incorporating peace in the framework will open the of the post-2015 goals and targets will take place at country and local level, effectively. We need to take into of such issues should be carried out of countries’ door to more militaristic interventions. framework will occur through the collective actions of domestic leaders, officials, civil account different contexts and in terms of how to create an enabling sovereignty at country and local society and the wider public. capacities.” environment for peace and development level, so will not As it is a non-binding commitment, nothing in the post-2015 EU at OW824 for developing countries at international development framework will provide any legal basis for military legitimise external “It should be clear that States levels and avoid dwelling too much upon intervention. intervention retain their sovereign prerogatives internal mechanisms.” to ensure peace and stability China’s statement at the PGA’s Thematic Debate 18 within their borders.” on “Ensuring Peaceful and Stable Societies” UK, Netherlands and Australia at OWG825

Peace-related targets, on issues like good governance Targets for the reduction of violence or increased safety, for “Can we be assured… that this would Concern 3 response 3 “The post-2015 framework is not translate into new conditionalities and human rights, could enable donors to impose example, imply an extension of aid conditionality no more than not a legally-binding treaty for the flow of international aid and the Peace-related conditionalities on aid recipients, which proponents of Aid conditionalities targets for issues like maternal health or malaria reduction. and it should not compete with, diversion of funds away from poverty targets could this view regard as interference and an abuse of aid. are a consequence As was the case with the MDGs, the post-2015 development replicate, or seek to re-negotiate eradication and human development to translate into new of the relationship framework will be a non-binding commitment by all the world’s existing legally binding security-related activities?” aid conditionalities between individual countries to work together to meet development challenges, not documents, but it should be India’s statement at the PGA’s Thematic Debate a list of conditions for countries to meet before aid is delivered. aligned with, and be underpinned 19 donors and aid on “Ensuring Stable and Peaceful Societies” recipients Looking back at the experience of the MDGs, it is evident that by, those standards.” conditionalities were a consequence of the relationship between UK, Netherlands and Australia at OWG626 individual donors and aid recipients – rather than the MDGs themselves. The need to ensure that relations between donor and recipient countries reflect genuine partnership could be addressed under a goal on means of implementation.

The Rio+20 outcome document is based on three The peace agenda should not be seen to displace or weaken the “Issues of peace and security should Concern 4 response 4 “… we see the need to reaffirm not be at the core of this debate, so as pillars: economic development, social development focus on sustainable development. As the Rio Declaration of 1992 that Peace and Security, Human not to deviate our focus from dealing Peace is not included and environmental protection. It does not include Promoting states in Principle 25: “Peace, development and environmental Rights and Development remain with the essential social, economic and in the Rio+20 a specific pillar or goal on peace, security, justice or peaceful societies protection are interdependent and indivisible.” And while there the three pillars of the UN System environmental challenges of sustainable agenda, which sets governance, so there is no mandate to include such will strengthen is consensus that the post-2015 agenda should be framed by the and that these pillars remain inter- development.” the parameters for issues with the SDGs.21 and build on the three pillars of Rio+20, it was not intended that these should be linked. In addressing the existing Brazil and Nicaragua at OWG 820 post-2015 Rio+20 agenda used to delimit the post-2015 development framework when the global challenges it is important for sustainable Rio+20 outcomes were agreed in 2012. The new framework will that we adopt a holistic approach development reflect a broader conception of sustainable development that that takes into account these is informed by the outcome document from the OWG on SDGs, inter-linkages among the three as well as a range of other inputs including the UN Task Team components of the UN.” Report, the High-Level Panel Report, the UN Global Compact South Africa at OWG1127 Report and the My World Survey. Finally, it should be reaffirmed that the Rio+20 agenda will be impossible to achieve without reducing violent conflict and insecurity. 10 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 11 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

“We will spare no effort to promote democracy “We must tackle economic and social inequalities and exclusion; and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect strengthen good and inclusive governance; fight against all for all internationally recognized human rights forms of discrimination and forge unity in diversity through and fundamental freedoms, including the right democratic practices and mechanisms at the local, national to development.” and continental levels.” UN Millennium Declaration, 200033 Common African Position on the Post-2015 Development Agenda, 201435

Peace and security are already being addressed by Including peace in the post-2015 development framework is “We do not disagree with those “… the role of addressing these series Concern 5 response 5 of issues has been addressed in their other more appropriate UN organs, so the post-2015 not about reconfiguring existing institutional responsibilities; who believe that the Security appropriate context, which is through Peace issues are development framework does not need to focus on Including peace it is about mainstreaming a preventative approach within Council or Peacebuilding the Security Council, Peace Building already dealt with by such issues. Linked to this is an apprehension that within post-2015 development – addressing a significant gap in current Commission have important roles Commission and other relevant United the existing peace the inclusion of peace could lead to the mandates of will help reduce approaches. A preventative approach could ease the burden in maintaining peace and stability. Nations’ bodies handling peace and and security various UN organs being reconfigured – opening the violence and on other parts of the UN system by reducing the frequency of But, they are tools contributing to security.” architecture door for UNSC interference on development issues. insecurity through conflicts, helping to reduce the costs of peacekeeping and crisis a peace goal – they are a means, China, Indonesia and Kazakhstan at OWG 828 This is a particular concern as many perceive the UNSC a preventative response, and lessening controversy regarding these issues not the end. And, they cannot as unrepresentative and in urgent need of reform. approach that between Member States. by themselves achieve this goal sustainably. Building institutions, addresses root developing a peaceful and stable causes of conflict society requires long-term development, commitment and investment, well beyond the scope of these bodies.” Timor-Leste at OWG1038

It is accepted that peace, security and development Sustainable development should be at the core of the new “… conflicts start from poverty and Concern 6 response 6 “… addressing conflict prevention, inequalities.” are inter-connected, but this is essentially a one- development framework. However, there is a two-way post conflict peacebuilding, and China, Indonesia and Kazakhstan at OWG 829 Development leads to way relationship. Underdevelopment, poverty and Peace is essential relationship between development and peace – a one-direction promotion of durable peace, rule peace, not vice-versa inequality are key drivers of conflict, so prioritising for sustainable approach that seeks to achieve either peace or development of law and governance is critical “The grievances that often lead to these issues in the post-2015 development framework development, and in insolation will achieve neither sustainable development nor for the achievement of sustainable conflict … are driven largely by a sense will contribute to peace. peaceful and inclusive societies. development.” of deprivation linked to absence of vice-versa Although it is evident that economic development can take at OWG839 development.” place in insecure, corrupt or non-inclusive societies, at the same India, and Sri Lanka at OWG 830 “Only by recognizing the time, such progress is rarely sustained for long periods. Moreover, interconnectedness of peace “… the main cause of conflict and development programmes that ignore internal conflict dynamics and security, human rights and instability in many societies across may, in fact, exacerbate them. When one considers the pillars development will we be able to the world is poverty.” of sustainable development – including social development and achieve sustainable development.” Southern African countries at OWG 1131 environmental protection, as well as economic development – EU’s statement at the PGA’s Thematic Debate there is overwhelming evidence that it is much harder to achieve on “Human Security and the Post-2015 development in contexts seriously affected by violence. The Development Agenda”40 post-2015 development framework should be based on the best evidence of what will lead to sustainable development.

The post-2015 development agenda must be Many targets will be more applicable to certain Member States “Conflict is case-specific and does Concern 7 response 7 “All research and development not invite sweeping generalizations universally applicable, but a peace goal and targets than to others. For example, the number of maternal deaths in experience shows that peace or ‘one-size-fits-all’ formulae.” A goal on peace will apply only to a particular sub-set of countries that All Member States Sweden in 2013 was 4 per 100,000 versus Sierra Leone’s 1,100 per and stability in a society … are Brazil and Nicaragua at OWG 832 only be relevant suffer from armed conflict.34 have progress to 100,000.36 The fact that some Member States have more progress at the very heart of successful and applicable to a A variant on this argument is that the conditions make on peace to make on certain issues than others does not invalidate the development experiences.” minority of countries that underpin conflict are context-specific, and are issue as a universal aspiration. Timor-Leste and São Tomé and Príncipe not amenable to the universal approaches of the Outbreaks of violence, riots and upheavals around the world at OWG 1041 post-2015 development framework. in recent years have highlighted that it is not only so-called “… no country around the world is “conflict-affected and fragile states” that suffer from violence free from violence – certainly not and insecurity. Indeed, the reality is that one in four of the my own country – and all countries world’s people – many of them living in stable middle-income therefore have an interest in countries – live in areas affected by political and criminal promoting freedom from violence 37 violence. So, all Member States need to make progress on and peaceful societies.” peace. The concern that targets on peace issues may be overly Timor-Leste and São Tomé and Príncipe at prescriptive can be mitigated: firstly, by ensuring that they focus OWG 1042 on genuinely universal key issues; secondly, by designing targets so that they are outcome-orientated – enabling Member States to decide how best to make progress. 12 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 13 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

“Sustainable development in least developed countries Which of these is closely linked to peace and security... Progress in “We support the perspective, articulated most prominently are most achieving internationally agreed development goals, by our g7+ countries, that the MDGs cannot be achieved in important for including the Millennium Development Goals, and small, landlocked or conflict affected states in the absence of you and your towards sustained, inclusive and equitable economic peace, stability and the rule of law. We affirm the need for our family? growth and sustainable development has been slowest development efforts to be underpinned by universal principles 3,795,307 VOTES in least developed countries affected by conflicts.” of respect for human rights, fairness, justice and peace.” AS OF 19 AUGUST Istanbul Plan of Action for Least Developed Countries, 201148 Dili Consensus, 2013, 201149 http://data.myworld2015.org/

In order genuinely to address conflict and insecurity, An open dialogue about issues such as interventionism, “The suggested targets reflect, in our Concern 8 response 8 view, a selective approach, especially the post-2015 development framework will need military expenditure, nuclear arms and sanctions is that it ignored major concerns of security The framing of to consider issues such as military interventionism, Development important – as is ensuring that global institutions are fit A good education and stability, in our region where we the peace agenda nuclear disarmament, military expenditure, and can contribute for purpose. Nevertheless, some aspects of the broader belong, particularly foreign occupation, is selective and unilaterally-imposed sanctions, as well as institutional to resolving peace agenda are clearly within the mandate of institutions terrorism, the arms race and the limiting issues such as global governance reform. ‘hard security’ that focus on ‘hard security’ or international peace and proliferation of nuclear weapons.” issues through security; and to discuss them within the context of the post- at OWG 1043 a preventative 2015 development framework could duplicate the work Better healthcare of other bodies and be so polarising that it undermines “... the overarching and global issues approach efforts to build consensus around a transformative agenda. of disarmament, particularly nuclear Notwithstanding these points, linkages do exist. The weapons and other weapons of mass- post-2015 framework should contribute to resolving these destruction should be addressed.” An honest and harder security issues through endorsing and promoting responsive government Nigeria at OWG 1044 an upstream preventative approach to violent conflict and insecurity.

Better job opportunities Targets related to peace, security, justice or It is true that peace is not a straightforward phenomenon “… not convinced that peace and Concern 9 response 9 governance can be targeted and governance cannot be reliably measured – either to measure, and in many cases data is limited. However, a measured in ways that are consensual.” Peace targets cannot due to the lack of appropriate datasets and/or state Peace can be surprising amount of data is available on relevant issues Brazil at OWG 845 be measured capacity to measure such targets – so they should not measured – though already, and work is being done to further develop credible Affordable and feature in the post-2015 development framework. investment will targets and indicators, all of which demonstrate what nutritious food “… what are international agreed Furthermore, it is not possible to measure peace- is possible.50 For example, African statisticians from 24 methodologies and frameworks to begin, be required to related targets in a way that reflects and respects the National Statistic Offices recently came together under to measure, to monitor and to evaluate strengthen data- particular political, economic and social trajectories of the auspices of the AU and UN Development Programme Protection against them [peace-related targets] with?” collecting capacities crime and violence different countries. to share and discuss innovative, nationally owned efforts Iran at OWG 1046 to measure peace-related targets.51 However, sustained investment in capacities to collect data, especially those Access to clean water in the Global South, will be critical if progress on peace- and sanitation related targets is to be measured.

Equality between men and women Peace-related targets encourage ‘name and shame’ The MDGs were not about ‘naming and shaming’. They “… the lenses of security can Concern 10 response 10 indirectly contribute to promoting the approaches, which will make certain countries look sought to focus attention on the developmental challenges discriminatory idea that violence and The inclusion of as though they are failing to make progress on the Post-2015 targets are countries were facing and how to address them – with the Support for people who can’t work instability only exist in poor or less peace-related SDGs. Some of these countries are tackling domestic about highlighting support of the international community where necessary. insecurity and violence but resist peace-related developed regions.” targets will the challenges that The post-2015 development framework is intended to play Freedom from Brazil and Nicaragua at OWG 1047 stigmatise certain targets such as violence reduction as they don’t countries face and a similar role, galvanising and directing attention to key discrimination and persecution countries wish for international focus on issues that they find how they can be development challenges – while recognising that it should challenging domestically. addressed apply to all Member States and not just to developing countries. Reliable energy at home Although peace-related targets could highlight domestic issues that some governments would prefer hidden Better transport (e.g. high rates of violence), building more peaceful and roads and inclusive societies is a priority for citizens across the Protecting forests, world – and thus should not be rejected by Member States rivers and oceans worried about their international reputations. Indeed, many conflict-affected states are calling for a focus on Political freedoms peace-related issues, even though such an emphasis could highlight negative aspects of their development, arguing Phone and internet that they cannot make development progress without access support on peace issues. Action taken on climate change 14 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace 15 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace

BUILDING CONSENSUS HOW TO GET FOR PEACE TO PEACE

UN Member States agree that poverty Using this set of principles as a guiding 1. Address the key drivers of conflict reduction must be at the centre of a PRINCIPLES narrative, there are several measures and not only their symptoms universal post-2015 framework, and that that could be taken by different groups of 2. Focus on outcomes for people and There are substantive concerns about it should promote sustainable develop- Member States in order to secure agree- will not lead to securitisation of the the potential effects of including peace ment. While there is growing consensus ment on a framework that is effective in development agenda that violent conflict and insecurity in the post-2015 development agenda. promoting peace. 3. Do not prescribe the means to achieve obstruct such efforts, differences remain To mitigate some of these concerns, all EMPHASISE THE DEMAND FOR THE the agreed targets on whether and how to promote peace Member States could articulate a set of INCLUSION OF PEACE: Member States through the post-2015 framework. principles that clearly set out what a goal 4. Are truly universal and not context belonging to positions 3 and 4 should Although there is some overlap on peace is – and is not – about. These specific demonstrate that the vast majority of between them, Member States have could affirm that: 5. Are based on widely accepted evidence countries support the inclusion of peace, typically articulated one of the following n Sustainable development in all justice and governance issues at a goal- 6. Are measurable through a basket of four positions: countries is at risk from violent conflict level within the post-2015 development indicators and insecurity, and a new development POSITION 1: Reject any reference to peace agenda – as well as the depth of public framework can help to reduce these DEMONSTRATE THE MEASURABILITY in the goals and targets, arguing it has support. risks through a holistic approach; OF PRIORITY TARGETS: Member States no place in a development framework. n While they can contribute to global AGREE ON A LIMITED NUMBER OF PRIORITY articulating positions 3 and 4 should POSITION 2: Oppose a goal but support peace, efforts to promote peaceful TARGETS: Member States articulating demonstrate the measurability of their the inclusion of targets explicitly societies and people’s security within positions 3 and 4 must agree on a limited priority targets, commit to supporting focused on peace in other goal areas countries are distinct from the formal number of priority targets to fall under a the development of capacity to measure alongside targets that address the mandate and powers of the UNSC; goal on peace that will be most effective them at national level in developing socio-economic causes of violent in promoting peaceful societies. While countries and should also highlight the n Addressing peace in the post-2015 conflict and insecurity. acknowledging that there is significant kind of actions they would take in their framework will have no impact on POSITION 3: Support at least one goal, room for improvement, Member States own countries to address these issues. state sovereignty and will draw on which focuses on issues of peace and should use the targets from goal 16 of existing international norms and ADDRESS SYSTEMIC ISSUES: All states governance together as a related set the OWG Outcome Document to form agreements; must collectively examine systemic issues – of issues. the basis of this discussion. n The implementation of the post-2015 including external stresses and global POSITION 4: Support two goals, one on development agenda will be guided BUILD ON TARGETS WHERE THERE IS governance. This should involve agree- peace and one on governance, pointing by the principle of inclusive country CONSENSUS: Based on statements during ment on what can be addressed directly to their priority for development ownership; People all around the world see peace as essential the OWG, it is clear that there are targets by the framework through individual and the array of issues that must be to their well being. Young boys in Mogadishu, where consensus can be attained targets and what should not be linked to n Addressing peace through the frame- . © saferworld addressed by each goal. between Member States expressing this agenda (as well as ways in which the work will be based on a preventative support for position 2 and those Member post-2015 framework can catalyse action The vast majority of Member States position approach to violent conflict and States adhering to positions 3 and 4. to address excluded issues through other themselves in groups 2, 3 and 4. This insecurity that contributes to global frameworks and institutions). provides a solid foundation for building peace initiatives and complements MAKE CONCRETE PROPOSALS ON HOW a more comprehensive consensus on existing institutions such as the UN TARGETS CAN ADDRESS PEACE UNDER REITERATE THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF peace, which is critical as only genuine Peacebuilding Commission; OTHER GOALS: Using the OWG Outcome PEACE AND GOVERNANCE ISSUES: As commitment by the widest cross-section n Peace is a universal agenda, in support Document as a basis, Member States previously stated, peace and governance of countries rather than a grudging of which developed countries are ready expressing support for position 2 should issues are intrinsically connected. Member acceptance on paper will ensure that the to join with all nations to take actions make concrete proposals for targets in States supportive of the inclusion of post-2015 development is both legitimate that may challenge their other policy other goal areas that will promote peace peace within the post-2015 development and effective. priorities, such as on illicit financial through a developmental approach and agenda should continually reaffirm Moreover, while the OWG Outcome flows. ensure that the framework addresses these linkages while protecting key Document does contain many elements peace in a holistic and cross-cutting way. governance-related targets. Failure to that would support sustainable peace, do so will likely result in a framework KEEP REFINING TARGETS ON PEACE: it could be significantly strengthened, so that is ineffective in promoting peace. As noted, many of the individual targets Member States should deliberate on how from the OWG Outcome Document can to make a goal on promoting peaceful and be significantly improved. All Member inclusive societies more effective. States need to ensure that the agreed peace related-targets: 16 | saferworld briefing Building a consensus for peace SAFERWORLD PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES

SAFERWORLD PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES [OTHER DOCUMENT] * The endnotes for each of the quota- tions in the textboxes are embedded as Saferworld is an independent inter- hyperlinks – these can be used for the national organisation working to prevent endnotes. violent conflict and build safer lives. We work with local people affected by SAconflictF toERW improve theirORLD safety and sense i www.post2015hlp.org/the-report/ PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES of security, and conduct wider research ii www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Outcome%20 documentMDG.pdf and analysis. We use this evidence and Publications niii www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/China_GA_Spec_Conflict and the post-2015 learning to improve local, national and Event_25Sept13.pdfdevelopment agenda: Perspectives international policies and practices that All our publications are available iv www.nepad.org/sites/default/files/Common%20 African%20Position-%20ENG%20final.pdffrom South Africa can help build lasting peace. Our priority to download from our website. n v SeePeace Saferworld’s and the commentary post-2015 on three key external is people – we believe that everyone We can provide hard copies of specific stresses that need to be considered in more depth development agenda: Understanding should be able to lead peaceful, fulfilling publications on request. as final negotiations on the post-2015 agenda are SAFERWORLD setthe to Brazilianstart: www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/view- perspective PREVENTING VIOLENT CONFLICT. BUILDING SAFER LIVES lives, free from insecurity and violent Saferworld also produces regular resource/827-external-stresses-and-the-post-2015- conflict. policy briefs and submissions, all of n framework-three-key-questionsApproaching post-2015 from a peace We are a not-for-profit organisation which are available on our website. perspective that works in over 20 countries and n Addressing conflict and violence territories across Africa, and . Read more at: from 2015: A vision of goals, targets www.saferworld.org.uk and indicators www.saferworld.org.uk notes 1 www.post2015hlp.org/the-report/ 17 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ 35 www.nepad.org/sites/default/files/Common%20 2 www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Outcome%20 documents/6520brazil.pdf African%20Position-%20ENG%20final.pdf documentMDG.pdf 18 http://webtv.un.org/meetings-events/index.php/ 36 http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112697/1/ 3 www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/China_GA_Spec_ watch/part-2-ensuring-stable-and-peaceful-societies- WHO_RHR_14.13_eng.pdf?ua=1 Event_25Sept13.pdf general-assembly-thematic-debate/3505168372001 37 Civil Society Platform for Peacebuilding and 4 www.nepad.org/sites/default/files/Common%20 19 http://papersmart.unmeetings.org/media2/2927287/ Statebuilding (2013) ‘Putting Sustainable Peace African%20Position-%20ENG%20final.pdf india.pdf and Safe Societies at the Heart of the Development 5 See Saferworld’s commentary on three key external 20 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ Agenda: Priorities for Post-2015’, p.2. stresses that need to be considered in more depth documents/6520brazil.pdf 38 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ as final negotiations on the post-2015 agenda are 21 “The future we want”. Rio+20 United Nations documents/8382timor.pdf set to start: www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/view- Conference on Sustainable Development. 39 sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ resource/827-external-stresses-and-the-post-2015- June 2012, www.uncsd2012.org/content/ documents/6395uganda1.pdf framework-three-key-questions documents/774futurewewant_english.pdf. 40 www.eu-un.europa.eu/articles/en/ 6 Taylor M, 2013, p2. Cf UNODC: ‘The overall best 22 www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/ article_15169_en.htm estimates of criminal proceeds are close to 3.6% of RES/66/288&Lang=E 41 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ GDP or US$2.1 trillion in 2009. The best estimates of 23 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/8382timor.pdf the amounts laundered are close to 2.7% of GDP or documents/8022southafrica2.pdf 42 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ US$1.6 trillion in 2009’, UNODC, 2011, ‘Estimating 24 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/8257sweden7.pdf illicit financial flows resulting from drug trafficking and documents/6445eu1.pdf other transnational organized crimes’, Vienna, p.127. 43 http://webtv.un.org/search/10th-meeting-open- 25 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ working-group-on-sustainable-development-goals- 7 www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/20/ documents/6370uk3.pdf eleventh-session/3554410066001?term=open%20 global-refugee-figure-passes-50-million-unhcr-report 26 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ working%20group&sort=date 8 http://learningforpeace.unicef.org/resources/ documents/5338uk.pdf 44 http://webtv.un.org/search/10th-meeting-open- the-economic-cost-of-violence-containment/ 27 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ working-group-on-sustainable-development-goals- 9 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/9710southafrica.pdf eleventh-session/3554410066001?term=open%20 documents/6520brazil.pdf 28 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ working%20group&sort=date%23full-text 10 Chandy, L., N. Ledlie and V. Penciakova (2013) documents/6340indonesia3.pdf 45 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ The Final Countdown: Prospects for Ending Extreme documents/6520brazil.pdf Poverty by 2030 (interactive) Brookings Institution, 29 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ 46 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ Washington DC documents/6340indonesia3.pdf documents/8062iran8.pdf 11 http://data.myworld2015.org/ 30 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/6315pakistan1.pdf 47 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ 12 www.nepad.org/sites/default/files/Common%20 documents/8132nicaragua.pdf African%20Position-%20ENG%20final.pdf 31 http://webtv.un.org/meetings-events/index. php/watch/9th-meeting-open-working-group- 48 www.ipu.org/splz-e/ldciv/action.pdf 13 World Bank (2011) World Development Report 2011: on-sustainable-development-goals-eleventh- 49 www.g7plus.org/news-feed/2013/3/1/the-dili- Conflict, Security, and Development, World Bank session/3550899805001#full-text consensus-is-presented-and-endorsed-at-the-dili-int. Report, p 61. 32 http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ html 14 OECD (2014) Fragile States 2014: Domestic Revenue documents/6520brazil.pdf 50 www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/view-resource/730- Mobilisation in Fragile States OECD: Paris p 17. 33 www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm a-vision-of-goals-targets-and-indicators 15 Geneva Declaration, ‘Global Burden of Armed 51 www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/view-resource/816- Violence 2011’, (Geneva, 2011). 34 “Special Event 25 September: Outcome Document”. United Nations. September 2013, www.un.org/ towards-regional-and-national-statistical-capacities- 16 www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/oct/24/ millenniumgoals/pdf/Outcome%20documentMDG. for-measuring-peace-rule-of-law-and-governance england-riots-cost-police-report/ pdf.

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