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Ottoman Mobilization and Resistance in the Italo-Turkish War

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Ottoman Mobilization and Resistance in the Italo-Turkish War UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles The Anti-Colonial Empire: Ottoman Mobilization and Resistance in the Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History by Jonathan Claymore McCollum 2018 © Copyright by Jonathan Claymore McCollum 2018 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Anti-Colonial Empire: Ottoman Mobilization and Resistance in the Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912 by Jonathan Claymore McCollum Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2018 Professor James L. Gelvin, Chair The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), now remembered primarily as Italy’s war for what is now Libya, swelled from a localized colonial invasion into a significant Mediterranean conflict and a global cause célèbre that attracted support and aid for the embattled Ottoman regime from diverse locations both inside and outside the borders of the empire. This dissertation examines the means by which the Ottoman Empire erected an asymmetric defense of its last North African provinces to preserve its territory and empire from Italian occupation and annexation. Drawing on sources in Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, Greek, and Judeo-Spanish, this study demonstrates how ii the Sublime Porte and the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) initially deployed a rhetoric of unity, constitutionalism, and international law to protect the empire from the Italian invasion. Due to the efficacy of Italian diplomacy, the Ottomans, unable to enlist Great Power support for the preservation of imperial territory, developed a defensive strategy for its North African territories that relied primarily on humanitarianism and volunteerism. This dissertation, therefore, investigates the vital contribution of pan-Islamism and the broad appeal of a loose ideology of Muslim anticolonialism in the empire’s attempts to bolster its forces with international aid and volunteers. While many studies tend to brush aside the importance of early twentieth-century pan-Islamism as either a pipe dream of Wilhelmine champions of German imperialism and their Ottoman collaborators or as merely a rhetorical movement devoid of substantial consequence, this dissertation reveals how global appeals to Islamic unity to combat European expansionism translated into material benefits for Ottomans on the battlefield. Through an examination of documents from the Turkish Red Crescent and the Turkish General Staff archives, it highlights the crucial assistance of global Islamic humanitarian aid to the Ottoman war effort in the form of sizeable financial contributions to the Ottoman Red Crescent from Muslims over the duration of the conflict. The Red Crescent organization provided a means to funnel aid to the battlefield collected in mosques, mass meetings, newspaper subscriptions, and Islamic associations within and without the Ottoman Empire. This charitable aid facilitated the deployment to North Africa of multiple Red Crescent teams which assumed, in most cases, sole responsibility for the medical care of both soldiers and civilians of the Ottoman provinces. Simultaneously, the Ottoman ranks in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica swelled as calls for coreligionist volunteers to take up arms were heeded throughout Africa and Asia. Ultimately, the empire’s anticolonial ideology proved an effective unifier for the many Muslims around the iii world who shouldered a great deal of the cost of the conflict. While Italy’s expenses for its war for colonial expansion ballooned, the defense of North Africa cost the Ottoman treasury very little. iv The dissertation of Jonathan Claymore McCollum is approved. Mia Fuller Sarah A. Stein Lynn A. Hunt James L. Gelvin, Committee Chair University of California Los Angeles 2018 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright Notice Page i Abstract of the Dissertation ii Dissertation Approval Page v Note on Transliteration vii List of Figures viii List of Abbreviations ix Acknowledgments x Vita xiii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 “This Means War”: Ottoman Diplomatic and Discursive Efforts on an Asymmetric Battlefield 23 Chapter 2 “For the Sake of German Honor” or the Ottoman Empire? 55 Chapter 3 Muslim Anticolonialism and the Subvention and Deployment of the Red Crescent 79 Chapter 4 Enver’s War: Young Turk State Building and Muslim Anticolonialism 121 Chapter 5 “Defending Your Tribe, Your Women, Your Hometown, and Your Patria”: The Ottoman Empire and Volunteerism in the Italo Turkish War 146 Conclusion 176 Bibliography 190 vi NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND TRANSLATION In transliterating Ottoman Turkish and Arabic words, I have employed a modified version of the style adopted by the International Journal of Middle East Studies. Turkish and Arabic terms already in common usage in English, such as Pasha, have retained their English orthography rather than their Turkish or Arabic orthography. Romanization of Greek words has followed the standard of the Library of Congress. Judeo-Spanish transliteration has rendered the words into their modern Spanish equivalents. Names of places and people in Libya have retained their current and official Romanized names when they exist in English (i.e. Tripoli rather than Ṭrāblus). vii LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 The Unloading of the Supplies of the German Red Cross Mission in Tripoli 71 2.2 The Return of the Expedition of the German Red Cross from Tripoli 76 3.1 Ottoman Red Crescent receipt issued to the Islamic women’s group of Ruse, Bulgaria 99 3.2 Map of Red Crescent hospital system in Tripoli as drawn by Dr. Kerim Sebatî Bey 117 5.1 The Italian flag hoisted over the Pasha’s fort in Tripoli 152 5.2 “The Defenders of Tripoli: Arab Militia under a Turkish Officer” 155 6.1 The Tripoli Laurel Tree: Italian Officer Waters Dying Plant with Cash 188 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Archives in Turkey: Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi (BOA) Genelkurmay Askerî Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt Başkanlığı Arşivi (ATASE) Türk Kızılayı Arşivi (Kızılay) Archives in Britain: British National Archives: Foreign Office and Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FO) Archives in Italy: Archivio Storico Diplomatico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (ASMAE) Archives in France: Archives diplomatiques du ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAE) Archives in Germany: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts (PA/AA) ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The effort of collecting and investigating in libraries and archives in half a dozen countries over the past few years and then synthesizing them into this dissertation often exceeded my own capabilities. I therefore relied on the help of many to bring this project to fruition. While I take full responsibility for any fault in this work, the contributions of all who have taken part in this project must be acknowledged. First and foremost, I extend my gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee who have volunteered their time and expert advice whenever I needed it. Sarah Stein, who had to jump into the committee at an unexpected moment, provided crucial suggestions and support to complete this project. Mia Fuller, whose expertise in Italian colonialism was essential for this work, was ever eager to offer her help even when we found ourselves in different parts of the globe. Lynn Hunt has been a constant support in my graduate career, and I’ve learned to trust her advice implicitly. James Gelvin, as my committee chair, has given so much of his time, efforts, and expertise to this endeavor that I don’t believe I could ever thank him enough. His advice and guidance has helped me navigate the labyrinth of graduate school and make sense of the often puzzling field of Middle East studies. I must also thank the many professors that have instructed me in the less commonly taught languages I needed to complete this dissertation. Yorgos Dedes and Selim Kuru were phenomenal teachers of the Ottoman language—no small feat considering the sheer complexity of this beautiful, and lamentably dead, variety of Turkish. Latifeh Hagigi provided the building blocks I needed to learn Ottoman through her exceptional instruction of the Persian language. I only regret not being able to use Persian sources in this dissertation. Christina Bogdanou prepared a path for me to learn the Greek language and aided me in finding suitable intensive programs in Greece to learn another burdensome language, Katharevousa. Abeer Hamza was an excellent and supportive instructor at UCLA who offered her time to evaluate my Arabic for many fellowship programs. The funding for this research was made possible by various institutions to which I owe a great deal of gratitude. The Institute of Turkish Studies funded much of my intensive Ottoman language courses in Turkey. The American Research Institute in Turkey generously donated funds to x support my investigations in Istanbul. I’d like to thank Nancy Leinwand for all her help with securing this funding. The Center for American Overseas Research Centers Mellon Mediterranean Region Fellowship facilitated my research in Ankara, Rome, Athens, and Beirut. Finally, the Fulbright Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship permitted more in depth research in the archives of Turkey and Greece. Mevlüde Bakır of the Fulbright commission in Ankara and Anthony Greenwood of the American Research Institute in Turkey offered considerable advice as I struggled to attain my Turkish visa in my often dizzying trips around the Mediterranean. This dissertation has benefitted from numerous discussions with so many individuals that I’m certain to have overlooked a few. I would, however, like to express my gratitude for the advice, suggestions, and encouragement I’ve received from the following friends, colleagues, and professors: Pauline Lewis, Murat Yıldız, Ziad Abu-Rish, Kent Schull, Ceren Abi, Michael O’Sullivan, Arnon Degani, Alma Heckman, Joshua Herr, Chris Silver, Anoush Suni, Gabriel Piterberg, David Hirsch, Banafsheh Pourzangi, Domenico Ingenito, Nouri Gana, Marjan Wardaki, Reem Bailony, Christine Isom-Verhaaren, and Salih Değirmenci. To complete the research and writing of this dissertation, I had many companions along the way, but those that ultimately gave the most were the members of my family who were forced to pick up stakes and move across the world with me.
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