The Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin Edited by Annalisa Marzano , Guy P

Home , Aeclanum, Melite (ancient city), Roman villa, Settefinestre, Stabiae, Suburban Baths (Pompeii)

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-16431-4 — The Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin Edited by Annalisa Marzano , Guy P. R. Métraux Frontmatter More Information

THE ROMAN VILLA IN THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN S

This book offers a comprehensive survey of Roman villas in Italy and the Mediterranean provinces of the Roman Empire, from their origins to the collapse of the Empire. The architecture of villas could be humble or grand, and sometimes luxurious. Villas were most often farms where wine, olive oil, cereals, and manufactured goods, among other products, were produced. They were also venues for hospitality, conversation, and thinking on pagan, and ultimately Christian, themes. Villas spread as the Empire grew. Like towns and cities, they became the means of power and assimilation, just as infrastructure, such as aqueducts and bridges, was transforming the Mediterranean into a Roman sea. The distinctive Roman/Italian villa type was transferred to the provinces, resulting in a Mediterranean-wide culture of rural dwelling and work that further uniﬁed the Empire.

Annalisa Marzano (PhD 2004, Columbia University, New York) is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Reading, and is Fellow of the Royal Historical Society and the Society of Antiquaries of London. She has published on a wide range of topics related to the social and economic history of the Roman world and has participated in numerous archaeological projects. She is the author of two monographs, Roman Villas in Central Italy: A Social and Economic History (2007), which won the Silver Medal and Honorable Mention at the VIII Premio Romanistico Internazionale Gerard Boulvert, and Harvesting the Sea: The Exploitation of Marine Resources in the Roman Mediterranean (2013). Guy P. R. Métraux is Professor Emeritus of Visual Arts at York University, Toronto, and a member of the Collaborative Program in Ancient History (University of Toronto/York University). He has participated in archaeological excavations in Italy, Turkey, and Tunisia, coauthoring The San

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-16431-4 — The Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin Edited by Annalisa Marzano , Guy P. R. Métraux Frontmatter More Information

Rocco Villa at Francolise (with M. Aylwin Cotton, 1985). His 1995 book Sculptors and Physicians in Fifth Century Greece won the Raymond Klibansky Prize from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council. A Guggenheim Fellow, his current work focusesonvillasintheirliterary and physical aspects.

THE ROMAN VILLA IN THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN Late RepublicS to Late Antiquity

Edited by

A NNALISA M ARZANO University of Reading

G UY P. R . M ÉTRAUX York University, Toronto

University Printing House, Cambridge CB28BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006,USA

477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207,Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025,India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06,Singapore079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107164314 DOI: 10.1017/9781316687147 © Cambridge University Press 2018 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2018 Printed in the United Kingdom by Sheridan Books. A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-107-16431-4 Hardback ISBN 978-1-316-61594-2 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from the von Bothmer Publication Fund of the Archaeological Institute of America.

Ehud Netzer (1934–2010) in memoriam

CONTENTS S

List of Illustrations and Maps page x List of Color plates xviii List of Contributors xix Acknowledgments xxiv List of Abbreviations xxv Introduction xxviii

1 T HE R OMAN V ILLA:AN O VERVIEW 1 Annalisa Marzano and Guy P.R. Métraux

2 T HE R OMAN V ILLA:DEFINITIONS AND V ARIATIONS 42 Ursula Rothe

PARTI:ROMANVILLASONORNEARTHE BAY OF NAPLES AND MARITIME VILLAS

3 T HE V ILLA OF THE M YSTERIES AT P OMPEII AND THE I DEALS OF H ELLENISTIC H OSPITALITY 63 Andrew Wallace-Hadrill

4 T HE B UILDING H ISTORY AND A ESTHETICS OF THE “ V ILLA OF P OPPAEA” AT T ORRE A NNUNZIATA: R ESULTS FROM THE O PLONTIS P ROJECT 2005– 2014 75 John R. Clarke

5 L ANDSCAPE AT THE “ V ILLA OF P OPPAEA” (VILLA A) AT T ORRE A NNUNZIATA 85 Mantha Zarmakoupi

6 T HE S OCIAL S TATUS OF THE V ILLAS OF S TABIAE 97 Thomas Noble Howe

vii

viii CONTENTS

7 T HE R OMAN V ILLA OF P OSITANO 120 Adele Campanelli, Giovanni Di Maio, Riccardo Iaccarino, Maria Antonietta Iannelli, Luciana Jacobelli

8 M ARITIME V ILLAS AND THE R ESOURCES OF THE S EA 125 Annalisa Marzano

9 T HE “ V ILLA OF A UGUSTUS” AT S OMMA V ESUVIANA 141 Masanori Aoyagi, Antonio De Simone, and Girolamo F. De Simone

PART II: ROMAN VILLAS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

10 R OMAN V ILLAS IN S OUTHERN I TALY 159 Maurizio Gualtieri

11 V ILLAS IN N ORTHERN I TALY 178 Gian Pietro Brogiolo and Alexandra Chavarría Arnau

12 R OMAN V ILLAS IN S ICILY 195 R. J. A. Wilson

13 V ILLAS IN S OUTH AND S OUTHWESTERN G AUL 220 Loïc Buffat

14 R OMAN V ILLAS IN THE I BERIAN P ENINSULA (SECOND C ENTURY BCE–T HIRD C ENTURY CE) 235 Felix Teichner

15 R OMAN V ILLAS IN THE M ALTESE A RCHIPELAGO 255 Anthony Bonanno

16 R OMAN V ILLAS IN N ORTH A FRICA 266 R. J. A. Wilson

17 T HE R OMAN V ILLA AT A POLLONIA (ISRAEL) 308 Oren Tal and the late Israel Roll

18 H OUSES OF THE W EALTHY IN R OMAN G ALILEE 317 Zeev Weiss

19 V ILLAS IN R OMAN G REECE 328 Maria Papaioannou

20 V ILLAS OF THE E ASTERN A DRIATIC AND I ONIAN C OASTLANDS 377 William Bowden

CONTENTS ix

PART III: ROMAN VILLAS: LATE ANTIQUE MANIFESTATIONS

21 L ATE A NTIQUE V ILLAS:THEMES 401 Guy P.R. Métraux

22 A RISTOCRATIC R ESIDENCES IN L ATE A NTIQUE H ISPANIA 426 Gisela Ripoll

23 C HRISTIANIZATION OF V ILLAS 453 Kimberly Bowes

PART IV: ROMAN VILLAS: LATER MANIFESTATIONS

24 C ONVIVIALITY VERSUS S ECLUSION IN P LINY’ S T USCAN AND L AURENTINE V ILLAS 467 Pierre de la Rufﬁnière du Prey

25 T HE V ILLA DEI P APIRI:HERCULANEUM AND M ALIBU 476 Kenneth Lapatin

C ONCLUSIONS 485 Annalisa Marzano and Guy P.R. Métraux

Glossary 490 Bibliography 498 Index Locorum 572 Index Topographicum 577 Index Verborum 586

ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS S

F IGURES

2.1 Boscoreale, Villa Regina, 4.7 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), reconstruction drawing. page 46 enfilade of doorways from 94 to 63. 82 2.2 Köln-Mü ngersdorf, villa complex, plan. 48 5.1 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), 2.3 Verneil-en-Halatte, villa complex. 48 room 15, view of east wall. 87 2.4 Blankenheim, villa, reconstruction and 5.2 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), plan. 49 peristyle-garden 40–59, view from south 2.5 Grémecey, villa, groundplan. 49 end of west portico. 87 3.1 Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, plan. 64 5.3 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), 3.2 Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, plan view of portico 60 from room 69. 88 of the original unitary build of the villa 5.4 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), according to D. Esposito. 65 view from room 69 through portico 60 3.3 Herculaneum, Villa of the Papyri. 69 over pool 96. 88 3.4 A: The Villa Arianna at Stabiae; B: The 5.5 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum. 70 view of room 69 from portico 60 3.5 Settefinestre, villa. 71 toward the north garden. 89 4.1 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), 5.6 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), plan of the extant central core and eastern caldarium 8, view of north wall from the extension of the villa, with a east side of the room. 90 reconstruction by Timothy Liddell of its 5.7 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), possible symmetrical western extension in view of west wall of portico 60; to the mirror-plan. 76 left, view of the north garden through 4.2 Torre Annunziata, location of known room 69. 90 archaeological sites in the vicinity of 5.8 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), Villa A. 76 view of portico 60 toward the south. 90 4.3 Painting of villa from Pompeii, Third 5.9 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), Style, 40–45 CE. 77 view from the north. The large 4.4 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), propylon to the right marks room 21. 93 geological section. 78 6.1 Stabiae, site plan. 98 4.5 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), 6.2 Stabiae, townhouse excavated in 2009 garden room 87, north wall. 81 (“Panoramic domus”), plan. 103 4.6 Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), 6.3 Stabiae, townhouse excavated in 2009 view of enfilade of windows from oecus 74. 81 (“Panoramic domus”), plan of 2009

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS xi

excavations imposed on Ruggiero 9.4 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” plan of 1881. 104 The central door with Dionysian 6.4 Villa San Marco and Villa of the Papyri, decoration, south wall of Room 4. 145 plans at the same scale. 105 9.5 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” 6.5 Stabiae, Villa Arianna, plan. 106 Niche in the south wall of Room 4. 146 6.6 Graph showing the relative sizes of 9.6 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” estimated surface areas of suburban Marble statue of the Peplophoros from the villas in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and west wall-niche in Room 1, at the time Stabiae. 107 of its discovery. 146 6.7 Stabiae, Villa Arianna, Terrace (54), 9.7 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” with tabularium motif and fictive Marble statue of Dionysus with battlements, Cyzicene oecus behind. 109 panther cub from the east wall-niche 7.1 The area affected by the eruption of in Room 1, after restoration. 147 79 CE. 121 9.8 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” 7.2 Positano, plan of town with location of Room 7, painted apse with pavilion finds and reconstruction of the villa decoration and frieze with Nereids and extension. 121 Tritons. 149 7.3 Positano, villa, north wall of triclinium, 9.9 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” composite image. 122 Overhead view of the north part 7.4 Positano, villa, east wall of triclinium, of Room 7 and Rooms 9 and 10 on the composite image. 123 intermediate terrace; cella vinaria (Room 8.1 Elba, Villa delle Grotte, plan. 129 12) on the lower terrace. 151 8.2 Formia, Villa Comunale: plan of 9.10 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” fishpond offering an example of Reconstruction of the lower and middle elaborate geometric design. 131 terraces constituting the north façade 8.3 Astura, Torre Astura: the large fishpond of the villa. 152 and harbor. 132 9.11 Panoramic view of the Somma 8.4 Astura, La Saracca: the semicircular Vesuviana villa “of Augustus” site from fishpond. 132 the north (September 2004). 152 8.5 Santa Marinella, Punta della Vipera: 10.1 Moltone di Tolve (Potenza), villa plan, the fishpond part of the maritime villa. 133 third century BCE. 160 8.6 A: fishpond recorded in Nettuno, 10.2 Termitito, villa plan, late Republican. 162 Italy; B: fishpond recorded on the 10.3 Sapri, baths of the villa maritima, plan. 163 Abukir Peninsula, Egypt. 133 10.4 Porto Saturo (Tarentum), villa, plan 8.7 Cotta, Morocco: the fish-salting of the residential sector of the villa. 163 establishment part of a maritime villa 10.5 Masseria Ciccotti (Oppido Lucano), estate. 135 villa plan: phases I-II. 165 9.1 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” 10.6 Masseria Ciccotti (Oppido Lucano), plan of site updated to October 2010. 142 villa: reconstructed plan of central 9.2 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” residential sector, early third century CE. 167 panoramic view of the upper terrace 10.7 San Giovanni di Ruoti: architectural from the northeast; north at bottom left model of the late fifth-century CE phase. 169 corner. 143 10.8 Faragola (Ascoli Satriano), villa: plan 9.3 Somma Vesuviana, Villa “of Augustus,” of large reception/dining room of the Reconstruction of the arcade between fifth-century CE villa. 170 Rooms 4 and 1, from the northeast. 144 11.1 Muru de Bangius (Oristano), villa, plan. 179

xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

11.2 Varignano Vecchio (La Spezia), villa, corridors (15), before the 2007–2014 plan of III phase (fourth century) 181 restoration program. 205 11.3 Villas in the territories of Aquileia. 182 12.11 Casale di Piazza Armerina, wall 11.4 Oderzo (Treviso), mosaic pavement painting in the apodyterium (8) with porticoed villa. 182 of the West Baths, and part of its 11.5 Sirmione (Brescia), “Grotte di Catullo” floor mosaic showing a chariot race villa. 183 in the Circus Maximus. 205 11.6 Desenzano (Brescia), via Borgo Regio 12.12 Casale di Piazza Armerina, the aqueduct villa, plan and axonometric supplying the main (west) baths, from reconstruction. 184 the north. 205 11.7 Palazzo Pignano (Cremona), villa, plan. 185 12.13 Casale di Piazza Armerina, detail of the 11.8 Sizzano (Novara), villa, plan from aerial mosaic in the Great Hunt corridor (26). 205 photo. 186 12.14 Casale di Piazza Armerina, triconchos, 11.9 Faustinella (Desenzano del Garda, detail of the mosaic showing the Brescia), villa, plan. 187 aftermath of the Labours of 11.10 A: Palazzolo (Ravenna), villa, plan; B: Hercules (46). 206 Galeata (Ravenna) villa, plan. 188 12.15 Marina di Patti (ME), plan of the late 11.11 Montegrotto (Padova), villa, Roman villa. 208 reconstruction. 189 12.16 Marina di Patti, late Roman villa, view 11.12 San Cassiano (Riva del Garda, Trento), from the south-west of the triconchos villa plan. 190 dining-room. 208 12.1 Mirabile, Mazara del Vallo (TP), villa, 12.17 Caddeddi on the Tellaro (SR), plan of plan. 197 the late Roman villa. 210 12.2 San Luca, Castronovo di Sicilia (PA), 12.18 Caddeddi on the Tellaro. A: mosaic villa, plan. 198 panel showing the Ransom of Hector 12.3 Castroreale San Biagio (ME), villa, plan. 199 (8); B: the Bacchus mosaic (9). 210 12.4 Castroreale San Biagio, villa, view from 12.19 Caddeddi on the Tellaro, the Hunt the east across the south side of the mosaic (10). 211 villa’s peristyle. 200 12.20 Gerace (EN), geophysical survey results. 212 12.5 Castroreale San Biagio, men fishing, 12.21 Gerace, plans. 213 detail of the figured mosaic in the 12.22 Gerace: one of over 200 tile-stamps frigidarium of the baths (23). 200 naming or alluding to Philippianus. 213 12.6 Durrueli di Realmonte (AG), general 12.23 Gerace: detail of an apse once view of the villa's residential core, containing a hot water pool, with from the north-west. 201 impressions of tubuli in the mortar on 12.7 Durrueli di Realmonte, drawing of the walls, in the bath-house of c. 380 CE. 214 Neptune mosaic in the apodyterium of 13.1 Fréjus, plan of the Capitou site. 221 the villa’s baths. 201 13.2 Plans of villas of the first and 12.8 Casale di Piazza Armerina, villa, aerial early second centuries in Gallia view (2011) during the roof-replacement Narbonensis. 223 program. 203 13.3 Plans of late-antique villas in Gallia 12.9 Casale di Piazza Armerina, plan Narbonensis. 225 of the late Roman villa. 204 13.4 Plans of villas in the first and second 12.10 Casale di Piazza Armerina, peristyle centuries in Aquitania. 230 garden with central pool and surrounding 13.5 Plans of late-antique villas in Aquitania. 232

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS xiii

14.1 L’Olivet d’en Pujols (Gerona), villa, 15.9 Tad-Dawl, villa, plan in 1888 (now reconstruction during the Republican destroyed). 262 period. 238 15.10 Żejtun, villa, plan of the excavated parts 14.2 “Castelo da Lousa” (Alentejo, Portugal), (1972). 263 villa on the left bank of the River 16.1 Tiddis (nearby), the tomb of Lollius Guardiana, the ancient Anas. 239 Urbicus. 270 14.3 Late-Republican and Early-Imperial 16.2 Nador: A: the main entrance; B: protected farmsteads (“casas Fuertes”). 240 suggested reconstruction of the farm 14.4 Monte da Nora (Portugal), of M. Cincius Hilarianus. 271 reconstruction of the Roman farmstead. 240 16.3 Carthage, the Great Marine mosaic, 14.5 Vilauba (Girona), villa. The complex detail: villa maritima. 274 with three ranges (“édifice à trois corps”). 242 16.4 Carthage, mosaic detail: a Vandal lord 14.6 Some prominent peristyle villas leaves his villa for the hunt. 274 in Lusitania. 243 16.5 Carthage, the so-called Dominus Julius 14.7 Milreu (Algarve), villa, sections. 244 mosaic. 275 14.8 Milreu (Algarve), villa: development 16.6 Tabarka, villa suburbana, mosaic of the of the peristyle and triclinium from the three-apsed dining room. 275 second to the fifth centuries CE. 245 16.7 Oued-Athménia, villa, plan of the baths 14.9 Milreu (Algarve), villa, view from the of Pompeianus. 277 west in late antiquity. 248 16.8 Oued-Athménia, villa, frigidarium 14.10 The linear structure of villae maritimae mosaic. 278 in Hispania. 249 16.9 Oued-Athménia, villa, caldarium mosaic. 279 14.11 Abicada (Algarve), reconstruction view 16.10 Kaoua, villa, plan. 280 from the south of the hexagonal internal 16.11 Sfax (nearby), plan of the villa in the court. 249 former property of M. Salah Ouarda. 281 14.12 Baños de la Reina (Calpe, Alicante), 16.12 Demnet el-Khozba, villa, plan. 282 villa, reconstruction view. 250 16.13 Sidi Ghrib, plan of villa (left) and 15.1 Rabat domus, axonometric bath-house (right). 283 reconstruction with mosaics in 16.14 Sidi Ghrib, bath-house of the villa, reconstructed form. 257 apodyterium: mosaic panel in alcove 9d 15.2 Rabat domus:emblema with scene of showing a female figure with a basket doves perched on metal basin. 258 of flowers. 284 15.3 Rabat domus: four surviving torsos of 16.15 Sidi Ghrib, bath-house of the villa, a cycle of imperial portrait statues of the apodyterium: mosaic panel in alcove reign of Claudius (41–54 CE). 258 8z depicting the domina. 285 15.4 Ramla Bay, Gozo, reconstruction view 16.16 Wadi Lebda (near Lepcis), villa baths: of the villa maritima. 259 mosaic panel depicting an exhausted 15.5 Ramla Bay, Gozo, plan of the villa gladiator and his dead opponent, maritima (1910). 260 c. 200/25 CE (?). 286 15.6 Għajn Tuffieħa baths discovered in 16.17 Taguira, Villa of the Nereids, plan. 287 1929: hypocaust system on arches. 260 16.18 Silin, Villa of the Maritime Odeon, 15.7 Għajn Tuffieħa baths, axonometric plan. 288 reconstruction of the surviving sections. 261 16.19 Silin, Villa of the Small Circus, plan. 289 15.8 San Pawl Milqi, villa: view of the large 16.20 Silin, the villa of the Wadi Yala, plan. 290 courtyard with three parallel olive presses. 261 16.21 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, east

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

peristyle corridor mosaic: a pygmy in 18.3 Sepphoris, House of Dionysos, overview a Nilotic landscape with crocodile. 290 of the lavatory with the inscription 16.22 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, corridor YGEI[A] (health), set in the mosaic floor. 319 of the internal court (3): fresco painting 18.4 Sepphoris, House of Dionysos, of venatores. 291 overview of the Dionysiac mosaic of the 16.23 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, garden triclinium. 319 area 12, looking westward toward 18.5 Sepphoris, House of Orpheus, room 15 (beyond the columns). 291 plan, second half of the third century 16.24 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, room 15, CE (first phase). 321 with marble paneling of Algerian greco 18.6 Tiberias, peristyle house north of the scritto below, and fresco decoration civic center, third century CE, plan. 322 above. 292 18.7 Seleucia Pieria, House of the Drinking 16.25 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, aerial view Contest, early third century CE, plan. 323 of the bath-house. 292 18.8 Tiberias, the “Basilical Complex,” 16.26 Silin, the villa of Wadi Yala, bath-house, fourth century CE, plan. 323 frigidarium (22): detail of the central 19.1 Komboloi, farm house, plan and roundel of its mosaic floor, head reconstruction. 332 of Oceanus. 292 19.2 Mieza, Valavani field, plan. 333 16.27 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, plan. 293 19.3 Baltaneto Naoussa, villa. 334 16.28 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, 19.4 Thesprotia, Masklenitsa villa, plan. 336 room 7, detail of the mosaic. 295 19.5 Manerau, villa, plan with possible 16.29 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, division of internal space. 336 room 8: mosaic floor depicting the 19.6 Stroggyle, villa, plan. 337 Four Seasons. 296 19.7 Corinth, Pano Magoula, atrium house 16.30 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, room with impluvium and cistern (right). 338 18, floor mosaic with acanthus tendril 19.8 Corinth, Lechaion villa, plan. 339 design and the feet of a human figure 19.9 Plan of Brexiza. 343 (upper left). 296 19.10 Brexiza, bath complex, plan. 344 16.31 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, eastern 19.11 Eua Loukou, Villa of Herodes Atticus. 346 sector, courtyard 19 from the southeast, 19.12 Eua Loukou, Villa of Herodes paved in opus spicatum. 296 Atticus, the Temple-heroon and 16.32 Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, south heroon-cenotaph. 348 corridor (12), landscape scene of small 20.1 Brijuni, Verige Bay villa, plan. 381 two-story buildings with figures in 20.2 Kolci, villa, plan of the complex. 383 silhouette. 297 20.3 Katoro, villa occupying the 17.1 Apollonia-Arsuf: site plan. 310 promontory, with evidence of 17.2 Apollonia-Arsuf, Roman villa, plan. 311 a substantial piscina. 383 17.3 Apollonia-Arsuf, Roman villa: A: view 20.4 Valbandon, villa built on both sides of to northwest; B: view to south. 312 a bay that was also used as a piscina. 384 17.4 Apollonia-Arsuf, Roman villa: lararium, 20.5 Barbariga, villa, with the earlier wing view to northeast. 312 on the left (south) side. 385 18.1 Sepphoris, House of Dionysos, plan, 20.6 Loron, villa rustica, plan. 386 c. 200 CE. 319 20.7 S. Domenica di Visinada, villa, one of 18.2 Sepphoris, House of Dionysos, north the few inland villas in Istria for which view. 319 a plan is known. 386

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS xv

20.8 Villa rustica at Šijana. 387 Palencia), villa: drawing of mosaic 20.9 Šaraja, villa rustica, plan. 387 depicting Achilles in Skyros and 20.10 Diaporit (Butrint vicinity), the Roman medallions with portraits. 430 villa and Christian complex, plan. 389 22.4 La Olmeda (Pedrosa de la Vega, 20.11 Diaporit (Butrint vicinity), Roman villa Palencia), villa: detail of two portraits and Christian complex at Diaporit near from the freeze of the mosaic of Butrint: large apsidal fountain Achilles in Skyros. 430 (nymphaeum) of the villa. 390 22.5 Villa de Bell-lloc (suburbium of Gerona), 20.12 Diaporit (Butrint vicinity), Roman villa, villa: mosaic depicting a chariot race reception room on the upper terrace (around 1989, just before restoration). 431 showing mosaic pierced by post-holes 22.6 Missorium of Theodosius discovered at dating to the third century. 391 Almendralejo (Mérida, Badajoz), now 20.13 Castrum, late-antique fortified complex, at the Royal Academy of History, plan, with the original villa rustica shaded. 393 Madrid. Detail showing Theodosius 20.14 Polače, late-antique site, plan. 394 and, to his right, the vicarius Hispaniarum. 432 21.1 Montmaurin villa, small atrium 22.7 Almenara de Adaja (Valladolid), villa, (room 38) from the south. 409 general plan of structures. 434 21.2 Montmaurin villa, plan marked with 22.8 Almenara de Adaja (Valladolid), villa: the positions of the atria. 410 octagonal oecus with geometric mosaic 21.3 A: Chiragan villa, portrait head of and central emblem depicting Pegasus. 435 Augustus, first century CE. (Toulouse, 22.9 Arellano (Navarra), villa: octagonal Musée Saint- Raymond, Inv. Ra 57); B: hall with mosaic depicting the Muses. 435 Chiragan villa, portrait head of an 22.10 Can Ferrerons (Premià de Mar, unknown lady, Theodosian period, late Barcelona), aerial view of octagonal fourth to early fifth century CE. building and surrounding rooms. 435 (Toulouse, Musée Saint-Raymond, 22.11 El Ruedo (Almedinilla, Córdoba), villa, Inv. Ra 82). 415 aerial view. 437 21.4 Welschbillig villa near Trier (Gallia 22.12 El Ruedo (Almedinilla, Córdoba), villa: Belgica), reconstruction perspective stibadium. 437 view from the north, late fourth 22.13 Quinta das Longas (Elvas), villa, plan century CE. 416 of the villa in the fourth and fifth 21.5 Welschbillig villa near Trier (Gallia centuries. 437 Belgica), herms, late fourth century CE. 417 22.14 Arellano (Navarra), villa: mosaic from 21.6 Welschbillig villa near Trier (Gallia the oecus possibly depicting Aphrodite Belgica), plan of villa and surrounding with the golden apple and Paris leaving. 439 structures. 417 22.15 Quinta das Longas (Elvas), villa: 22.1 Noheda (Villar de Domingo García, sculptures discovered during the Cuenca), villa: mosaic depicting the race excavation. 442 between Oenomaus and Pelops, detail 22.16 A: Quinta das Longas (Elvas), sculpture of panel A. 428 of anguiped. B: Valdetorres de Jarama 22.2 Noheda (Villar de Domingo García, (Madrid), statue depicting a triton. 443 Cuenca), villa: mosaic depicting 22.17 L’Horta Vella (Bétera, Valencia), villa, Hippodamia hugging Pelops, detail plan showing the various phases of of panel A. 428 occupation from the first century CE 22.3 La Olmeda (Pedrosa de la Vega, to the eighth century. 445

xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

22.18 Pla de Nadal (Valencia), villa, plan and 24.13 D. Bigelman’s sketch plan of the amores axonometric drawing. 447 mei pavilion at the Laurentine villa (1982). 473 22.19 Pla de Nadal (Valencia), villa: sculptural 24.14 D. Bigelman’s perspective drawing of element with monogram: T, E, B, D, E, the amores mei pavilion at the Laurentine M, I, R, probably referring to the name villa (1982). 474 Teodomiro/Tudmir. 448 25.1 Herculaneum, plan of modern town 23.1 Lullingstone Villa, plan. 455 with Villa dei Papiri (“Villa Suburbana 23.2 Lullingstone Villa, reconstruction of Casa de Papiri [sic]”) toward upper right. 477 antechamber and main space. 456 25.2 Karl Weber’s plan of the excavations 23.3 Pueblanueva Villa, overall site plan and of the Villa dei Papiri. 477 axonometric reconstruction of the 25.3 Ancient bronzes, mostly from the Villa mausoleum. 456 dei Papiri, on display in the Museo 23.4 Hinton St. Mary, villa: mosaic. 459 Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, 23.5 Monte Gelato, site plan, early ca. 1890–95. 478 ﬁfth-century phase. 461 25.4 Still of Ingrid Bergman in the Museo 24.1 Detail of imaginary reconstruction Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli with drawing of Pliny’s Tuscan villa by a bronze statue from the Villa dei Papiri F. I. Lazzari (c. 1700). 468 in Roberto Rossellini’s Viaggio in Italia, 24.2 Imaginary reconstruction of Pliny’s 1954. 478 stibadium at the Tuscan villa by 25.5 The Lansdowne Herakles within the J-F. Félibien des Avaux (1699). 468 “Temple of Herakles” at the Getty Villa, 24.3 Imaginary plan of Pliny’s Tuscan villa Malibu. 479 by J.-F. Félibien des Avaux (1699). 469 25.6 Aerial view of the Getty Villa, 24.4 S. Wale’s imaginary reconstruction Malibu. 480 of Pliny’s stibadium at the Tuscan 25.7 The atrium of the Getty Villa, villa (1751). 469 Malibu. 481 24.5 Imaginary reconstruction of Pliny’s 25.8 “Strata walls” from Machado and Tuscan villa by K. F. Schinkel (1841). 469 Silvetti’s renovation of the site of the 24.6 Imaginary plan of Pliny’s Tuscan villa Getty Villa, Malibu, 1997–2005. 483 by K. F. Schinkel (1841). 470 24.7 Imaginary reconstruction of Pliny’s MAPS stibadium at the Tuscan villa by K. F. Schinkel (1841). 470 1 Overview of the geographic areas 24.8 Imaginary reconstruction of Pliny’s covered in the book. xxxvi Laurentine villa by K. F. Schinkel 2 Ancient towns and sites of southern (1841). 471 Latium and Campania mentioned in Part I. 59 24.9 Imaginary plan of Pliny’s Laurentine 3 Ancient southern Campania showing villa by K. F. Schinkel (1841). 471 ancient cities and coastline. 142 24.10 W. Stier’s ground plan of Pliny’s 4 Towns and villa sites of ancient Lucania, Laurentine villa (c. 1842). 472 Apulia, and Bruttium mentioned in 24.11 W. Stier’s elevation of the amores mei the text. 161 pavilion at the Laurentine villa (c. 1842). 472 5 Major towns and villa sites of Roman 24.12 C. Pember’s scale model of Pliny’s northern Italy mentioned in the text. 177 Laurentine villa (1947). Ashmolean 6 Major towns and villa sites of Museum, Oxford. 472 Roman Sicily mentioned in the text. 196

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS xvii

7 The province of Gallia Narbonensis, Gaulos, and distribution of recorded part of Aquitania and Hispania Roman villas. 256 Tarraconensis, with major towns and 12 Major towns and location of the villas villa sites mentioned in the text. 221 mentioned in the text. 267 8 Location of villas and farms in the first 13 Part of the Roman province of Judea, and early second centuries CE in the with major towns. 309 Gardon River region, as identified in 14 Major towns and recorded villas sites field surveys. 227 for Roman Greece, Epirus and 9 Location of villas and farms of the first Macedonia. 335 and early second centuries CE in the 15 Area of Marathon. 341 valley of the Tave River, as identified 16 Istrian and Dalmatian coastal villas in field surveys. 228 mentioned in the text. 378 10 Ancient towns and villa sites of the 17 Ionian coastal villas mentioned in Iberian Peninsula. 236 the text. 379 11 Map of Malta and Gozo, with the location 18 Late-antique sites of Hispania mentioned of the Roman towns of Melite and in the text. 427

COLOR PLATES S

I Painting of villa from Pompeii, Third IX Casale di Piazza Armerina, triconchos, detail of the Style, 40-45 CE. Museo Archeologico mosaic showing the aftermath of the Labours of Nazionale, Naples, inv. 9406. Hercules (room 46) (photo R.J.A. Wilson). II Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), view of X Caddeddi on the Tellaro, the Hunt mosaic enfilade of windows from oecus 74. (room 10). Photo L. Rubino, reproduced by III Torre Annunziata, Villa A (Oplontis), permission of the Regione Sicilia, Assessorato view from the north. The large propylon to the Beni Culturali e Identità Siciliana. right marks room 21 (photo M. Zarmakoupi). XI Oued-Athménia, villa, frigidarium mosaic, IV (Color image appears elsewhere in this volume) nineteenth-century lithograph after the watercolor Stabiae, site plan: Blue: areas currently visible; of Jules Chabassière (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale). red: areas excavated in the eighteenth century XII Wadi Lebda (near Lepcis), villa baths: mosaic and currently reburied. (©RAS/Editrice panel depicting an exhausted gladiator and his Longobardi/Parco Archeologico di Pompei. dead opponent, c. 200/25 CE (?) (Lepcis Magna, From P.G. Guzzo, A.M. Sodo, and Mosaic Museum: photo R.J.A. Wilson). G. Bonifacio 2009). XIII Zliten (Dar Buk Amméra), villa, room 7,detailof V Positano, villa, north wall of triclinium, the mosaic: central field of square panels, mosaics composite image (GEOMED). depicting fish alternating with opus sectile designs; VI Room 7, painted apse with pavilion decoration border with mosaic of amphitheater scenes – and frieze with Nereids and Tritons, view from musicians with their instruments, and gladiatorial the east; on the left, upper part of door in the contests (Tripoli Museum: photo R.J.A. Wilson). north side of the apse leading to Rooms 9 XIV Diaporit (Butrint vicinity), Roman villa and and 10. Christian complex at Diaporit near Butrint: VII Sirmione (Brescia), “Grotte di Catullo” villa large apsidal fountain (nymphaeum) of the villa (Roffia 2013). (photo W. Bowden). VIII Casale di Piazza Armerina, wall painting in the XV Hinton St. Mary, villa: mosaic. apodyterium (8) of the West Baths, and part of XVI C. Pember’s scale model of Pliny’s Laurentine its floor mosaic showing a scene of a chariot race villa (1947). Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. in the Circus Maximus (photo R.J.A. Wilson). Colour plates follow page 140.

xviii

CONTRIBUTORS S

Annalisa Marzano is Professor of Ancient History Alexandra Chavarría Arnau is Associate Professor attheUniversityofReading,UK.Shehas at the Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy, where participated in excavations in Italy, Libya, and she teaches post-classical archaeology and archaeol- Egypt and published widely on the socioeconomic ogy of buildings. Her main research focuses on the history of the Roman world, including the mono- study of the late-Roman and early medieval western graphs Roman Villas in Central Italy: A Social and Mediterranean (settlements, churches, cemeteries, Economic History (2007)andHarvesting the Sea: and landscapes). She codirects the European Journal The Exploitation of Marine Resources in the Roman of Post-Classical Archaeologies. Mediterranean (2013). She is Fellow of the Royal Gian Pietro Brogiolo is Professor of Medieval Historical Society, of the Society of Antiquaries of Archaeology at the Università degli Studi di London, and recipient of a Leverhulme Major Padova, Italy. He has directed dozens of archaeolo- Research Fellowship. gical excavations in northern Italy and Croatia, Guy P.R. Métraux is Professor emeritus at York including investigation of Roman villas and settle- University, Toronto, Canada. He has participated in ments, churches, fortiﬁcations, and urban contexts. excavations in Italy, Turkey, and Tunisia and coau- He has been president of the Society of Italian thored The San Rocco Villa at Francolise (1985) and Medieval Archaeologists, cofounder of the journal books of the Corpus des mosaïques antiques de Tunisie. Archeologia Medievale, chief editor of Archeologia delle His Sculptors and Physicians in Fifth Century Greece Architetture, and codirector of the European Journal of (1995) received the Raymond Klibansky Prize. He Post-Classical Archaeologies. coedited and contributed to the BAR-IS book Anthony Bonanno is Professor of Archaeology at The Art of Citizens, Soldiers, and Freedmen in the the University of Malta. He has participated in exca- Roman World (with Eve D’Ambra, 2006). He has vations in Italy (Himera), Libya (Sidi Khrebish), and been a Guggenheim Fellow. Malta (various sites). He published widely, mostly on Masanori Aoyagi is Professor Emeritus at the Roman sculpture and the archaeology of Malta, University of Tokyo, Japan. He studied the Casa including Portraits and Other Heads on Roman della Nave Europa in Pompeii and directed the Historical Relief up to the Age of Septimius Severus excavations of the Roman villas at Realmonte (1976) and Malta: Phoenician, Punic and Roman (Agrigento), Cazzanello (Tarquinia), and Somma (2005). He is Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries Vesuviana (Naples). He has been Commissioner of of London, and Corresponding Member of the Heritage for the Japanese Government and Director Institutum Archaeologicum Germanicum and the of the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo. Archaeological Institute of America.

xix

xx LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

William Bowden is Associate Professor in Roman Roman art, architecture, and visual culture. Since Archaeology at the University of Nottingham, UK. 2005 he has codirected the Oplontis Project, He has participated in excavations in Italy, Albania, a collaboration among forty-six scholars worldwide Jordan, and the UK. His publications include Epirus aimed at publishing two contiguous archaeological Vetus: The Archaeology of a Late Antique Province sites near Pompeii. The first book of the Oplontis (2003), Byzantine Butrint: Excavations and Surveys Series, entitled Oplontis Villa A (“of Poppaea”) at Torre 1994–99 (with R. Hodges and K. Lako, 2004), and Annunziata, Italy. The Ancient Setting and Modern Butrint 3: Excavations at the Triconch Palace (with Rediscovery, appeared in 2014 as an Open-Access, R. Hodges, 2011). He also coedited three books in born-digital e-book. Brill’s Late Antique Archaeology series and in 2015 was Antonio De Simone is Professor Emeritus of awarded a British Academy Mid-Career Fellowship. Roman Architecture at the Università degli Studi Kimberly Bowes is Associate Professor of Classical Suor Orsola Benincasa, Naples, Italy. He excavated Studies at the University of Pennsylvania, and restored several sites on the Bay of Naples, Philadelphia, USA. She has directed archaeological including the Villa of the Papyrii in Herculaneum, projects in Israel and Albania, and recently com- the House of the Menander and the Suburban Baths pleted a National Science Foundation Project on in Pompeii, and Villa Arianna at Stabiae. He has been the Roman rural poor in Tuscany. Author of several Commissioner for the Comitato Nazionale Beni monographs and edited books on late Roman reli- Archeologici and is currently member of the board gion, domestic architecture, and landscape, she has of directors at the National Archaeological Museum also served as the twenty-second Director of the of Naples. American Academy in Rome. Girolamo F. De Simone is Contract Professor of Loïc Buffat is Director of the Mosaïques Archéologie Conservation at the Accademia di Belle Arti di research center (France). He has directed several Napoli, Italy, and Director of the Apolline Project. excavations in southern France, in the regions of He leads the excavations of the Roman villa of Pollena Nîmes, Béziers, and Valence. His monograph on Trocchia (Naples) and the ancient town of Aeclanum thevillasoftheager Nemausensis, L’économie doma- (Avellino). His research mostly focuses on Roman niale en Gaule Narbonnaise (Monographies economy and ancient landscapes. He has published d’archéolgie méditerranéenne), appeared in 2011. on late-antique Campania and the environment of the Vesuvian region. In 2011 the European Adele Campanelli has been archaeological man- Association of Archaeologists awarded him the ager for the Italian Ministry for Cultural Heritage European Archaeological Heritage Prize. since 1980. From 2010 to 2014 she was superintendent for the Office of Antiquity (Soprintendenza Pierre de la Ruffinière du Prey is Professor Archeologica) for the provinces of Salerno, Emeritus and Queen’s Research Chair at Queen’s Avellino, Benevento, and Caserta. From 2015 to University, Kingston, Canada. His villa publications 2016 she has been Archaeological Superintendent include The Villas of Pliny from Antiquity to Posterity for the Campania region and, in 2016, (1994) and a book forthcoming in Ex Horto: Superintendent for Archeology, Fine Arts, and Dumbarton Oaks Texts in Garden and Landscape Landscape for Naples Metropolitan area. Currently, Studies, produced while a Visiting Scholar at she is Director of the Phlegraean Fields Dumbarton Oaks. He is Fellow of the Royal Archaeological Park. Society of Canada, of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and was James S. Ackerman Resident in the John R. Clarke is Annie Laurie Howard Regents History of Art at the American Academy in Rome. Professor of Art History at the University of Texas, Austin, United States. He has published nine books Giovanni Di Maio is a geologist and expert in and over eighty articles and chapters on ancient geoarchaeology of the Pompeii region. He has

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxi

often collaborated with the archaeological superin- 2008, he has worked as a freelance professional tendences in several Italian regions, as well as with archaeologist and has published various articles research institutes and universities, both in Italy and online and in journals. abroad, including a project by the German Maria Antonietta Iannelli is an officer at the Archaeological Institute investigating the ancient Soprintendenza Archeologica, Salerno, Italy. She landscape of the Sarno River and the Oplontis holds degrees in classical archaeology from the Project. He has authored or coauthored many pub- Università degli Studi di Salerno (1977) and lications on the ancient Sarno River Plain and on the Università degli Studi di Pisa (1983). Since 1985 she Bronze Age tsunami that affected the Bay of Salerno. has been in charge of cultural archaeological heritage Maurizio Gualtieri is Professor emeritus of for the Sarno Valley and, from 1995, also for the Classical Archaeology at the University of Alberta, Salerno area, Irno Valley, and Amalfi Coast. She is Canada. He has coordinated and directed several the director of the Minori Roman villa museum and archaeological projects, including work at the site and of the National Archaeological Museum of Etruscan site of Artimino, the pre-Roman settlement Pontecagnano. She has been the scientific director at Roccagloriosa in Southern Italy, and the Roman for the investigations of the Roman villa of Positano villa at Ossaia/Cortona. He has received major grants since 2003. from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Luciana Jacobelli is associate researcher of the Council of Canada. His publications include, as edi- Istituto per le Tecnologie Applicate ai Beni tor, the two-volume study on Roccagloriosa and Culturali(CNR,Italy).Shehasparticipatedin a book on the Ossaia villa, and the monograph many excavations, mostly in the Vesuvian area, Lucania Romana (2003). Current work includes the and has published over fifty scholarly articles and final publication of the excavations and survey (with monographs on pictorial decorations, architec- H. Fracchia, University of Alberta) in the Upper ture, and daily life in Pompeii and Stabiae. Most Bradano Valley (Potenza). cited works are Le pitture erotiche delle Terme Thomas Noble Howe is Professor of Art and Art Suburbane di Pompei (1995), Gladiators at Pompeii History at Southwestern University Georgetown, (2003), and Nascere, Vivere, Morire a Pompei (with USA and Coordinator General/ScientificDirector Eva Cantarella, 2011). of the Restoring Ancient Stabiae Foundation, Italy. Kenneth Lapatin is Curator of Antiquities at the His dissertation is TheInventionoftheDoricOrder J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California. He (1985) and he has authored commentary and illus- has excavated in Italy, Greece, and Israel and curated trations for a translation of Vitruvius’ Ten Books on exhibitions on Greek vases, polychrome sculpture, Architecture (Cambridge University Press, 1999). He ancient gems, Roman silver, Hellenistic bronzes, and is currently the excavation director and the author/ the reception of antiquity in diverse periods. Among editor of the report on the discovery of the Prima his many publications are Mysteries of the Snake Porta-style Garden of the Villa Arianna at Stabiae. Goddess: Art, Desire, and the Forging of History His current work involves the development of poli- (2002); Luxus: The Sumptuous Arts of Greece and tical spaces in the Hellenistic world and the later Rome (2015); and Power and Pathos: Bronze Sculpture Roman Republic. of the Hellenistic World (2015 – awarded the London Riccardo Iaccarino holds degrees in manage- Hellenic Prize). ment of cultural heritage and in medieval archae- Maria Papaioannou is Associate Professor in ology from the Federico II and Suor Orsola Classical Archaeology and Director of the Centre Benincasa universities in Naples, Italy. He took for Hellenic Studies at the University of New part in archaeological projects run by the univer- Brunswick, Fredrickton, Canada. Her work centers sities of Naples, Siena, L’Aquila, and Nice. Since on domestic architecture in Roman Greece and as

xxii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

a junior Fellow of the Getty Foundation Arts of Oren Tal is Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv Rome’s Provinces Seminar, she has contributed to University, Israel, and, since 2007, Director of the the book Beyond Boundaries: Connecting Visual Apollonia-Arsuf Excavation Project. He specializes Cultures in the Provinces of Ancient Rome (2016). in the material culture of the classical- and medieval- Recipient of a Social Sciences and Humanities period Near East and its social, political, and eco- Research Council of Canada grant, she is conducting nomic implications. Tal’s scientific work reflects his laser scanning of an insula at Abdera and a basilica on efforts to improve thematic interests and to develop Kalymnos. new methods and approaches, interdisciplinary in nature, using archaeological evidence for historical Gisela Ripoll is Associate Professor in Archaeology at analysis in order to gain a better understanding of the Universitat de Barcelona, Spain, and former mem- ancient societies. ber of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (2001). Her ToréuticadelaBética(1998) received the Felix Teichner is Professor of Roman and Early Raoul Duseigneur Prize (Institut de France, 2001). She Medieval Archaeology at Philipps-Universität coedited Sedes regiae (ann. 400–800) (with J.M. Gurt, Marburg, Germany. He has directed excavations 2000), Mélanges d’Antiquité Tardive. Studiola in honorem in Germany, Hungary, Kosovo, Croatia, Scotland, Noël Duval (with C. Balmelle and P. Chevalier, 2004), Portugal, and Spain. His research focuses on Elites and Architecture in Late Antiquity and the Middle geoarchaeology, Roman provincial archaeology, Ages (with M. Jurković , 2007), and Arqueologia funerària the early Middle Ages, and Al-Andalus. His pub- al nord-est peninsular (segles VI-XII) (with N. Molist, lications include the monograph Entre tierra y mar 2012). (2011) on Lusitanian villas and studies on Roman cities of the Iberian Peninsula. He was Humboldt Israel Roll (1937–2010) was Professor emeritus at Research Fellow and is Fellow of the German Tel Aviv University, Israel, Director of the Archaeological Institute. He is currently directing Apollonia-Arsuf excavations (1977–2006), and a geoarchaeological project on the “Roman Codirector of the excavations of the Roman Maritime Economy” funded by the German Temple at Kedesh, Upper Galilee (1981–1983). He Science Foundation. has also conducted surveys and excavations of Roman road stations and sections of paved roads Andrew Wallace-Hadrill is Professor of Roman (including their building techniques) in order to Studies and Director of Research of the Faculty of map the Imperial Roman road network in Judaea, Classics, University of Cambridge. He is also defining its chronology on the basis of inscribed Director of the Herculaneum Conservation milestones and written sources, and aiming at the Project and has served as Director of the British reconstruction of the communication system in School at Rome (1995–2009). Among his most Roman and Byzantine Palestine. cited publications are Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum (1994)andRome’sCultural Ursula Rothe isBaronThyssenLecturerinClassical Revolution (2008). Studies at the Open University, UK. She has been involved in excavation projects in Italy, Portugal, and Zeev Weiss is Eleazar L. Sukenik Professor of the Netherlands, and was project lead at the Roman- Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Byzantine site at Tall Zira’ainnorthernJordan.Sheis Jerusalem, Israel, and has been Director of the on the Archaeology Committee of the Roman Society Sepphoris excavation project since 1991. Trained in and is Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. classical archaeology, he specializes in Roman and Her research focuses on cultural processes in the late-antique art and architecture in the provinces of Roman provinces, and her publications include Dress Syria-Palestine. His publications include many arti- and Cultural Identity in the Rhine-Moselle Region of the cles as well as two major books: The Sepphoris Roman Empire (2009). Synagogue: Deciphering an Ancient Message through Its

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Archaeological and Socio-Historical Contexts (Israel Mantha Zarmakoupi is Birmingham Fellow in Exploration Society 2005) and Public Spectacles in Visual and Material Culture of Classical Antiquity at Roman and Late Antique Palestine (2014). the University of Birmingham, UK. She has participated in excavations in Italy, Turkey, and Greece and R. J. A. Wilson is Director of the Centre for the has codirected an underwater survey around Delos and Study of Ancient Sicily at the University of British Rheneia. She has published widely on Roman luxury Columbia (Vancouver), Canada. In 2013 he won the villas, including the monograph Designing for Luxury on UBC Killam Research Prize in recognition of his the Bay of Naples (c.100 BCE–79 CE): Villas and contributions to scholarship. A graduate of Oxford Landscapes (2014), as well as on the urban development University, he has been Charles Eliot Norton of late Hellenistic Delos. She has been Fellow at Freie Lecturer of the AIA, Fellow at the Getty Research Universität in Berlin, New York University (Institute Institute, and Dalrymple Lecturer in Archaeology at for the Study of the Ancient World), the University of Glasgow University. He is the author of ﬁve books, Cologne (Humboldt Stipendium), the Getty Research most recently Caddeddi on the Tellaro: A Late Roman Institute, the Harvard Center for Hellenic Studies, and Villa in Sicily and Its Mosaics (2016). the National Hellenic Research Foundation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS S

This book began at an international conference also shepherded the manuscript and illustrations “The Roman villa in the Mediterranean basin,” through the process of approval for publication. This cosponsored by the Mishkenot Sha’ananim Konrad was successful, and we are grateful to the Syndics of Adenauer Conference Center, Jerusalem, and the Cambridge University Press for accepting our propo- Restoring Ancient Stabiae (RAS) Foundation of sal. It is to Beatrice Rehl, Publisher of Archaeology, Castellamare di Stabia, and their directors, Mr. Uri Art History, and Religious studies, editor par excellence, Dromi and Professor Thomas Noble Howe, respec- that our most enthusiastic thanks must go for her tively. We wish to express mighty thanks to them patience, timely warnings, and fine insights. and their sponsoring institutions, and to convey our The book has benefited greatly from a subvention gratitude and that of all the conference participants of the Publication Subvention Program of the to the dedicatee of this book, Professor Ehud Netzer Archaeological Institute of America. Early and wel- (1934–2010), for a memorable day’s visit to come financial support from the Queen’s Research Herodium, where he was a gracious host. Chairs Program of Queen’s University (via a con- The editors were able to include some of the tributor to the book) for photographs is gratefully conference participants, but more contributors acknowledged. were sought to ensure Mediterranean-wide coverage As editors, our greatest gratitude goes to Mehmet of Roman villas and the many historical issues they Deniz Öz, as much for his instinct for structuring the present. It was clear that a mere conference- book as for voluntarily undertaking the editorial proceedings publication would be inadequate to the work for the illustrations and maps. In an interna- ambitious program of the conference. A small edi- tional endeavor of this size, illustrations were inevi- torial committee (Professors Wilson, Weiss, Howe, tably received in various formats; Mr. Öz has du Prey, and Mr. Dromi) was formed to make sug- brought them into uniformity and order, which has gestions. Contributions began to come in by late served the contributors and the book well. They, and 2010 and continued as solicitation for contributions we, are fortunate to have secured his considerable and requests to participate continued. skills and talents. The former Archaeology and Renaissance Studies Finally, the contributors are the main object of our editor of Cambridge University Press in New York, thanks, not only for the quality of their texts but for Asya Graf, is owed a debt of gratitude for her advice their patience with our many questions and editorial and encouraging attitude. She found the right anon- interventions, their wide view of the purpose of the ymous assessors whose helpful insights much book, and their responsiveness in communicating improved the manuscript and whom we thank; she with us.

xxiv

ABBREVIATIONS S

AA Archäologische Anzeiger ArchDelt Archaiologikon Deltion AAA Αρχαιολογικά Ανά λεκτα εξ ArchEspArq Archivo Español de Arqueología Αθηνώ ν – Archaiologika Analectka ArqPort O arqueólogo português ex Athenon (Athens Annals of Athenaeum Athenaeum. Studi di letteratura Archaeology) e storia dell’antichità AE L’Année épigraphique AttiTaranto Atti del Convegno di studi sulla ActaArchHung Acta archaeologica Academiae Magna Grecia, Taranto Scientiarum Hungaricae BaBesch Bulletin antieke Beschavung AErgoMak Αρχαιολογικό Έργο στη BAMaroc Bulletin d’archéologie marocaine Μακεδονία και Θράκη - BAProv Bulletin archéologique de Archaiologiko Ergo ste Makedonia Provence kai Thrake BARev Biblical Archaeology Review AfrRom L’Africa romana BAR-BS British Archaeological AISCOM Associazione italiana per lo studio Reports – British Series e la conservazione del mosaico BAR-IS British Archaeological Reports – Amoenitas Amoenitas. Rivista Internazionale International Series di Studi Miscellanei sulla Villa BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools Romana Antica of Oriental Research AnalRom Analecta romana Instituti Danici BCH Bulletin de correspondance AnnESC Annales: économies, sociétés, hellénique cultures BCTH Bulletin du Comité des travaux AnMurcia Anales de Prehistoria historiques y Arqueología BdA Bolletino d’arte ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der BÉFAR Bibliothèque de l’École française römischen Welt d’Athènes de Rome AnTard Antiquité Tardive BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical AntAfr Antiquités africaines Studies Antiquity Antiquity. A Quarterly Review of BJb Bonner Jahrbücher des rheinischen Archaeology Landesmuseums in Bonn und des AntW Antike Welt. Zeitschrift für die Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Alterumswissenschaft Rheinlande Aquitania Aquitania. Une revue inter- BMon Bulletin monumental. Société régionale d’archéologie française d’archéologie

xxv

xxvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Britannia Britannia. A Journal of Romano- Deutschen Archäologischen British and Kindred Studies Instituts BTCGI Bibliograﬁa topograﬁca della GZM Glasnik zemaljskog muzeja colonnizazzione greca in Italia u Sarajevu, Sarajevo e nelle isole tirreniche, edited by HAD Hrvatsko arheološko društvo, G. Nenci and G. Vallet. Pisa: Scuola Zagreb Normale Superiore di Pisa, and Histria Antiqua Histria antiqua. Casopis Rome: ÉFR, 1977 Međunarodnog Istraživač kog CAG Carte archéologique de la Gaule Centra za Arheologiju – Journal of CahÉtAnc Cahiers des études anciennes the International Research Centre CBI ANUBiH Centar za balkanološka ispitivanja for Archeology Akademije nauka I umjetnosti IEJ Israel Exploration Journal Sarajevo IJNA International Journal of Nautical CÉFR Collection de l’École française de Archaeology Rome ILS Dessau, H. 1892–1916. Iscriptiones CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Latinae Selectae, 3 vols. Berlin: (1863–) Weidmann CMT I,1 Corpus des mosaïques antiques de InsFulc Insula Fulcheria Tunisie I,1. Utique, edited Italia Meridionale “L’Italia Meridionale in età by M.A. Alexander et al. 1973. Tardoantica Tardoantica.” Atti Taranto 38, Tunis and Washington, DC: Naples 1999 Institut National d’archéologie and JdI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Dumbarton Oaks Center for Archäologischen Instituts Byzantine Studies JECS Journal of Early Christian Studies CP Classical Philology JEH Journal of Ecclesiastical History CQ The Classical Quarterly JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology CRAI Comptes rendus des séances de JRS Journal of Roman Studies l’Académie des inscriptions et JSAH Journal of the Society of belles-lettres (Paris) Architectural Historians CSEL Corpus Scriptorum LibAnt Libya antiqua Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum. LibSt Libyan Studies Vienna: Kommission zur LTUR Lexicon topographicum urbis Herausgabe des Corpus der Romae, edited by Steinby, E.M., 6 lateinischen Kirchenväter vols. Rome: Quasar CuPAUM Cuadernos de Prehistoria MAAR Memoirs of the American y Arqueología de la Universidad Academy in Rome Autónoma de Madrid MÉFR Mélanges de l’École française de DHA Dialogues d’histoire ancienne Rome DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers MÉFRA Mélanges de l’École française de DossArch Dossier d’archéologie Rome, Antiquité Ergon To Ergon tes Archaeologikes MémAcInscr Mémoires présentés par divers Etaireias savants à l’Académie des Gallia Gallia. Archéologie de la France inscriptions et belles lettres antique. Migne, PG Migne, J.P. (ed.)1857-1866. Germania Germania: Anzeiger der Römisch- Patrologiae cursus completus. Series Germanischen Komission des

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvii

graeca. Paris: Imprimerie Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Catholique University Press Migne, PL Migne, J.P. (ed.) 1844-. Patrologiae Prakt Praktika tes en Athenais cursus completus. Series latina. Archaiologikes Etaireias Paris: Apud Garnier Fratres RAC Reallexikon für Antike und MM Madrider Mitteilungen Christentum. Stuttgart: MonAnt Monumenti antichi pubblicati per A. Hiersmann cura della Reale Accademia dei RANarb Revue archéologique de Lincei Narbonnaise Mouseion Mouseion. Journal of the Classical RendNap Rendiconti della Accademia di Association of Canada Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti, NAHisp Noticiario arqueológico hispánico Napoli NEAEHL The New Encyclopedia of RendPontAcc Atti della Pontiﬁcia Accademia Archaeological Excavations in the romana di archeologia. Rendiconti Holy Land (1993–) RM Mitteilungen des Deutschen NSc Atti dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Archäologischen Instituts, Lincei. Notizie degli scavi di Römische Abteilung antichità RStPomp Rivista di studi pompeiani NSAL Soprintendenza Archeologica della S.H.A. Scriptores Historiae Augustae with Lombardia. Notiziario an English translation by David ÖAW Österreichische Akademie der Magie. 3 vols. 1921–1932. Wissenschaften Cambridge, MA: Harvard Oebalus Oebalus. Studi sulla Campania University Press (Loeb Classical nell’Antichità Library) OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology TCCG Topographie chrétienne des cités Opus Rivista internazionale per la storia de la Gaule des origines au milieu economica e sociale dell’antichità du VIIIe siècle, edited by PBSR Papers of the British School at N. Gauthier. Paris: De Boccard Rome Topoi Topoi. Orient-Occident PIR2 Prosopographia Imperii Romani Vesuviana Vesuviana. An International Saeculi I, II, III, 2nd edn. Berlin: Journal of Archaeological and W. de Gruyter (1933–2015) Historical Studies on Pompeii and PLRE Jones, A.H.M., J. R. Martindale Herculaneum and J. Morris 1971–1992. YCS Yale Classical Studies The Prosopography of the Later ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Roman Empire. 4 vols. Epigraﬁk

INTRODUCTION annalisa marzano and guy p.r. métraux S

The expansion and proliferation of villas into the the fifth century CE and even later; they were Mediterranean under Roman hegemony is the sustainable propositions, adaptable and attractive topic of this book. In addition, the historical tra- in many different climes and conditions, and, in jectory of the villa as a formula and phenomenon is Western culture, a permanent ideal of life.2 outlined for different parts of the empire. Villas – Roman villas spread ineluctably both geographi- extra-urban, suburban, or seaside country houses, cally and over time. As with many other phenomena, many with productive estates or facilities contig- villas were exportable items that came to be indis- uous or nonadjacent to them, others purely resi- pensable – though with regional variations. Villas had dential – were unmistakable signs of Roman social become naturalized in Sicily as of the Roman con- and economic presence. Roman villas expanded quests on the island in the mid-third century, and so into Italy and the coasts and inland areas of the entrenched had they become that rich proprietors of mare nostrum (and ultimately into the northwestern villas were being harassed by Gaius Verres, the pro- provinces of the empire) along with other agricul- consul (governor) of Sicily, in 73–71 BCE.3 tural, physical, institutional, and sociocultural phe- The landscapes of the new provinces of Africa, nomena of the new hegemony.1 There were Spain, and Greece came to be populated – some exceptions, most notably in the eastern empire, densely, others thinly – with villas in the Roman where a widespread residential tradition and cul- style. With the exception of the Roman east – Asia ture on agricultural estates did not develop. Minor, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt, where alternative However, villas were signs of Roman economic methods of agricultural exploitation were used – the organization and signifiers of Roman cultural pre- villa with an agricultural estate was a conspicuous sence in annexed lands and coastlines, and they phenomenon of the Roman Empire from its incep- became both normal and normalizing by the tion in the Republic and Empire, as of the first late second century BCE in central and southern century CE through late antiquity.4 Italy and a little later in the northern peninsula. The Mediterranean-wide diffusion of villas came Elsewhere, landscapes readily receptive to the in part from their effectiveness as formulae for rural implantation of villas and their proliferation in organization and agricultural exploitation. It also the imperial period further assured Roman pre- came from their most distinguished examples: villas sence in terms of architecture, agricultural prac- of refined rural and sea-side living, meaningful tices, decorative expectations, and social mores enjoyment, and fashionable and up-to-date decora- throughout the Mediterranean. Roman villas tion that were developed in the late Republic and were still in use and under construction well into early empire, especially around Rome and most

xxviii

INTRODUCTION xxix

impressively on the Bay of Naples.5 The glamour and Another “hard” aspect of villas – in fact, of all allure of these villas was permanent and exemplary – farms and rural residences anywhere and at any their memory was still current as late as the sixth time – was equipment (instrumentum, pl. instrumenta), century CE – and they constituted an ideal that, in namely hardware and animals and also, in various ways, was often manifested in provincial Roman contexts, a slave agricultural workforce. venues.6 There were geographical and chronological Instrumentum, particularly the case of equipment variations, but the model of Roman villas in Italy, such as presses, is a theme tangential to several of while strongly developed and changed as needed, the chapters in this book, but some considerations on was vigorously maintained throughout the empire how the interpretation of slavery relates to the inter- from the late Republic through late antiquity. pretation of certain villas can be found in the intro- This book is intended to outline some of the ductory chapter. varieties of Roman villas and the various ways they Are social and cultural issues merely “soft” issues interacted among themselves, with the landscape and about Roman villas? We think not. Our introduc- larger economic picture, and within the late tion presents, in very brief outline, certain aspects of Republican and imperial hegemonies through late behavior among villa owners that reoccur with fair antiquity. This is a timeframe of some six to seven regularity in the record: clustering. Geographically, hundred years, so not all aspects of the phenomenon villas tended to group themselves near cities or can be broached. Still, we – and most especially the towns, famous beauty-spots and places of resort, other contributors to this book – have sought to and in areas of particular interest in the way of mar- situate villas in their settings and landscapes both kets or other advantages. A second aspect of cluster- geographically and socially, without claiming to be ing is social: the homogenization of Roman élites either complete or definitive. Our introductory (social, military and financial upper strata) in the way chapter presents certain themes about villas that are of certain aspects of plan, types of rooms denoting prompted by issues raised in the chapters of this systems of hierarchy and hospitality, and a certain book. uniformity of taste in iconography and decoration The Roman hegemony in its administrative throughout the Roman Empire. What it meant to guises was effected by “hard” devices: land divi- be Roman at various times was to commission crafts- sion (centuratio) needed to stabilize the extent of men to make something “like” what others had an annexation, distribute agricultural property commissioned. Of course, individuality in theme (sometimes to demobilized soldiers as citizens of and decoration of villas was not infrequent, but new colonies) in newly annexed regions, and a certain predictable repertory of themes and unifor- determine taxation for territories outside Italy. mity of styles were also repeated from villa to villa, There was even a scheme (alimenta)tomake and the media of mosaic floors and wall painting loans to owners of agricultural estates to provide were almost universally adopted. for local charities for orphans and possibly poor Of course, the topics about Roman villas families.7 outlined above and presented in the introductory Writers on agriculture over some six centuries in chapter are by no means mutually exclusive or separ- Latin literature are, in a way, the least helpful for the able; they overlap in theme and content, and the architectural documentation of Roman villas and contributions in subsequent pages take up many even their physical spread. There are many reasons and expand them. for this: The agricultural treatises stay “on message” This book, which presents Roman villas in pretty strictly, preferring to discuss how to set up a Mediterranean-wide perspective, is divided into a facility for pig husbandry or build a strong terrace sections that correspond to current and future wall for a raised garden rather than matters of taste research in the field of Roman villas.8 Defining so and decoration. Their writers eschew much specific capacious and, at times, so slippery a historical and discussion of the villa’s architecture itself. architectural category as the Roman villa with its

xxx INTRODUCTION

physical phenomena is difficult, especially in the very iconography, space, and amenities – are what we wide geographical scope we have proposed. have chosen to emphasize. This book’s aims are essentially twofold. First, to In addition, further investigation of the origins of present very recent discoveries and ideas about villas, the type of rural residence and agricultural exploitation both where the scholarly attention to the archaeol- in the environs of Rome and its nearby districts must ogy of the Roman period (such as Greece and even await greater elaboration than we have offered here: southern Italy) is a relatively recent phenomenon and The question is still open to archaeological discovery. to current innovative interpretive work of sites Instead, this book covers the Mediterranean-wide already well-known or in the process of discovery spread of villas rather than their Roman origins. (such as the villas of the Bay of Naples). Second, to This preface has outlined the scope, but not the investigate the diffusion and the social and economic details, of the project, so we have organized the chap- function of villas in the various provinces and the ters into the following broad sections. Of course, there types of production activities they embodied. This are overlaps and unusual juxtapositions. book is only a starting point in the much needed interpretative work of the large archaeological data- sets that have become available in recent years and in C HAPTERS 1 AND 2:OVERVIEWS the dialogue and exchange of information that needs AND I NTRODUCTION to occur among scholars working in different geographic areas. In addition, we address an important Chapter 1 covers several general key themes con- question: How did the villa – its architecture, dec- nected to villas, both in ancient literary texts and in oration, contents, estates, and activities – fulfill the modern scholarship. It also places the villa in the need for certain types of social interactions and cer- broader context of the Roman countryside, with its tain kinds of agricultural and resource exploitation to various determining features (e.g., centuriation). make the many different landscapes of the This general thematic treatment is followed by the Mediterranean recognizably Roman? contribution by Ursula Rothe (Chapter 2). Her chapter outlines the parameters of Roman villas in legal and historical scope and also provides a brief P RESENTATION OF T HIS B OOK view of Roman villas away from the Mediterranean basin, namely those in the northern provinces of The topic of this book is villas, but we have limited it Gaul, Germany, Britain, and the Roman East. to the villas that belonged to private owners (privati) or to villa estates that became imperially owned as a matter of bequest or confiscation. We have R OMAN V ILLAS ON THE B AY OF N APLES excluded (except for passing mention, especially for AND I TS H INTERLAND:CURRENT instances of emulation) rural or maritime palaces R ESEARCH attributable to imperial patronage and ownership such as the Villa of Hadrian at Tibur, the retirement Villas in Italy were the exemplars for many Roman palace of Diocletian at Spalatum (mod. Split), and villas in the provinces, so current research in this area many others. An exception also includes the large is the first to be considered. The emphasis is on buildings termed palatia built in northern Italy by Italian villas on the Bay of Naples and in central Italy. royal but non-Roman occupiers who fancied emu- The famous Villa of the Mysteries just outside lating Roman imperial villas on a smaller scale. Pompeii is freshly presented by Andrew Wallace- The decisions about houses in the countryside Hadrill (Chapter 3). His analysis embeds this very taken by persons of ordinary fortune, some wealth, well-known dwelling in two new contexts, as or even great wealth – but not owners with imperial a venue for a new kind of hospitality enjoined on responsibilities and requirements in terms of villa-owners by the new empire of the late Republic,

INTRODUCTION xxxi

and as the architectural artifact of an adaptation of agricultural land, they could be characterized as “use- local (Oscan) building and measuring methods to less” (inutilis), a term of serious moral reproach. new Roman needs. Local building practices and However, were they unproductive just because the urgency of social demands profoundly shaped they presented a face of pleasurable ease (amoenitas)? the dwelling and make it much less archetypal of Annalisa Marzano, in her contribution here the “classic” villa than it has been regarded here- (Chapter 8) and in a recent book-length study on tofore. The equally famous Villa A at Oplontis the Roman maritime economy in all its aspects, (Torre Annunziata), currently under active rein- shows that pisciculture, essential in the vestigation and publication by the University of “Mediterranean diet” of Roman times, could be Texas at Austin and the Soprintendenza Speciale per a lucrative business for owners of coastal villas who i Beni archeologici di Napoli e Pompei,9 is treated in had the cash for the very high upfront investment in two ways: by John R. Clarke (Chapter 4) in light of the technical equipment and construction required the discoveries of the Oplontis Project after several for effective farmed fishery. Their investment could seasons of work, and by Mantha Zarmakoupi also result in some unusual and charming seaside (Chapter 5) in terms of her recently published architecture, combining pleasure and profit in equal work on architectural and natural design of major measure. villas on the Bay of Naples.10 Together, their The Bay of Naples was famous for its villas, but contributions outline new concepts of how dwell- its hinterlands (to the north, the ager Campanus and ings in settings can be analyzed, and Clarke’s the ager Falernus, to the northwest, the territories of demonstration that the site of the Oplontis Villa Nola and other Campanian towns) were areas of A was high on a cliff-like bluff overlooking the Bay intense cultivation and habitation. The abrupt termi- (instead of its present geologically inland site) gives nation of the villas on the Bay in the eruption of the villa a quite different character than that which Vesuvius in 79 CE has disfigured what was, in fact, an the modern visitor experiences. ongoing history of agricultural exploitation in the The settings of villas and how gardens were region. In areas not immediately affected by the incorporated within them is the topic of Thomas catastrophe, villas flourished; an instance is to be Noble Howe’s contribution on the very grand villas found at Somma Vesuviana, a large and importantly at Stabiae (Chapter 6). These had elevated settings on decorated villa still under excavation by the authors the south coast of the Bay and panoramic views to of the contribution on it, Professors Antonio De the north but hardly any space among themselves, in Simone, Masanori Aoyagi, and Girolamo F. De a crowded juxtaposition that is the mark of social Simone (Chapter 9). The villa had a long history clustering. Howe outlines how aristocratic domus in with varied phases of alternately refined and archi- Rome and grand villas in Stabiae were part of the tecturally innovative construction and reconversion same instinct among the élites of family and/or to agricultural uses. finance. Location (the premier value-maker of real estate in any age) may have been more important than either space in a setting or adjacent productive R OMAN V ILLAS IN THE land for such villas. M EDITERRANEAN:CURRENT Grandest of all instances of conspicuous con- R ESEARCH sumption in country houses were the villas known as villae maritimae, coastal dwellings often of dazzling This section, the longest of the book, provides luxury in the way of contents, decoration, and archi- a geographical coverage of Roman villas in the tectural elaboration. Chapter 7 presents an overview Mediterranean basin. It begins with villas in southern of the discoveries from the recent excavations of such Italy, where Roman implantation of villas began a luxury maritime villa in Positano (Amalfi Coast). early and intensively, as Maurizio Gualtieri shows In that these villas were often without adjacent (Chapter 10); together with cultivation and

xxxii INTRODUCTION

habitation, water resources and transportation infra- Like southern Gaul and other parts of the wes- structures (by river, sea, and roads) went hand-in- tern Roman empire, Hispania and Lusitania (modern hand with villas. Villas were long-lived in southern Spain and Portugal) had some early implantation of Italy, lasting well into the fifth century CE. villas (for the east coast of Hispania, already in the late The same was the case for northern Italy. Republic and Augustan times), but integration of The presence of villas began later than in the south- these provinces into the Roman Mediterranean- ern part of the peninsula, but the importance of the wide economy as well as a strong urban culture area north of the Po as the gateway to and from Italy prompted a mighty spread of villas. Felix Teichner made for an even longer tradition of villas and villa- (Chapter 14) shows how an architecturally timid building. This is shown in the contribution of Gian beginning for villas, based in an existing Hispanic Pietro Brogiolo and Alexandra Chavarría Arnau tradition of farms and farming, does not prepare us (Chapter 11): the royal but non-Roman occupiers for the inventive designs and ideas of the villas begin- of the area in the newly dismembered Roman hege- ning already in the later second and into the third mony delighted in villas and grand rural dwellings century (see also Gisela Ripoll’s contribution in sometimes called palaces. Chapter 22). The agricultural estates of Sicily were of dia- Existing Mediterranean traditions of farm dwell- mond importance to the alimentation of the ings and methods of farming outside of Italy are Roman metropoleis of the Western Empire: difficult to apprehend archaeologically: Roman Together with Africa, they assured both the private implantations often overlaid them. However, market and the public system of food supply and Anthony Bonanno’s study (Chapter 15) of villas on dole. Roger J.A. Wilson’s contribution Malta reveals that preexisting methods of (Chapter 12) reviews the legendary wealth of the Phoenician/Carthaginian farming sometimes con- province in the late Republic and its rich villas into tinued into Roman times. This is especially signifi- late antiquity. The culture of late antique villas in the cant because Roman agricultural writers paid way of mosaic floors made by superior craftsmen fulsome tribute to Carthaginian agricultural writers – called to Sicily from North Africa is among their in particular the so-called Mago – as the basis of notable features, as Wilson shows here and in other rational agriculture, and Malta, a possession of publications. Carthage before the third-century BCE conquest, While villas were among the first implantation of may have presented a source of practical knowledge Roman presence in southern and northern Italy, in about agricultural exploitation, if not of villas. general they appear rather late – only in Augustan When Carthage was defeated for good in the times or later in the first century CE – in the great Third Punic War (149–146 BCE), a vast Roman Republican conquests, namely southern Gaul (Gallia land-grab took place in North Africa, which was Narbonensis) and Aquitania, and Hispania and strongly to affect politics and social relations in both Lusitania. Indeed, between the eastern part of south- Italy and Rome itself. The new province was ern Gaul and Aquitania to the west, there were widely invested with new or refounded towns and significant differences between the two regions agricultural estates of proverbial productivity. both in implantation and longevity of villas, as Loïc In consequence, numerous villas developed in the Buffat shows (Chapter 13). The extreme abundance early imperial period but increased in size and clout and brilliance of the late antique aristocratic villas of from the second century CE to late antiquity. Roger Aquitania, as famous for their mosaics as for, in the J.A. Wilson’s contribution (Chapter 16) synoptically case of the Chiragan villa, their sculptural contents, reorganizes the scattered scholarship on African villas emphasizes the flourishing of Roman culture in the to give a one-stop view of both the monuments and far west, a late blossoming that went along with the interpretive problems about their development, a strong intellectual and literary culture.11 and he does so as he carefully distinguishes the

INTRODUCTION xxxiii

various categories of villae as well as their geographi- Rome as spoils of war, but despite its relatively small cal distribution. As far as we are aware, no other study economic importance, Greece lodged in Roman has broached the topic with this panoramic view. conceptions as the capital of culture, art, and the Of course, Romans and Italians posted abroad in sciences. The Greek countryside was easily adaptable military units or traveling for business or cultural to Roman villas, and Maria Papaioannou’s contribu- purposes needed environments that, in their famil- tion (Chapter 19) shows how the existing infrastruc- iarity, may have done something to mitigate their ture of roads and towns incubated, then supported, longing for home. Oren Tal and the late Israel Roll a new spread of villas. Her district-by-district (Chapter 17) show how a Roman villa with a plan account of Roman villas in the Greek peninsula neatly adapted from Italian prototypes and acces- provides a survey comparable to Wilson’s account sories such as lararia, both quite foreign to their set- of North African villas, to our knowledge not ting, found their place on the coast of Palestine heretofore available. In addition, with ingenious during the early years of the Roman reoccupation generosity, she presents the main outlines of the villas in the later first century CE. The villa may have been of Herodes Atticus, a grandee of the later second more villa-like than a permanent dwelling: Tal inter- century CE and a friend of emperors: He imported prets it as a mansio or guesthouse on a military road, to Greece the contexts and even some of the contents intended to house official personnel and others on of imperial and grand private dwellings more familiar business in a temporary way. The Roman villa recal- in Rome and Italy. ling familiar spaces and domestic arrangements was The Adriatic or Dalmatian coast opposite Italy, an exportable commodity. from Istria to Epirus, was brought into the Roman Exportability is also a major issue for Roman hegemony in the late Republic; unsurprisingly, villas. The imagery of villas, as we discuss brieflyin Roman villas there became numerous. Their devel- the introductory chapter, was internally exported to opment and history is presented by William Bowden the decoration of urban houses in Pompeii and else- (Chapter 20), in what is also a valuable synoptic where. This also occurred externally, a radiation of account of very scattered publications that are diffi- villa-like ideas to urban houses outside Italy. In the cult, in some cases, to access. Roman east, villas in the Italian mode do not exist, or do so as exceptions. However, people in the Roman provinces who were willing, even anxious, to parti- R OMAN V ILLAS:LATE A NTIQUITY cipate in the new hegemony could adapt the plan of their urban houses, their decoration, and the spatial Late antique villas from the third through the sixth sequences of rooms to Roman villa ideas. Zeev centuries CE have become important historical and Weiss’s contribution (Chapter 18) shows how the cultural evidence for both the continuous traditions Jewish elites of Galilee adopted villa-like ideas to of Roman economic and social structures and their their domus; he broaches the much larger and very persistence. A contribution by Guy P.R. Métraux important (and as yet unexplored) topic of provincial (Chapter 21) on various aspects of late antique villas, adoptions of Roman/Italian villa ideals in urban based in part on literary and archaeological sources houses. and on the structure of sculptural ensembles in Villas expanded into the Mediterranean and Aquitania (Chiragan portraits) and Gallia Belgica became naturalized in the newly annexed provinces. (Welschbillig portraits), outlines how they summed While the conquest of Africa in the mid-second up the cultural context they sought to embody. century CE was Rome’s great military achievement, Along with villas in Aquitania, the most the almost-simultaneous annexation of Greece (with spectacular construction and decoration of Roman the defeat of the Greek Confederacy and the destruc- villas occurred in late antique Hispania: special con- tion of Corinth in 146 BCE) was a cultural triumph. sideration is given to that province in Gisela Ripoll’s Works of art in vast quantities went from Greece to contribution (Chapter 22), which provides the

xxxiv INTRODUCTION

history of villas in the peninsula as well as report of in the face of his persona as a public figure was realized recent and very important discoveries and interpre- both in Pliny’s intentions and in much later recon- tations. Besides emulating the Roman prototypes or structions of his privacy and the private/public making variations on them, late antique villas were dilemma. The Roman villa as an instrument of com- often iconographically steeped in the classical culture bined private delectation and public instruction is of gods, myths, history, and personalities (mosaic given an archetype in J. Paul Getty’s reconstruction floors and sculptural contents). of the Villa of the Papyri in a canyon in Malibu, As the concentration of estates and the growing California. Kenneth Lapatin shows us how it worked grandeur of villas in late antiquity built by competi- (Chapter 25). The original villa near Herculaneum, tive patrons willing to deploy money and energy on possibly owned by L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, inventive designs, decoration, and contents, so too Julius Caesar’s father-in-law, was emblematic of the did they take on new ideas. At the time, the most luxuryoflateRepublicanRomanelitesaswellasthe widespread new idea was Christianity, and by the repository of a philosophical library. Its emulation, the fourth century and with the stamp of imperial Getty Villa at Malibu, has developed from being the approval, owners were prompted to add architectural personal project of a wealthy man into an international, amenities of the Christian cult (mausolea with special well-funded, and established center for learning about symbols, chapels) as well as explicit symbols in the the ancient world, in part on the basis of a repository of mosaic floors of their villas. The Christianization of Greek and Roman art that was, after all, one of the villas, a notable late development of the Roman purposes of Roman villas: great cultural tradition, via- form, is the topic of Kimberly Bowes’ contribution bility (agricultural in the case of Roman villas, financial (Chapter 22): Her examples range throughout the in the case of the Getty Villa), and a vigorous exponent Western Empire, emphasizing both the singularity of of knowledge. Roman villas and their culture are regional expressions and their pervasiveness. exportable beyond the Mediterranean to the Pacific coast of the United States.

R OMAN V ILLAS:LATER M ANIFESTATIONS NOTES

The emulation of the Roman villa in western archi- 1. For deﬁnitions, see Leveau 1983, the articles in tectural traditions is a vast topic that cannot be effec- Magnou-Nortier 1993, and Ursula Rothe in this tively summarized in this book. However, its book (Chapter 2). importance is such that two contributions touching 2. General histories of Roman villas are few in number. on both mental and material manifestations of villas Notable among them are McKay 1975, 100–35, have been included. 156–200, 210–37, Percival 1976, Mielsch 1987, 1999, – Managing private and public aspects of life is Ackerman 1990, 35 62, Smith 1997, and vol. 2 of a perennial issue in domestic design: How the Gros 1996; useful compendium of articles in Reutti 1990; Ayoagi and Steingräber 1999; most recently, king’s bedroom generates the enﬁlade of public spaces articles in Ciardiello 2007. Some Roman villas and is a problem for palaces, and it is also a problem for their tradition are discussed in Bentmann and Müller villas and domus of privati. In fact, the relation of 1970. Surveys of large geographical regions are also public and private modes was a concern in Roman few in number: for the Bay of Naples, D’Arms 1970 domestic architecture; even more important, they (reprint 2003); for central Italy, Marzano 2007; for became and still are design issues. Is a dwelling environs of Rome, De Franceschini 2005 and indivi- intended to incubate the private person or to repre- dual articles in Santillo Frizell and Klynne 2005; for sent him or her? Pierre du Prey’s contribution Tibur and Tusculum, Tombrägel 2012 and Castillo (Chapter 24) shows how Pliny the Younger’s pre- Ramírez 2005, respectively; for maritime villas, espe- occupation with procuring privacy in two of his villas cially in Italy, Lafon 1981b and 2001. For the Iberian

INTRODUCTION xxxv

Peninsula, Gorges 1979; for Aquitania, Balmelle 2001; Noble Howe (Southwestern University) and Uri for Republican villas near Rome, articles and intro- Dromi; the latter, director of the Mishkenot duction in Becker and Terrenato 2012; for late Sha’ananim Center in Jerusalem, kindly made the antique Italy, Sfameni 2006. Rescue excavations in resources and hospitality of the Center and the the countryside have also become important: for Konrad Adenauer Conference Center available to Gaul, the Institut national de recherches archéologiques the participants; the conference was conceived by préventives in its volume for 2005 has accounts of its Professor Howe in the context of the Fondazione activities for Roman villas. For villas in northern Gaul, Restoring Ancient Stabiae (RAS) project. This book Germania, and Britain see most recently the articles in includes contributions from many of the 2008 parti- Roymans and Derks 2011. cipants, but since then, the editors have asked 3. The evidence of Sicilian villa owners was used by numerous others to contribute in order to assure Cicero in his speeches In Verrem to document geographical, thematic, and chronological coverage Verres’ abuse of his official position. of villas throughout the Roman world in the 4. Rossiter 1989; Foss 1976, 47–8, 73–4. Mediterranean. 5.D’Arms 1970, 2003; Zarmakoupi 2013. 9. The first book on the Oplontis Project has been 6. The copying of metropolitan styles in provinces is published as an e-book (Clarke and Muntasser eds. a theme of empire discussed in Maier 2006, 78–111. 2014). For other publications generated by the Project 7. The extent to which the alimentary scheme imple- see list on the official webpage: www.oplontisproject mented by Trajan was targeted to poor families is .org/bibliography/. controversial; see Jongmann 2002. 10. Zarmakoupi 2014. 8. The impetus for this book came from an interna- 11. The sculptures of the Chiragan villa are part of Guy tional conference in 2008 organized by Thomas P.R. Métraux’s contribution (Chapter 21).

Map 1. Overview of the geographic areas covered in the book, with reference to the maps.