XIII. Lower Gangetic Plain Or Delta Region

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Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 (237–260) 237

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India: XIII. Lower Gangetic Plain or Delta Region

Anurudh K Singh

Department of Genetics, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

Abstract The Lower Gangetic Plains, situated to the southeast of the Middle Gangetic Plains, is the delta region resulting from the confluence of the rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra, before they meet the Bay of Bengal. The Lower Gangetic Plains region is more humid, with large parts of the land inundated for the major part of the year. The continued deposition of silt producing fertile alluvial soil has made this region one of the most fertile and thickly populated regions in the world. Most inhabitants (up to 94 per cent in the Sundarbans) depend on agriculture. The region is rich in biodiversity, particularly in the aquatic biodiversity and mangroves found in the swampy forests of the Sundarbans, and is declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The region’s agriculture is very old, initiated in the Paleolithic period by non-Aryan Austric-speaking peoples, but later influenced by several cultures both from neighboring Mongolians and Aryan, and far west Minoan civilization of Crete as reflected by archaeological evidences. The region can be credited for the development of wetland agriculture involving water-loving crop species, such as rice and jute, for the cultivation of a large number of varieties of long-stemmed rice in the swamps and deep morasses, for postharvest storage technologies, and for boat manufacturing and shipping skills and maritime trade. In Greek and Latin literature, this region was referred to as Gangaridai, a maritime country where trading ships came from various parts of the world. The region was known for the finest of silk and muslin cloth. Culturally, with the extension of Aryan culture, it came under the influence of Aryans and interacted with local Austric and Dravidian tribes from the south, producing a unique synthesis of Aryan-Dravidian culture. Cultures from other parts of the world also had an influence. For these reasons, the present article proposes the region to be another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site with appropriate analyses and justification based on facts.

The Lower Gangetic Plains (LGP) of the mm or more. The soil is rich bhangar, Indo-Gangetic Plains is the extension suitable for rice cultivation. Part of the of the Middle Gangetic Plains (MGP) plains has a coastal climate with unique to the southeast, and is particularly vegetation. The fertile alluvial plains, characterized by its greater humidity. which earlier had rich vegetation of moist The rainfall in the region is around 1,700 deciduous broad-leaved forest, has been 238 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites cleared and is being intensely cultivated Black Polished Ware levels, in sites such from centuries like the other parts of the as Pandu Rajar Dhibi. Iron technology Indo-Gangetic Plains. Consequently, the enabled the early farmers to clear the majority of the people of the region are dense and tangled forests for cultivation. involved in agricultural activities with the Thus, the summary of archaeological and densest human populations on the earth. literary evidence indicates that in addition However, the human interactions with the to the other progress and development unique landscape [created as a result of the common with the other two regions of confluence of the two large rivers Ganga the Indo-Gangetic Plains (such as MGP), (Ganges) and Brahmaputra before they rice was the main crop of the Chalcolithic go down into the Bay of Bengal], have period, with Mangalkot yielding rice from been distinct and unique, harmonizing the a hearth (Ray, 1987). The discovery of biodiversity with ecological conditions silos having a capacity of about 9 quintals and transforming the region into an for the storage of paddy at Mahishdal, area of specialized, distinct and specific reveal the progress made in postharvest agriculture, predominantly based on water- and storage technologies, probably needed loving crop species and cultures. This is because of the prevalence of the extremely reflected in the products and technology humid climate conditions, and to provide discovered in the archaeological remains. continued support to the livelihood and The region can be credited for evolving food security of the growing population the triple-cropping system due to the (Ghosh, 1984). The archaeological prolonged availability of moisture, for the sites also reflected establishment of domestication of jute, and for generating prosperous agricultural communities in unique and specific diversity suited the region, living in small- to medium- to unique ecologies of the region and sized villages (Singh, 1990). Further, consumer demands, including staple food interacting with the coastal landscape, crops such as rice, and for postharvest the people of the region developed boat grain storage. Like the two other regions manufacturing, fishing, and shipping of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the LGP has skills, evolving maritime trade and a large number of sites with Neolithic commerce, as the alternative profession. characteristics indicating the practice of For maritime trade and commerce, the agriculture from the early time of human settlement. With the introduction of copper, a new era of Chalcolithism evolved in the The Lower Gangetic Plains (LGP) region resulting in certain innovations, of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is the discovered at sites such as Pandu Rajar extension of the Middle Gangetic Dhibi, Mangalkot (District Burdwan), Plains (MGP) to the southeast, and is Hathikhera, Mahishdal (District Bankura), particularly characterized by its greater etc. During subsequent evolution, iron was humidity. The rainfall in the region is introduced in the region, as it appeared, as around 1,700 mm or more. Black and Red ware in the Pre-Northern Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 239 region was known throughout the world Location and extent as a maritime country, called Gangaridai. The LGP has the shape of a triangle, and For these reasons, the region is being is considered to be an “arcuate” delta (arc- proposed as another National Agricultural shaped). It is a Riverine Delta situated just Biodiversity Heritage Site, based on above the Bay of Bengal, with a major the indices established by Singh and portion falling into Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The Varaprasad (2008). delta is over 350 km wide along the Bay of

Figure 1. Extent and limits of the Lower Gangetic Plains (dotted line). 240 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Bengal. As the silts are brought in by the Dinajpur, Maldah; (b) Central Alluvial rivers annually by the normal flow and flood, Plains: Murshidabad, Nadia, Bardhaman, it is a growing delta, the largest in the world, Hoogly, Howrah, and Medinipur; with extremely fertile and vegetated alluvial (c) Alluvial Coastal Saline Plains: North land. It is also called The Green Delta or the and South 24 Parganas; and (d) Rorh Plains: Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta. Birbhum and Bankura. Administratively, it includes the districts of North 24 Parganas, The LGP arises from the confluence of the South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hoogly, Nadia, following major rivers: the Ganges running Bardhaman, Birbhum, and Murshidabad. horizontally from the west and then running down to meet the ocean, the Brahmaputra, stretching from the northeast of India to the Landscape south and ending in the sacred Ganges, and The landscape of the region is the vast river the Meghna, the wide river then flowing system with three major landforms: the further south in the confluence of River Uplands, Old Fluvial/Deltaic Plains, and Padma and ending in the Bay of Bengal Young Fluvial Plains (Singh et al., 1998). with new alluvial land (chars) each year The upper reaches of the LGP consist of (Fig. 1). Administratively, in the north it is moist deciduous forests that extend across bounded by the parts of undivided Bengal, the alluvial plain of the lower Ganges and in the west by Jharkhand and Orissa, and Brahmaputra rivers, which run the length in the east by the northeastern hill states of of the Himalayan foothills and drain its India, while in the south it runs into the Bay breadth, to form the world’s largest river of Bengal (Fig. 1). delta. Only about three per cent of the ecoregion is now under natural forest, At the physical level, the LGP (Ganges with only one large block of intact habitat Delta) of undivided India is made up of remaining. The middle ecoregion consists three major regions: (i) Brahmaputra of the fertile old alluvial plains, where the Alluvium, comprising part of the districts of forests have largely been replaced with Dhaka, Mymensingh, Tangail, and Comilla intensive agriculture, which supports one of of Bangladesh, (ii) Ganges Alluvium, the densest human populations on earth. The comprising part of the districts of Kushtia, alluvial substrate deposited by the rivers in Jessore, Khulna, Rajshahi, Pabna, and this region is clayey and drains poorly, but Dhaka of Bangladesh and a major portion on the more stable but flood-prone riverine of West Bengal (India), and (iii) Tessta flats, the soil tends to be sandier with only Silt, comprising part of Dinajpur, Rangpur local clay patches. The lower deltaic region districts, East Bogra, and Sirajganj of is composed of a labyrinth of channels, Bangladesh and parts of West Bengal (India) swamps, lakes, and floodplain sediments (Fig. 1). (chars). Thick stands of tall grass, known as canebrakes, grow in these areas. Where The LGP falling in India consists of four the delta meets the Bay of Bengal, the plains: (a) Barind Plains West Bengal: West Sundarbans mangroves form the world’s Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 241

The summary of archaeological and literary evidence indicates that in addition to the other progress and development common with the other two regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (such as MGP), rice was the main crop of the Chalcolithic period, with Mangalkot yielding rice from a hearth.

Figure 3. Diverse agriculture with rich crop diversity dominated by rice (Source: www. largest mangrove ecoregion, covering an wikipedia.org). area of 20,400 km2 in a chain of 54 islands (Fig. 2). The Sundarbans freshwater swamp 100–130 km, with a network of estuaries, forests ecoregion, lies closer to the Bay of tidal rivers, and creeks intersected by Bengal, and is flooded with slightly brackish numerous channels, enclosed flats, marshy water during the dry season and fresh- islands covered with dense forests. In 1997, water during the monsoon season. These the Sundarbans were awarded the status of forests too, have almost been completely World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. converted to intensive agriculture (Fig. 3). The Sundarbans derive their name from the The common soil-scape of the region is predominant mangrove species, Heritiera represented by level to very gently sloping fomes Wall., which is locally called sundri Haplustalfs/Sapludalfs (Sehgal et al., 1992). or sundari. Thus, the Sundarbans are a Agriculturally, the delta can be separated part of the world’s largest delta covered into two parts: the eastern (active), and by mangrove forest and vast saline mud the western (less active) areas. Most of the flats. The whole tract reaches inland for delta is composed of alluvial soils, with red and red-yellow laterite soils found farther to the east. The soil has large amounts of minerals and nutrients, which are good for agriculture.

Agroclimate Climatologically, the region can be classified into: Tropical humid, Tropical moist humid, and Tropical subhumid. The overall climate Figure 2. The Sundarbans, with unique of the region is characterized by hot summers and rich mangrove diversity (Source: www. and mild winters. The region receives high kolkatabirds.com). rainfall both during summer and winter, 242 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites ranging from 1,400 to 2,000 mm or even upper canopy containing the deciduous more. The potential evapotranspiration species, while the second story is dominated (PET) ranges from 1,000 to 1,400 mm, by evergreen species. Open forests are reflecting that precipitation exceeds PET dominated by semal (Bombax ceiba L.) in for the major part of the year, and that the association with Albizia procera Benth., precipitation satisfies 80 per cent of the Duabanga sonneratioides Buch.-Ham., and water requirement. The dry period is only Sterculia villosa Roxb. These are early seral for a month or so with a water deficit of communities that will eventually become around 400 mm. The region experiences sal (Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn.) forests, water stress from March to May. Therefore, if succession is allowed to proceed. But in the growing season in the region ranges most places the forests fail to reach a climax from 150 to 270 days. The soil moisture for various reasons (mostly human-caused) regime is ustic (Sehgal et al., 1992). perpetuating the sub-climax community.

The LGP is the eastern part of the Indo- The riparian forests of the region are Gangetic Plain and one of the most characterized by an Acacia–Dalbergia important agricultural ecoregions in the association that includes Acacia catechu world (Timsina and Connor, 2001). Most Brandis, Albizia procera, Bombax ceiba, of the LGP is now part of Bangladesh (i.e., Sterculia villosa, and Dalbergia sissoo of the erstwhile undivided Bengal). In Roxb. In the upper region, the forests are present-day India, most of the region lies in made up of Duabanga–Pterospermum– the state of West Bengal, which is further Terminalia in association with Bombax divided into six agroclimatic subregions: ceiba, Pterospermum acerifolium Benth., (i) the northern hilly zone, (ii) the Tarai-Teesta Laportea crenulata Wight, Duabanga floodplain, (iii) the Gangetic floodplain, sonneratioides Buch.-Ham., Terminalia (iv) the coastal floodplain, (v) the Vindhya myriocarpa Van Heurck & Müll.Arg., and old floodplain, and (vi) the undulating Calamus tenuis Roxb. lateritic subregion of the Eastern Plateau Region (Sen Gupta, 2001). The Gangetic In permanently wet or moist areas with delta has fertile alluvial plains with soil fine clayey soils and a rich humus layer, mostly clayey in texture. impenetrable canebrakes grow profusely in the understory. Annual fires are common, so fire-hardy species, such as Ziziphus Floristic diversity The tropical moist deciduous forests found in the lower reaches of the Ganges and Where the delta meets the Bay of Brahmaputra rivers once stretched along Bengal, the Sundarbans mangroves the plains across the Indian states of Uttar form the world’s largest mangrove Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, ecoregion, covering an area of and Orissa, and most of Bangladesh. The 20,400 km2 in a chain of 54 islands. vegetation is semi-deciduous, with the Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 243 mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba Mill.), Agriculture and agrobiodiversity Z. vulgaris Lam., Madhuca indica J.F. The LGP is the largest floodplain (19,389 Gmel. (syn. M. longifolia Macbride), Aegle km2) of the Gangetic Plains, and the most marmelos (L.) Correa ex Roxb., Butea fertile subregion. Predominantly, these are monosperma (Lam.) Taub., Terminalia man-made fertile alluvial plains cleared of tomentosa Wight & Arn., Ochna pumila forests and presently intensely cultivated. Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, and several others The human activities in the region date back also occur in these fire-prone areas. The to thousands of years. Approximately two- other associated trees are Ceriops decandra thirds of the people work in agriculture, and (Griff.) Ding Hou, Excoecaria agallocha grow various crops on the fertile floodplains L., Heritiera fomes, and Phoenix paludosa of the delta. The major crops are rice, jute, Roxb. Some of the common trees occurring and horticultural crops. Fishing is also an in the plains are Butea monosperma, important activity in the delta region, with Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale [syn. fish being a major source of food for most Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Bra], Mangifera people in the area. indica L., Madhuca indica, Shorea robusta, The availability of moisture for the most part Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight of the year has permitted the evolution of a & Arn., and Terminalia chebula Willd. ex triple-cropping system. The three cropping Flem. seasons include a rainy or kharif season The area is very rich in floristic diversity in from June to October; a winter or rabi the swampy mangrove forests (Fig. 2). This season from November to February; and a natural vegetation of littoral swamp forests is summer or dry season from March to May. called Sundarbans, because of the dominant Traditionally, the region is primarily a rice- growing area. On medium lands, after the mangrove species Heritiera fomes, called harvest of the long-duration, photosensitive the Sundari. The mangrove vegetation local rice grown during the rainy season, is dominated by Rhizophora mucronata farmers traditionally grow pulses such as Lamk., R. apiculata Blume, Kandelia grass pea, lentil, or chickpea (Bengal gram) candel Druce, Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) in winter, on residual moisture. However, Blanco, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk., the productivity and return on these crops Xylocarpus granatum Koen., and Avicennia are low. Though rainfed agriculture is the officinalis L. traditional farming system of the region, in some pockets irrigated farming has also The mammal fauna consists of 126 known evolved. But the main crop cultivated both species, including one near-endemic species in kharif and rabi seasons has remained of bat, Tadarida teniotis Rafinesque. There rice only. are more than 380 known bird species, although none are endemic. The rich aquatic Jute is the other major crop of the region, fauna is represented by approximately 300 cultivated as an additional/alternate crop, species of fish. particularly in the areas prone to flooding 244 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

(Fig. 4). More than 85% of the world retention capacity and therefore produces production of jute comes from the Gangetic an inferior quality of jute. delta region. The soil of the Ganges delta creates a great platform for growing jute and The major cropping systems prevalent in the other allied fiber crops, such as sunn hemp. region are: rice–wheat, rice–potato, jute– Rich loam and riverine silts make the best wheat, jute–rice–sunflower, jute–mustard, composition of soil and mineral structure rice–mustard, jute–rapeseed–rice, sesame– for growing jute. Each year, additional silts groundnut–sunflower, pulses–wheat, rice– are brought in by the flood, a devastating vegetables, rice–wheat–summer rice, which phenomenon that is highly favorable for have been evolved by the local farmers the production of jute and other fiber crops. based on their ingenuity and life-time Therefore, the century-old experienced jute experiences. Biswas et al. (2006), while farmers in this region go through much making an integrated assessment of the misery to produce quality jute. cropping systems in the region, concluded that compared to new triple-cropping system Jute cultivation in the region can be involving potato, traditional systems, such classified into three areas: (i)Brahmaputra as jute–wheat, jute–rapeseed–rice, and rice– Alluvium, also called the Jat Area, which wheat, require fewer inputs and involve is inundated and replenished every year by less risk, making them more suitable for fresh alluvial deposit, having soils acidic resource-poor small farmers of the region. in nature, but produces the best quality In the crop rotation, rice or wheat is taken jute (mostly Bangladesh) of the region; after rice/jute. (ii) Ganges Alluvium, also called the District Area, has alkaline side of The availability of moisture throughout neutrality soils, and produces next to Jat the year has made horticulture, including jute in order of quality; and (iii) Teesta floriculture an important component of Silt, also called the Northern Area, which agricultural cropping and/or production has a sandy soil with lower moisture systems. Some of the horticultural and supplementary crops grown in the plains are aroids and cucurbits among vegetables, and banana, coconut, mango, papaya among fruits.

Fishing is also an important activity in the delta region, with fish being a major source of food for many of the people in the area. Fish farming, either independently or in combination with rice, is an important source of livelihood for farmers. The Figure 4. Commercial cultivation of jute common species of domestic fish arerohu , (Source: www.informedfarmers.com). katla, bata, etc. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 245

(L.) P.Beauv.], Comilla cotton (Gossypium The mammal fauna consists of 126 arboreum/herbaceum L.), grass [Paspalidium known species, including one near- flavidum (Retz.) A.Camus], peepal (Ficus endemic species of bat, Tadarida religiosa L.), tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius teniotis Rafinesque. There are more L.), and white jute (Corchorus capsularis than 380 known bird species, although L.). The other allied fiber crops cultivated none are endemic. The rich aquatic are flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), kenaf fauna is represented by approximately or mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus L. and H. 300 species of fish. sabdariffa L.), ramie [Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaud.], sisal (Agave sisalana Perr.), sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.), and tree cotton Representative crop species in various (Gossymium arboretum var. conansis L.). crop groups Vegetables. Ash gourd [Benincasa hispida Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets. Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus (Thunb.) Cogn.], bhindi or okra [Abelmoschus L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), barnyard esculentus (L.) Moench], bitter gourd millet (Echinochloa frumentacea Link; (Momordica charantia L.), bottle gourd syn. Panicum frumentaceum Roxb.), finger [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley], millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], cabbage [Brassica oleracea var. capitata foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.], (L.) DC.], cauliflower (Brassica oleracea kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), var. botrytis L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus maize (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), L.), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], L.), kundri (Coccinia indica Wight & and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Arn.; syn. C. grandis Voigt), lablab bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet], musk melon Grain legumes and oilseeds. Chickpea (Cucumis melo L.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), (Cicer arietinum L.), common vetch (Vicia brinjal (Solanum melongena L.), pointed sativa L.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.), gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.), ridged green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek gourd [Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.], var. radiata], groundnut (Arachis hypogaea small bittergourd (Momordica dioica L.), horsegram (Dolichos biflorus Linn.), Roxb. ex Willd.), sobhanjana (Moringa Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus pterygosperma Gaertn.), sponge gourd L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medic), mustard (Luffa cylindrica Roxb.; syn. L. aegyptiaca (Brassica campestris L., B. tournfortii Mill.), summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), Gouan), pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) sweet gourd [Momordica cochinchinensis Millsp.], sesame (Sesamum indicum L.; syn. (Lour.) Spreng], tomato (Lycopersicon S. orientale L.), and sunflower Helianthus( esculentum Mill.), and winged bean annuus L.). [Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.].

Fodder and fiber crops. Bargad (Ficus Leafy vegetables. Bathua (Chenopodium benghalensis L.), bhalai [Imperata cylindrica album L.), green amaranth (Amaranthus 246 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites caudatus L., A. gangeticus L., A. paniculatus (Aegle marmelos), banana (Musa paradisiaca L.), Indian spinach (Basella alba L., B. L.; M. superba Roxb.), ber (Ziziphus rugosa rubra L.), purple amaranth (Amaranthus Lam.; syn. Z. glabra Roxb.), chakotra or atropurpureus Roxb.), spinach (Spinacia pomelo [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. or oleracea L.), and water spinach (Ipomoea C. grandis Osbeck], date palm [Phoenix aquatica Forsk.). robusta (Becc.) Hook. f., P. sylvestris (L.) Roxb.], guava (Psidium guajava L.), Bulb and tubers. Arvi or taro [Colocasia jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), fallax Schott, C. esculenta (L.) Schott], jamun [Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels], carrot (Daucus carota L.), elephant yam karonda (Carissa carandas Lour.), kaith [Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) bel [Limonia acidissima L.; syn. Feronia Bl.], kukur alu (Dioscorea puber Blume; elephantum Correa, F. limonia Swingle], syn. D. anguina Roxb.), potato (Solanum Hesperethusa crenulata (Roxb.) M.Roem., tuberosum L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), Schinus limonia L.], lasora (Cordia myxa sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), taro (Alocasia Roxb.; syn. C. dichotoma Forst.), mango indica Schott), turnip (Brassica rapa L. (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica var. rapa), voodoo lily (Amorphophallus papaya L.), phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.), bulbifer Blume), yam [Amorphophallus sapota [Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen], sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth., Dioscorea toddy palm (Borassus flabellifer L.), and esculenta (Lour.) Burk., D. kalkapershadii watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Prain & Burkill., D. pentaphylla L. (syn. D. Matsum. & Nakai]. jacquemontii)], and yam bean [Pachyrrhizus tuberosus (Lam.) Spreng., P. erosus (L.) Spices. Black pepper [Piper nigrum L. (Lam. Urban], introduced. ex Link)], chili (red and green) (Capsicum annuum L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum Fruits. Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica L.), garlic (Allium sativum L.), ginger officinalis Gaertn.), avocado (Persea (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), haldi or turmeric americana Mill.; recent introduction), bael (Curcuma domestica Valet.; syn. C. longa L.), kali haldi (Curcuma caesia Roxb.), Mexican coriander (Eryngium foetidum L.), The major cropping systems prevalent and onion (Allium cepa L.). in the region are: rice–wheat, rice– potato, jute–wheat, jute–rice–sunflower, Other crops. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), jute–mustard, rice–mustard, jute– pan or betel leaf (Piper betel L.), sugarcane rapeseed–rice, sesame–groundnut– (Saccharum officinarum and S. barberi sunflower, pulses–wheat, rice– Jeswiet; syn. S. sinense Roxb.), tobacco vegetables, rice–wheat–summer rice, (Nicotiana tabacum L.), etc. which have been evolved by the local farmers based on their ingenuity and Ornamentals. The availability of moisture life-time experiences. throughout the year has supported the cultivation of ornamental plant species from Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 247 ancient times, as described in the Ramacharita. Trigonella corniculata (L.), tvakshira Even today, they are propagated and raised (Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.), and van in nurseries and supplied to the rest of the haridra (Curcuma aromatica Salisb.). country. Some of the commonly cultivated/ Recently, cultivation has been taken up propagated flowering plants in this region of anantamul or kapuri [Hemidesmus are: Anthurium (Anthurium Schott spp., indicus (L.) R.Br. ex Schult.], antamul introduction), begonia (Begonia L. spp.), (Tylophora indica Merr.), ashwagandha bel mallika or Arabian jasmine (Jasminum [Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.], ayapana sambac Soland.), caladium (Caladium (Eupatorium ayapana Vent.), chirata Vent., introduction) camellia (Camellia L. (Swertia chirata C.B.Clarke), ghritakumari spp.), Cape jasmine (gardenia) (Gardenia [Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.], sarpagandha jasminoides Retz.), chameli or Italian or (Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.), and Royal jasmine (Jasminum humile L.), aromatic plant – lemon grass [Cymbopogon Chinese rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.), flexuosus (Steud.) Wats.], and citronella chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum (Cymbopogon Spreng. spp.). L.), eucharis (Eucharis Planch & Lind., Sal (Shorea robusta), semal (Bombax recent introduction), freesia (Freesia Klatt. Timber. ceiba), sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo), teak spp., recent introductions), gerbera (Gerbera (Tectona grandis L.), etc. L. spp.), gladiolus (Gladiolus communis L.), gloriosa (Gloriosa superba L.), haemanthus Multipurpose species. Arjun (Terminalia (Haemanthus L. spp., recent introduction), arjuna), Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) hollyhock (Alcea rosea L.; syn. Althaea Thrwaites, bamboo (Bambusa balcooa chinensis Wall., A. ficifolia Cav., A. rosea Roxb.), gol pata (Nypa fruticans Wrumb.), Cav.), jasmine (Jasminum fructicans L.), harda (Terminalia chebula), iron bamboo lilies or zephyranthes (Zephyranthes Herb. (Dendrocalamus strictus Nees.), kachnar spp.), lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.), (Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.), mahua rose (Rosa L. spp.; R. chinensis Jacq.), (Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel.; syn. M. tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.), and longifolia Macbride), mangrove date palm different types of orchids. (Phoenix paludosa Roxb., P. sylvestris), monkey jack (Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.), Medicinal and aromatic plants. Some of the sesban (Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.), tamarind common medicinal plants available wild (Tamarindus indica L.), and tiger grass in the region are: aamra haridra (Curcuma [Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze]. amada Roxb.), Acanthus ilicifolius L. (Sundarbans), helencha (Enhydra fluctuans Gum- and resin-yielding plants and forest Lour.), jatamansi or muskroot (Nardostachys products. The farmers from tribal areas grandifloraDC), kali haldi (Curcuma caesia collect ‘butea gum’ or ‘Bengal kino’ (Butea Roxb.), karchuura (Curcuma zedoaria monosperma), hing (Ferula foetida St.- Rosc.), nux-vomica (Strychnos potatorum Lag.), sal leaves and seeds; kandu leaves L.; syn. S. nux-vomica L.), piasal or Indian for making local bidi, mahua flowers, kino (Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.), mushrooms and tubers and leafy vegetables 248 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites such as kural, ban puri, bhaker root, chuths endemic. Cardenthera uliginosa Buch.- for food and pyan lata, alok lata (Cuscuta Ham. var. birbhumensis (Birbhum), Cuscuta L. spp.), citronella (Cymbopogon spp.), sharmanum Mukerjee & J.K.Bhattacharyya turmeric, and other medicinal herbs. (Midnapur) are some other species reported endemic. Wild relatives. Arora and Nayar (1984) recorded wild relatives of crop species, Theatened species. Oryza officinalis, Nypa such as, Amorphophallus bulbifer Blume, fruiticans, sundari (Heritiera fomes) from Cajanus volubilis Blanco (syn. C. crassa India, and many more, including Adina Prain.), Cucumis setosus Cogn., Curcuma cordifolia, Tamarindus indica, Diospyros amada Roxb., Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) cordifolia Roxb., Sterculia foetida L., Mesua P. Beauv., Oryza coarctata Roxb. [syn. ferrea L., Bauhinia malabarica Roxb., Sclerophyllum coarctatum (Roxb.) Griff.], Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. from Bangladesh O. rufipogon Griff., and Trichosanthes (Huq and Banik, 1992; Chowdhury, 1996) cucumerina Linn. However, some more have been reported endangered. Similarly, species are found to occur in the region, 56 species of freshwater fish including 11 such as Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik., cyprinids are endangered or near extinction Carthamus oxycantha Bieb., Chenopodium from the Bangladesh region (IUCN, album L., Coix agrestis Lour., Coix 1998). Under the project funded by UNDP aquatica Roxb., Corchorus trilocularis through the Ministry of Environment and L., Echinochloa colonum L., Lactuca Forest in West Bengal, 46 medicinal plant remotiflora DC., Momordica subangulata species were identified endangered (Source: var. renigera (Wall. ex G.Don) W.J.de westbengalforest.gov.in/update_26-3- Wilde., Oryza coarctata [Porterasia 2010/frlht_status_report.pdf, 2008). coarctata (Roxb.) Tateoka] – tetraploid, Representative plant species under threat Phoenix paludosa Roxb., Piper sylvaticum are listed in Table 1. Roxb., Prunus rufa Hook. f., Saccharum spontaneum L., Solanum incanum Ruiz Associated culture and tribes & Pav., Solanum indicum L., Syzygium heyneanum Wall., Taxus wallichiana Zucc. It is now generally agreed that the var. chinensis (Pilg.) Florin, Trigonella foundations of the agriculture-based occulta Delile, and T. polycerata L. village life, which is believed to be one of the foundations of Indian civilization, Endemic species. Like the other Indo- were laid by the Austric-speaking peoples Gangetic plains, endemic plant species or Nishadas in the LGP region much are very few, as most species found before the arrival of the Aryans. They extend over to the peninsular region of the were succeeded by the Alpine race. The country. However, ecotypes and species, excavations at Pandu Rajar Dhibi (West such as Leucas helectrifolia, Phoenix Bengal) prove that at least 2,000 years paludosa, Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. before the beginning of the Gregorian var. gracillima Bor. may be considered (Western) calendar, Bengal possessed a Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 249

Table 1. Representative plant species under threat in the Lower Gangetic Plain or Delta region. Species Family Habit Threat level1 Remark Adina cordifolia2 Rubiaceae Tree EN Medicinal Aquilaria agallocha (syn. Thymelaeaceae Tree EN Fragrant agarwood used for A. malaccensis Lamk.)2 incense, traditional medicine Bauhinia malabarica2 Caesalpiniaceae Tree EN Medicinal, ornamental Diospyros cordifolia2 Ebenaceae Tree EN Medicinal, wood Heritiera fomes Malvaceae Tree EN Dominant mangrove tree Mesua ferrea2 Clusiaceae Tree EN Ornamental Nypa fruiticans Arecaceae Tree EN Gola pata, mangrove palm Oryza officinalis Poaceae Tall herb I Rice genetic resource Sterculia foetida2 Sterculiaceae Tree EN Oil-rich seeds Tamarindus indica2 Fabaceae Tree EN Spice, avenue/ornamental tree 1. EN = Endangered; I = Indeterminate. 2. Source: Bangladesh: Country report to the FAO international technical conference on plant genetic resources at Leipzig, Germany. non-Aryan culture, based on the use of As per most ancient writings, Aryanization iron implements, specific black and red extended to LGP from about the second ware and some wet rice cultivation, and millennium BCE. Gradually, the indigenous also that the region had contacts with tribes of the region, such as the Vangas, overseas cultures. This is corroborated by Sumahs, Sabaers, Pulindas, Kiratas, and the literary evidences on: (i) the movement Pundras, were brought into the framework of the Palaeolithic people (nomadic) of Aryan society by classifying them as from northern India toward the east Kshatriyas. The first clear references to over the Bengal delta; (ii) the similarity the Vangas occur in some ancient epics of archaeological findings from the and the Dharmasutras. In the great epic upper Palaeolithic culture of Kalimpong Mahabharata, the Vangas and the Pundras with those of China and Southeast Asia, are referred to as well-bred Kshatriyas. suggesting that some people moved into When the Chinese traveler Fa Hien came this region from Tibet and the adjoining to Bengal in the 5th century, he saw the areas of China; and (iii) the find of a region flourishing with Aryan learning seal at Pandu Rajar Dhibi, similar to and culture. The earliest Buddhist literary the Minoan seals of Knossos, which led reference to Vanga is contained in the many to speculate that the coastal regions Milinda-panho. It mentions Vanga as a of eastern India may have established maritime country where trading ships came contacts with the Minoan civilization of from various parts of the world. Greek Crete (Mukherjee, 2004). and Latin writers referred to the region as 250 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Gangaridai (Ganga Rashtra in Sanskrit, ancestors of the people settled in the meaning Nation on the River Ganges), the region. Their reference in post-Rigvedic present-day Bengal, existing around 300 literature clearly indicated their population- BCE [Ptolemy: Describing Ancient India settlement, and that the region draws its (John W McCrindle, p. 172); Periplus: name Bengal, from the tribe Vanga or the Erythraean Sea (Wilfred H Schoff, Banga. These aboriginal populations were pp. 47–48)]. Historians from Alexander’s primarily different Dravidian tribes. Later, period refer to the Gangaridai as a nation they evolved with the composition of possessing the greatest number and the diverse racial elements: Northern Indian largest elephants (Majumdar, 1960). The Aryan longheads, Alpine shortheads, Pala kings ruled the region between the Dravido-Munda longheads, and Mongolian 8th and 12th centuries; they first ruled over shortheads. Varendra and then gradually brought Vanga and Magadh under their rule. The The tribes living in the region can be Palas were Buddhists, and Buddhism classified into: (1) Aboriginal tribes: continued in the region up to the end represented by Bumij, Chakma, Dhomal, of the Pala period. The Sena rulers, Garo, Hajong, Kharria, Kharwar, Khasiya, who originally came from Karnataka, Kol, Kuki, Lushai, Lepcha, Mech, Murmi, succeeded the Palas and introduced the Nat, Santhal, Tipperah or Mroong, Uraon, caste system of ‘Aryandom’ (Majumdar, Dhangar, etc.; (2) Semi-Hinduised 1971) and revived Hinduism. This aboriginals: represented by Bagdi, Bahelia, reflects an indigenous and ancient natural Bauri, Bediya, Bhuiya, Bind, Buna, Chain, dispersal of Aryan philosophy across the Chamar or Muchi – [a] Kural or Kuril; Indian subcontinent from north to south ‘Chandal’ – [a] Abashan, Dom – [a] Turi, and vice-versa, negating the belief of Doshad, Hadi Hatri, Hari, Kaora, Karanga, Aryan and Dravidian divides (Sengupta, Khaira, Khyen; Koch – [a] Pali or Paliya, 2008). Later, the Muslims succeeded [b] Rajbansi, Kodmal, Mahili, Mal, Malo, the Senas and spread Islam. These Mandai; Mihtar – [a] Bhumiali, Pan, Pasi, interactions with races from other parts of Shikari, etc. (Census, 1872). Santhals were India and overseas cultures resulted in the the most dominant among the aboriginal development of a composite culture in the tribes, while the ‘Chandals’ were among region, reflecting a synthesis of Dravidian the ‘Semi-Hinduised Aboriginals’, and also and Aryan cultures. By the end of the 15th largest among the two groups. century, Vaishnavism grew under Shri Chaitanya, and later under Bhaktivedanta The main professions in the ancient Vanga Swami Prabhupada. were agriculture and boating. The Vanga people grew transplanted rice. In a land Among the population groups who lived of rivers, canals, swamps, dotted with in ancient times, the most notable were the innumerable islands, many lived in boats, Pundra, the Vanga, and the Sumba. The which were used for all activities of life. Pundra and the Vanga were the earliest They used boats in war and excelled in Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 251 nautical matters. The ancient non-Aryan settlers. As the water levels increased during Buddhist Vangas were masters of the the monsoon, canals were dug by the local seas. The Chandals or Namasudra were people to divert water from rivers to fields. the descendants of the Vangas of Vanga The region made significant contributions Pradesh and dominated the region. The in the development of cultivation protocols ‘Chandals’ developed amphibious habit, for crop species adapted to high moisture grew large varieties of long-stemmed levels. In this regard, cultivation of rice, rice in the swamps and deep morasses. jute, oilseeds, vegetables, spices have been They developed a unique expertise in the unique. Pundra (one of the ancient names for reclamation of lands in the Sundarbans. They the region) was well known for the cultivation were excellent boat builders and excelled in of dhanya (paddy) and tila (sesame), which boating. They were experts in navigation figure in the Mahasthan stone inscriptions, and nautical matters. In commerce, the palaeographically assignable to circa 3rd main articles of trade were the finest of silk century BCE. Inscriptions from the 8th century and muslin, Gangetic spikenard (jatamansi; onwards occasionally record the plantation th medicinal plant) and pearls (Arthasastra 4 of both betel nuts (guvaka) and betel leaves st century BCE, Periplus/1 century CE). The (c.f. the term barajika, i.e., the grower/ silk and muslin manufactured in the Vanga seller of betel leaves), both of which must (vangaka) region was a white and soft fabric have been transacted. Coconut (narikela) (dukula); of Pandya manufacture (pundraka) plantations also figure in inscriptions of the it was black and as soft as the surface of a same period, particularly in those coming gem; of Suvarnakudya manufacture it was from coastal tracts. In the Chandikavya of as red as the sun, as soft as the surface of Mukundaram, there is a reference to sadis, the gem, woven while the threads are very and they were referred as Kala pat-sadi wet, and of uniform (chaturasra) or mixed and Agun-pat-sadi. The term pat in Bengali texture (vyamisravana). The cotton fabrics means jute, thus, though there is no definite of Madhura, Aparanta, eastern parts of proof of jute cultivation in the ancient period, Kalinga, Kasi, Vanga, Vasta, and Mahisha it is quite reasonable to infer that jute was were the best. Most of the Semi-Hinduised known and cultivated in ancient Bengal Aboriginal ‘Chandals’ embraced Islam. In the Sundarbans, the indigenous inhabitants were the ‘Pods’ and the ‘Chandals’ who were mainly fishing tribes. Around 94% It is now generally agreed that the of the inhabitants of this area depend on foundations of the agriculture-based agriculture. village life, which is believed to be one of the foundations of Indian civilization, were laid by the Austric- Technology and products speaking peoples or Nishadas in the The archaeological and literary evidences LGP region much before the arrival of suggest that the agriculture in the region has the Aryans. been practiced from the pre-Aryan era by early 252 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

(Dasgupta, 1941, as quoted by Niyogi, 2008) to long-duration, fine to bold, and have and therefore, might have contributed to its diverse numbers of grains per spike (Jugal, domestication and/or initial cultivation. the double-grain rice, and Sateen, the triple-grain rice; published and copyrighted Rice, the most important crop of the region, by Deb, 2005), purple rice (Khara), high- is the staple food. The region has made yielder (5–6 t ha-1) to low-yielder, scented significant contribution to global agriculture to non-scented, etc. Numerous local rice in rice by generating diverse production landraces show marked resistance to insect systems and genetic diversity suited to pests and pathogens. Kalo nunia, Kartik- diverse and difficult ecologies. Evidence for sal, and Tulsi manjari are blast-resistant. storage of rice grain comes from the earliest Bishnubhog and Rani kajal are known to be reference of rice granary in Bengal, found resistant to bacterial blight (Singh, 1989). in the Mahasthan Brahmi inscriptions of the Gour-Nitai, Jashua, and Shatia seem to Maurya period. It was located in Pudanagala resist caseworm (Nymphula depunctalis) (Pundranagara). Rice has also been referred attack; whereas, on Khudi khasa, Loha in Buddhist Jatakas. Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsa gorah, Malabati, Sada Dhepa, and Sindur contains a reference to rice cultivation in mukhi stem borer (Tryporyza spp.) attack Bengal. He also refers to a specific variety is seldom observed (Deb, 2009). For these called swastika, which means a variety that reasons and tolerance to salinity, Dr Deb was maturing in 60 days. Writings such commented that folk varieties are the best, as Paryayaratnamala also recount paddy particularly under low-input and adverse cultivation in Bengal. According to one conditions. scholar in these writings, 119 varieties of rice were grown in 24 Parganas (Dey, 1926). The As per the ecological adaptation, rice Amarakosa refers to three varieties of paddy can be grown on marginal land like deep – kalama, swastika, and asuvrihi (Niyogi, water to dry scanty rainfall areas, etc. 2008). Pusa Niyogi (2008) presents a list of Traditional farmers grow rice varieties as 104 paddy varieties (listed by Ramai Pandit per their specific adaptations to the local in the Sunya Purana), plus 61 (listed by environmental and soil conditions. Rangi, Rameswar in Sivayana), and classified lists Kaya, Kelas, and Noichi are grown on of 16 + 31 paddies cultivated in different rainfed dryland farms, where no irrigation parts of ancient Bengal, giving an idea about facility exists. Late or scanty rainfall the amount of genetic diversity evolved by does not affect the yield stability of these the local farmers to meet the demands of varieties. In flood-prone districts, Sada various agroecologies and consumers. Jabra, Lakshmi-dighal, Banya-sal, Jal kamini, and Kumrogorh are grown, which Dr Debal Deb reports more than 5,500 tend to grow taller with the level of water varieties from Bengal (Deb, 2000). These inundating the field, because of their region-specific varieties termed as ‘folk remarkable culm-elongation property. The varieties’, express wide variation in their deepest water that a variety can tolerate characteristics. They can be short-duration was recorded to be 6 m in Lakshmi-dighal. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 253

Getu, Matla, and Talmugur can withstand up to 30 parts per thousand (ppt) of salinity, Evidence for storage of rice grain while Harma nona is moderately tolerant to comes from the earliest reference of salinity (Deb, 2009). No modern rice variety rice granary in Bengal, found in the can survive in these marginal environments. Mahasthan Brahmi inscriptions of the As per Cleveland et al. (2000), traditional Maurya period. crop varieties are often recorded to out-yield modern varieties in marginal environmental conditions. winter cultivation in rainfed swampy areas or low-lying or medium lands with irrigation Under traditional cultivation, the rice is during November to May, and submergence- cultivated on high, middle, and lowland, and tolerant rice varieties has also been evolved. the farmers have evolved varieties suited to Boro is a Bengali word derived from the these conditions. For example, on highland, Sanskrit Borob, which means a special type aus varieties like Ashinlaya, Kalas, Kaya of rice cultivation on residual or stored water with short-duration maturity (90 to 100 in low-lying areas after the harvest of kharif days) are cultivated. Kalas, Kaya are also rice. All this genetic diversity has been tolerant to drought and resistance to several extensively used in breeding programs for diseases. Whereas, on middle lands that are the development of aromatic rice varieties flooded for long duration, long-duration suited to these areas. varieties like Nona or Kalamkatti, maturing in 150 to 180 days, and on lowlands with Most non-aromatic local folk varieties, standing water, varieties like Doharlagra including Boro and submergence-tolerant are cultivated. rice, represent a high degree of genetic diversity. For example, varieties such as The specific agroecology of excessive Jalaplabhan and Jaldhi are known from water during the rainy season and ingress of North Parganas for tolerance to flood;Nona salinity from the sea has generated a great Bokra and Rupsali for tolerance to salt; and deal of genetic diversity for traits such as Patnai for red glutinous grain. Other non- submergence tolerance, tolerance to salinity, aromatic extant varieties are Badkalamkati, and deepwater floating types, in the districts Bhasmanik, Charnock, Churank, Ohairal, of Medinipur, Birbhum, Hoogly, Howrah, Dular, Latisil, MC 282, Nonabokra, and 24 Parganas (Siddiq et al., 2006). Two Nonarasmsail, Nizersail, Patanai 23, groups of deepwater rice occurring in the Seethasail, Jayanthi, Ratna, Krishna, region are Rayada and Ashina. The winter Cauvery, Supriya, etc. Folk varieties such varieties, known as Aman, grown by the as Jaya, Rasi, Vani, Surekha, Sonamukhi, broadcast method, have the capacity to Lal Basmati, and Eswaramangallam have elongate their internodes in response to been identified with resistance to diseases, rising water levels; they are also cultivated and have been extensively used in breeding in deepwater ecologies (Cai and Morishima, programs to develop varieties suited to 2000). A series of varieties of Boro rice for diverse agroclimates/areas. 254 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

There are at least 42 scented extant varieties (Oryza coarctata) found in the tidal swamps grown by indigenous farmers in the region of the Sundarbans (SD Sharma, personal (Deb, 2005). For example, Tulsi Mukul communication). and Danagoori in Bankura district are used to prepare a special type of pudding. After the Green Revolution, the folk Other common scented varieties are Gopal varieties with valuable features have been bhog, Govind bhog, Kammini bhog, fast dwindling, causing severe genetic Randhumipagal, Seeta bhog, Kataribhog, erosion and homogenization with high- Badshahpasand, and Badshahbhog. Kalijira yielding varieties. Only a handful of folk is the most prized exotic long-grain variety rices have remained in farmers’ fields (Deb, in the region, extending to Orissa and 1999). For the conservation of folk varieties, Bangladesh. In Bengali, kalijira means Dr Debal Deb initiated a conservation ‘black (kali) cumin (jira)’, as the un- program in 1997, at Basudha of Bankura hulled rice grain is black and resembles District, and established an institution black cumin seeds. It is very popular in called Vrihi (Sanskrit for rice), with 690 folk local cuisine. Some of the rice varieties varieties, the largest nongovernmental seed commonly grown in the Bangladesh region bank in eastern India, and has characterized are Chinigura and Kalijira – similar to 416 of them (Deb, 2005). Following this, basmati and jasmine rice but with very tiny, Mr Anupam Paul of Agricultural Training short grains, resembling sushi rice; others Centre, Fulia (Phulia), Nadia (with 205 are Kataribhog, Paijam, Najirshail, Balam, folk rice varieties), Mr Avra Chakraborty at Binni, Brri Dhan, Hori Dhan, Miniket, Ausgram Block, Burdwan, and Mr Sourin Hamim, etc. (Chowdhury, 1996). Chaterjee, also initiated conservation of folk varieties. As many traditional varieties A few rice varieties have unique therapeutic have out-yielded the modern high-yielding properties. For example, Parmai-sal is varieties in farm experiments (Deb, 2009), believed to have special nutritional value. farmers too have realized the importance Kabiraj-sal (kabiraj, means village doctor) of conservation and have found in the is another variety fed to convalescing ‘folk varieties’ an effective alternative to patients for quick recovery. The pink starch input-intensive modern rice varieties. For of Kelas and Bhut moori is an essential example, Keralasundari gives 4–5 t ha-1, nutrient for tribal women during and after which is higher or same as the popular pregnancy. The tribal people believe it heals modern variety (interview by Dr Debal Deb, their anemia, because of high iron content 2010). Though wheat is not a major crop and folic acid in the grains. Local food in the region, there are some landraces of cultures hold Dudh-sar and Parmai-sal wheat known from the region, such as Hard in high esteem because they are “good for Red Calcutta. children’s brains” (Deb, 2005). In addition, the region also has genetic variability In oilseeds, the Jatakas mention sesame, in the form of a wild tetraploid species, while the Amarakosa mentions linseed and Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) Takeoka black mustard, besides sesame. Eastern Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 255

India is one of the secondary centers of number of varieties both in white and tossa diversity for rapeseed mustard. A significant jute with diverse characteristics suited to variability has been recorded in yellow various agroecological conditions of the sarson, where dwarf and early types with region. In the case of white jute varieties, pendulous siliqua has been collected, such as Sonali, Sabuj sona (JRC212, a particularly from the Indo-Bangladesh selection from local landrace), Shyamali border areas. In Brassica rapa ssp. toria, and ‘D 154’, an old standard variety, Agrani (B54) is a selection from a local originally selected in 1918, from ‘Kakya collection, and in the case of B. rapa ssp. Bombai’, have been developed. Similarly, yellow sarson, Benoy (B9) is derived from a in tossa jute, Baisakhi tossa (JRO632, landrace of Karimganj material, and Jhumka a selection from a local landrace), and (NC1) single-plant selection from a local Chaitali tossa, Basudev, Chinsurah green material from Nadia. The local landraces and Navin are other varieties developed. of B. juncea are Jatai rai, Desi rai, Maghi About 1,090 landraces of deshi jute rai, etc. Of these, Jatai rai is resistant to (Corchorus capsularis) and 519 of tossa Alternaria blight. Several other varieties jute (C. olitorius) were reported scattered have been derived through selection, for throughout the land mass of Bangladesh example, Seeta from a landrace of Puva (Chowdhury, 1996). In addition, genetic Medinipur in B. juncea (Kumar et al., 2004). resources are available in the form of wild In pea, variety Dhusar is a selection from jute, such as Corchorus aestuans L. (syn. the local material. C. trilocularis L.; Tita Pat or East Indian mallow). The Aryasaptasati describes the Several historical documents (Ain-e- rows of hemp plants (sana-sreni) standing Akbari by Abul Fazal in 1590) indicate in a field of yellow flowers. Sugarcane and traditional cultivation and use of the white cotton were important products of ancient capsularis jute for cloth in Bengal. Tossa, Bengal, with similar levels of variability as the olitorius jute, is an introduced Afro- that of upper and middle Gangetic plains. Arabian variety well adapted to the region, Sugarcane was produced in some parts of which has softer, silkier, and stronger fiber ancient Bengal and referred as Paundraka than white jute. The capsularis varieties by Sushruta. The distribution of cultivated cover 60 per cent of the area, whereas Saccharum barberi and S. spontaneum the olitorius varieties cover 40 per cent extends from Dehradun to West Bengal in of the area, and the region is known for the Indo-Gangetic plains. genetic diversity. Consequently, the Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres The region grew a number of vegetables: the (CRIJAF), Kolkata and the Bangladesh Jute Paryayaratnamala refers to two varieties Research Institute (BJRI) has been able to of garlic, onion with two forms – red and collect around 2,500 and 4,100 accessions white, patola/paraval (Trichosanthes dioica), respectively from the region (Chowdhury olla (Arun indicum), sobhanjana (Moringa 1996; Saha et al., 2004). These collections pterygosperma), kecuka (kacu, a variety of have resulted in the development of a kanda), sthalakanda (vena olakacu), ervaruka 256 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites or karkatika (kahkunda), beans – white and variability in ginger and turmeric. Betel vine is black (simba), pumpkin, karavellack (bitter a traditional commercial crop of the region. gourd), kusmandake (a gourd), vartaku (brinjal), etc., and spices such as cumin (black, The Ramacharita (Nandi, 1939) mentions white and small), cardamom and coriander, many trees, flowering plants, and medicinal while the Saduktikarnamrta refers to javani, plants, including mango, which offers a satapuspika (aniseed), and kustumbari large number of traditional varieties, such as (coriander), ela (cardamom) was referred in Bombai, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Langra, the Ramacharita (Niyogi, 2008) and evolved and Malda; banana presents traditional a large amount of genetic variability. Solanum varieties such as Dwarf Cavendish, Pooran, melongena was domesticated in the Indo- and Rasthali; and bael, with varieties such Myanmar region, and presents significant level as Ojha, and Azamati; whereas jackfruit of variability. In okra, the region is considered (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and Carissa carandas of the region are known for their one of the major centers of maximum quality fruit and plant characteristics. variability for fruit and plant morphotypes along with the wild relative Abelmoschus In livestock, the farmers of West Bengal crinitus. The variety Pusa Makhmali, which have evolved and conserved precious is the parent of Pusa Sawni, one of the most germplasm of Black Bengal Goat, a small popular Indian varieties, was derived from a breed of goat found in the region. It has landrace from West Bengal (Dhankhar et al., natural resistance to several diseases, but is 2005). In cucurbits, Trichosanthes anguina vulnerable to cold, waterlogging, diarrhea, is widespread, Momordica cochinensis is ecto- and entro-parasitic infestation and very popular, while M. dioica is cultivated. respiratory diseases (Nandi et al., 2011). In spices, the region is known for genetic Because of being inundated for most time of the year, the floodplains and the delta There are at least 42 scented extant region offers very rich aquatic diversity. varieties grown by indigenous farmers Fish genetic resources with approximately in the region. For example, Tulsi 300 species of fresh and brackish water Mukul and Danagoori in Bankura fish species in Bangladesh alone – the district are used to prepare a special third largest in aquatic biodiversity in Asia type of pudding. Other common scented (Hussain and Mazid, 2001) – is attributed varieties are Gopal bhog, Govind bhog, to the habitat offered by the world’s largest Kammini bhog, Randhumipagal, Seeta wetlands of the LGP (Bengal Delta), formed bhog, Kataribhog, Badshahpasand, by three large river systems, Brahmaputra, and Badshahbhog. Kalijira is the Ganges, and Jamuna. Hamilton (1822) most prized exotic long-grain variety published fishes found in the river Ganges in the region, extending to Orissa and and its branches. More than 40 types of Bangladesh. fish (mostly freshwater) are common in the Indian region, including carp varieties Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 3, 2012 257 such as rui (rohu), koi (climbing perch), The dense human population is ever-growing the wriggling catfish family of tangra, with urbanization, industrialization, and magur, shingi and the pink-bellied Indian agriculture, posing serious threats to the butter fish, thepabda katla, magur (catfish), remaining forest fragments. The small, chingri (prawn or shrimp), as well as shutki protected areas are vulnerable to conserve (small dried sea fish). Chingri could be the ecoregion’s biodiversity. People living kucho (varieties of shrimp), usual (prawns), in these reserve areas largely depend on bagda (tiger prawns), and galda (Scampi). the forest and its resources, and therefore Saltwater fish (not sea fish), hilsa (hilsa a participatory conservation approach is ilisha) is very popular from the region. needed. Aquaculture practices, excess Ilish machh (hilsa fish), which migrates fishing and harvesting of timber and upstream to breed, is a delicacy; the varied firewood are some of the major threats salt content at different stages of the journey to the reserves. Therefore, the existing is of particular interest to the connoisseur, protected areas need to be effectively as is the river from which the fish comes, managed by restoring critical habitat the river Pôdda (Padma or Lower Ganges) wherever necessary, and meeting the in Bangladesh. Shad or herring is a close demands of the local people to sustain relative of hilsa, locally known as ilish, and is an addiction among Bengalis. livelihoods. The region is very rich in aquatic and floristic Future perspective diversity, particularly in mangrove forests. One of the greatest challenges the people But it is being lost at a rapid pace, therefore living on the Ganges Delta would face in sustainable aquaculture and conservation coming years is the threat of rising sea of fish species needs attention. Similarly, levels, caused mostly by subsidence in the farmers’ varieties, particularly in rice the region and partly by climate change, are being eroded with the introduction of and needs research attention for improved high-yielding varieties, and with them there management of coastlines, adopting suitable is an erosion of genes conferring many of strategies (mangrove intensification). the desirable features, such as tolerance to submergence and ingress salinity, and traits associated with yield-reducing factors and nutritional quality. They need protection After the Green Revolution, the folk and popularization among the farmers under varieties with valuable features have participatory breeding programs for inbuilt been fast dwindling, causing severe resilience/flexibility to changing climate genetic erosion and homogenization and the ability to provide comparable with high-yielding varieties. Only a yields under low-input conditions. This handful of folk rices have remained in would promote sustainable agriculture farmers’ fields. with conservation of valuable genetic resources. 258 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

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