Evaluation of an Arctic Ice-Free Land Site of C-130 Aircraft Test Landings

20 16 -AFCRL 252

- ON ENGR. & PHYS. SCL 1.3. - U W1. MAM

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i Air force surveys in geophysics No. 132

Evaluation of an Arctic ice-free land site and results of C-130 aircraft test landings Polaris Promontory, North Greenland 1958-1959

Stanley M. Needleman Donald W Klick, Capt., USAF Carlton E. Molineux FEDERAL REPORTS CENTER ENGINEERING LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN March 1961

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GEOPHYSICS RESEARCH DIRECTORATE AF CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES AIR FORCE RESEARCH DIVISION (ARDC) UNITED STATES AIR FORCE BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS The Air Force Surveys in Geophysics is a publication series of the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Air Force Research Division, Air Research and Development Command. The sole purpose of this series is to satisfy, to the maximum possible extent, practical engineering or operational problems of the Department of Defense and especially those of the major commands of the United States Air Force.

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Air Force Surveys in Geophysics No. 132

EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST LANDINGS

POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH GREENLAND 1958-1959

Stanley M. Needleman Donald W. Klick, Capt., USAF Carlton E. Molineux

March 1961

Project 7628 Task 76284

Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory GEOPHYSICS RESEARCH DIRECTORATE AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES AIR FORCE RESEARCH DIVISION (ARDC) UNITED STATES AIR FORCE Bedford, Massachusetts

FOREWORD

Ice-free land research is a part of. the Arctic Terrain Research Program (Project 7628) of the Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory. This encompasses the identification, investigation, mapping, description, testing, and evaluation of arctic and subarctic natural terrain features (snow, ice, and land) to determine their capabilities to support air activities and to advance the general knowledge of pertinent facts about the area.

Research on ice-free land is conducted under Task 76284 by scientists of Air Force Cambridge Research Center* and U. S. Geological Survey under Air Force contract. This research has emphasized the utilization of ice-free terrain for aircraft landings and the improvement of techniques for locating potential land areas by photogeologic interpretation.

Terrain studies for these purposes were made in northern Greenland in 1955-1956 and in eastern Greenland as far south as Scoresby Sund in 1956-1957. Numerous areas have been located which would be suitable for emergency landings after a minimum of surface modification. Past investigations under Operation Defrost (1956) and Operations Groundhog (1957 and 1958) included a detailed field survey and aerial reconnaissance of five principal sites in northern Greenland. Future studies of this type will include additional ice-free land areas in Canada and Alaska.

The field investigations of the Polaris Promontory sites in 1958 and 1959 were undertaken by the Arctic Exploration Branch of the Ter- restrial Sciences Laboratory, Geophysics Research Directorate (GRD), supported by the Military Sea Transport Service.

Members of the 1959 field party were:

Mr. Stanley M. Needleman, Project Leader, GRD Capt. Donald W. Klick, USAF, Civil Engineer, GRD Mr. Carlton E. Molineux, Physicist, GRD Mr. Alfred H. Joseph, Civil Engineer, Waterways Experiment Station, T. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Contract MIPR 50-753 Mr. David A. Craven, Field Assistant, Arctic Institute of North America, Contract AF19(604) -3073 Lt. Col. Murray A. Wiener, TTSAF, Arctic Advisor, North American Air Defense Command Dr. Anker Weidick, Geologist, Government of Denmark

iRedesignated Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories in July 1960.

iii 944 r' $ 1iO

1958 Field Party aboard USS Atka.

Members of the 1958 field party were:

Mr. Stanley M. Needleman, Geophysicist, GRD, Project Officer 1st Lt. Donald W. Klick, USAF, Civil Engineer, GRD Lt. Col. Robert H. Wilson, USAF, Arctic Specialist, NEAC Mr. William E. Davies, Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey Mr. David A. Craven, Field Asgistant, Arctic Institute of North America, Contract AF19(604)-3073 Dr. Aksel K. Norvang, Geologist, Government of Denmark Count Eigil Knuth, Archeologist, Denmark Mr. Keith Arnold, Surveyor, Lake Hazen Project (joined Polaris operation at base camp on 15 August) Dr. Moreau Maxwell, Archeologist, University of Michigan, Lake Hazen Operation (joined Count Knuth shore party on 15 August)

iv ABSTRACT

Field investigations of an ice-free land area at Polaris Promontory, Hall Land in northwest Greenland were undertaken to determine if this area could support austere military aircraft operations. Detailed scientific observations of the geology, meteorology, and natural terrain features of the area were made, thorough investigations of the soil features and bearing strength were conducted, and an airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test landings by a C-130 aircraft were made on the airstrip. Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free land sites for military activities.

CONTENTS

Section Page

FOREWORD ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... v ILLUSTRATIONS ...... viii TABLES ...... ix 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1. 1 Description of Project Operation ...... 1 1. 2 Summary of Scientific Work ...... 5 1. 3 Items of Interest ...... 6 2 GEOLOGY...... 9 2. 1 General...... 9 2. 2 Topography and Landforms ...... 9 2. 3 Bedrock Geology ...... 10 2. 4 Surficial Geology ...... 12 3 METEOROLOGY...... 16 3. 1 Meteorological Conditions at Alert ...... 18 3. 2 Meteorological Conditions at Polaris Prom- ontory...... 23 4 NATURAL FEATURES OF THE SITE...... 24 4. 1 Accessibility...... 26 4.2 Topography...... 26 4. 3 Slope and Microrelief ...... 28 4.4 Drainage ...... 31 4. 5 Dimensions and Orientation ...... 31 4. 6 Approaches and Glide Angle ...... 31 4. 7 Construction Materials...... 31 4. 8 Water Supply ...... 32 5 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE AIRSTRIP . . . . 33 5. 1 Tests and Measurements...... 33 5. 2 Surface Conditions ...... 33 5. 3 Types of Soil and Soil Profiles ...... 36 5. 4 Soil Strerngth ...... 39 5. 5 Compaction Characteristics ...... 45 5. 6 Moisture, Permafrost, and Drainage Conditions ...... 47 5. 7 Utilization by Aircraft ...... 49 6 PREPARATION OF THE AIRSTRIP ...... 49 7 AIRCRAFT TESTS...... 51 8 POSSIBLE ALTERNATE SITES ...... 55 8. 1 Possible Site No. 1 ...... 55 8. 2 Possible Site No. 2 ...... 58 8. 3 Possible Site No. 3 ...... 58 9 CONCLUSIONS ...... 63 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 67 REFERENCES .-...... 69

vii ILLUSTRATIONS gure Page

1 General view of the central plain, Polaris Prom- ontory...... 2 2 Northern Greenland showing location of airstrip at Polaris Promontory ...... 2 3 Base camp with jeep and tractor, 1959 ...... 3 4 Landing craft in Polaris Bay...... 3 5 H-19 helicopter airlifting trailer over Polaris Bay to site...... 4 6 Tractor crossing river with aid of treadways . . . . 4 7 Location where jeep mired in soft soil during overland crossing in 1958...... 4 8 "Super Cub" light aircraft on Polaris site after airlift of advance party, July 1959 ...... 5 9 Physical conditions along airstrip, Polaris Prom- ontory...... 7 10 Cairn at Boat Camp, Newman Bay, from which records of the Greely Expedition (1881-1884) were recovered...... 9 11 View northwest over central lowland; inland "Monument" in background...... 11 12 Canyon about 900 feet deep cut into massive limestone, headwaters of Atka River...... 11 13 Observation of sun, with exact time obtained by portable radio ...... 11 14 Geology, Polaris Promontory ...... (in pocket) 15 Platy limestone exposed on the southeast scarp of the plateau 2 miles northwest of campsite...... 13 16 View of inland "Monument", the most prominent feature of Polaris Promontory, rising 500 feet above surrounding terrain ...... 13 17 Massive limestone exposed along the Atka River where it cut through the Hauge Mountains ...... 13 18 Clay and silt plain along a tributary of the Atka River in the central part of the lowland. Clay and silt show as light gray, areas covered by ground moraine show as dark gray...... 14 19 Temperatures and relative humidity, Polaris Prom- ontory, 7 July - 15 August 1959 ...... 25 20 USS Atka in Polaris Bay, 1958...... 27 21 View southwest showing general topography of area from ridge on north edge of plain ...... 27 22 Graystone River, view looking northwest from campsite ...... 28 23 Topographic map of Graystone River site ...... 29 24 View of airstrip looking northeast along center line from midpoint ...... 32

viii Figure Page

25 View of airstrip looking southwest along center line from.midpoint. Hauge Mountains in background rise 3000 feet and are 12 miles from site...... 32 26 Test pit showing typical soil profile ...... 34 27 Test pit with thermometers to determine soil temperature ...... 34 28 CBR test being performed with jeep.as load source . 34 29 Typical surface soil pattern within polygons . . . . . 35 30 Typical surface soil pattern between polygons . . . . 35 31 Typical surface soil pattern in relic drainage channel 36 32 Test pit with equipment for soil sampling and moisture content determination ...... 40 33 Plasticity of fine soil portions, August 1958 . . . . . 41 34 Soil strength, August 1958 ...... 43 35 Waterways Experiment Station cone penetrometer being used to obtain shearing strength values of soil. 46 36 Penetrometer survey being conducted to determine soil strength...... 46 37 Percent increase in shearing strength vs. depth for various soils upon drying...... 46 38 View down center line of airstrip, showing negligible rutting in jeep tracks ...... 47 39 Grading airstrip with blade mounted on tractor . . . 50 40 Grading of airstrip by tractor-towed drag with rock load ...... 50 41 Smoothing small rough spots on airstrip by pick and shovel...... 50 42 Erecting side line markers on airstrip...... 51 43 C-130 wheeled aircraft on snow-covered airstrip after first test landing, August 1959 ...... 52 44 Main landing gear of C-130 on airstrip after first test landing on snow-covered ground ...... 54 45 C-130 aircraft after test landing, showing negligible rutting ...... 53 46 Main landing gear of C-130 parked on strip after snow melt; average rut depth less than 1 inch . . . . 54 47 Checking depth of rut after test landing...... 54 48 Alternate sites for airfields, southeast part of Polaris Promontory...... 59 49 Alternate airfield site no. 1, southeast part of Polaris Promontory...... 61 50 View of possible alternate landing site no. 1. . . . . 55

Table

1 Comparison of summer and winter climate between Thule, Alert, and Polaris Promontory ...... 17 2 Summary of mean monthly temperatures and precipitation for Thule, Alert, and Polaris Promontory, May-Sep ...... 18

ix Table Page

3 Summary of meteorological data for Alert, Ellesmere Island, N. W. T., Canada ...... 19 4 Summary of meteorological data for Polaris Prom- ontory, North Greenland, September 1871 - October 1872...... 21 5 Polaris Promontory, air temperatures - 1959 . . . . 25 6 Soil profile, temperature, and moisture content information ...... 37 7 Results of sieve analyses, August 1958 ...... 39 8 Equivalent CBR values ...... 40 9 Results of compaction test ...... 45 10 Aircraft test data ...... 53

x EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST LANDINGS

POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH GREENLAND 1958-1959

1. INTRODUCTION

A need for emergency landing areas in North Greenland to serve as alternates for existing airfields at Thule, Alert, Nord, and elsewhere has been created by the increasing use of northern airways and the abrupt and severe changes in weather common in this area. As a con- sequence, in addition to the emergency airstrip described in this report, several other such sites have been located and tested in northern and eastern Greenland. These sites require very little preparation for aircraft landings. The success of C-124 test landing on an unprepared soil surface in 1957 at Bronlund Fjord, 131 miles west of Nord, has demonstrated that even in the inhospitable terrain of northernmost Greenland it is possible to find ice-free natural landing areas capable of supporting the heaviest cargo planes.

Observation and interpretation of aerial photographs indicated several promising runway sites on Polaris Promontory in northwest Green- land. Low-altitude aerial reconnaissance in 1956 during NEAC Operation Defrost supported the evidence gained from previous study of aerial photographs. The field investigations of the Polaris Promontory sites in 1958 and 1959 were undertaken by the Arctic Exploration Branch of the Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory, Geophysics Research Directorate (GRD), supported by the Military Sea Transport Service (figs. 1 and 2).

1. 1 Description of Project Operation

The operations were staged from icebreakers anchored in Thank God Harbor, Polaris Promontory. The majority of the field party and most of the equipment (6000 pounds) were airlifted to base camp (fig. 3) by the icebreaker helicopters.

The jeep and tractor were landed at Polaris Bay in 1958 and 1959 by an amphibious craft (LCVP) although numerous icebergs hampered the operation (fig. 4); the scraper blade and trailer were airlifted by rope-sling below a helicopter (fig. 5). They were driven overland to the base camp, frequently becoming firmly mired in mud during river crossings (figs. 6 and 7), and were immediately put to use in preparing the airstrip.

A 2-man advance party was placed at the site in 1959 by a Piper Super Cub aircraft with low-pressure balloon tires to investigate soil conditions during snow-melt season. The aircraft was successfully landed 6 July on an extremely soft soil area during the height of the melt season (fig. 8).

Authors' manuscript approved 14 February 1961. I

Figure 1. General view of the central plain, Polaris Promontory.

64 32 0 ARCTIC CEAN

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Figure 2. Northern Greenland showing location of airstrip at Polaris Promontory.

2 Figure 3. Base camp with jeep and tractor, 1959.

The primary phase of field work consisted of investigating and evaluating the site area to determine the exact location and demarcation of the proposed runway orientation. Soil bearing strength, minimum construction effort, favorable approach zones, glide angle, slope, and drainage features were evaluated for heavy aircraft such as the C-124, C-130, etc.

The final phase was laying out, surveying, and systematically marking a runway 5000 feet long by 200 feet wide with 500-foot overruns. Where necessary, the strip was leveled by jeep with a scraper-blade. Four radar corner reflectors were put in place at the strip.

In addition, party members investigated and evaluated other areas of the Promontory for additional possible airstrip sites.

Figure 4. Landing craft in Polaris Bay.

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Tractor crossing river with aid of h Figure 6. treadways. 4 V

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Figure 5. H-19 helicopter airlifting trailer over Polaris Bay to site. Figure 7. Location where jeep mired in soft soil during overland crossing in 1958. rri-'

Figure 8. "Super Cub" light aircraft on Polaris site after airlift of advance party, July 1959.

1. 2 Summary of Scientific Work

Longitude and latitude determinations were made by theodolite, and some triangulation of the area was done. An areal geologic study and a detailed terrain survey of Polaris Promontory were accomplished and engineering and soils studies were conducted.

The soil bearing strength was determined by systematic use of the AFCRC airfield penetrometer and the .Waterways Experiment Station cone penetrometer. The cone index obtained was correlated with standard engineering California Bearing Ratio (CBR) curves. The soil was sampled systematically and partially analyzed in a field laboratory at the base camp. Permafrost level, moisture content of soil layers, soil temperature, grain size, and preliminary soil identification were obtained.

The runway soil surface after minor surface improvement such as scraping was smooth enough to permit landing of heavy, wheeled aircraft. No boulders were present. The surface is a river terrace about 10 miles long and 3 miles wide with occasional mounds of gravel (pea size to a maximum of 2 inches).

About 6000 penetrometer readings were made on the runway. Thirty- seven representative soil samples were taken and five test pits were dug at selected locations on the runway. An improvised tamping test was also performed at four locations to give an indication of compaction characteristics of the runway surface. The cone penetrometer index varied from 10-80 at 1 inch, 40-150 at 3 inches, 80-150 at 6 inches, and 140-150 at 8 inches. The average airfield index at 3 to 5 inches critical depth was more than 100 A.I. which is far in excess of the CBR equivalent of 25+ required for the heaviest aircraft. Because of high bearing strength near the surface, critical rutting depth in most cases will not exceed an average depth of 3 to 5 inches. The five test pits revealed a similar soil profile throughout the entire strip (fig. 9 ). Except in drainage channels, there is a 6-inch-thick surface layer of loose gravel and fine sand mixed with clay-sized particles. In drainage channels the surface layer is almost entirely fine sand and clay-sized particles to varying depths. Tinderlying these surface layers and extending at least to permafrost is a layer of compact gravel with little sand and virtually no fines. Average depth to permafrost for the five pits is 2 feet 10 inches.

The runway is oriented N26 E from true north. It is 5000 feet long and 200 feet wide with 500-foot marked overruns. Approach zones are clear of all obstructions for at least 2 miles, thus permitting a glide angle of less than 1:50. Ground slope is less than 1 percent.

The runway was marked with florescent high-visibility cloth markers on aluminum tripods at 100-foot intervals on center line and on 4 1/2-foot poles at 500-foot intervals along margins. The runway was scraped with a blade mounted on the jeep. A total of 100 man-hours was necessary for this surface modification.

1. 3 Items of Interest

1. 3. 1 Cache Left at Airstrip

A cache of food and equipment was left at the camp site at Teltbakken, approximately 5000 feet northeast of the airstrip. Major items stored in a 12-foot by 10-foot white wall tent were fuel, rations, and camp- ing equipment.

1. 3. 2 Cairns and Huts

Two cairns containing items of historical interest were recovered during the 1958 field operations. A cairn at Boat Camp near the en- trance to Newman Bay was examined by Lt. Col. Robert Wilson, William E. Davies, and Lt. Charles DeBeouf, TSN, while on a helicopter reconnaissance flight (fig.10) . Two iron tubes containing me s - sages of A. W. Greely and J. B. Lockwood, United States Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, 1881-1884, were removed from the cairn and turned over to the Commander of the USS Atka.

The British depot on Newman Bay opposite Reynolds Island was also visited. The cairn had collapsed and all that remained was a large tin containing a dark liquid, an empty tin, and a steel jug of methyl spirits. The frame and oars of a folding canvas boat were at the depot. The canvas had rotted and the frame and oars were badly weathered and fragile.

Hall's grave was visited and was in good condition as were the graves of Charles Paul and James Hand. The Polaris Observatory hut is in ruins. Remnants of a stove, a large saw, heavy crowbars, ice grenades, 1/2-inch cable, a lifeboat or anchor davit, and numerous fragments of lumber were scattered around. Except for the crowbars and some of the lumber, the material is too poor to use. 6 AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS NO. 132- FIGURE 9

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,*-.. Pebble flat Mounds, figures denote height Polygon boundaries + Flag o Test pit

130 12.5 12 0 9.2 9.9 _8.5 105 125 23.5 26.5 19.0 10.7 13.5 15.0 19.0 23.5 26.5 29.5 22.5 15,0 140

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SOIL STRENGTH

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:-..-: CBR less than 10 CBR lOto l5 \\\ CBR 15 to 20 CBR over 20

Numbers are equivalent C B R 3" depth at test points

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS ALONG AIRSTRIP POLARIS PROMONTORY 7 e a u

4 Figure 10. Cairn at Boat Camp, Newman Bay, from which records of the Greely Expedition (1881-1884) were recovered.

2. GEOLOGY*

2. 1 General

Greenland, the earth's most northern land area of any appreciable size, extends roughly from latitude 590 to 840 N, centers about longitude 40 W, and is about 1600 miles long and 750 miles wide at its broadest point. This land of about 850, 000 square miles has a permanent cover of snow and ice over approximately nine-tenths of its surface. Changes in the topography and climate of Greenland for several thousand years have not been of major significance.

The island's perimeter of mountains (2000 to 6000 feet) encompasses a basin filled with a massive accumulation of ice and snow. This mass of ice and snow, according to seismic profiles, is approximately 2 miles thick at the crest of the ice cap and, in places, attains a maximum altitude above sea level of slightly more than 12, 000 feet. The peripheral mountains generally form the coast and only in the north is there a narrow coastal plain. However, much of the terrain in northern Greenland consists of mountains and plateaus cut by long fjords.

2. 2 Topography and Landforms

The most prominent feature of Polaris Promontory is a broad lowland that extends across the central part of the promontory located at approximately 80 41'N, 59 35'W. The lowland is a raised marine plain

*Original investigation performed by W. E. Davies, TT. S. Geological Survey in 1958. 9 10 to 12 miles wide which extends for 25 miles from Polaris Bay to Newman Bay. The surface is relatively uniform at an elevation of 250 to 400 feet. Belts of morainal hills cut across the plain along the shore at Newman Bay and 2 to 4 miles inland from Polaris Bay. These hills rise to an elevation of 700 feet.

Northwest of the plain is a dissected rolling plateau with elevations up to 2000 feet. Along the shore of Robeson Channel the plateau cul- minates in a ridge of mountains with elevations to 2900 feet. The mountain summits are rounded, but the flanks are very steep with long sections of high cliffs. The plateau is separated from the plain by a scarp 500 to 1000 feet high (fig. 11).

To the south the plain grades into a series of broad hills with elevations up to 2000 feet. This belt of hills is 4 to 6 miles wide and par- allels the axis of the plain. South of the hills are the Hauge Mountains with rounded summits at elevations of 2400 to 2985 feet. Flanks of the mountains are steep and, where major rivers cut through them, there are extensive lines of cliffs.

South of the Hauge Mountains there is a plateau that rises from 1500 feet adjacent to the mountains and extends to the Greenland Ice Cap where it is 3000 feet in elevation. The plateau has a uniform flat- to-rolling upland; stream valleys are narrow canyons as much as 1000 feet deep (fig. 12)).

Limited topographic surveys with theodolite (T-2) were made to orient the airstrip and to provide a large-scale map of the site. A triangulation net connecting the major topographic features was set up across the Polaris Promontory plain. The base line was measured along the airstrip. To extend the base, a station on the Monument, a prominent topographic feature 876 feet in elevation, was tied to the base line and additional angles cut from it. This station and other stations of difficult access were established by using an H47 helicopter.

All geographic positions and azimuths were from sun shots; the accuracy obtained for latitude was low (fig. 13 ). Longitude, however, was tied at all points in the field by time signals picked up on a portable transistor short-wave radio. The time signals from BBC, London were far superior in reception and more satisfactory in timing than those from WWV, Washington, D. C. The latter station is frequently blanketed by code on all its frequencies in the Arctic.

2. 3 Bedrock Geology

Field geology on Polaris Promontory was carried out using an H47 helicopter. This permitted a reconnaissance of the area, 800 square miles, in 10 days. By making numerous touchdowns to check exposures and by flying at slow speed, close to the ground, the continuity

10 Figure 11. View northwest over central lowland; inland "Monument" in background.

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Figure 12. Canyon about 900 feet deep r cut into massive limestone, headwaters of Atka

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Figure 13. Observation of sun, with exact time obtained by portable radio.

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11 of geologic features could be delineated with a high degree of accuracy on aerial photos. Reconnaissance for possible ramps leading from the ice cap to the land was also carried out by helicopter.

The geology of Polaris Promontory (fig. 14).is a direct reflection of the topography. Bedrock is Silurian in age and consists of two distinct types of limestone. The oldest limestone exposed on the Prom- ontory is a thin-bedded, platy, finely crystalline, black limestone (Spl) that forms the low hills and ridges northwest of the Hauge Moun- tains and the plateau extending northwest of the lowland near Robeson Channel (fig. 15). This limestone is lower Silurian in age and contains poorly preserved remains of graptolites. In weathering, it forms plates about one-half inch thick and up to several inches in length or width. The weathered surface is dark gray to dark brown, and in some areas it is a distinct yellow-brown. Talus slopes formed of platy fragments are common in the area of this limestone. Locally, as on the Monu- ment, thick-bedded blocky limestone occurs as lenses in the platy limestone. This type of limestone weathers black with some blocks stained pink to red. The platy limestone series is over 1200 feet thick; however, its exact thickness in the area is not known since its base is not exposed. The Monument is a triangular shaped bedrock hill of Silurian limestone with a contrasting sharp relief of 500 feet (fig. 16 ). Above the platy limestone is a thick series of thick-bedded to massive limestones (Sml) that contain fossils indicating middle to upper -Silurian age. This limestone is dark gray to black and is moderately to coarsely crystalline. On weathered surfaces it is white to light gray. The beds range from several inches to 10 feet in thickness. This limestone is resistant to weathering; it forms the Hauge Moun- tains and the plateau to the southwest between these mountains and the ice cap. It also occurs along the cliffs of Robeson Channel. The thick-bedded to massive limestone is over 3000 feet thick; its total thic-kness cannot be determined in the area as no younger rock overlies it (fig. 17 ).

2. 4 Surficial Geology

The surficial deposits on Polaris Promontory have been classified into nine units. All are Pleistocene or Recent age. Along the channel of the Graasten Elv and Atka Elv (Graystone and Atka Rivers) as well as on the courses of several streams debouching from the low plateau on the north part of the Promontory are extensive deposits of Recent alluvium (Qal). The deposits are mainly well-rounded pebbles and cobbles, as much as 4 inches in size, and are of gray limestone in the Graystone River. In the Atka River there are numerous large boulders of limestone, gneiss, and other glacial erratics in addition to limestone pebbles and cobbles. On the smaller streams cobbles and pebbles of limestone are mixed with equal quantities of silt and clay. Sand is rare in the alluvium (fig. 18).

12 Figure 15. Platy limestone exposed on the southeast scarp of the plateau 2

miles northwest of -- campsite. --

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Figure 16. View of inland "Monument", the most prominent - feature of Polaris Promontory, rising 500 feet above surrounding terrain.

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Figure 17. Massive limestone exposed along the Atka River where it cut through ONA 4 the Hauge Moun- tains.

13 Figure 18. Clay and silt plain. along a tributary of the Atka River in the central part of the lowland. Clay and silt show as light gray, areas covered by ground moraine show as dark gray.

The central plain is silt and clay that was deposited in a shallow embayment during a relatively recent glacial recession. The clay and silt are probably 300 to 400 feet thick and are overlain by two major moraines, one parallel to Newman Bay and the other following the shore of Polaris Ray. These moraines are a series of multiple ridges 30 to 300 feet above the clay-silt plain.

Adjacent to major rivers the outwash has been planed off and the surface is gently sloping with only minor irregularities. These irregularities are relics of former braided stream channels and are as much as 35 feet wide and a maximum of 1 foot deep.

Most of the lowland cutting across the Promontory is underlain by marine clay and silt (Qc). The deposit is gray, but on the weathered surfaces it is buff to white. Mollusk shells are common in the clay and silt. Throughout most of the area the clay and silt is dry and firm. In areas of persistent snowbanks or in channels of flowing streams it is weak and will not support men on foot or wheeled vehicles. Much of the clay and silt is covered by later glacial deposits, but is is exposed as broad, dissected plains adjacent to the Atka and its major tributaries. At all exposures of the clay and silt there are scattered pebbles jnd cobbles on the surface.

Ground moraine (Qgm) is the most extensive of the surficial deposits. It consists of silt, pebbles, and cobbles, and occurs as a mantle on both the lowland and the limestone plateaus. On the plateaus, silt is common and pebbles and cobbles are scattered. On the lowland, pebbles and cobbles are dominant. The deposits are thin, generally less than a foot thick, and in the limestone areas they contain considerable quantities of frost-riven bedrock.

14 Lake clay (Qic) occurs on the bed of a former lake on the west side of the lowland, 3 miles east of the mouth of the Atka. The clay is buff colored and is free of other material. A few ponds exist on the lake bed, and in their vicinity the clay is soft; elsewhere it is dry and firm.

End moraine (Qm) consists of pebbles and cobbles, up to a foot in size, in a matrix of poorly-sorted sand and silt. It occurs in a wide area of ridges and valleys east of the Graystone River, as a prominent ridge along the Atka River parallel to Polaris Bay, and as discontinuous low ridges in the central part of the lowland. End moraine deposits are a few feet to over 50 feet thick.

Outwash (Qow) as much as 20 feet in thickness occurs as broad upland flats adjacent to the Atka in the lower part of its course and as a broad gently sloping plain adjacent to end moraine in the central part of the lowland. The outwash consists of poorly-sorted rounded pebbles and cobbles tightly packed in a matrix of silt and sand.

Marine terraces (Qtm) are well developed at the mouths of major streams. The terraces are broad flats cut into delta deposits. Moder- ately well-sorted pebbles and cobbles in a sand and silt matrix form the deposits. Along Polaris Bay the marine terraces are at elevations (above- sea level) of 6, 10, 18, 25-32, 46, and 59-65 feet. On Newman Bay the elevations are 10, 30-38, 75, 135, and 155 feet.

River terraces (Qtr) are well developed along parts of the Gray- stone and Atka Rivers. They are long benches adjacent to the river and are at elevations of 7 to 60 feet above the channel. The deposits on the-terraces are poorly-sorted tightly-packed pebbles and cobbles, generally 4 inches or less in size, in a matrix of silt. In some areas notably near the Graystone on the lowland, the terraces are cut by a number of shallow drainage channels. These channels are a few inches to 2 feet deep and 10 to 100 feet wide. Deposits in the dissected river terraces (Qtrd) are thin layers of silt and overlying pebbles and cobbles.

Information on glacial geology in North Greenland has been little known. Observations on glacial deposits at Polaris Promontory have provided a basis for evaluating the glacial record and mapping the glacial deposits in North Greenland using photogeologic methods. Radio carbon dates have been obtained from samples located on key terrain features in the area of Polaris Promontory and other sites in North Greenland. In brief the glacial. record covers only the last glaciation. Evidence of previous glaciations has been erased. In North Greenland the initial advance of the last glaciation covered all the areas; subsequent retreat, accompanied by minor advances, occurred until a period approximately 5900 years ago (based on carbon-14 dates of marine shells). At this time the ice was somewhat less extensive in the upland than at present and valley glaciers were much shorter than now. During the

15 stage of maximum retreat, marine silt and clay as much as 400 feet in thickness was deposited in protected parts of the sea; most of the long fjords were free of pack ice at this stage. Subsequent readvance and slight retreat brought the glaciers to the position where they now stand. This last readvance is dated by carbon-14 methods as between 3500 and 5900 years ago. This is based on shells on marine terraces that are cut into the moraines. Informal exchange of information with Canadian geologists working on Ellesmere Island indicates that the last. widespread advance of the Greenland Ice Cap probably extended into central Ellesmere Island. This is based on the presence of unique red granite pebbles in the glacial deposits.

3. METEOROLOGY

Temperatures in Northern Greenland vary from as high as 600 F at Thule in midsummer to as low as -750F on the central ice cap in midwinter. Most of the ice-free land sites are in a climatic zone characterized as a High Arctic Desert. Annual precipitation is about 2 to 4 inches a year. Summers are relatively mild and the land is largely snow-free for the summer period.

Although systematic meteorological data in the Arctic are limited to 10 years or less of record, it is interesting to compare some of the climatic elements of Thule and Alert with Polaris Promontory.

TTSAF-built air base at Thule, located at 76 0 30'N and 690 W, is situated on a seasonally ice-free rocky coastline in Northwest Green- land. It occupies a fairly level area in.gently rolling terrain near the lower end of a relatively shallow, glacial valley wlith mesa-like hills as much as 1300 feet in elevation. The Weather Observation Station is at 121 feet elevation.

Station Alert is a joint enterprise of the Canadian Department of Transport, Meteorological Division, and the United States Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. Alert is located at 820 30'N and 6220'W in Northeast Ellesmere Island on the side of a plateau that slopes gently down to Dumbell Bay which connects with the Arctic Ocean. The Weath- er Station is situated near the east edge of this plateau at about 210 feet in elevation. The highest elevation in the vicinity is 2500 feet, about 10 miles southwest of the station. Alert is generally ice-bound throughout the year, except for a period during the latter part of August or early September. However, at any time of the year after prolonged southwesterly winds, shore leads 2 miles or more in width may open up opposite the station. Resupply is difficult by sea and is generally accomplished entirely by air.

During the period 1871-1872, meteorological observations were conducted by the Hall Expedition at Polaris Promontory Weather Ob- servatory (located at .81 30'N and 590 W, and 70 miles southeast of Alert) situated on a low terrace 45 feet in elevation at the edge of Polaris Ray. Subsequent limited observations were made by GRD scientists during the summer months of 1958 and 1959. The observations were made from a location about 22 miles east of the Bay and about 340 feet in elevation. 16 Meteorological measurements and observations were made at Polaris Promontory three times each day from 7 July through 15 August 1959. Weather elements recorded or observed, or both, were: wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, aneroid barometric pressures, sky cover, cloud-type, precipitation, fog, and visibility. Daily weather reports from Alert were received by radio and compared closely to conditions at the Polaris Promontory Base Camp. Barometric pressures at Polaris Promontory were generally 0. 50 inches less than at Alert and temperatures were higher by several degrees Fahrenheit. Table 1 compares average tem- peratiire and precipitation data of Polaris Promontory with Thule and Alert for summer and winter periods. Table 2 is a summary of mean

TABLE 1

Comparison of Summer and Winter Climate Between Thule, Alert, and Polaris Promontory

Temperatures (0F

Summer (June, July, Aug) Mean Daily Max. Mean Daily Min. Thule 38 44 33 Alert 33 37 30 Polaris Promontory 36 52 27 Winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) Thule -11 - 3 -20 Alert -25 -17 -33 Polaris Promontory -18 + 8 -40

Precipitation (inches) Total Annual

Summer (June, July, Aug) Thule 0.33 2.6 Alert 0.68 3.99 Polaris Promontory 0. 7* 4.0* Winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) Thule 0.13 2.6 Alert 0. 25 3.99 Polaris Promontory 0.3* 4. 0*

* Estimated

17 monthly temperatures and precipitation data observed for Thule, Alert, and Polaris Promontory for May to September during the periods indicated. The data strongly indicate that the weather at Polaris Prom- ontory is very similar to.that at Alert. The meteorological conditions of the two areas are described in the following sub-sections and sum- marized in detail in tables 3 and 4.

TABLE 2

Summary of Mean Monthly Temperatures and Precipitation for Thule, Alert, and Polaris Promontory, May-Sep

May June July Aug Sep

Temperatures (0F Thule 1951-59 23 36 41 38 27 1959 28 41 47 43 31 Alert 1950-59 11 32 39 34 15 1959 12 32 40 34 15 Polaris 1871-72, 1958-59 16 34 40 34 22 1959 NA NA 39 34 NA

Precipitation (inches) Thule 1951-59 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 1959 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 Alert 1950-59 0.3 0.5 0.5 1.1 1.1 1959 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.2 Polaris 1871-72, 1958-59 0.2 0.1 0.4 1.0* 1.0* 1959 NA NA 0.4 1.0* 1.0*

NA - Not available * - Estimated

3. 1 Meteorological Conditions at Alert

Mean monthly temperatures are below freezing nine months of the year- from September until May. In early June average daily temperatures climb above freezing, but alternate freezing and thawing temperatures continue throughout most of the summer. There are generally only 10 to 15 consecutive days completely free of frost, the longest frost-free periods commonly occurring between 20 June and 10 August. Only the month of July has a mean monthly temperature much above freezing. In mid-August average daily temperatures drop below freezing, and by late September the ground is expected to be suf- ficiently frozen to support aircraft even in moist areas. The coldest temperatures are from January to March. During any of these three months, temperatures may remain continuously below -20 F for as long as 15 days. Fortunately the winds are lowest during the coldest months, thereby reducing the wind-chill factor.

18 TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR ALERT, ELLESMERE ISLAND, N. N. T., Canada

(Source: Climatological Summary, Alert, N. N. T., Canada, June 1950-December 1953: Canada Department of Transport, Meteorological Division i, Toronto, Canada, 1955, 71 p.)

Temperature Precipitation Wind Pressure Cloudiness

Maximum Absolute Mean daily Mean daily Absolute Mean days Mean Mean monthly Mean observa- Mean ob- Mean wind wind speed Mean Sea leve 1 Mean Mean maximum maximum Mean minimum minimum with trace monthly snowfall tions of blow- servations velocity and occurrence pressure e clear cloudy 0 0 ( F ) (OFF) ( F (F)(FF) ) or more (inches) (inches) ing snow * of fog (mph) direction of gale *** (mb. ) days days

Jan 10 -19 -28 -36 -53 22 0.26 2.5 ** SW 30 0 1017 17 12

Feb 33 - 18 -27 -36 -53 15 0.34 3. 4 1 SW 70 1 1018 15 10

Mar 9 - 18 -26 -34 -50 15 0.27 2. 7 6 0 WSW 64 6 1028 15 13

Apr 30 1 - 7 -15 -40 13 0. 29 2. 9 * * 1 WSW 48 3 1025 14 13

May 47 21 8 - 13 14 0.45 4. 5 0 7 SW 52 2 1023 10 18

Jun 57 37 33 28 12 11 0.64 4. 7 0 6 SW 34 1 1016 12 16

Jul 44 39 33 12 0. 60 3. 5 0 5 SW 46 4 1010 9 19

Aug 55 36 32 27 5 15 1.51 13. 0 0 5 SSW 50 1 1013 5 23

Sep 39 21 16 11 - 12 18 1.21 11. 9 1 3 W 60 1 1016 7 21

Oct 17 2 -5 - 11 18 0.93 9. 3 2 1 N 74 4 1014 10 18

Nov 15 - 7 - 14 -20 -36 19 0. 19 1.9 0 0 SW 55 4 1016 14 13

Dec 11 - 15 -21 -27 -51 22 0.42 4. 2 1 1 WSW 43 2 1014 15 13

Annual 62 8 1 - 6 -53 196 7.09 64. 5 13 28 N 74 29 1017 143 189

NOTE: Alert has continuous sunlight for almost 5 months, from about 7 Apr to 5 Sep, and no darkness for nearly 6 months, from about 24 Mar to 18 Sep. The sun i s below the horizon for about 4 1/2 months, from 14 Oct to 28 Feb, although only 3 1/2 of these months are without either twilight or sunlight; this dark period lasts from about 28 Oct until 13 Feb. There is no day in the year without some period of astronomical twilight (sun less than 18 below the horizon). * Only those cases causing visibility to be 114 mile or less. Table shows mean number of observations of the condition (based on 4 observations per day). ** Less than 0. 5 observations. *** Winds of 32 mph or more (based on 4 observations per day). **** Cloud cover equal to or less than 3/10ths. ***** Cloud cover equal to or greater than 8/10ths. 19

TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH GREENLAND, September 1871 - October 1872

(Source: Bessels, Emil, 1879, Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition: Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Appendix III: Meteorologie, p. 572-643.)

Temperature Precipitation Wind Pressure Cloudiness

Absolute Absolute No. of hours Mean Maximum wind Mean maximum Mean minimum with trace monthly Dominant velocity and Occurrence sea level Clear Cloudy (F ) (OF ) (0 F ) or more (inches) direction direction of gale pressure days * days **

Jan 4 -21 -45 28 NR N 50ONE 5 1008 15 16

Feb 5 -21 -45 22 0.195 NNE 58 NE 4 1012 12 16

Mar 4 -21 -44 62 0.056 NE 52 NE 3 1022 11 20

Apr 19 - 8 -32 146 0.063 N ---- 0 1022 14 16

May 32 16 -10 33 NR NNE 48 NE 2 1016 15 16

Jun 49 34 27 15 NR NNE 49 NE 2 1010 11 19

Jul 53 40 32 50 0.363 S 51 N 1 1008 9 22

Aug 53 34 27 15 NR S W ---- 0 1015 16 15

1015 -- -- Sep 32 22 12 NR NR SSW ---- 0

1014 -- -- Oct 18 0 -20 NR NR ENE ---- 0

Nov 16 - 8 -24 35 NR NNE 52 NE 3 1023 9 21

Dec 16 -12 -30 7 NR N 43 NE 2 ---- 15 16

Annual -- 4 ------

NOTE: NR - not recorded

* Less than 1/4 cloud cover.

** Greater than 1/4 cloud cover. 21 4

m Annual precipitation varies from 4 to 7 inches, over 70 percent of it falling during the five months from June to October. At least a trace of precipitation was recorded on more than 50 percent of the days throughout the year. About 90 percent of the precipitation is in the form of snow, the only period of appreciable rain being from June to August; during each of these three months. an average of only about 0. 2 inches of rain falls. The remaining 6 1/2 inches of precipitation is in the form of snow, amounting annually to about 65 inches of snowfall. More than half of this falls during the three months of August, September, and October.

Winds are not excessive, and there are long periods of nearly calm weather, particularly in winter. The highest mean wind velocities are during the five summer and early winter months, from June to October, although gales have been recorded during every month except January. The strongest winds generally are from the southwest, from the interior of Ellesmere Island; these winds commonly exceed 60 mph. Although the summer months have the highest mean wind velocities, they do not have the highest maximum winds; and, during the period of record, no wind exceeding 50 mph was recorded during June, July, or August.

The mean annual pressure is very high (1017 mb) and the annual pressure variation is very large, ranging from its lowest monthly value (1010 mb) in July to its highest value (1028 mb) in March.

The cloudiest weather occurs from May to October. During this 6-month period cloudy skies (cloud-cover of 8/10 or more) were recorded over 60 percent of the time, while skies were clear (cloud-cover 3/10 or less) less than 30 percent of the time. During the three cloudiest months of July, August, and September the skies are cloudy nearly 70 percent of the time and are clear less than one-fourth of the time. Fog is most common from May to August.

3. 2 Meteorological Conditions at Polaris Promontory

In 1871 the strongest winds were from the north and northeast, averaging 14 to 18 mph. Winds from the southwest averaged 10 mph and winds from other directions averaged less than 5 mph. Storms of 52 hours duration were recorded in March; and 20-hour storms were common throughout the year. The 1959 data compare closely to these past records.

In 1871 humidity averaged 66 percent. The highest monthly average was 83 percent in May and the lowest was 48 percent in January. From April through September, humidity averaged 70 to 80 percent; and during winter months it averaged 48 to 66 percent. In 1959 humidity for the month of July averaged 58 percent, and 75 percent through mid-August.

Solid cover occurred as follows: in 1871, January, 5 days; February, 7 days; March, 12 days; April, 8 days; May, 6 days; and June, 8 days; July 1872, 15 days and July 1959, 12 days; August 1872, 6 days and August 1959, 6 days; November 1871, 12 days; and December 1871, 7 days. There was no record for September and October.

23 The airstrip on Polaris Promontory is 6 miles inland. Field observations and a study of aerial photographs indicate that it is seldom affected by fog, and the area is generally clear when Newman Bay and the lower portion of the Graystone River valley are covered by fog.

There is no evidence of high persistent winds in the area of the airstrip. Silt covers much of the plain and shows little erosion by wind. During the summer, winds up to 30 mph from the southwest appear to be common.

Snowfall on the Promontory is very light, and frequently large stretches of the plain near Polaris Bay are blown clear of snow. Snow- fall has been observed to be about a maximum of 2 feet; and early snow was observed in mid-August 1959 when a storm showered a 3-inch fall. In 1959 rain was recorded on 7 of the 40 days of the period, mostly occurring as light rain or drizzle.

Visibility was usually over 10 miles, frequently over 15 miles, except during fog and infrequent spells of poor weather. Observations were usually based on the "Monument" landmark about 7 miles to the west of the airstrip site.

In 1959 hourly minimum temperatures for the 39-day period at Polaris Promontory averaged about 390F while daytime maximums were near 50 0 F. Highest temperatures occurred during the period 1100-- 1300 hours or about midday.

Figure 19 and table 5 show the daily maximum, mean, and minimum temperatures from 7 July to 15 August 1959. The lowest temperature recorded was 280F on 15 August and the highest was 61 0 F on 9 July. The mean daily range in temperature for the period was 10 0 F with a high of over 20 and a low of a couple of degrees on. cloudy days.

A low annual precipitation at Polaris Promontory and a relatively high evaporation rate contribute to the aridity of the area. Relative humidity is lower than either at Alert or Thule. Polaris Promontory is generally in a high pressure area and less cloudy days are reported than for Alert and Thule. Field observations during 1958 and 1959 and radio reports showed that the weather at Polaris Promontory was more favorable, while aircraft were grounded at Alert and Thule.

Continuous sunlight occurs for a 5-month period, April to September, which is typical of the Arctic. The sun is below the horizon for more than four months, October to February. 4. NATURAL FEATURES OF THE SITE

The site for the airstrip is in the north-central part of Polaris Prom- ontory, North Greenland. It is 6 miles west of Newman Bay and 22 miles southeast of Robeson Channel. The center of the landing area is at 810 41'N and 59 0 35'W.

24 (%) *F RH

70 100

60 A

/75

50-d- 1-I

40, / ", ", , -"w.i i ^ -..

50 * \

20 REL HUM;%,DAILY MEAN 25 ------MIN TEMP ---- MAX TEMP - ---- MEAN TEMP

JULY AUGUST

10 15 20 25 30 1 5 10 15 Figure 19. Temperatures and relative humidity, Polaris Promontory, 7 July - 15 August 1959.

TABLE 5

Polaris Promontory, Air Temperatures - 1959

July Max, Min, Mean July Max. Min. Mean 7 51.5 50.0 50.8 28 52 37 46 8 59.0 49 53.4 29 50 40 44 9 61 40 46.9 30 54 38 45 10 42 36 39 31 46 33 36 11 47.0 41 44 Aug 12 56 41 50.5 1 54 37 47 13 58 47 50 2 46 37 39 14 57 40 48 3 46 36.5 40 15 50 35 42.5 4 55 39 46 16 50 38 40 5 51 43 46 17 41.5 37.5 39.5 6 52 37 42 18 44 35 39 7 45 39.5 40 19 42 36 38.5 8 41 36 37.5 20 41 34 36 9 43 35 41.5 21 46 34 41 10 47 38 41.0 22 46 36 38 11 60 39 45 23 43 38 39 12 57 38 45 24 49.5 45.5 47.5 13 46 34 38 25 53 43 49 14 34 33 33 26 57 49 53 15 34 28 31 27 49 41 45

25 4. 1 Accessibility

The Promontory site is 375 statute (320 nautical) miles north of Thule and 70 statute (59 nautical) miles southeast of Alert. The area is accessible by icebreakers during the months of August and September in most years. Heavy pack ice in Kennedy Channel often makes access by surface vessels difficult, and in some years the ice may block all vessels. Hall Basin, on the south side of Polaris Promontory, is generally open from July through August. Newman Bay, on the north side of the Promontory, is usually blocked by ice the year round, but generally during July and August there are large stretches of open water close to the coast. Landing by aircraft on the water adjacent to the Promontory is unpredictable because of heavy pack ice which quickly closes the stretches of open water. Amphibious landing from icebreakers, using small landing craft, is generally feasible in Polaris Bay during the summer months, but pack ice often makes necessary a circuitous course from the ship to the shore. The beaches shelve gently (fig. 20). At low tide, water 2 feet deep is 20 feet offshore and 4 feet deep about 30 feet offshore. The beach slopes gently and is a thin layer of pebbles and sand on clay silt. It is soft in spots when streams or other drainage cross it. The tidal area of the beach is also soft, and vehicles rut 2 to 6 inches.

4. 2 Topography

In the proximity of the airstrip site the land is extremely flat. The river terrace, on which the site is situated, trends north-south along the west side of the Graystone River. At the north the terrace is 4 miles wide; 6 miles to the south it is 1 mile wide. Beyond this the terrace narrows gradually and disappears at the point where the river cuts through the hills along the south side of the plain. In all, the terrace is 10 miles long. The surface is devoid of major relief forms and slopes downward to the north at the rate of 0 feet to the mile. The terrace is formed of tightly-packed pebbles and cobbles with some silt and sand. On the east the terrace is bordered by the channel of the Graystone. The channel is 5 to 10 feet below the plain and is separated from it by a scarp. On the north and west the plain is bounded by low, discontinuous, morainal hills which rise 50 to 150 feet above the terrace. These hills have a core of marine clay which is covered by a 5- to 20-foot mantle of pebbles and cobbles in a sand matrix.

East of the Graystone River a belt of morainal hills, having an elevation of 400 to 700 felt, extends to Newman Bay. The hills are separated by irregular stream valleys, and several lakes exist in the morainal hills along the Graystone (fig. 21).

On the north, 2 miles from the airfield site, the scarp bounding the plateau rises 800 feet above the elevation of the terrace. The upper 100 feet is a limestone cliff below which is a steep talus slope. The front of the scarp.is very irregular with numerous indentations and projections along it.

26 4

-Aj.-jj

J a .. rat. 4

alt t i'1 1." - lYw." i

Figure 20. USS Atka in Polaris Bay, 1958.

A A -

Figure 21. View southwest showing general topography of area from ridge on north edge of plain.

27 The Graystone River flows in a channel 1000 to 5000 feet wide.. The floor of this channel is flat and composed of limestone pebbles and cobbles. The stream is briaded, consisting of several interlacing segments each 40 to 100 feet wide. Two miles northeast of the site the river is in a narrow canyon cut in limestone; it continues in this canyon to its mouth at Newman Bay (fig. 22).

Figure 22. Graystone River, view looking northwest from campsite.

4. 3 Slope and Microrelief

The landing area is at an elevation of 328 feet at its north end and 378 feet at its south end. The slope of the area is uniform, and is downward to the north (fig. 23). The surface has several microrelief features; the most extensive of which are depressed polygon edges (fig. 9). These depressed polygon boundaries were 1 to 2 feet wide with gentle slopes. Maximum depression was 6 inches but practically all boundaries were depressed less than 2 inches.

Relic drainage channels interlace across sections of the site. These channels, 5 to 30 feet wide and 1 to 6 inches deep, extend in length from 50 to over 1000 feet. Most of them are less than 2 inches in depth (fig. 23).

Low mounds, 6 to 20 feet in diameter and 6 inches to 2 feet high, occurred in spots along the site. Generally the mounds were covered with a dense growth of grassy plants. Several of the mounds were honeycombed with lemming burrows.

All of the microrelief features with a vertical magnitude of more than 2 inches were removed by scraping and filling. The microrelief features that remain on the site are mainly depressed polygon edges and are not critical for aircraft landings and takeoffs.

28 AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS NO.132- - FIGURE 23

GRAYSTONE RIVER SITE POLARIS PROMONTORY NORTH GREENLAND 1 a BASED ON SURVEYS OF AUGUST 1958 AO 0 1000 2000 3000 FEET 350 Contour interval 10 feet - Elevations in feet .-- 330 -, River channel 0 Low scarp ..- Shallow drainage :-4 Channe..---"' -. . -

.0 -- - ..-

.. V ... 7- .

-- T L B A K K tN 370

- -

{ P I L E H E0E

(------';

4.4 Drainage

The terrace on which the airstrip is located drains primarily to the northwest to a small stream which flows east to join the Graystone River. The northern portion of the strip drains northward through irregular shallow channels to the Graystone. Rainfall is so meagre that most of the water soaks into the soil and little or no runoff occurs. The majority of the surface water, however, results from melting snow in the springtime and this water drains off along the surface channels.

4. 5 Dimensions and Orientation

The emergency airstrip is 200 feet wide and 5000 feet long, plus a safe overrun of 200 feet on the south end and 300 feet on the north end; it is oriented N27 E (Azimuth angle 0270). Beyond the overruns the surface is somewhat rougher, and microrelief features of 1 foot in vertical magnitude are common. Beyond the north end of the runway the breaks in microrelief are sharp and probably would cause damage to aircraft if traversed on landing or takeoff. Beyond the south end the microrelief is not sharp; it would make rough takeoffs or landings, but probably would not damage large aircraft. Numerous other orientations are possible along the terrace on which the airstrip is located, but all would involve scraping and filling to remove numerous microrelief features.

4. 6 Approaches and Glide Angle

Air approaches to the site are excellent from the northeast and southwest. From the northeast, approach is via Newman Bay or from the lowland of Nyeboe Land; a low hill, 'elevation 380 feet (50 feet above the runway), lies a mile from the north end of the overrun (fig. 24). A mile to the west and parallel to this approach is a scarp with a 1200- foot elevation. Approach from the southwest is clear of all obstructions. Mountains with an elevation of 2500 feet are 16 miles southwest of the runway; hills 1600 to 2000 feet in elevation are 12 miles southwest of the runway (fig. 25).

4. 7 Construction Materials

Large quantities of clean limestone gravel (pebble and cobble size) are available from the Graystone River, 250 to 600 feet from the site. Fill gravel can be obtained by borrow from the terrace on which the .site is located. Borrow pits can be extended 2 feet downward to permafrost in summer. Platy limestone is available in the hill 2 miles northwest of the site. Fine-grained soil for binding is available in the hill 1 mile north of the site or it can be obtained from a morainal hill 6 miles south of the site and from the hill east of the Graystone River. Sand is avail-. able only in small quantities from pockets in the bed of the Graystone.

31 kr *

- -, - ' 9t ---- s--- Figure 24. View of airstrip looking northeast along center line from midpoint.

"ILI

Figure 25. View of airstrip looking southwest along center line from midpoint. Hauge Mountains in background rise to 3000 feet and are 12 miles from site.

4. 8 Water Supply

Large quantities of clear potable water are available from the Gray- stone River from May through early October. At other periods- water supply is limited to that obtained from snowbanks. Two small lakes, probably about 20 feet deep, lie on the east shore of the Graystone opposite the airstrip. Limited quantities of water may be obtainable from them during the winter. Ice 6 to 8 feet thick probably covers the lakes during this period.

32 5. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE AIRSTRIP

5. 1 Tests and Measurements

In the summer of 1958 five test pits in areas of different surface conditions were dug to determine the soil profile, and soil samples were taken at varying depths for sieve analyses, Atterberg limit tests, and moisture-content determinations. Soil temperatures and depth to frozen ground also were noted (figs. 26 and 27). Aproximately 2800 shearing strength readings were taken at varying depths at 93 locations. These values were obtained with both a Corps of Engineers Waterways Experi- ment Station cone penetrometer and an airfield penetrometer, and these values were converted to equivalent CBR values through graphs (Water- ways Experiment Station, 1948 and 1952). Strength values shown on figure 9 are a weighted average of the readings of the two penetrometers. An improvised compaction test was performed on the surface soil in four locations, and numerous visual observations were made and noted during the time spent at the site. The unified soil-classification system of the Corps of Engineers (Waterways Experiment Station, 1953) was used to identify the soils.

In the summer of 1959 the test pits were extended and an additional 3300 penetrometer readings were obtained. Moisture contents were determined and soil temperatures and depths to frozen ground were measured in the pits. Also, several other locations were sampled at random for moisture content. Only the airfield penetrometer was used for strength determinations during this time. These investigations were conducted at two different periods: once just after the meltwater had drained from the surface and the soil was in its wettest condition, and again after the soil had thoroughly dried. In addition CBR tests were performed at several locations. A set of equipment patterned after the Corps of Engineers field kit (Waterways Experiment Station, 1956) was used, with a Willys Jeep or an Allis Chalmers model "IB" industrial type tractor providing the reaction load (fig. 28).

5. 2 Surface Conditions

The site has three areas of dissimilar surface conditions: (1) within soil polygons, (2) between soil polygons, and (3) relic drainage channels. The surface within polygons comprises the largest area (fig. 9). All the areas, except for small scattered moist patches, are very dry at the surface during July and August. For two or three weeks at the end of June and the beginning of July, however, the entire surface of the site is quite saturated because of melting snow.

The surface soil within polygons is quite loose, fine-grained, and studded with gravel having a maximum size of about 2 1/2 inches. There is a well-developed crack pattern, with most patches being about 6 inches in diameter. The general color tone is gray but the soil immediately below the surface is tan, There are dried remains of vegetation throughout these areas but there is no humus. (Fig.29.)

33 ^1p 3. S 'S' ' 'n,

21,

-As

Figure 26. Test pit showing typical soil profile. soil temperature.

Figure 28. CBR test being performed with jeep as load source.

34 in polygons.

The surface soil between polygons is also fine-grained, but gravel appears as concentrated masses in irregular areas rather than as interspersed particles. The soil is firm in place. Moist patches are found frequently but irregularly. The color tone is tan in the dry areas and brown in the moist areas. A crack pattern is present but not as well-developed as that within polygons; patches are about 8 inches in diameter. There is no vegetation on the surface, nor are there any indications of past vegetation (fig. 30).

The surface soil in the relic drainage channels is firm in place and fine-grained with gravelly areas appearing infrequently. A well-developed crack pattern is present, with patches being about 14 inches in diameter. The color tone is tan and there is no evidence of past or present vegetation (fig. 31).

A-t

Y ot

Figure 30. Typical surface soil pattern between polygons.

35 Figure 31. Typical surface soil pattern in relic drainage channel.

Lichen activity has formed a thin hard crust on the surface over much of the site. Disturbance of any sort other than wind destroys this crust and, because no other cohesion is present in the soil, the area becomes extremely dusty.

Lemmings have burrowed into the ground in several places and formed slight mounds up to 6 inches in height and 10 feet in diameter. Slopes on the flanks of these mounds are gradual. Soil strength in these areas has been reduced slightly.

5. 3 Types of Soil and Soil Profiles

The soil profiles and test pit information are in table 6. Results of sieve analyses are in table 7.

The test pits reveal a uniform profile throughout the entire site. The top layer, which extends to about 6 inches below the surface except in the drainage channels, is a poorly-graded gravel and sand mixture containing a silt binder (46 percent gravel, 42 percent sand, and 12 percent fines as an average) (type GP-GM). The top layer in the drainage channels extends to varying depths (15 inches and perhaps deeper) and consists of a very fine sandy silt (type ML). These soils are a rock flour and would act more like sandy soils than silty soils. Below the top layers and down to frozen ground, the soil is a poorly-graded sandy gravel with very little fines (69 percent gravel, 29 percent sand, and 2 percent fines as an average) (type GP). (Fig. 32.

The top layers are firm, except for the surface of the areas between polygons, generally dry in place, and the gravel layer is very compact. There is little coarse or medium sand present, and the amount of fine sand decreases with depth (table 7). The finer soil portions have a rapid reaction to a shaking test (dilatancy), little dry strength, and only slight toughness

36 TABLE 6. SOIL PROFILE, TEMPERATURE, AND MOISTURE CONTENT INFORMATION

Table 6a Test Pit 00.0 P Table 6d Test Pit 50.0 P

Location: At south end of strip 30 ft. from southwest corner Location: Northwest corner of strip Surface Area: Edge of polygon in drainage channel Surface Area: Within polygon Atterberg Limits of surface fines: Liquid Limit - 20. 5%; Plastic Limit - 18. 5%; Plast icity Index - 2. 0% Atterberg Limits of surface fines: Liquid Limit - 21. 5%; Plastic Limit - 20. 7%; Plasticity Index - 0. 8% Depth.r (in)l_ jIA-L Soil Profile.iepn %.i oiiempera ure ;rIDe oistureth (in.)content (7. Soil Temrtur ( F) Mnltv Cnnn. )W 15Aug58 9Jul59 6Aug59 15Aug58 9Jul59__6Aug59 I Depth (in.) Soil Profile Depth (in.) Soil Temperature (OF) Moisture Content (%) 14Aug58 9Jul59 6Aug59 14Aug58 9Jul59 6AugS Very fine sandy silt (ML); tan; 0 48.0 21.8 4.6 very slightly plastic (PI of 2); 1 40.0 49.0 48. 0 Poorly 1.9 graded gravel and sand 0 49.0 14.0 1.4 0- 9 very low compressibility; little 3 21.2 7. 1 mixture with silt binder (GP-GM); 1 46. 5 54.0 50.0 trace coarse and medium sand, large 6 7. 0 4. 1 45% gravel, 43% sand; 1 1/4 in. 3 7.3 4.6 percentage of fine sand; dry and 8 37. 44.0 maximum 0 3. 3 size; rounded to sub- 6 41.0 48.0 49.0 4. 1 2. 6 firm in place. 9 43.0 0- 6 angular particles; dry 4.3 3.0 and firm 9 6.2 2.8 12 1.7 5.6 0.7 in place; 12% nonplastic fines; 10 4. 2 Poorly graded sandy gravel, very 17 35.0 38.0 little coarse and medium sand; 12 2.3 1.7 little fines (GP); 67% gravel, 20 35.0 4.6 scattering of small dry vegetation 13 39.0 44.0 48.0 31% sand; 1 3/4 in. maximum size; 24 33. 5 32.0 36.0 2. 1 3.3 roots at surface but no humus. 19 9-40 36. 0 rounded to subangular particles; 30 33. 0 32. 0 35. 0 6. 2 slightly 20 40.0 44.0 4.5 2.9 moist and very dense 35 32. 0 4. 1 Poorly graded gravel and sand 24 in place; little coarse and medium 37 4.2 32.0 4.4 mixture, very little fines (GP); 27 34.0 32.0 sand. 40 32. 5 58% gravel, 40% sand; 1 1/4 in. 30 5.3 6-36 maximum size; rounded to sub- 32 32. 5 35-40 Permafrost - Depth varies with date. angular particles; slightly moist 35 32. 0 and very dense in place; little 36 6. 0 coarse sand. Table 6b Test Pit 21.6 P 27-36 Permafrost- Depthvaries with date.

Location: On west side line 2160 ft. .from south end of strip

Surface Area: Drainage channel

Atterberg Limits of surface fines: Liquid Limit - 17. 0%; Plastic Limit - 14. 6%; Plasticity Index - 2. 4%

Depth (in.) Soil Profile Depth (in.) Soil Temperature (OF) Moisture Content (%) Table 6e Test Pit 50.0 N 15Aug58 9Jul59 6Aug59 15Aug58 9Jul59 6Aug59 Very fine sandy silt (ML): tan; 0 52.0 20.3 6. 1 location: Northeast corner of strip very slightly plastic (PI of 2. 4) 1 41.0 49.0 46.0 5.0 0-15 at top, nonplastic below; very 3 20.9 7.5 Surface Area: Within polygon low compressibility; little 6 37. 5 45. 0 43. 0 17. 6 9. 2 coarse and medium sand, large 7 7. 0 tterberg Limits of surface fines: Liquid Limit - 19. 5%; Plastic Limit - 19. 1%; Plasticity Index - 0. 4% percentage of fine sand; dry and 9 19. 5 10.9 firm in place. 12 36.0 39.0 9.7 6.3 13 39.0 5.9 Depth (in.) Soil Profile Depth (in.) Soil Temperature (OF) Moisture Content (%) 15 2.1 4.2 14Aug 58 9Jul59 6Aug59 14Aug58 9Jul59 6Au59 17 34.5 34.0 Poorly graded sandy gravel, very 20 37. 0 1. 2 4. 8 Poorly graded gravel and sand 0 49. 0 17. 7 0.9 little fines (GP); 75% gravel, 24 0.8 mixture with silt binder (GP-GM); 1 46. 5 52.0 47. 0 trace 23% sand; 1 3/4 in. maximum size; 25 33.0 49% gravel, 41% sand; 1 3/4 in. 3 8. 8 5. 2 15-32 rounded to subangular particles; 26 30.0 0- 6 maximum size; rounded to sub- 6 42. 0 46. 0 4. 2 2. 1 slightly moist and very dense in 27 36.-0 angular particles; dry and firm 8 44. 0 1. 4 place; little coarse and medium 28 2. 5 in place; 10% nonplastic fines; 9 1.6 1.9 s and. 30 2.2 little coarse and medium sand; 12 41. 0 42.0 0. 8 3.0 31 32.5 28.0 scattering of small dry vegetation 17 42. 0 roots at surface but 'no humus. 20 32 33.0 . 1.6 37. 0 37. 0 4. 1 4. 6 24 36.0 1.8 31-32 Permafrost - Depth varies with date. Poorly graded sandy gravel, very 27 36. 0 32. 0 little fines (GP); 75% gravel, 24% 30 34. 0 5. 2 sand; 1 3/4 in. maximum size; 33 7. 8 6-36 rounded to subangular particles; 34 33. 0 Table 6c Test Pit 25. 8 N slightly moist and very dense in 35 33. 0 place; little coarse and medium 36 32.0 1. 7 sand. Location: On east side line 2580 ft. from south end of strip 4-36 Permafrost - Depthvaries with date Surface Area: Moist gravelly heaved area between polygons

Atterberg Limits of surface fines: Liquid Limit - 19. 0%; Plastic Limit - 18. 1%; Plasticity Index - 0.9%

Depth (in.) Soil Profile Depth (in.) Soil Temperature (OF) . Moisture Content (%) 15Aug58 9Jul59 6AuA59 1 5Au58 9Jl59 6Aug59 Poorly graded gravel-sand-silt 0 49. 0 15.7 5. 6 mixture (GM); 44% gravel, 41% 1 45.0 53.0 49. 0 4. 3 sand; 1 in. maximum size; 3 12. 4 6. 9 0- 6 rounded to subangular particles; 6 12. 6 5. 8 dry and firm in place; 14% non- 8 41. 0 45. 0 plastic fines; little coarse and 9 44. 0 9. 3 3. 5 medium sand; scattering of small 11 1.2 dry vegetation roots near surface 12 13. 7 6. 1 but no humus. 16 39.0 39.0 42. 0 19 1. 5 Poorly graded sandy gravel, very 20 6.0 little fines (GP); 69% gravel, 23 37.0 33. 0 38. 0 29% sand; 1 1/4 in. maximum 24 6-36 4. 9 size; rounded to subangular 30 35.0 30. 0 34. 0 2. 8 particles; slightly moist and very 32 3. 3 dense in place; little medium sand. 33 30. 0 35 33. 0 36 33.0 2. 1 33-36 Permafrost - Depth varies with date. 37 . _ TABLE 7

Results of sieve analyses, August 1958

Percentages of

Location Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine Fines (test pit) gravel gravel sand sand sand

X3/4 in. 3/4in.-#4 #4-#10 #10-#40 40-#200 (#200 Top Layers:

50 N top 6 in. 19.7 29.4 4.2 6. 5 30.0 10.2 50 Ptop6in. 18.1 27.3 5.3 6.2 31.3 11.8 25.8Ntop6in. 18.4 25.6 3.0 4.7 33.6 14.7 Average 18.7 27.4 4.2 5.8 31.6 12.2

Bottom Layers:

50 N below 6 in. 25.8 49.5 4.0 6.4 13.4 0.9 50 P below 6 in. 13.0 44.8 5.3 10.6 24.4 1.9 25. 8 N below 6 in. 17.1 51.4 8.0 5.7 15.2 2.6 21. 6 P belowl15 in. 51.1 24.4 3.6 6.1 13.1 1.7 00. OP below 9 in. 27. 8 38.8 8.3 10.6 12.7 1. 8 Average 27.0 41..8 5.8 7.9 15.8 1.8 at the plastic limit. They exhibit little, if any, plasticity (fig. 33). Only a trace of stickiness was noticed over the wide range of moisture contents to which the finer soil samples were subjected during testing. There is no cementation in the coarse-grained soils and very little cohesion in the fine- grained soils.

5. 4 Soil Strength

In 1958 a penetrometer survey was conducted to obtain readings which could be converted to equivalent CBR values (figs. 34 and 9). These readings indicate a fairly soft surface but a rapid increase in shearing strength with depth (table 8). In only 10 test locations was the equivalent CBR less than 10 at the 3-inch depth, and even then it was never less than 8. 5. In these locations an equivalent CBR of 12. 5 was obtained at no deeper than 5 3/4 inches below the surface. These softer areas are in the regions of lemming activity and in portions of the relic drainage channels. With the very compact gravel layer lying only about 6 inches below the surface over most of the site, it can be expected that an equivalent CBR of 25+ could be obtained at this depth regardless of the surface condition except in areas of relic drainage channels. Even here, where the gravel layer might be more than 6 inches below the surface, the penetrometer readings indicated equivalent CBR's comparable to those of other areas of the site. This fact is attributed to the scattered gravelly areas within the channels and to the firmness of the soil in place.

39 Figure 32. Test pit with equipment for soil sampling and moisture content determination.

TABLE 8

Equivalent CBR Values

Along Along Along west side line center line east side line Aug 1958 Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave.

1 inch below surface 1.7 7.0 4.0 1.7 7.7 4.0 2.3 6.6 4.3

3 inches below surface 9. 0 25.0 13. 3 9.0 37.5 14.4 8.5 29.5 16. 5

In 1959 the penetroxneter surveys were conducted to determine the loss of strength within the soil due to saturation from melting snow and the subsequent recovery of strength due to drying of the soil (figs. 35 and 36). The soil is in its weakest condition during the period of saturation. Upon drying, the soil recovered the strength it had lost, since the final 1959 penetrometer readings were similar to the 1958 readings. The shearing strength tests show that the drainage channel areas exhibit the greatest loss of strength with the addition of excessive moisture. Con- versely, since recovery was complete, these areas also exhibit the greatest increase in strength upon drying. Figure 37 is a graph of the recovery of shearing strength on drying of soils for various areas. Recovery of strength generally decreased with depth, with the greatest recovery for polygon soils taking place in the top 3 inches and for the drainage channel soils in the top 6 inches. Strength recovery took place between 2 July and 24 July, and it is estimated that for a period of two weeks during this time the site was unsafe for aircraft operations. 40 60

Symbol Soil Portion LL PL PI

A Pit 50N, top 6", 19.5 19.1 0. 4 #40 sieve portion 50- B Pit 50P, top 611, 21.5 20.7 0. 8 CH #40 sieve portion

C Pit 25. 8N, top 6", 19.0 18.1 0. 9 #40 sieve portion 40 D Pit 21. 6P, 1" down, 17.0 14.6 2. 4 CL 0 Z entire sample E Pit 21. 6P, 12" down, 12.5 12.2 0. 3 30. entire sample F Pit00. OP, 6" down, 20.5 18.5 2, 0 Symbol Soil Type entire sample CH Inorganic clays of high 20 0 19 .3 0 7 plasticity Average for #40, c. v 4 20. sieve portion OH Organic days and organic silts OH MH Inorganic claysof high and compressibility MH CL Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity IQ0 OL Organic silt's of low OL plasticity and ML Inorganic silts o f low CL -M L ML plasticity Do 0 F 0 0 E COoAOB 1 I I i I - t- - I - - a - - - L 0 Io 30 40 6'0 70 80 9'0 100 LIQUID LIMIT

Figure 33. Plasticity of fine soil portions, August 1958.

30 30

3"depth

20' 20

Equivalent CBR I0- I0

n v 0 50 40 30 20 Io Stations along east side line

30' 30

3" depth

20' 20 Equivalent CBR 10 10 depth

0 1v 5 0 40 30 20 'O C Stations along center line 301 30

20; 20 Equivalent ' 3" depth CBR

10- -10

0. 0 50 40 30 20 10 0

Stations along west side line

Figure 34. Soil strength, August 1958.

Also in 1959 an effort was made to obtain some actual CBR data. Not enough points were tested to use the data conclusively, but the data obtained tended to substantiate the findings in 1958 of a fairly soft surface with a rapid increase in strength with depth.

5. 5 Compaction Characteristics

Because the surface soil is noncohesive, a remolding test or similar tests requiring an undisturbed sample could not be made. An indication of compaction characteristics was obtained, however, with an 11. 5-pound sledge hammer which was dropped 50 times from a 2-foot height on a 10- inch- square steel tamping plate weighing 14 pounds. Results at the four test locations are shown in table 9. Compaction was the greatest at the TABLE 9

Results of Compaction Test

Depth of Depression

Test Pit Test Pit Test Pit Test Pit 50N 50P 21.6P 25.8N

Initial impression Zero Zero Zero Zero After 10 blows 0. 325 in. 0. 325 in. 0. 500 in. 0. 250 in. After 20 blows 0. 750 in. 0. 750 in. 0.900 in. 0.450 in. After 30 blows 0. 950 in. 0. 950 in. 1. 050 in. 0. 700 in. After 50 blows 1. 250 in. 1. 250 in. 1. 250 in. 1. 000 in.

beginning for a surface soil in a relic drainage channel (Test Pit 21. 6P). Total compaction for soils in drainage channels and within polygons, however, was the same after 50 blows. For soils between polygons (Test Pit 25. 8N) total compaction was 20 percent less. No increase in shearing strength resulted from compaction since the penetrometer readings were the same at the 3-inch depth after the test as before.

The operation of the jeep on the site in 1958 revealed important characteristics about the compaction of the surface soil. The jeep weighed approximately 2900 pounds and exerted a contact pressure of about 30 psi. After traveling along the center line about 40 times, it caused rutting which varied from none in the moist gravelly areas between polygons to a maximum of 2 inches in the softer dry fine-grained areas within polygons and in drainage channels. Most of the soil was not compacted but was displaced to the side to form ridges along the rut. The rutting caused by the test aircraft followed the pattern of the rutting by the jeep (fig. 38). (See Section 7 "Aircraft Tests.")

45 Figure 35. Waterways Experiment Station cone penetrometer being used to obtain shearing strength values of soil.

71'

Figure 36. Penetrometer survey being conducted to determine soil strength.

*1 K, t 7

40 r

120 -A Figure 37. Percent 100 increase in shearing -- DRAINAGE CHANNEL AREAS strength vs. depth S F- for various soils upon (980 z - Soils in center - drying. of polygons Soils at N polygonal borders \ 0 60 N

C' z 40 La W -b U, 20

0 3 7 DEPTH (INCHES)

46 Figure 38. View down center line of airstrip, showing negligible rutting in jeep tracks.

5. 6 Moisture, Permafrost, and Drainage Conditions

In 1958, investigations of the site were conducted when the soil was in an extremely dry condition. A primary concern of the 1959 investigations, therefore, was the effect of the excessive moisture from the melting snow on the soil. Strength recovery has been discussed in a previous section; actual moisture conditions will be described here.

On 24 June 1959 a flight was made over the area, and the site was seen to be generally covered with snow. The jeep, tent, and some of the flags that were left in 1958 could be seen easily and, since the snow was drifted around the jeep to a height of about 2 or 2 1/2 feet, the depth of snow over the entire area in general was assumed to be 1 to 1 1/2 feet. A few small bare patches of ground were visible but no signs of melting were observed. On 1 July the snow was melting and its coverage was less than 50 percent. Only ridges of snow running in an east-west direction remained and there was quite a bit of water at the north end (the lower end). On 2 July only about 25 percent of the ground was covered with snow and drainage streams braided the entire site. Pools of standing water existed but most of the raised polygons were clear of water. The entire length of the jeep tracks made in 1958 along the center line of the strip was visible, so the effect of water action could not have been too great. On 6 July, when the advance party arrived at the site, there was no surface water -- either running or standing -- remaining.

Although all drainage water had disappeared by the time the first set of investigations were conducted on 9 July 1959, the surface soils were still extremely moist. Soils within polygons had moisture contents approaching the plastic limit in the top 3 inches, and soils between polygons in the top 6 inches. Consequently they possessed very little shearing strength. Soils in the drainage channels had moisture contents exceeding the liquid limit in the top 6 to 9 inches and therefore had no shearing strength at all. In all these cases the moisture content decreased rapidly in depths below the moist top layers (table 6).

47 By 24 July 1959 the soils had dried to about the same condition they were in 1958 (table 6). Surface soils within polygons were extremely dry and had just a trace of moisture in them. Surface soils in drainage channels and in the moist gravelly heaved areas between polygons con- tained some moisture but were still relatively dry. The fine-grained surface soils held more moisture than the top of the gravel layer immediately below, but the amount of moisture tended to increase with depth within the same soil type.

Specific effects of moisture in the soil can be helpful or detrimental. A slight amount - 6 to 9 percent, approximately - in the fine-grained surface soils increases strength. This fact is evident in the areas between polygons where more moisture exists in the same type of soil as is found within polygons and the strength of the former areas is greater. Too much moisture, though, decreases the strength to a very slight amount. The effect is particularly noticeable in a silty soil, such as at Polaris Promontory, which has very little cohesion. Not only does the soil have virtually no strength when its moisture content is above the plastic limit but it also breaks down very rapidly with the addition of moisture while approaching the plastic limit from its natural moisture content. The point at which addition of more moisture would decrease rather than increase the strength is very critical for the type of soil found at the surface at Polaris Promontory. As for the bottom layers of soil, excessive moisture would not have much of an effect since these gravelly soils are very permeable and any moisture which accumulates in this layer drains off easily.

Frozen ground was reached at approximately the same level in 1959 as in 1958. Average depth in 1958 was 2 feet 10 inches; on 9 July 1959 it was 2 feet 8 inches; and on 6 August'it was 2 feet 11 inches (table 6). A few clear ice portions were noted in the soil but most of the bond seemed to be provided by frozen sand. The polygon feature so charac- teristic of permafrost regions is quite easily observed at the surface over the entire site but its effect is slight because edges of polygons are usually depressed no more than 2 inches and never more than 6 inches. No other indications of frost activity at the site were noted.

Since most of the soil in the surface layer of the site is of the fine- grained variety, very little surface water soaks in to drain vertically. Most of this-water runs off on the surface. Observations in 1959 indicate that this surface drainage takes place rapidly. On 1 July about 50 percent snow coverage remained on the site, but on 6 July all the snow had melted and all the water had drained away. What little interior drainage takes place would be poor in the ML soils, good in the GP-GM soils, and excellent in the GP soil which underlies all surface soils of the site. Damage from frost action would be negligible for the GP soils, but it would be noticeable for the GP-GM group and quite evident for the ML group if all contributing factors for frost action were present.

48 5. 7 Utilization by Aircraft

Because of excessive moisture conditions, the site could not safely be used by any aircraft, except possibly of the smallest size, for about a 2-week period in June-July. During this period the snow melts, the resulting water drains from the area in the many braided streams which cover the site, and the surface soil dries to a moisture content compatible with the strength required for an aircraft landing. Excessive moisture during this time destroys the shearing strength of the soil. After this period the site is dry and strong enough to support heavy types of aircraft and, since there appears to be very little rainfall during the summer, it probably stays this way until the beginning winter when the soil freezes. Snow undoubtedly covers much of the strip all winter long but to a shallow depth and bare patches probably exist when wind blows the snow away; the soil remains frozen until the snow melts at the beginning of summer. The cycle than repeats itself.

6. PREPARATION OF THE AIRSTRIP

Although there were few microrelief features large enough to make an aircraft landing hazardous, the field party decided to reduce all such features to a maximum magnitude of 2 inches so as to provide a landing strip as smooth as possible. Those features which were worked on included depressed polygon edges, abrupt slopes along the drainage channels, and scattered mounds (fig. 9).

A Willys Jeep with a snow blade mounted on the front was used in the summer of 1958. A total of 32 man-hours was expended to remove most of the larger features. The job could not be finished because fine dust of the disturbed area clogged the jeep's lubrication system and prevented its engine from turning over.

In the summer of 1959,, an Allis-Chalmers Model IB tractor equipped with a bul-ldozer blade was brought to Polaris Promontory and 24 man- hours were spent in grading the larger obstacles (fig. 39). The grading left several rough areas so a drag was improvised by the field party and towed by the tractor (fig. 40). This effort took 18 man-hours. Sixteen man-hours of shovel work were required to smooth out the remaining irregular slopes and 12 man-hours were spent in clearing the larger- sized surface cobbles on the strip (fig. 41). The total construction effort took 102 man-hours. This time could have been lessened to an estimated 70 man-hours if the work were accomplished by a proficient and well-trained construction crew.

The preparation of the airstrip was completed with the marking of the strip (fig. 42). Eighteen man-hours were expended in 1959 in placing horizontal pyramid markers every 500 feet along both side lines, a vertical end marker at each corner, and three vertical markers every 750 feet out from each end along the extended center line. In addition two metal corner reflectors (each 4 feet by 4 feet by 2 feet) for radar targets had been placed at each end the previous summer. The markers were left in place and will remain in adequate condition for several years.

49 Figure 39. Grading airstrip with blade mounted on tractor.

Figure 40. Grading of airstrip by tractor- towed drag with rock load.

owl 1 4& OFrF-

__ aN

Figure 41. Smoothing small rough spots on air- Wtr ii strip by pick and shovel.

~~~ rr - 7f - .. .'4 u ,"} x ,

~V ~~ <

50 Figure 42. Erecting side line markers on airstrip-.

7. AIRCRAFT TESTS

The aircraft that was used to test the Polaris Promontory airstrip was a Lockheed C-130A Hercules propjet, AF Serial No. 53-3132. It is- a heavy cargo and personnel transport powered by four turbojet engines driving propellers through a gear reduction train. The home station of the aircraft was L. G. Hanscom Field at Bedford, Massachusetts, where it was assigned to the Air Force Cambridge Reserach Center. The crew, all from the Multi-Engine Branch of the 6520th Test Group of AFCRC (except Captain T. D. N. Douthit), included the following:

Capt. Bobby E. Terry, Aircraft Commander 1st Lt. Charles B. Snyder, Pilot Capt. Thomas D. N. Douthit, Copilot, Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory Capt. Donald O. Fuller, Navigator 1st Lt. William T. DeWitt, Navigator SSgt George W. Munn, Chief Flight Mechanic and Loadmaster

The first landing was made the morning of 15 August (fig. 43). An 18-hour snowfall, low ceilings, and poor visibility had delayed prior attempts; and, even at the time of the landing, the weather was far from satisfactory and the strip had about a 2-inch snow cover. The critical illness of Dr. Anker Weidick, of the ground party, prompted Capt. Terry to attempt the landing at that time instead of waiting for better conditions.

"Dr. Weidick became ill early on 13 August and was flown by helicopter to the icebreaker Westwind for diagnosis which showed appendicities. Immediate evacuation of Dr. Weidick to Thule Air Base was recommended but impossible because of bad weather. On 14 August further diagnosis showed the appendicitis to be acute and necessitating an operation. An airdrop of medical supplies was arranged for the morning of 15 August and the drop was made on the shore of Polaris Bay by the C-130 com- manded by Capt. Terry. The aircraft was then flown over the airstrip site to check the weather conditions and, because the overcast had thinned and lifted slightly, Capt. Terry made his first landing on the strip. Dr. Weidick was then returned to the site by helicopter, placed on board the C-130 and, under the care of the flight surgeon, was evacuated to the hospital at Thule. While enroute, Dr. Weidick's appendix ruptured; he was operated on two hours after arrival at the hospital. The operation was successful and the recovery complete.

51 Figure 43. C-130 wheeled aircraft on.snow-covered airstrip after first test landing, August 1959.

In addition to the poor weather which threatened to close in again, two other factors hampered the initial landing: (1) the air crew had no knowledge of the depth or effect of the snow cover on the strip because the ground party could not get to the strip in time to radio this information before the landing was attempted, and (2) the crew had little knowledge of the markings of the strip because there was no time between the decision to land and the landing for the ground party to provide the usual briefing concerning ground conditions.

After Dr. Weidick was evacuated to Thule Air Base, the test aircraft then returned to Polaris Promontory in the afternoon of 15 August and made two more landings and takeoffs. By this time the snow had practically disappeared.

Information concerning aircraft gross weights, landing and takeoff distances, and tire pressures is presented in table 10. In the pilot's opinion no unusual difficulty was encountered during the testing operations. Takeoffs and landings were made as quickly as possible, except for the first landing; on the first landing pilot used very little brak- ing action or reversing of propellers. Slow-speed taxi runs were made after all the landings so the entire 5000-foot length of the strip was tested in some manner. The pilot reported complete satisfaction with condition of the airstrip, its strength, and its markings.

The rutting caused by the aircraft followed the rutting pattern of the jeep. The moist gravelly areas between polygons did not rut at all and the deepest ruts occurred in drainage channel areas. In a few isolated places the ruts were 6 inches deep but-the majority of the deeper ruts were no more than 4 inches. The average rut depth along the entire length of the strip is estimated to be 1 to 2 inches (figs. 44, 45, 46, and 47).

52 TABLE 10

Aircraft Test Data

Operation Direction Gross Weight Distance

1st Landing North to South 90, 000 lb. 2500 ft. 1st Takeoff South to North 90, 000 lb. 1600 ft. 2nd Landing South to North 87, 000 lb. 2200 ft. 2nd Takeoff North to South 87, 000 lb. 1850 ft. 3rd Landing South to North 87, 000 lb. 1500 ft. 3rd Takeoff South to North 100, 000 lb.

(*Unknown because ground party departed with the aircraft

Tire pressures Front main tires 54 psi Rear main tires 58 psi Nose tires 60 psi

Figure 45. C-130 aircraft after test landing, showing negligible rutting.

- ,'F t h' «A' 'a5

" ' ... ."S ' ' " ?i.' - 3'' X1,7.^. .. ,y

' 't, '41 A,

Nom, V - ^ d e

IS 4K. a i Y -

R 14. A-- - D

't f

53 Figure 44. Main landing gear of C-130 on airstrip after first test landing on snow-covered ground.

Figure 46. Main landing gear Qf C-130 parked on strip after snow melt; average rut depth less than 1 inch. PA

Figure 47. Checking depth of rut after test M 4 landing.

.i. i.R

54 8. POSSIBLE ALTERNATE SITES

Three separate searches were made on foot in 1959 over several inland areas of Polaris Promontory which were thought to have additional possible airstrip sites. One search was a 15-mile straight-line traverse from the western side of the Promontory along the central lowland to the main site. Another was a 28-mile round-trip traverse to the southeast of the main site. The third was a 16-mile round-trip traverse to the south of the main site (fig. 14). Three possible sites were dis- covered and are described in following paragraphs.

In general none of these sites approached the main site for length and strength. Many areas exist on the Promontory, however, that appear to be quite flat, but the searches did not cover all of them. The possibility still exists, therefore, of better sites.

8. 1 Possible Site No. 1 (figs. 48 and 49)

Location - Approximate latitude 81 35'N, and longitude 60 40'W. The site is on a terraced alluvial plain 5 miles east of the delta of the Atka River where it flows into Polaris Bay. (Fig. 50.)

- :^

Figure 50. View of possible alternate landing site no. 1.

Accessibility - The site can be reached easily by vehicles traveling across country from Polaris Bay. The Atka River can be forded at several points when the water is about 2 feet deep. The site is also accessible easily from.the east site by wheeled vehicles; the only bar- riers are soft-spots in stream channels.

55 Approaches - Lookout Mountain to the northwest 5 miles away and Hauge Mountains (2900 feet) to the southeast 8 miles away.

Dimensions and Orientation - A 200-foot by 3000-foot strip was laid out. No greater length is possible. The orientation is approximately N40 W.

Landforms - The site is on a plain which is completely free of vegetation and has a general slope of less than 1 percent. The principal microrelief features are:

a. The area except for drainage channels is studded with gravel having a maximum size of 1 1/2 inches, but most of which is much smaller.

b. There are large buried boulders in about six locations. These would require light machinery to remove.

c. There are many minor unrelated drainage channels, some of which are connected but most of which end in shallow depressions. The channels are generally not more than about 10 feet in width and only a few inches in depth.

d. Drying crack patterns in the drainage areas are well-developed within depressions.

e. Polygon patterns are visible but are not well-developed.

Surface Soil Conditions - The site is on a plain which is completely free. of vegetation and which has a gradual slope to the southeast. Polygon patterns are visible but are not well-developed. A clay flat exists in the southeast end for 400 feet and the surface soil here, as well as in the small but numerous drainage channels throughout the rest of the site, is fine-grained and slightly moist in scattered spots. The surface soil in the remainder of the site, except for the drainage channels, is a gravelly sand with pebbles having a maximum size of 1 1/2 inches studding the surface. This area is very dry. Small mounds 12 to 18 inches in height are scattered throughout the central portion.

Soil Profile and Types of Soil - Only two test pits were dug, one in the fine-grained flat and one in the gravelly sand area. The former revealed a brown silty sand which is firm in place for the upper 10 inches. From 10 inches to 27 inches a sand-gravel mixture exists with a pre- dominance of small-sized gravel and with the gravel size increasing with depth. This layer is compact but it contains scattered small pockets, some of loose sand and some of loose small pebbles. Frozen ground was reached at 27 inches. The pit in the gravelly sand area exposed a sand- gravel mixture from the surface on down to frozen ground which was reached at 35 inches. This layer is compact but has small pockets of honeycombed clay interspersed throughout it.

56 Soil Strength - An airfield penetrometer was used to investigate the shearing strength of the soil at this site. Although the surface soils are stronger than those of the main site, strengths in general do not compare favorably with those of the main site. The strengths at the 3-inch depth are about the same, but below that the soil strength tends to increase very slowly at this site instead of rapidly as it does at the main site. Average airfield penetrometer values for both sites are compared as follows:

Depth 1 in. 3in. 6 in. 9 in.

Main Site 34 114 189 300

Possible Site No. 1 66 124 138 148

In addition to the strengths not increasing rapidly with depth, another factor of undesirable soil strength at this site is the many soft spots which appear throughout the site. Sixteen points were selected at random along the entire length of the strip, mostly in drainage channels, and the maximum value of 200 was not obtained until an average depth of 19 inches was reached. At five of these points, in fact, the 200 value was not even obtained although the penetrometer was pushed into the ground to its greatest depth -- 23 inches. From this data, it does not seem possible that an aircraft could land safely at this site.

Moisture, Permafrost, and Drainage Conditions - The soil at the surface, except for some isolated moist patches in drainage channels, is dry. The highest moisture content -- 11 percent -- was found toward the bottom of the 10-inch surface layer of the pit dug in the fine-grained flat. It had progressed from 9 percent at the 1-inch depth; and, below 10 inches, the moisture content fell off to about 5 percent. In the pit dug in the gravelly sand area, moisture content varied from 4 percent at the 1-inch depth to 9 percent at the 9-inch depth and down to 5 percent below that. Frozen ground was observed at 35 inches in the gravelly sand area and 27 inches in the fine-grained flat. Temperatures were noted at various depths in both pits. Surface drainage is good except in the flat where water might tend to accumulate, thus making the area moist and weak in strength during the period when the snow is melting. Subsurface drainage should be good in the sand-gravel mixture but will be poor in the silty sand areas.

Engineering Aspects - Except at the southeast end on the fine-grained flat, surface water should drain freely and rapidly. Because of the soil structure frost action should be negligible. A small amount of grading would be necessary to remove the 10 or 12 small mounds in the central portion of the site, and some shovel work might be needed to make the slopes of the fairly rolling relief at the northwest end acceptable. Be- cause of the nature of the terrain, no overrun areas can be considered.

57 Construction Materials -- Rock is available in small quantities within 1/2 mile to the northeast of the site in high moraine ground. Large quantities can be found in the mountains 5 miles to the northwest and 8 miles to the southeast of the site. Gravel is available in all sizes in the immediate vicinity. Some sand is also available at the site but it is mostly of the finer size. Much sand in all sizes can be found in the flats above the stream banks 1 mile to the north of the site. Binder soil is present in limited quantities around the area and in large quantities in the dissected lowlands and highlands within 1 mile to the east and southeast.

Water Supply - Unlimited quantities are available about 1/2 mile from the site in the Atka River but steep banks make the water difficult to obtain unless one walks 2 miles. In addition the water in the river will be milky during the thaw season for about four weeks. A small lake exists about 1/4 mile from the site. This water is good during the thaw season but undoubtedly becomes unpotable later.

8. 2 Possible Site No. 2 (fig. 48)

About 1 1/2 miles to the west of Site No. 1 lies a fairly smooth terrace (one of several) bordering the Atka River. Time did not permit an intensive investigation but this site seems to compare favorably with Site No. 1. The extent of the terrace limits a strip to a length of 3500 feet but the absence of microrelief would make any grading virtually unnecessary. There is no vegetation on the site and just a few small shallow drainage channels mar the surface. The top layer of soil is a sandy gravel and shallow holes indicate that this type would be predom- inant with depth. The surface is quite soft but random observations indicate that strength increases much more rapidly with depth than at Site No. 1.

8. 3 Possible Site No. 3 (fig. 49)

About 4 miles to the south of the main site and on the same terrace is an area much like the main site. It was not investigated in detail but it seemed comparable in all respects except three. First, because of deep drainage channels at each end, a strip would be limited to 3500 feet. Second, a more pronounced microrelief would necessitate about twice as much construction effort. Third, the surface of this site is not quite as soft as that of the main site and therefore its strength would be greater.

58 .000 0\\. " .".\

.- -- ERODED CLAY / -- SOI1 -LOWLAND -

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- -- O~L A -D-.x - L OO E SEE\ \OSESNN LOOSE SAND ,- - ' +30 \ 40

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15 4AAA

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ti - UNDULATING GROUND '-. CAMP '--. SITE LAKE N 0 2000 4000 FEET

Figure 48 ALTERNATE SITES FOR AIRFIELDS SOUTHEAST PART OF POLARIS PROMONTORY

NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION OF GENTLE SLOPES ELEVATIONS IN FEET

OUGHT ROUGH

G CLAY

ROCK .--- -

CLAY

ROUGH

CLAY

ROUG CL AY 3000 FEET LENGTH POSSIBLE IN THIS AREA BUT SURFACE RETAINS MOISTURE AND IS TOO WET TO BE USABLE

CLAY

CAMP SITE 0 1000 2000 FEET

,rI

Figure 49 ALTERNATE AIRFIELD SITE NO. I SOUTHEAST PART OF POLARIS PROMONTORY

NOTE: AREAS NOT MARKED CLAY"ARE A GRAVELLY SAND

9. CONCLUSIONS

The success in achieving the objectives of the 1958-59 operation has shown that remote ice-free natural landing sites. having the capability to support various types of Air Force activities are available in Greenland. From the studies conducted by AFCRC to date, Polaris Promontory is just one of several hundred such suitable ice-free areas in the Arctic to be found on varied types of terrain such as raised beach flats, dry lagoon bottoms, clay plains, river terraces, and broad level river valleys. The desert-like arid conditions of the North Greenland climate result in high strength, well-compacted, dense soils being found in these arctic terrain features and these soils are generally underlain by uniform permafrost conditions throughout the year. The soils have a lower moisture content and a greater depth to permafrost as contrasted with wetter climatic areas. Only surface thaw for a period of 2 to 4 weeks per year in the spring affects usability of such surfaces for aircraft use.

The selection of specific sites in such areas by low-altitude aerial reconnaissance and applied photogeologic interpretation methods is feasible and practical. Such techniques, when employed by professionals with considerable field experience in the Arctic regions, are reliable, rapid, and inexpensive. Sufficient detail can be identified from the photographs on terrain features, topography, drainage, soil characteristics, and geologic formations to enable satisfactory engineering assessment for military applications. Field investigations produce the quantitative data necessary to determine final evaluation of the individaul sites for a 12-month operational capability. As the development of remote areas in the Arctic becomes of higher priority, an airstrip would be the first important item of initial logistic support. The general sequence of an ideal appraoch to a remote site selection and development is:

a. Laboratory reserach on available maps, photographs, and literature

b. Photo reconnaissance of selected ice-free areas

c. Preliminary site selection

d. Field investigation

(1) Ground reconnaissance and soil evaluation

(2) Final site selection

(3) Surveying and mapping

(4) Minor surface improvement

e. Airstrip marking

f. Aircraft test landings

g. Modification of techniques

63 The successful aircraft landings verify the validity of the Corps of Engineers curves of minimum soil-strength requirements for aircraft operation on unsurfaced soils (Waterways Experiment Station, 1954). These curves indicate required CBR values for varying combinations of wheel load, tire pressure, and gear configurations for any number of coverages. These values (5 for 1 coverage and 6 for 3 coverages for a C-130), as an average, were found by penetrometer survey at Polaris Promontory within the top 3 inches of soil. The rutting at touchdown points and in areas passed over during landing rolls and takeoff runs resulted in a maximum depth of 6 inches and an average depth of less than 2 inches. The rut increased to a maximum depth in the cohesionless silty surface of the drainage channels. Soils in the drainage channel areas (fine sandy silts, type ML) exhibit the greatest loss of strength and have a moisture content greater than their liquid limit during the period of snow melt. Soils in the remaining areas have moisture contents approaching their plastic limit. This strength loss generally takes place in the top 6 inches for drainage channel areas and in the top 3 inches for the other areas.

All light and heavy aircraft now in the USAF inventory could use the Polaris Promontory airstrip for limited normal operations at all times of the year except for an approximate 2-week period in the spring when the snow is melting. However, as was proven by the Super Cub landing on 6 July, light aircraft with low-pressure tires can use the airstrip even at this time. When the strip is covered with snow, the depth of snow and weight of the aircraft would determine whether or not skis should be used.

Permafrost conditions at the site would seem to offer no severe difficulties to construction. No ice wedges or lenses were found in the soil above permafrost. Subsurface drainage is excellent because a layer of highly permeable, nonfrost susceptible gravel overlies the permafrost throughout the entire site area. Soil moisture content is low during most of the year due to excellent internal and external drainage and semi-aridity of the area. The amount of earthmoving to bring the site to final level grade would not exceed 20, 000 cubic yards of cut-and- fill work for complete installation of a permanent type facility. As additional orientations and extensions of the present airstrip are possible, the earthmoving effort would be increased to about 100, 000 cubic yards to establish a large network of installations at Polaris Promontory.

Little unmanageable difficulty was encountered in driving the tractor and jeep the 25 miles from the shore of Polaris Bay, where the vehicles were beached, to the main camp at the airstrip. River crossings and hills were no particular obstacle; the only hazards were the soft areas at the base of snowbanks and along the banks of the rivers. A more judicious selection of the route would eliminate most of these hazards. The use of treadways, as was done in 1959, would permit travel over the remaining soft areas.

64 Polaris Promontory, having more favorable weather and being closer to Alert than any other established airfield, is well situated to be an emergency alternate for Alert. The site lies on the main and increasingly busy air routes between Alert and Thule and between Nord and Alert. In addition its easy accessibility by air and its seasonal surface accessibility by water would indicate a major importance of the area for future activities in North Greenland. The airstrip area is suitable for an installation complex of runways, taxiways, hangars, and maintenance and refueling facilities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The cooperation and appreciative understanding of Commanders Stampohj and Edvars, Danish Liaison Officers, Thule, Greenland, aided greatly in smoothing the way for Operation Groundhog (1958 and 1959). Dr. Aksel Norvang and Dr. Anker Weidick, as technical liaison for the Government of Denmark with the ground party, aided in the field work at Polaris Promontory.

MSTS (Atlantic), Command Task Force 6, provided transportation by assigning the support of Operation Groundhog to the USS Atka (icebreaker AGB3) under Commander W. H. Reinhardt, USN, in 1958 and USCGC Westwind (icebreaker W281) under Captain W. J. Conley, Jr., USCG, in 1959. These icebreakers had complements of 200 men and 16 officers, and were equipped with two helicopters. Their outstanding and unlimited support contributed greatly to the success of Operation Groundhog and was a splendid example of inter-service cooperation. The efficient and generous helicopter service made possible the under- taking and completion of many important scientific and technical observations that otherwise would have been impossible.

Acknowledgment of cooperation and assistance to the mission is also due the respective Thule Base Commanders and to the Thule Radio and MARS facilities for their efforts in facilitating radio traffic with the field party.

REFERENCES

Bessels, Emil, 1876, 'Scientific results, United States Arctic Expedition, v. I, Physical Observations: U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

1879, Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition: Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Appendix III: Meteorologie, 643 p.

Davies, W. E., Needleman, S. M., and Klick, D. W., 1959, Report on Operation Groundhog (1958), North Greenland, Investigation of ice- free sites for aircraft landings, Polaris Promontory, North Green- land Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, 45 p.

Davis, C. H., 1876, Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U. S. Ship Polaris U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 696 p.

Fielden, H. W., and DeRance, C. E., 1878, Geology of the coasts of the arctic lands visited by the late British Expedition: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 4, v. 34, no. 135, p. 556-567.

Jefferies, J. G., 1877, The Post-Tertiary fossils procured in the late Arctic Expedition: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 4, v. 20, no. 117, Sept., p. 235.

Greely, A. W., 1886, Three years of arctic service: Charles Scribners Sons, New York, v. 1, p. 217, 219, 224, 228, 301, 303, v. 2, p. 21.

1888, Report of the .proceedings of the United States Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Larid: U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., v. 1, p. 144-147, 154, 159, 191, 213.

Koch, Lauge, 1927, Report on the Danish Bicentenary Jubilee Expedition North of Greenland 1920-23; Med. om Gronland, bd. 70, nr. 1, p. 168-180.

1928, Contributions to the glaciology of North Greenland: Med. om Gr$nland, bd. 65, nr. 2, p. 378-381.

1929, The stratigraphy of Greenland: Med. om Grnland, bd. 73, afd. 2, nr. 2, p. 236-242.

Molineaux, C. E., 1955, Remote determination of soil trafficability by the aerial penetrometer: Air Force Surveys in Geophysics No. 77, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Devel- opment Command, 46 p.

69 Rasmussen, Knud, 1877, Journals and proceedings of the Arctic Ex- pedition, 1875-6: Parliamentary Papers C-1636 (Great Britain): Harrison and Sons, London, p. 282-286, 320-322, 420-424, 426- 431.

1928, Report of the II Thule - Expedition for the Exploration of Greenland: Med. om Grnland, bd. 65, pt. 1, p. 43, 46-47.

Stoertz, G. E., and Needleman, S. M., 1957, Report on Operation Groundhog, North Greenland, 1957, Investigation of ice-free sites for aircraft landings in northern and eastern Greenland and results of test landing of C-124 at Br~nlunds Fjord, North Greenland: Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, 40 p.

Waterways Experiment Station, U. S. Army, Corps of Engineers, 1948, Trafficability of soils, laboratory tests to determine effects of moisture content and density variations: Tech. Memo, no. 3-240, First Supplement.

1952, Land strip evaluation.

1953, The unified soil classification system: Tech. Memo, no. 3-357.

1954, Evaluation of forward airstrip criteria for soil strength: Miscel- laneous Paper no. 4-104.

1956, Instructions for use of field in-place California Bearing Ratio ap- paratus: Instruction Report no. 1.

9 70 INT.DUP. ,D.C.61- 10 66 R FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS NUMBER 132 FIGURE 61 6 0 * 5 9*

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L - --- -__ 0-0- ---

AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS

No. 1. (Classified Title), W. K. Widger, Jr.,, Mar 1952. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 2. Methods of Weather Presentation for Air Defense Operations (U), W. K. Widger, Jr., Jun 1952. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 3. Some Aspects of Thermal Radiation From the Atomic Bomb (U), R. M. Chapman, Jun 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 4. Final Report on Project 8-52M-1 Tropopause (U), S. Coroniti, Jul 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 5. Infrared as a Means of Identification (U), N. Oliver and J. W. Chamberlain, Jul 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 6. Heights of Atomic Bomb Results Relative to Basic Thermal Effects Produced on the Ground (U), R. M. Chapman and G. W. Wares, Jul 1952. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 7. Peak Over-Pressure at Ground Zero From High Altitude Bursts (U), N. A. Haskell, Jul 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 8. Preliminary Data From Parachute Pressure Gauges, Operation Snapper. Project 1.1 Shots No. 5 and 8 (U), N. A. Haskell, Jul 1952. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 9. Determination of the Horizontal (U), R. M. Chapman and M. H. Seavey, Sep 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 10. Soil Stabilization Report, C. Molineux, Sep 1952. No. 11. Geodesy and Gravimetry, Preliminary Report (U), R. J. Ford, Sep 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 12. The Application of Weather Modification Techniques to Problems of Special Interest to the Strategic Air Command (U), C. E. Anderson, Sep 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 13. Efficiency of Precipitation as a Scavenger (U), C. E. Anderson, Aug 1952. (SECRET/ RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 14. Forecasting Diffusion in the Lower Layers of the Atmosphere (U), B. Davidson, Sep 1952. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 15. Forecasting the Mountain Wave, C. F. Jenkins, Sep 1952. No. 16. A Preliminary Estimate of the Effect of Fog and Rain on the Peak Shock Pressure From an Atomic Bomb (U), H. P. Gauvin and J. H. Healy, Sep 1952. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 17. Operation Tumbler-Snapper Project 1.1A.Thermal Radiation Measurements With a Vacuum Capacitor Microphone (U), M. O'Day, J. L. Bohn, F. H. Nadig and R. J. Cowie, Jr., Sep 1952. (CONFIDENTIAL/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 18. Operation Snapper Project 1.1. The Measurement of Free Air Atomic Blast Pressures (U), J. 0. Vann and N. A. Haskell, Sep 1952. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 19. The Construction and Application of Contingency Tables in Weather Forecasting, E. W. Wahl, R. M. White and H. A. Salmela, Nov. 1952. No. 20. Peak Overpressure in Air Due to a Deep Underwater Explosion (U), N. A. Haskell, Nov 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 21. Slant Visibility, R. Penndorf, B. Goldberg and D. Lufkin, Dec 1952. No. 22. Geodesy and Gravimetry (U), R. J. Ford, Dec 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 23. Weather Effects on Radar, D. Atlas et al, Dec 1952. No. 24. A Survey of Available Information on Winds Above 30,000 Ft., C. F. Jenkins, Dec 1952. No. 25. A Survey of Available Information on the Wind Fields Between the Surface and the Lower Stratosphere, W. K. Widger, Jr., Dec 1952. No. 26. (Classified Title), A. L. Aden and L. Katz, Dec 1952. (SECRET Report) No. 27. (Classified Title), N. A. Haskell, Dec 1952 (SECRET Report) No. 28. A-Bomb Thermal Radiation Damage Envelopes for Aircraft (U), R. H. Chapman, G. W. Wares and M. H. Seavey, Dec 1952, (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 29. A Note on High Level Turbulence Encountered by a Glider, J. Kuettner, Dec 1952. AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS (Continued)

No. 30. Results of Controlled-Altitude Balloon Flights at 50,000 to 70,000 Feet During September 1952, edited by T. 0. Haig and R. A. Craig, Feb 1953. No. 31. Conference: Weather Effects on Nuclear Detonations (U), edited by B. Grossman, Feb 1953. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 32. Operation IVY Project 6.11. Free Air Atomic Blast Pressure and Thermal Measurements (U), N. A. Haskell and P. R. Gast, Mar 1953. (SECRET/RESTRIC TED DATA Report) No. 33. Variability of Subjective Cloud Observations - I, A. M. Galligan, Mar 1953. No. 34. Feasibility of Deteeting Atmospheric Inversions by Electromagnetic Probing, A. L. Aden, Mar 1953. No. 35. Flight Aspects of the Mountain Wave, C. F. Jenkins and J. Kuettner, Apr 1953. No. 36. Report on Particle Precipitation Measurements Performed During the Buster Tests at Nevada (U), A. J. Parzaile, Apr 1953. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DA TA Report) No.. 37. Critical Envelope Study for the XB-63, B-52A, and F-89 (U), N. A. Haskell, R. M. Chapman and M. H. Seavey, Apr 1953. (SECRET Report) No. 38. Notes on the Prediction of Overpressures From Very Large Thermo-Nuclear Bombs (U), N. A. Haskell, Apr 1953. (SECRET Report) No. 39. Atmospheric Attenuation of Infrared Oxygen Afterglow Emission (U), N. I. Oliver and J. W. Chamberlain, Apr 1953. (SECRET Report) No. 40. (Classified Title), R. E. Hanson, May 1953, (SECRET Report) No. 41. The Silent Area Forecasting Problem (U), W. K. Widger, Jr., May 1953. (SECRET Report) No. 42. An Analysis of the Contrail Problem (U), R. A. Craig, Jun 1953. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 43. Sodium in the Upper Atmosphere, L. E. Miller, Jun 1953. No. 44. Silver Iodide Diffusion Experiments Conducted at Camp Wellfleet, Mass., During July-August 1952, P. Goldberg et al, Jun 1953. No. 45. The Vertical Distribution of Water Vapor in the Stratosphere and the Upper Atmosphere, L. E. Miller, Sep 1953. No. 46. Operation IVY Project 6.11. (Final Report). Free Air Atomic Blast Pressure and Thermal Measurements (U), N. A. Haskell, J. 0. Vann and P. R. Gast, Sep 1953 (SECRET/RE- STRICTED DATA Report) No. 47. Critical Envelope Study for the B61-A (U), N. A. Haskell, R. M. Chapman and M. H. Seavey, Sep 1953. (SECRET Report) No. 48. Operation Upshot-Knothole Project 1.3. Free Air Atomic Blast Pressure Measurements. Re- vised Report (U), N. A. Haskell and R. M. Brubaker, Nov 1953. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 49. Maximum Humidity in Engineering Design, N. Sissenwine, Oct 1953. No. 50. Probable Ice Island Locations in the Arctic Basin, January 1954, A. P. Crary and I. Browne, May 1954. No. 51. Investigation of TRAC for Active Air Defense Purposes (U), G. W. Wares, R. Penndorf, V. G. Plank and B. H. Grossman, Dec 1953. (SECRET/R ESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 52. Radio Noise Emissions During Thermonuclear Reactions (U), T. I. Keneshea, Jun 1954. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 53. A Method of Correcting Tabulated Rawinsonde Wind Speeds for Curvature of the Earth, R. Leviton, Jun 1954. No. 54. A Proposed Radar Storm Warning Service For Army Combat Operations, M. G. H. Ligda, Aug 1954. No. 55. A Comparison of Altitude Corrections for Blast Overpressure (U), N. A. Haskell, Sep 1954. (SECRET Report). No. 56. Attenuating Effects of Atmospheric Liquid Water on Peak Overpressures from Blast Waves (U), H. P. Gauvin, J. H. Healy and M. A. Bennett, Oct 1954. (SECRET Report) AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS (Continued)

No. 57. Windspeed Profile, Windshear, and Gusts for Design of Guidance Systems for Vertical Rising Air Vehicles, N. Sissenwine, Nov 1954. No. 58. The Suppression of Aircraft Exhaust Trails, C. E. Anderson, Nov 1954. No. 59. Preliminary Report on the Attenuation of Thermal Radiation From Atomic or Thermonuclear Weapons (U), R. M. Chapman and M. H. Seavey,Nov 1954. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Re- port) No. 60. Height Errors in a Rawin System, R. Leviton, Dec 1954. No. 61. Meteorological Aspects of Constant Level Balloon Operations (U), W. K. Widger, Jr. et al, Dec 1954. (SECRET Report) No. 62. Variations in Geometric Height of 30 to 60 Thousand Foot Pressure-Altitudes (U), N. Sissenwine, A. E. Cole and W. Baginsky, Dec 1954. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 63. Review of Time and Space Wind Fluctuations Applicable to Conventional Ballistic Deter- minations, W. Baginsky, N. Sissenwine, B. Davidson and H. Lettau, Dec 1954. No. 64. Cloudiness Above 20,000 Feet for Certain Stellar Navigation Problems (U), A. E. Cole, Jan 1955. (SECRET Report) No. 65. The Feasibility of the Identification of Hail and Severe Storms, D. Atlas and R. Donaldson, Jan 1955. No. 66. Rate of Rainfall Frequencies Over Selected Air Routes and Destinations (U), A. E. Cole and N. Sissenwine, Mar 1955. (SECRET Report) No. 67. Some Considerations on the Modeling of Cratering Phenomena in Earth(U), N. A. Haskell, Apr 1955. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 68. The Preparation of Extended Forecasts of the Pressure Height Distribution in the Free Atmos- phere Over North America by Use of Empirical Influence Functions, R. M. White, May 1955. No. 69. Cold Weather Effect on B-62 Launching Personnel (U), N. Sissenwine, Jun 1955. (SECRET Re- port) No. 70. Atmospheric Pressure Pulse Measurements, Operation Castle (U), E. A. Flauraud, Aug 1955. (SECRET/RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 71. Refraction of Shock Waves in the Atmosphere (U), N. A. Haskell, Aug 1955 (SECRET Report) No. 72. Wind Variability as a Function of Time at Muroc, California, B. Singer, Sep 1955. No. 73. The Atmosphere, N. C. Gerson, Sep 1955. No. 74. Areal Variation of Ceiling Height (U), W. Baginsky and A. E. Cole, Oct 1955. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 75. An Objective System for Preparing Operational Weather Forecasts, 1. A. Lund and E. W. Wahl, Nov 1955. No. 76. The Practical Aspects of Tropical Meteorology, C. E. Palmer, C. W. Wise, L. I. Stempson and G. H. Duncan, Sep 1955. No. 77. Remote Determination of Soil Trafficability by Aerial Penetrometer, C. Molineux, Oct 1955. No. 78. Effects of the Primary Cosmic Radiation on Matter, H. 0. Curtis, Jan 1956. No. 79. Tropospheric Variations of Refractive Index at Microwave Frequencies, C. F. Campen and'A. E. Cole, Oct 1955. No. 80. A Program to Test Skill in Terminal Forecasting, 1. 1. Gringorten, I. A. Lund and M. A. Miller, Jun 1955. No. 81. Extreme Atmospheres and Ballistic Densities, N. Sissenwine and A. E. Cole, Jul 1955. No. 82. Rotational Frequencies and Absorption Coefficients of Atmospheric Gases, S. N. Ghosh and H. D. Edwards, Mar 1956. No. 83. Ionospheric Effects on Positioning of Vehicles at High Altitudes, W. Pfister and T. I. Keneshea, Mar 1956. No. 84. Pre-Trough Winter Precipitation Forecasting, P. W. Funke, Feb 1957. AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS (Continued)

No. 85. Geomagnetic Field Extrapolation Techniques - An Evaluation of the Poisson Integral for a Plane (U), J. F. McClay and P. Fougere, Feb 1957. (SECRET Report) No. 86. The ARDC Model Atmosphere, 1956, R. A. Minzner and W. S. Ripley, Dec 1956. No. 87. An Estimate of the Maximum Range of Detectability of Seismic Signals, N. A. Haskell, Mar 1957. No. 88. Some Concepts for Predicting Nuclear Crater Size (U), F. A. Crowley, Feb 1957. (SECRET/ RESTRICTED DATA Report) No. 89. Upper Wind Representation and Flight Planning, 1. 1. Gringorten, Mar 1957. No. 90. Reflection of Point Source Radiation From a Lambert Plane Onto a Plane Receiver, A. W. Guess, Jul 1957. No. 91. The Variations of Atmospheric Transmissivity and Cloud Height at Newark, T. 0. Haig, and W. C. Morton, III, Jan 1958. No. 92. Collection of Aeromagnetic Information For Guidance and Navigation (U), R. Hutchinson, B. Shuman, R. Brereton and J. McClay, Aug 1957. (SECRET Report) No. 93. The Accuracy of Wind Determination From the Track of a Falling Object, V. Lally and R. Leviton, Mar 1958. No. 94. Estimating Soil Moisture and Tractionability Conditions for Strategic Planning (U), Part 1 - General method, and Part 2 - Applications and interpretations, C. W.. Thornthwaite, J. R. Mather, D. B. Carter and C. E. Molineux, Mar 1958 (Unclassified Report). Part 3 - Average soil moisture and tractionability conditions in Poland (U), D. B. Carter and C. E. Molineux, Aug 1958 (CONFIDENTIAL Report). Part 4 - Average soil moisture and tractionability conditions in Yugoslavia (U), D. B. Carter and C. E. Molineux, Mar-1959 (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No. 95. Wind Speeds at 50,000 to 100,000 Feet and a Related Balloon Platform Design Problem (U), N. Dvoskin and N. Sissenwine, Jul 1957. (SECRET Report) No. 96. Development of Missile Design Wind Profiles for Patrick AFB, N. Sissenwine, Mar 1958. No. 97. Cloud Base Detection by Airborne Radar, R. J. Donaldson, Jr., Mar 1958. No. 98. Mean Free Air Gravity Anomalies, Geoid Contour Curves, and the Average Deflections of the Vertical (U), W. A. Heiskanen, U. A. Uotila and 0. W. Williams, Mar 1958. (CONFIDENTIAL Re- port) No. 99. Evaluation of AN/GMD-2 Wind Shear Data for Development of Missile Design Criteria, N. Dvoskin and N. Sissenwine, Apr 1958. No.100. A Phenomenological Theory of the Scaling of Fireball Minimum Radiant Intensity with Yield and Altitude (U), H. K. Sen, Apr 1958. (SECRET Report) No.101. Evaluation of Satellite Observing Network for Project "Space Track", G. R. Miczaika and H. 0. Curtis, Jun 1958. No.102. An Operational System to Measure, Compute, and Present Approach Visibility Information, T. 0. Haig and W. C. Morton, iii, Jun 1958. No.103. Hazards of Lightning Discharge to Aircraft, G. A. Faucher and H. 0. Curtis, Aug 1958. No.104. Contrail Prediction and Prevention (U), C. S. Downie, C. E. Anderson, S. I. Birstein and B. A. Silverman, Aug 1958. (SECRET Report) No.105. Methods of Artificial Fog Dispersal and Their Evaluation, C. E. Junge, Sep 1958. No.106. Thermal Techniques for Dissipating Fog From Aircraft Runways, C. S. Downie and R. B. Smith, Sep 1958. No.107. Accuracy of RDF Position Fixes in Tracking Constant-Level Balloons, K. C. Giles and R. E. Peterson, edited by W. K. Widger, Jr., Oct 1958. No.108. The Effect of Wind Errors on SAGE-Guided Intercepts (U), E. M. Darling, Jr. and C. D. Kern, Oct 1958 (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No.109. Behavior of Atmospheric Density Profiles, N. Sissenwine, W. S. Ripley and A. E. Cole, Dec 1958. AIR FORCE SURVEYS IN GEOPHYSICS (Continued)

No.110. Magnetic Determination of Space Vehicle Attitude (U), J. F. McClay and P. F. Fougere, Mar 1959. (SECRET Report) No.111. Final Report on Exhaust Trail Physics: Project 7630, Task 76308 (U), M. H. McKenna, and H. 0. Curtis, Jul 1959. (SECRET Report) No.112. Accuracy of Mean Monthly Geostrophic Wind Vectors as a Function of Station Network Den- sity, H. A. Salmela, Jun 1959. No.113. An Estimate of the Strength of the Acoustic Signal Generated by an ICBM Nose Cone Reentry (U), N. A. Haskell, Aug 1959. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No.114. The Role of Radiation in Shock Propagation with Applications to Altitude and Yield Scaling of Nuclear Fireballs (U), H. K. Sen and A. W. Guess, Sep 1959. (SECRET/RES1'RICTED DATA Report) No.115. ARDC Model Atmosphere, 1959, R. A. Minzner, K. S. W. Champion and H. L. Pond, Aug 1959. No.116. Refinements in Utilization of Contour Charts for Climatically Specified Wind Profiles, A. E. Cole, Oct 1959. No.117. Design Wind Profiles From Japanese Relay Sounding Data, N. Sissenwine, M. T. Mulkern, and H. A. Salmela, Dec 1959. No.118. Military Applications of Supercooled Cloud and Fog Dissipation, C. S. Downie, and B. A. Silverman, Dec 1959. No.119. Factor Analysis and Stepwise Regression Applied to the 24-Hour Prediction of 500-mb Winds, Temperatures, and Heights Over a Silent Area (U), E. J. Aubert, I. A. Lund, A. Thomasell, Jr., and J. J. Pazniokas, Feb 1960. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No.120. An Estimate of Precipitable Water Along High-Altitude Ray Paths, Murray Gutnick, Mar 1960.

No.121. Analyzing and Forecasting Meteorological Conditions in the Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere, R. M. Endlich and G. S. McLean, Apr 1960. No.122. Analysis and Prediction of the 500-mb Surface in a Silent Area, (U), E. A. Aubert, May 1960. (CONFIDENTIAL Report).

No.123. A Diffusion-Deposition Model for In-Flight Release of Fission Fragments, M. L. Barad, D. A. Haugen, and J. J. Fuquay, Jun 1960. No.124. Research and Development in the Field of Geodetic Science, C. E. Ewing, Aug 1960. No.125. Extreme Value Statistics -- A Method of Application, 1. 1. Gringorten, Jun 1960.

No.126. Notes on the Meteorology of the Tropical Pacific and Southeast Asia, W. D. Mount, Jun 1960.

No.127. Investigations of Ice-Free Sites for Aircraft Landings in East Greenland, 1959, J.H. Hartshorn, G. E. Stoertz, A. N. Kover, and S. N. Davis, (to be published). No.128. Guide for Computation of Horizontal Geodetic Surveys, H. R. Kahler and N. A. Roy, Dec 1960. No.129. An Investigation of a Perennially Frozen Lake, D. F. Barnes, Dec 1960. No.130. Analytic Specification of Magnetic Fields, P. F. Fougere, Dec 1960. (CONFIDENTIAL Report) No.131. An Investigation of Symbol Coding for Weather Data Transmission, P. 1. Hershberg, Dec 1960.

UNCLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED AD Geophysics Research Directorate Geophysics Research Directorate . Greenland-Exploration I 1. Greenland- Exploration Air Force Research Division, ARDC Air Force Research Division. ARDC L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. Greenland-Geography I L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. 2. Greenland- Geography EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND Greenland-Geology EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND 3. Greenland-Geology SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST Greenland- MeteorologySITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST 4. Greenland- Meteorology LANDINGS-- POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH LANDINGS - POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH regions - GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, 5. Arctic regions - IGREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, 5. Arctic D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors ID. in 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys in 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys 6. Airplane landings - 6. Airplane landings - 'Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252) Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252) Arctic regions Unclassified Report Arctic regions Unclassified Report Field investigations of an ice-free land area at I. Needleman, S. M. I Field investigations of an ice-free land area at I. Needleman, S. M. Hall Land, in NW Greenland Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland Polaris Promontory, I. Klick, D. W. were undertaken to determine if this area could [I. Klick, D. W. Iwere undertaken to determine if this area could support austere military aircraft operations. De- EEL. Molineux, C. E. j support austere military aircraft operations. De- III. Molineux, C. E. tailed scientific observations of the geology, me- tailed scientific observations of the geology, meteorology, and natural terrain features of the area Iteorology, and natural terrain features of the area were made, thorough investigations of the soil fea- were made, thorough investigations of the soil features and bearing strength were conducted, and an tures and bearing strength were conducted, and an airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test I airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test landings by a C130 were made on the strip. 1landings by a C130 were made on the strip. (Lover) UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED AD A D Geophysics Research Directorate 1. Greenland-Exploration I Geophysics Research Directorate L. Greenland- Exploration Air Force Research Division, ARDC Air Force Research Division, ARDC L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. 2. Greenland-Geography L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. Greenland-Geography 3. Greenland-Geology EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND 3. Greenland-Geology EVAULATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST 4. Greenland-Meteorology 1 SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST 1. Greenland- Meteorology LANDINGS -POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH LANDINGS -POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, 5. Arctic regions - GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, . Arctic regions - D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors I D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors (AF Surveys in 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys in 6. Airplane landings - 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 ref s. . Airplane landings - Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252). Arctic regions Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252) Arctic regions Unclassified Report Unclassified Report Field investigations of an ice-free land area at I. Needleman, S. M. I Field investigations of an ice-free land area at . Needleman, S. M. Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland II. Kick, D. W. Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland I. Klick, D. W. were undertaken to determine if this area could were undertaken to determine if this area could support austere military aircraft operations. De- III. Molineux, C. E. Isupport austere military aircraft operations. De- . Molineux, C. E. tailed scientific observations of the geology, me- | tailed scientific observations of the geology, meteorology, and natural terrain features of the area teorology, and natural terrain features of the area were made, thorough investigations of the soil fea- I were made, thorough investigations of the soil features and bearing strength were conducted, and an tures and bearing strength were conducted, and an airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test landings by a C130 were made on the strip. I landings by a C130 were made on the strip. (over) UNCLASSIFIED (over) UNCLASSIFIED , I UNCLA~S1F WA)rrnr%, AD UNCLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free land sites for military activities. land sites for military activities.

UNCLASSIFIED + UNCLASSIFIED CLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED A n i Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free I conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free land sites for military activities. I land sites for military activities.

TT TLASQT'TFII %J4 %-lA .- AM ~c. _ ... UNCLASSIFIED 1* r UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED AD A D Geophysics Research Directorate L Greenland-Exploration Geophysics Research Directorate 1. Greenland- Exploration Air Force Research Division, ARDC 1. Air Force Research Division, ARDC L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. 2. Greenland-Geography I L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. 2. Greenland- Geography EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND 3. Greenland-Geology EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND 3. Greenland-Geology AIRCRAFT TEST SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST Greenland-Meteorology |.SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 4. Greenland- Meteorology LANDINGS-- POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH LANDINGS - POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH Arctic regions - GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, 5. Arctic regions - IGREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, 5. D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors ID. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys in 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys in 6, A n65 pp incl. 6. Airplane landings - Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252) j, Airplane landings - 'Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252) Arctic regions Unclassified Report Arctic regions ( Unclassified Report Field investigations of an ice-free land area at L. Needleman, S. M. Field investigations of an ice-free land area at I. Needleman, S. M. Hall Land, in NW Greenland Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland It. Klick, D. W. Polaris Promontory, II- Kick, were undertaken to determine if this area could D. W. Were undertaken to determine if this area could support austere military aircraft operations. De- IIL. Molineux, C. E. support austere military aircraft operations. De- III. Molineux, C. E. tailed scientific observations of the geology, me- tailed scientific observations of the geology, meteorology, and natural terrain features of the area teorology, and natural terrain features of the area were made, thorough investigations of the soil fea- were made, thorough investigations of the soil features and bearing strength were conducted, and an tures and bearing strength were conducted, and an airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test landings by a C130 were made on the strip. landings by a C130 were made on the strip. ~( over) UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED AD AD Geophysics Research Directorate 1. Greenland-Exploration I Geophysics Research Directorate . Greenland- Exploration Air Force Research Air Force Research Division, ARDC Division, ARDC . Greenland-Geography L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. 2. Greenland-Geography L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. . Greenland-Geology ICE-FREE LAND 3. Greenland-Geology EVAULATION OF AN ARCTIC ICE-FREE LAND EVALUATION OF AN ARCTIC 1 SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST 4. Greenland-Meteorology SITE AND RESULTS OF C-130 AIRCRAFT TEST . Greenland-Meteorology LANDINGS -POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH LANDINGS -POLARIS PROMONTORY, NORTH 5. Arctic regions - GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, . Arctic regions - GREENLAND, 1958-1959, by S. M. Needleman, Geographical factors D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. Geographical factors I D. W. Klick, and C. E. Molineux, March 1961. refs. (AF Surveys in 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 refs. (AF Surveys in 6. Airplane landings - 65 pp incl. illus. tables, 20 . Airplane landings - Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL-252). Arctic regions Geophysics No. 132; AFCRL- 252) Arctic regions Unclassified Report Unclassified Report . Needleman, S. M. Field investigations of an ice-free land area at I. Needleman, S. M. I Field investigations of an ice-free land area at Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland II. Kick, D. We Polaris Promontory, Hall Land, in NW Greenland . Klick, D. W. were undertaken to determine if this area could were undertaken to determine if this area could . Molineux, C. E. support austere military aircraft operations. De- III. Molineux, C. E. support austere military aircraft operations. De- tailed scientific observations of the geology, me- tailed scientific observations of the geology, meteorology, and natural terrain features of the area teorology, and natural terrain features of the area were made, thorough investigations of the soil fea- I were made, thorough investigations of the soil features and bearing strength were conducted, and an tures and bearing strength were conducted, and an airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful tesi airstrip was prepared and marked. Successful test landings by a C130 were made on the strip. I landings by a C130 were made on the strip. (over) UNCLASSIFIED (over) I UNCLASSIFIED ______"I T lT UNCLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED AD Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and Posssible alternate airstrip sites were studied and conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free land sites for military activities. land sites for military activities.

UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED AD UNCLASSIFIED AD Possible alternate airstrip sites were studied and Pos sible alternate airstrip sites were studied and conclusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free con clusions drawn on the usability of such ice-free land sites for military activities. (lane d sites for military activities.

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