PERSONALITY Psychoanalytic Social-Cognitive Humanism

PERSONALITY Psychoanalytic Social-cognitive Humanism

Freud’s psychosexual theory Reciprocal determinism—interplay Structure: id (pleasure principle), ego Maslow—self-actualization of (reality principle), superego (morals, Hierarchy of needs Personal factors/internal cognition ideals) * Safety—security—love—self- Behavior Levels of awareness: conscious, pre- esteem—self-actualization Environment conscious, unconscious Carl Rogers—person-centered Personal control (Julian Rotter) Development: oral, anal, phallic Genuineness External locus of control (Oedipal complex, penis envy), la- Unconditional positive regard Internal locus of control tency, genital Empathy *Without internal locus, learned Fixations helplessness results Defense mechanisms - reduce anxiety Explanatory style (Martin Seligman) Repression (primary) Optimistic Regression Trait theory Unstable, specific, external Reaction formation Pessimistic Rationalization Stable, global, internal Displacement Bandura Sublimation Greeks—4 humors (choleric, san- Personality influenced by observa- Projection guine, melancholic, phleg- tional learning, outside influ- Denial matic) ences (Bobo doll study) Neo-Freudians Allport (student of Freud) Self-efficacy (belief in ability to do Adler—social, not sexual tensions Eysenck—unstable/stable; intro- things that lead to positive out- * Birth order, inferiority complex verted/extroverted comes) Horney—rejected penis envy idea Costa & McCrae (Big 5) Carl Jung—collective unconscious OCEAN (openness, conscien- Assessment tiousness, extraversion, agree- The self Projective tests ableness, neuroticism) Rorschach Assessment TAT - Thematic Apperception Test MMPI (used factor analysis, em- pirically derived) Hazel Markus— ―possible selves‖ Draw-a-person Spotlight effect Sentence completion Cattell’s 16PF Person-situation controversy Self-referencing effect Evaluation: Self-esteem * Repression often not shown (vivid Walter Mischel—emphasizes power of situational factors Defensive vs. secure memory often results after trauma) Self-serving bias * Terror management theory Expressive style—thin slices Barnum effect—astrology, etc. STRESS & HEALTH Stress response Obesity & health

Coping Stressor—leads to eustress or distress Physiology Depends on appraisal Fat cells—30-40 million Fight-or-flight—Walter Cannon Divide if too full, can’t get rid of Problem-focused (address Adrenal glands fat cells stressor) * Epinephrine (quick response) Set-point/metabolism Emotion-focused (seeks support * Glucocorticoids (slow response) Fat cells—low metabolic rate from others) General Adaptation Syndrome—Selye Metabolism slows when fat cells Exercise Alarm—activation of sympathetic are deprived, tries to maintain Biofeedback nervous system fat level Meditation Resistance—deal with/fight Genetics Spiritual connection Exhaustion—breakdown of immune Adopted children’s weight not system (telomeres in DNA affected, correlated to adoptive parents can’t replicate); hippocampus can’t Identical twins correlation +.72 make new memories as well Fraternal twins correlation +.32 Illness Conflict Chemical effect Heart (Friedman & Rosenman study) Leptin in rats—when up, weight Type A—anger, reactive vs. down Type B—relaxed Approach-approach 69% of heart attack victims were A Losing weight? Win-win situation Immune system impaired 2/3 of women, 1/3 of men trying Avoidance-avoidance * B lymphocytes (fight bacteria— Lose-lose situation formed in bone marrow) Approach-avoidance * T lymphocytes (formed in thymus, One choice, pros and cons fight viruses, cancers) * Macrophages (―big eaters Conditioning the immune system (Ader & Cohen study) * Sweetened water with immune suppressing drug—created classi- cally conditioned immune suppres- sion * Placebo effect in illness? LEARNING

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Latest contributions

Associative learning Associative learning - consequences of behavior Latent learning (Tolman) - allows prediction (associate stimuli) - operant behavior - cognitive maps (demonstrate - respondent behavior Thorndike’s Law of Effect learning after award is given) Pavlov’s dogs (1904 Nobel prize) Skinner Intrinsic motivation (desire to do * US (food) leads to: * Operant chamber (Skinner Box) something for its own sake) UR (salivation to food) * Shaping - When rewards are given for activ- * CS (bell) becomes associated with - Successive approximations ity that is intrinsically reward- US, leads to: * Discrimination ing, enjoyment declines * CR (salivation to bell) Reinforcement (overjustification effect) Elements of classical conditioning: Positive reinforcement—pleasurable Extrinsic motivation (desire to do Acquisition stimulus after a response (strengthens something for reward) Extinction the response) - Should be recognition for a job Spontaneous recovery Negative reinforcement—reduces or well done Generalization removes a negative stimulus Biological predispositions Discrimination (still strengthens the response) - Easier to condition behaviors that Implications: * Primary reinforcers (water, food, match natural behavior, pro- Rescorla’s research on predictability etc.) vs. secondary reinforcers mote survival Garcia’s research of biological predis- (money, etc.) Legacy of Skinnerian thinking positions * Schedules of reinforcement - Criticism of deterministic philoso- * easier to condition food aversions Continuous (rapid learning) phy, dehumanization, loss of to taste rather than sight or sound Partial (intermittent) personal freedom * easiest to condition behaviors that - Ratio (certain # of behaviors) Observational learning (modeling) promote survival * Fixed (5 visits to restaurant = Mirror neurons (biological basis) Applications: free meal) - promote empathy Aversive conditioning—pairing a * Variable (slot machine) Bandura’s Bobo doll study negative stimulus with a desired - Interval (certain period of time) Child watches adult, mimics stimulus can help kick bad habits * Fixed (ex. each day @ 3 p.m.) Increase of violence, aggression Drug addicts sometimes have cravings * Variable (ex. shooting stars) Media influence related to environment Punishment Violent crimes—87% on TV, Classical conditioning of immune re- Positive punishment (add bad thing) 13% real life sponse (Ader & Cohen study) Negative punishment (take away good) Violent action is correlated to Extinction can help cure phobias *Both create avoidance behaviors viewing violence (media, video (ex. lie—becomes neg. reinforced) games) - leads to desensitization MEMORY

ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

Controlled by attention Information-processing theory Aids (retrieval cues): Sensory STM LTM Context Types: State-dependent Acoustic Sensory memory (Sperling) Mood-congruent Visual Iconic Priming Semantic Echoic Recognition vs. recall Affected by: STM (requires attention) Chunking 7 +/- 2 chunks Retrieval failure: Self-reference effect Forgetting curve Elaboration LTM (Ebbinghaus) Rehearsal Explicit (declarative) Tip-of-the-tongue Spacing Semantic memory (facts) Reconstructive memory Hierarchies Episodic memory (incidents) (Elizabeth Loftus) Next-in-line effect Flashbulb memory *Misinformation effect Serial position effect (emotional incidents) *Source amnesia Primacy effect Prospective memory (remember *Rosy retrospection Recency effect to do something in the future) Interference Mnemonic devices Proactive Peg-words Retroactive Method of loci Amnesia Alliteration BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Anterograde Music Retrograde Lashley’s research Repression Hippocampus Amygdala Long-term potentiation Cerebellum Stress hormones DEVELOPMENT PHYSICAL SOCIAL COGNITIVE MORAL Prenatal Zygote Embryo (2-8 wks) Lev Vygotsky (social-cognitive) Schemas Kohlberg’s theory Fetus (8+ wks) Zone of proximal development Assimilation Preconventional morality Mentors Accommodation Avoiding punishment Teratogens Lorenz’s study of imprinting Conventional morality Fetal alcohol syndrome Harlow’s research on touch Sensorimotor stage (0-2) Accepting rules of society Radiation Stranger anxiety Object permanence (6 mos) Postconventional morality (8-15th week, migration) Ainsworth’s attachment theory Ethics, abstract morality Radiation: stops short Strange situation paradigm Preoperational stage (2-7) No absolutes FAS: too far Secure attachment (60%) Egocentrism Carol Gilligan Insecure attachment Animism Men - Rules & ethics Reflexes Ambivalent Symbolic thought begins Women - Relationships Moro Avoidant Rooting Baumrind’s parenting styles Concrete operational stage (8- Jonathan Haidt Babinski Authoritarian 12) Social intuitionist theory Palmar Authoritative Conservation Gut-level reactions Permissive Volume (limbic system) Maturation Erikson’s stages (psychsocial) Area Cephalocaudal Trust vs. mistrust Number Proximodistal (0-1) basic trust Reversibility Autonomy vs. shame & doubt METHODS OF Puberty (1-2) independence Formal operational stage (12+) STUDY Primary sex characteristics Initiative vs. guilt Hypothesis testing Secondary sex characteristics (3-5) initiation of tasks Abstract thinking Frontal lobe development Competence vs. inferiority Megacognition Longitudinal research (6-12) accomplishment Old age Identity vs. role confusion Self concept Cross-sectional research Recall vs. recognition (13-20s) sense of self 18 mo.—rouge test Decay of fluid intelligence Intimacy vs. isolation Consistency of crystallized (20s to 40s) relationship Intelligence Generativity vs. stagnation Dementia (40s to 60s) contribution STAGES OF DEATH/DYING (Kubler-Ross) Alzheimer’s disease Integrity vs. despair Denial … Anger … Bargaining … Depression … Acceptance NEUROSCIENCE Neural communication Organization of the nervous system

CNS Peripheral nervous system Resting potential -70 mV inside The brain Brain and Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous Neuron is polarized spinal system Action potential (all-or-none) cord Afferent Efferent Neurotransmitters bind to Sympathetic Parasympa- Plasticity—neurons can be used for neurons neurons dendrites nervous thetic nervous new purposes Interneurons Neuron reaches –55 mV system system Becomes depolarized Sodium/potassium ions Hindbrain: Signal moves down the axon Cerebellum—coordination Hemispheric specialization Neurotransmitters release to Medulla—breathing, heartbeat synapse Pons—sleep, arousal, dreams Must repolarize Reticular formation—arousal Split-brain surgery (corpus callosum severed) Reuptake of neurotransmitters Midbrain: *Used to treat uncontrolled seizures Return to –70 mV At the intersection of forebrain & Seen in left visual field, processed in rt. hemisphere Refractory period (can’t fire) hindbrain (spatial awareness) Forebrain: Myelin sheath Thalamus—sensory switchboard Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Limbic system—emotion Language/logic Nonverbal/spatial/ Insulates motor neurons musical/recognition Speeds message Hippocampus (memory) Decay of myelin sheath Amygdala (fear, anger) - multiple sclerosis Hypothalamus (biological needs, Intelligence e.g. hunger, sex, thirst) Methods of study Cerebrum/cerebral cortex Excitatory neurotransmitters Prefrontal cortex (planning, or ganization, risk assessment) Acetylcholine (skeletal muscles) Structure Function Serotonin (depression/general Frontal lobes (motor cortex, Lesions EEG well-being) mirror neurons) CT scan PET scan Dopamine (high - schizophrenia; * Broca’s area (speech) MRI fMRI low—depression) Parietal lobes (somatosensory Norephinephrine (Alertness, cortex) * Angular gyrus Pituitary—master gland linked to fight-or-flight) (directed by the hypothalamus) Endorphins (pain relief) Temporal lobes (auditory cortex) The endocrine sys- Biochemically the same as neu- Inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA) * Wernicke’s area tem rotransmitters Effect of agonists/antagonists Occipital lobes (visual cortex) Adrenal gland—stress hormones Perspectives HISTORY & Experimentation RESEARCH

Introspection Psychological Cause & effect Wilhelm Wundt—1st lab, Germany Procedure: Structuralism research Blind study William James—1st text, Harvard Double-blind study Functionalism Experimental condition vs. Gestalt—total experience ―the whole‖ Limits of intuition Control condition Perception Independent variable Psychoanalysis—Freud Hindsight bias Overconfidence Experimenter manipulates Behaviorism—Watson (Little Albert), Dependent variable Skinner (operant conditioning) Confirmation bias Experimenter measures Humanism (Maslow, Rogers Confounding variables Biological—brain chemistry, hor- Scientific attitude Curiosity Random selection mones, etc. Random assignment Evolutionary (sociobiology) —impact Skepticism of traits that promote survival of Humility species Cognitive—thinking patterns Scientific method Measuring data Sociocultural—environment Theories Hypothesis Operational definitions Descriptive statistics Ethics Replication Central tendency (averages) Mean Methodology Median Animal research Case study Mode Clear scientific purpose Survey Normal curve Humane treatment Wording effects Correlations (relationships) Legal acquisition of subjects Random sampling Scatterplot Limit suffering to least feasible False consensus effect Correlation coefficient Naturalistic observation Variation Human research * Must avoid Hawthorne Effect Range Informed consent Correlational studies Standard deviation Limit deception Prediction Inferential statistics No coercion NOT CAUSATION Do my results matter? Protect from harm Illusory correlation * Sample size influence Confidentiality Superstition * Significant differences Debrief afterwards Experiment p<.05 (alpha level) (see experimentation) SENSATION The basics Audition (hearing) Vision Sensation vs. perception Sound energy Bottom-up processing Frequency (pitch) Light energy Top-down processing Amplitude (loudness) Wavelength (color) Prosopagnosia Measured in dB (decibels) Amplitude (brightness) Thresholds Every 10 dB = 10 times louder Parts of the eye Psychophysics Parts of the ear Cornea Absolute threshold Outer ear Pupil Signal detection theory Pinna (visible part) Lens Subliminal messages Auditory canal Accommodation Difference threshold (JND) Middle ear Retina (transduction here) Weber’s Law/Fechner’s Law Tympanic membrane (eardrum) Rods (120 million) Sensory adaptation Ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) Cones (6 million) Transduction Inner ear Fovea Receptors Oval window Bipolar cells Cochlea Ganglion cells Basilar membrane Optic nerve to occipital lobe Hair cells (transduction here) Other senses Blind spot Organ of Corti Visual acuity Semicircular canals (NOT for Nearsightedness/farsightedness hearing) Touch Feature detectors Auditory nerve to temporal lobe Pressure, temperature, pain Parallel processing Perceiving sound Nociceptors Blindsight Place theory Gate-control theory Change blindness Frequency theory Taste (gustatory sense - chemical) Volley principle Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami Retina to thalamus to cortex Sound localization Taste buds Hearing loss Sensory interaction Color interpretation Sensorineural hearing loss McGurk effect Young-Helmholtz theory Cochlear implant Smell (olfactory sense - chemical) Subtractive color mixing Conduction hearing loss Does not go through the thalamus Additive color mixing Direct route to limbic system Opponent-process theory Kinesthesis Afterimages Vestibular sense Color constancy semicircular canals Synaesthesia PERCEPTION The basics Other principles Visual perception Sensation vs. perception Perceptual adaptation Bottom-up processing Perceptual set Depth perception Top-down processing Context effects Binocular cues Prosopagnosia Retinal disparity Selective attention Human factors Convergence Cocktail party effect Visual cliff Inattentional (change) blindness ESP (extra-sensory perception)? Monocular cues Choice blindness Parapsychology Linear perspective Visual capture Telepathy Relative size Clairvoyance Interposition Precognition Relative clarity Psychokinesis Texture gradient Way to test: Ganzfeld procedure Perceptual Relative height organization Light & shadow Motion perception Relative motion (motion parallax) Stroboscopic movement Figure-ground relationship Phi phenomenon Constancies Gestalt principles Color constancy Proximity Size constancy Similarity Shape constancy Continuity Lightness constancy Connectedness Illusions Closure Muller-Lyer illusion Cultural influence Ponzo illusion Moon illusion Sensory deprivation Critical periods STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Dreaming Biology of sleep Psychoactive drugs

Freud’s analysis Biological rhythms Manifest content vs. Tolerance/withdrawal Circadian rhythm (25 hr cycle) Latent content Involves neuroadaptation Light (superchiasmic nucleus) Information-processing theory Addiction Pineal gland (near thalamus) Filing experience Melatonin Synthesizing memory Depressants Adenosine (sleep-inducing) Pruning connections Alcohol Sleep stages Build neural pathways Reduces inhibitions Prior to stage 1 (alpha waves) Activation-synthesis theory Impairs activity of frontal lobe Stage 1 (theta waves) 5 min. Pons generates neural firing Disrupts formation of LTM Hypnagogic sensations Lucid dreams Barbiturates (tranquilizers) Stage 2 (K-complexes, sleep spindles) Conscious awareness of dream Reduce anxiety, mimic alcohol Approx. 20 minutes state Opiates (endorphin agonists) Stage 3 (<50% delta waves) Morphine, heroin, oxycontin Stage 4 (>50% delta waves) Stage 3 & 4—slow wave sleep Hypnosis Stimulants Order of stages Amphetamines/meth 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, Cocaine—rush/crash REM Ecstasy—also a hallucinogen REM—paradoxical sleep Mesmer (18th century) Stimulates serotonin Active brain, paralyzed body Susceptibility Interferes w/sleep, impairs Benefits Creativity, desire influences memory, reduces immune re- Memory consolidation Therapeutic capacity sponse Concentration Posthypnotic suggestions Mood Pain alleviation Hallucinogens Moderates hunger/reduces obesity Selective attention? LSD—serotonin agonist Improves immune response Theories: Marijuana—cannabinoid agonist Disorders Social influence theory Disrupts memory formation Insomnia (10-15% of adults) Emphasizes desire of subjects Reverse tolerance Narcolepsy to do well Sleep apnea Divided consciousness theory Night terrors (stage 4) Emphasizes dissociation Sleepwalking (stage 4) Hilgard’s ―hidden observer‖ MOTIVATION

Physiology of hunger Theories of motivation Physiology of sex

Keys’ research Instinct theory (evolutionary) Kinsey report Cannon’s research - fixed patterns, unlearned Masters & Johnson research Body chemistry Drive-reduction theory (Clark Hull) Sexual response cycle Insulin up, glucose down Object is homeostasis Excitement—plateau—orgasm— Hypothalamus stimulation - Pulled by incentives (external) resolution (refractory period) Lateral—hunger increases Arousal theory Sexual disorders Orexin produced Yerkes-Dodson Law Premature ejaculation Ventromedial—hunger declines Easy task—high arousal Erectile dysfunction Hormones Difficult task—moderate Orgasmic disorder Ghrelin—hunger increases Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Hormones PYY—suppresses hunger Physiological at base, then safety, Estrogen / androgens (testosterone) Proteins belonging & love, esteem, Leptin—decreases hunger self-actualization, transcendence Orexin—increases hunger Need to belong Psychology of sex Ostracism—activates anterior cin- gulate cortex (also activates with pain) External stimuli Psychology of hunger Habituation occurs Decreased satisfaction w/sexual part- Achievement motivation ners Neophobia (avoidance of unfamiliar Gender roles/gender identity food) Sexual orientation Eating disorders Flow Estimated 3-4% men, 1-2% women Anorexia nervosa I/O psychology But could be higher (response bias) At least 15% underweight Personnel psychology Identical twin studies support genetic Continue to view self as fat To avoid the interviewer illusion basis Bulimia nervosa Structured interviews Hypothalamus differences (LeVay) Binge-purge pattern 360-degree feedback Anterior commissure differences Not necessarily low weight Grit (determination, breeds success) Fraternal birth order effect Obesity (30% in US) Theory X vs. Theory Y Same sex attraction in animals Task leadership vs. social leadership (6-10%) Great person theory Finger length/fingerprint ridges Transformational leadership (7th/16th week of development) EMOTION

Theories Expressed emotion Experience of emotion

Emotion—arousal, expressive behav- Emotion = valence (pleasant/ ior, and conscious experience Nonverbal communication unpleasant) and arousal (low/high) Easily detect threatening cues James-Lange theory: physiological re- Thin slices (quick views of interac- Fear—learn early, through condition- sponse 1st, emotion 2nd tions) - some better at reading ing, observation Cannon-Bard theory: physiological re- Gender differences * Amygdala key sponse at the same time as experi- Women tend to be more able to * Anterior cingulated cortex ence of emotion read non-verbal cues Schachter’s two-factor theory: physio- Also tend to communicate emotion Anger - logical arousal, then appraisal better Catharsis hypothesis—release (cognition) creating emotion label Ekman’s research But creates more anger Spillover effect: Stirred up Microexpressions Reinforcement physiological state can be misin- Universal emotional expressions How to control? terpreted as emotional state Happiness, surprise, fear, sad Waiting to act Zajonc’s theory: Subliminal processing ness, anger, disgust Exercise of emotions (neural pathway is Facial feedback: we feel the emotion Forgiveness from thalamus to amygdale) we show Lazarus: Cognitive appraisal controls Display rules: may vary by culture, Happiness (subjective well-being) emotion gender, etc. * Feel-good, do-good phenomenon Behavior feedback: we feel the emo- * People who value love over money tion our body looks like it’s feel- report higher life satisfaction Nervous system ing * Adaptation-level phenomenon Empathy: feeling another’s emotion * Relative deprivation principle Mirror neurons Predictors: high self-esteem, opti- Reading emotion: autistic people mism, close friendships/marriage, Autonomic arousal show problems in reading emo- engaging work, meaningful faith, Sympathetic nervous system: pupils tional states of others good sleep, exercise dilate, dry mouth, perspiration, fast Contributors: know that wealth breathing, accelerated heart rate, doesn’t make you happy, control slowed digestion, stress hormones your time, act happy, seek enjoyable released (fight-or-flight) work, exercise, sleep, make relation-

ships a top priority, help others, be Parasympathetic nervous system: re- grateful, seek spiritual fulfillment turns body to original calm state

COGNITION

Concepts Intuition Theories of language development Metacognition—wow! Factors: Organization: Blindsight Hierarchies Right-brain thinking Skinner—nurture Prototypes Moral thinking (Haidt’s theory) Behaviorist explanation Automatic processing/implicit memory Follows usual learning pattern Creativity (Reinforcement/punishment) Problem solving Thin slices Chomsky—nature Subliminal stimulation Language acquisition device (innate) Microexpressions Evidence: Barriers: Dual attitude system * Overregularization of language Fixations: Unconscious/conscious (or overgeneralization) Functional fixedness Implicit/explicit Ex: ―I goed to the store.‖ Mental set Gut-level/rational * Common elements Confirmation bias Surface structure (syntax) Overconfidence Deep structure (semantics) Approaches: * Critical period Trial and error About Language Age 7 for language acquisition Insight Cochlear implants Algorithm Best results 2-4 year olds Heuristics Structure Representativeness heuristic Phonemes Based on prototypes Morphemes Language & Thinking Availability heuristic Grammar Based on vivid experience Semantics Issues: Syntax Framing (wording) Appearance Whorf’s linguistic determinism theory Belief bias Babbling (approx. 4 months) (or linguistic relativity theory) Belief perseverance One-word stage (1 year) - language shapes thinking Illusory correlation Two-word stage (telegraphic speech) Evidence: bilingual advantage Memory reconstruction At 1 1/2 years Thinking in images (process simulation) Self-serving bias No 3 word stage Animal thinking * Concept formation * Theory of mind—similar to 2 yr. old * Language: honeybees, ape language INTELLIGENCE Creating tests Theories of intelligence Neurological evidence

Standardization It’s conceptual, not a thing Brain anatomy: Representative sample, compare scores (reification—assuming it’s a thing) Larger brain (thickening of cortex due to Chart on normal curve Single intelligence theory enhanced connections?) 68-95-99.7 (standard deviation) Spearman: ―g‖ represents related clus- 17% more synapses (maybe better neural Flynn effect ters of skills (used factor analysis) plasticity?) IQ scores improving over time Multiple intelligence theories Einstein’s brain—thicker in parietal lobe Principles of test creation * Based on evidence from savants (math/spatial intelligence?) Reliability: test needs to get same results Thurstone: primary mental abilities Brain function: each time it’s given 7 clusters Frontal lobe activity during IQ test ques- Test-retest reliability Gardner: 8 intelligences tions Split-half reliability - linguistic, logical-mathematical, Perceptual speed correlates positively Validity: test needs to measure what it’s musical, spatial, kinesthetic, in- Neurological speed (evoked brain re- designed to measure trapersonal, interpersonal, natural- sponse faster) Content validity (material reflects what istic More efficient glucose consumption should be tested) Stenberg’s triarchic theory Uses less, processes more efficiently? Face validity - analytical, creative, practical Genes: Criterion-related validity (matches in Emotional intelligence (EQ) Identical twins highly correlated dependent measure of what the test is Relates to success in family, career Adopted children, little correlation designed to measure) Heritability Concurrent validity Predictive validity May be affected by range of scores Creativity Assessing intelligence tested Construct validity (use a previous vali- dated instrument and correlate to that test’s results Convergent vs. divergent thinking Binet’s test (to identify special needs) How to maximize: Extremes of intelligence: Terman (Stanford) Mental retardation: Develop expertise Supported eugenics (Social Darwinism) Keep a venturesome personality Mild (50-70 IQ), moderate (35-50 IQ), American version (Stanford-Binet) Severe (20-35 IQ) Stay intrinsically motivated MA/CA X 100 = IQ Live in creative environment Down syndrome (extra 21st chromosome) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Gifted (Terman’s study — ―Termites‖) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Healthy, well-adjusted, successful (WISC) No tracking, special treatment in China/ Bias: Stereotype threat, gender bias Japan PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Medical model Anxiety disorders (#7) Mood (affective) disorders (#6)

Foundation Panic disorder Depression (common cold of disorders) U—unjustifiable - strikes suddenly Major depressive disorder (more than 2 M—maladaptive - panic attacks (seem like heart attacks) weeks of debilitating depression) A—atypical - often linked to agoraphobia Dysthymic disorder (more than 2 years D—disturbing to self or others Phobias—focused fear feeling bad most days) Measurement Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Bipolar disorder DSM-IV-TR (classification of disor- Obsessions—thoughts Mania (restlessness, risk-taking, craziness, ders) Compulsions—behaviors fast talking) alternates with depression Axis 1—clinical syndrome? PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) - May be fast cycling or slow cycling Axis 2—personality disorder or GAD (generalizaed anxiety disorder) mental retardation? Free-floating anxiety Explanations: Axis 3—general med. Condition? Genetic predispositions (linkage analysis, Axis 4—psychosocial or environ- Source: association studies) mental problems? - Behavioral interpretation Brain chemistry (serotonin, norephineph- Axis 5—global assessment of func- * Classical conditioning & generalization rine, dopamine; decreased activity in left tioning (0-100) * Negative reinforcement maintains the frontal lobe fear Social-cognitive Diagnostic labeling - Observational learning? Self-defeating beliefs (learned helpless- Advantages: - Biology (natural selection, genes, activity in ness) Appropriate treatment anterior cingulated cortex, activity in Optimistic Explanatory Style Stimulate research amygdale, GABA) Stable, global, internal (depressed) Payment of insurance Temporary, specific, external Disadvantages: (non-depressed) Rosenhan’s study—labeling leads to Dissociative disorders (#10) Vicious cycle of depression: self-fulfilling prophecies? Cause Stressful experience….leads to interpretations of behavior? Negative explanatory style... leads to Dissociative identity disorder Depressed mood… leads to Insanity—when? - multiple personality More stressful experiences...and the M’Naughten rule—is the defendant Dissociative fugue cycle begins again unable to distinguish right from - person doesn’t remember past, wrong because of mental defect? wakes up in strange location Fight depression by: changing environment, 90% of those with disorders are not Dissociative amnesia reducing self-blame, making positive pre- dangerous to others - person doesn’t remember past dictions about the future, exercise, become No biological explanations focused on helping others, laugh more DISORDERS (CONTINUED) Personality disorders (#16) Schizophrenia (#5) Explanations of schizophrenia Cluster A (eccentric) Considered the ―cancer‖ of disorders Paranoid personality disorder 1% of population worldwide (suggests Schizoid personality disorder—odd, with- biological basis) drawn behavior Schizotypal personality disorder—with some Involves a break with reality Brain abnormalities (psychosis) schizophrenic-like symptoms Dopamine overactivity Cluster B (dramatic) NOT multiple personality * D4 receptors 6 X normal Antisocial personality disorder—lack of re- Glutamate—may relate to negative morse, empathy (mirror neurons); typical Common symptoms: symptoms * Disorganized thinking - onset about 8 yrs. Enlarged ventricles Borderline personality disorder—on the bor- Delusions (false beliefs) Shrunken thalamus Paranoia (persecution) derline of psychosis Environmental factors Histrionic personality disorder—dramatic Word salad (bizarre speech) * Low birth weight, famine, oxygen * Disturbed perceptions personality deprivation? Narcissistic personality disorder—extreme Hallucinations (auditory most of- * Virus during pregnancy? Flu link ten) self-absorption during 2nd trimester Cluster C (anxious) * Inappropriate actions/emotions Genetic factors Reactivity Avoidant personality disorder—stays away * Much higher chance of shared from others Flat affect schizophrenia with identical vs. Catatonia Dependent personality disorder fraternal twins Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder - Subtypes of symptoms: Psychological factors/warning signs Positive symptoms (exhibit odd be- * Birth complications havior) * Mother with schizophrenia Somatoform disorders (#8) Negative symptoms (normal behav- * Separation from parents ior absent) * Disruptive or withdrawn behavior - Either chronic (process—develops * Poor muscle coordination Somatization disorder—body problem slowly) or acute (reactive— * Poor attention span caused by psychological problem develops quickly) * Poor peer relationships/solo play (ex. ulcers) Patterns: * Emotional unpredictability Conversion disorder—psychological Paranoid schizophrenia problem converted to non-biological Disorganized schizophrenia Typical onset—teens or early 20s physical problem (ex. paralysis in Catatonic schizophrenia ―Heidi‖) Undifferentiated schizophrenia Diathesis-stress model Residual schizophrenia Hypochondriasis THERAPIES

Psychoanalysis Behavioristic Effectiveness

Classical conditioning applications: Based on Freudian ideas - Counterconditioning—replace previous fear People report that therapy is effective Repressed ideas must be accessed response with new relaxation response * But regression toward the mean? Insight is the goal - Exposure therapy (Mary Cover Jones) * Selective recall Methods Gradual exposure to feared object * Eysenck’s research: 2/3 improved with or Free association - Systematic desensitization (Wolpe) without therapy Resistance Anxiety hierarchy, then relaxation Depression: cognitive, interpersonal, behavior Dream analysis - Virtual reality exposure therapy Anxiety: cognitive, exposure, behavioral Latent content most important - Implosion therapy Bulimia: cognitive-behavioral therapy Transference Includes flooding Other unusual treatments: Duration - Aversive conditioning (substitute neg. re- EMDR— For trauma victims Years sponse for unwanted behavior) Light exposure therapy—for SAD Operant conditioning applications: Psychodynamic therapy—same founda- - punishment (bed-wetting buzzers) tion, less intense - behavior modification Biomedical therapy * token economy

Humanistic 1950’s—deinstitutionalization Antipsychotic medications (neuroleptics): Cognitive therapy Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) - pos. symptoms Clozapine (Clozaril) - negative symptoms Focus: boost self-actualization (Maslow) * Problem: tardive dyskinesia Aaron Beck (cognitive triad) Become more self-accepting Atypical antipsychotics (D2 & serotonin an- Albert Ellis (RET) Method: tagonists) - fewer side effects Stress inoculation training (change in thinking Client-centered therapy Antianxiety meds: Xanax, Valium, Ativan patterns to stress) - active listening (no judgment) (GABA agonists - benzodiazepines) Cognitive-behavioral therapy Reflect feelings of client Antidepressants: also for OCD, anxiety - non-directive SSRI’s—Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, etc. Therapist: genuineness, unconditional Mood stabilizers positive regard, empathy Group/family therapy Lithium—bipolar Goal: promote personal growth, personal Depakote—bipolar (originally for seizures) responsibility Brain stimulation Saves time/money ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) Humanistic foundation rTMS (magnetic stimulation) Often as effective as individual therapy Surgery: Lobotomy (Moniz) SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Attribution theory Aggression and conflict Group behavior

Internal vs. external attributions Biology: genetics, amygdala, decreased fron- * Fundamental attribution error tal lobe activity, testosterone levels * Actor-observer bias Social facilitation vs. social inhibition Psychology * Self-serving bias * related to Yerkes-Dodson Law * Frustration-aggression principle * Modeling (observational learning) Social loafing * Social scripts (mental tapes on how to act) * Video games? Deindividuation * Catharsis hypothesis (builds more anger) Attitude change * loss of identity, others don’t know who you Conflict are * Social traps - pursue self-interest, everyone loses Cognitive/affective components of atti- Group polarization * Enemy perceptions tudes (attitude vs. opinion) * movement to more extreme positions - mirror-image perceptions Action affecting attitudes * Foot-in-the-door Groupthink (Janus) * Door-in-the-face * influenced by desire for harmony Persuasion Attraction and altruism * Central route to persuasion Minority influence * Peripheral route to persuasion * self-confidence, determination key Role playing (Zimbardo prison study) Passionate love (two-factor theory) Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) Prejudice (attitude) — leads to discrimination vs. companionate love (key is equity, self- (behavior) disclosure) * Social roots: social inequality, blame-the- * Physical attractiveness key victim, in-group vs. out-group leading to * Similarity Group influence in-group bias * Proximity (mere exposure effect) * Emotional roots: Fear, anger (leads to Altruism scapegoating) Bystander affect Conformity (Asch study) * Cognitive roots: Categorization, availability * diffusion of responsibility * chameleon effect heuristic, just-world phenomenon * pluralistic ignorance * mood linkage (mimicry) * Jane Eliot study—children and stereotyping * Explained by social exchange theory Normative social influence vs. Informa- - self-fulfilling prophecies * Reciprocity norm tional social influence * Social responsibility norm Obedience (Milgram’s study) Peacemaking, GRIT *Superordinate goals