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Spectroscopic Determination of Water Salinity in Brackish Surface Water in Nandoni Dam, at Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa

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Spectroscopic Determination of Water Salinity in Brackish Surface Water in Nandoni Dam, at Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa water Article Spectroscopic Determination of Water Salinity in Brackish Surface Water in Nandoni Dam, at Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa Lebea N. Nthunya 1,2,* ID , Sebabatso Maifadi 1, Bhekie B. Mamba 1, Arne R. Verliefde 2 and Sabelo D. Mhlanga 1 1 Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability Research Unit, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg 1709, South Africa; [email protected] (S.M.); [email protected] (B.B.M.); [email protected] (S.D.M.) 2 Particle and Interfacial Technology Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +32-496-03-56-05 Received: 22 June 2018; Accepted: 21 July 2018; Published: 27 July 2018 Abstract: The problem of limited water supply in the Vhembe District (Limpopo Province, South Africa) is exacerbated by a preponderance of dissolved salts, which cause disagreeable taste and odour in the water as reported by the communities using this water for drinking. The water treatment plant that supplies the treated water to the communities in the District sources this raw water from the Nandoni Dam at the Luvuvhu river catchment. There are no scientific studies that have been reported in the literature that focused on determining the levels of water salinity from various water sources in the municipalities of the District. Water samples from various sites across the Nandoni Dam, a primary source of domestic water supply in the region, were collected through each season over a period of twelve months in order to ascertain the concentrations of dissolved salts in the dam. Onsite analyses of the water samples were conducted using the YSI ProDSS multimeter, while the laboratory water analyses were conducted using the spectroquant and atomic absorption spectrometers. Although salinity tests seem to indicate that the water sampled across most of the Nandoni Dam is brackish during all seasons of the year with the highest being 750 mg/L, water samples from the dam mid-outlet and the treatment plant are slightly below the World Health Organization (WHO) brackish water bracket of 500 mg/L with unfavourable taste for drinking. Results from this study indicate that the water sourced from the Nandoni Dam is not suitable for human consumption and therefore requires integrated water resource management, as well as robust and cost-effective water desalination treatment. Keywords: contamination; domestic use; Nandoni Dam; salinity; water analysis 1. Introduction The quality of available water resources in rural settlements in most provinces of South Africa is poor [1,2]. For example, water supplied by a local water treatment plant to about fifty-five villages in the Thulamela Local Municipality of the Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province is reported to be salty although there is no scientific information provided [3]. Fouche et al. have reportedly demonstrated that the phosphates, nitrates and ammonium levels in Nandoni Dam are not suitable for fisheries [4]. For some years, the residents of this municipality have been complaining about the quality of the water, which they use for irrigation and domestic purposes. Besides the poor water quality, the salts found in the water accumulate in the distribution network resulting in blockages of the Water 2018, 10, 990; doi:10.3390/w10080990 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2018, 10, 990 2 of 13 pipelines.Water 2018, 10 High, x FOR concentrations PEER REVIEW of salts, metals, and possibly other contaminants (i.e., total dissolved2 of 13 solids) cause scale build-up on the surface of plumbing fixtures and appliances such as taps, which are as taps, which are used for the conveyance of water to the end‐user. Figure 1 shows salt deposits that used for the conveyance of water to the end-user. Figure1 shows salt deposits that have accumulated have accumulated over a period of time on the surface of a water tap in Limpopo Province, South over a period of time on the surface of a water tap in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Africa. Figure 1. A picture showing public waterwater taptap with with a a salt salt deposit deposit in in Limpopo Limpopo Province, Province, South South Africa Africa. [5 ]. Although the residents couldcould notnot determinedetermine thethe extent extent of of the the salinity salinity of of the the water, water, it it is is thought thought to beto be brackish brackish water water since since the the salty salty taste taste of of the the water water was was to to some some extent extent tolerable. tolerable. The The water water salinity salinity is theis the amount amount of theof the dissolved dissolved salts salts in the in body the body of water. of water. These dissolvedThese dissolved salts include salts include sodium sodium chloride, magnesiumchloride, magnesium sulphates, sulphates, potassium potassium nitrates, andnitrates, sodium and bicarbonate. sodium bicarbonate. Brackish waterBrackish by water definition by hasdefinition a salty, has disagreeable a salty, disagreeable taste and taste a higher and a salinity higher salinity when compared when compared with fresh with water, fresh water, but not but as salinenot as assaline sea as water sea water [6]. Brackish [5]. Brackish water water refers refers to water to water with with salinity salinity of 500–17,000 of 500–17,000 mg/L mg/L [7]. [6]. To To put thisput this technical technical definition definition into into perspective, perspective, seawater seawater and saltand lakessalt lakes have have a salt a concentration salt concentration of about of 30,000–40,000about 30,000–40,000 mg/L. mg/L. Brackish water is is mostly mostly found found in in estuarine estuarine areas areas where where seawater seawater mixes mixes with with freshwater freshwater [7]. [8 ]. Other than estuaries, the the elevated elevated groundwater groundwater salinity salinity can can be be observed observed in in the the regions regions where where groundwater is in contact with evaporates formations, formations, or or mixed mixed with with high high mineralized mineralized and and deeper deeper aquifers [[8,9].9,10]. The The discharges discharges from from industrial industrial effluents effluents containing containing dissolved dissolved salts, salts, leachates leachates of of saline saline soils and and the the runoff runoff of of salt salt deposits deposits such such as halite as halite or gypsum or gypsum that is that present is present in the insedimentary the sedimentary rocks rocksalso increase also increase the amounts the amounts of total of dissolved total dissolved salts and salts thus and lead thus to lead the formation to the formation of brackish of brackish water water[10–12]. [11 However,–13]. However, the primary the primary contributing contributing source source of brackish of brackish surface surface water water (e.g., (e.g., brackish brackish dam dam water) isis thethe mixing mixing of of the the saline saline water water from from the the open open wells wells and and the the fresh fresh water water as well as well as the as flowthe flow from thefrom saline the saline aquifer aquifer sourced sourced from pumping from pumping wells to wells the surface to the water surface [14 ].water These [13]. mentioned These mentioned sources are thesources main are practices the main in Vhembepractices district in Vhembe and they district are and therefore they theare maintherefore likely the sources main likely of saline sources water of in Nandonisaline water Dam. in Nandoni Dam. The salinity in the water affects the quality of water that is used for drinking, irrigation, and The salinity in the water affects the quality of water that is used for drinking, irrigation, industrial applications. It also impacts on various social, economic and environmental related uses and industrial applications. It also impacts on various social, economic and environmental related uses by both rural and urban communities [14–18]. The high levels of salt deposits cause an unfavourable by both rural and urban communities [15–19]. The high levels of salt deposits cause an unfavourable hydrological environment in water that restricts its domestic use such as for drinking and normal hydrological environment in water that restricts its domestic use such as for drinking and normal production of crops [16,19]. Scale build‐up due to water salinity also necessitates increased frequency production of crops [17,20]. Scale build-up due to water salinity also necessitates increased frequency and cost of repair and maintenance of the public infrastructure [20]. In addition, the salt deposits and cost of repair and maintenance of the public infrastructure [21]. In addition, the salt deposits corrode bricks, pavements, concrete and destroy the bitumen properties thus leading to erosion of corrode bricks, pavements, concrete and destroy the bitumen properties thus leading to erosion of roads [21,22]. roads [22,23]. Although the brackish water is an unfavourable resource, it still provides a secondary or alternative source of water that is less costly for purification compared to seawater [23]. However, good estimates of the salinity of the water to be purified should be established in order to define the Water 2018, 10, 990 3 of 13 Although the brackish water is an unfavourable resource, it still provides a secondary or alternative source of water that is less costly for purification compared to seawater [24]. However, good estimates of the salinity of the water to be purified should be established in order to define the possibility of assigning that particular water resource as a potential and alternative water resource [25]. It should however also be borne in mind that certain ions such as fluorides and nitrates would also require specialized treatment [25]. Therefore, this study seeks to determine levels of water salinity as well as ions that contribute to water salinity in the Nandoni Dam.
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