SUSTAINABLE URBAN AREAS 25 Improving institutions for green landscapes in metropolitan areas Evelien van Rij Delft Centre for Sustainable Urban Areas Delft University of Technology Delft University of Technology Improving institutions for green landscapes in metropolitan areas The series Sustainable Urban Areas is published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press IOS Press BV Nieuwe Hemweg 6b 1013 BG Amsterdam The Netherlands Fax +31-20-6870019 E-mail: [email protected] Sustainable Urban Areas is edited by Delft Centre for Sustainable Urban Areas C/o OTB Research Institute for Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies Delft University of Technology Jaffalaan 9 2628 BX Delft The Netherlands Phone +31 15 2783005 Fax +31 15 2784422 E-mail [email protected] http://www.otb.tudelft.nl Improving institutions for green landscapes in metropolitan areas Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. ir. J.T. Fokkema, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 12 december 2008 om 12.30 uur door Helena Eva VAN RIJ meester in de rechten en bestuurskundig ingenieur geboren te Leiden Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor: Prof. dr. W.K. Korthals Altes, Technische Universiteit Delft Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Rector Magnificus, voorzitter Prof. dr. W.K. Korthals Altes, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Prof. mr. dr. ir. J.A. Zevenbergen, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. mr. J. de Jong, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. dr. A.J.J. van der Valk, Wageningen UR Prof. dr. M.J. Oxley, De Montfort University, Leicester (UK) Prof. V. Nadin, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. dr. A.M.J. Kreukels, Universiteit Utrecht Improving institutions for green landscapes in metropolitan areas Evelien van Rij Thesis Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands This research project was conducted within the scope of the NWO-programme GaMON (Social Scientific Research into “Nature and the Environment). NWO does not guarantee the correctness and/or the comprehensiveness of the research data and results. The author also wishes to acknowledge the financial assistance of the Dutch government through the Habiforum Program Innovative Land Use and Delft University of Technology through the Delft Centre for Sustainable Urban Areas. Design: Cyril Strijdonk Ontwerpbureau, Gaanderen Dtp: Yvonne Alkemade, Delft Printed in the Netherlands by: Haveka, Alblasserdam ISSN 1574-6410; 25 ISBN 978-1-58603-944-8 NUR 755 Legal Notice The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following information. © Copyright 2008 by Evelien van Rij No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form by print, photo- print, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the copyrightholder. Contents Preface and acknowledgements ....................................1 1 Introduction.............................................................3 1.1 Research questions and the structure of this book .............. 4 1.2 Research approach ...................................................... 9 1.3 The application of different theories ..............................11 1.3.1 Multi-theory ..............................................................11 1.3.2 Combining complementing theories ...............................13 1.4 Introducing the cases ..................................................15 1.4.1 Midden-Delfland, Land Consolidation .............................17 1.4.2 Midden-Delfland, recent projects ...................................21 1.4.3 The National Landscape Laag Holland ............................23 1.4.4 Cross-subsidy strategies in the Bloemendalerpolder ..........25 1.4.5 The Park Forest, Ghent Project .......................................27 2 Model for green area protection and improvement ........... 31 2.1 Green area protection and improvement in practice ..........32 2.2 From case study towards a model ..................................35 2.3 Conclusion ................................................................42 3 Landscape changes and the restructuring of the welfare state .................................................................... 45 3.1 Signs of landscape changes ..........................................46 3.1.1 Signs concerning spatial quality ....................................46 3.1.2 Signs concerning zoning ..............................................47 3.1.3 Signs concerning land ownership ..................................47 3.2 Struggling landscape guardians .....................................49 3.2.1 Recreational areas ......................................................51 3.2.2 Nature conservation sites ............................................52 3.2.3 The importance of farmers for metropolitan green areas ....57 3.3 Influences of the restructuring of the welfare state ............57 3.3.1 Impact on sector departments ......................................58 3.3.2 Direct impact on spatial planning ..................................59 3.4 Conclusion ................................................................61 4 Market or government; the limitations of Transaction Cost Theory ................................................................. 63 4.1 Branches of Transaction Cost Theory ..............................64 4.2 Transaction Cost Theory in the field of planning ...............66 4.3 Attempts to adopt Transaction Cost Theory ......................68 4.4 Institutional design based on explanatory Transaction Cost Theory ...............................................................69 4.4.1 Public bureaus as a last resort .......................................70 4.4.2 Different subsidizing strategies .....................................72 4.4.3 Usability of explanatory Transaction Cost Theory ..............74 4.5 Planning, more than a tool to lower transaction cost between private parties ...............................................75 4.6 Low organization costs as a criterion? .............................76 4.7 Conclusion ................................................................77 5 Market or government; the debate about cross-subsidy strategies .............................................................. 79 5.1 Motivations for a cross-subsidy approach ........................80 5.1.1 Collaboration .............................................................80 5.1.2 Spatial quality ...........................................................81 5.1.3 Finances ...................................................................81 5.1.4 Different terms and different motivations .......................83 5.2 Evaluating the Bloemendalerpolder process .....................83 5.2.1 The planning process ..................................................83 5.2.2 Evaluating the process .................................................87 5.3 Lessons that can be applied from the Bloemendalerpolder case .........................................................................88 5.4 The constraints of a cross-subsidy approach ....................89 5.4.1 Legal constraints ........................................................90 5.4.2 Financial constraints ...................................................92 5.4.3 Skepticism about the improvement of spatial quality .........93 5.4.4 Opposition because of rising land prices, limited transparency and inclusiveness .....................................95 5.5 The uniqueness of the Bloemendalerpolder case ...............96 5.6 Conclusion ................................................................99 6 Network or hierarchy ..............................................103 6.1 Theories on networks and hierarchies .......................... 103 6.2 Hierarchical and network-oriented approaches in practice .................................................................. 106 6.3 Reasons to combine hierarchical and network-oriented approaches ............................................................. 113 6.4 Conclusion .............................................................. 117 7 Spatial planning and land development .......................119 7.1 The operational and strategic spatial planning-land development matrix ................................................. 119 7.2 Roots of Dutch spatial planning and land development rationalities ............................................................ 123 7.3 Consequences of mono-rational approaches .................. 126 7.3.1 “Farmland that will become vacant” ............................. 126 7.3.2 The effect of cross-subsidy approaches on land prices ..... 128 7.3.3 Mismatch between strategic and collaboratively made plans and operational resources .................................. 128 7.3.4 The aim of planning ................................................. 129 7.3.5 Overstretched use of strategic spatial planning rationalities ............................................................ 130 7.4 Institutional change and tensions between public interest and private rights .......................................... 131 7.4.1 Compensation: zoning versus compulsory purchase ........ 131 7.4.2 Cross-subsidy agreements and the “two hats problem” ..... 134 7.4.3 Cross-subsidy approaches and the “I develop the project” principle ................................................................. 136 7.4.4 Compulsory purchase for green types of land use ............ 137 7.4.5 Public interest versus private