sign in sign up
<<
Home , Alan Freed, Chuck Berry, Hallelujah I Love Her So, Jefferson Airplane, Little Richard, The Matrix (club)

�

R 8ETPAHC Rock ’n’ roll : A GENERATION’S IDENTITY �

The rise of rock ’n’ roll in he advent of rock ’n’ roll , a period of relative economic the mid-1950s transformed music in the mid-1950s stability and prosperity marked by a brought enormous changes return to socially and politically con­ the landscape of American toT American , chang­ servative ways. This was also the first popular music, further es whose impact is still being felt. generation to grow up with televi­ Styles that had remained on the sion; this new mass medium proved cementing the popularity margins of began to in­ a force of incalculable influence. of southern-derived styles filtrate and eventually dominate the The term “rock ’n’ roll ” was first ultimately derived from the center. & and country used for commercial and genera­ music recordings no longer tional purposes by Alan blues and , and directed to specialized and regional­ Freed. In the early 1950s Freed dis­ transforming the teenager ized markets; they began to be heard covered that increasing numbers of on mainstream pop radio, and many young white kids were listening to into both a marketing concept could be purchased in music stores and requesting the rhythm & blues and a cultural icon. Rock ’n’ nationwide. records he played on his nighttime roll records were played for The emergence of rock ’n’ roll program in — records he was an event of great cultural sig­ began to call “rock ’n’ roll .” Freed dances at inner-city, primarily nificance. But several issues demand black, public schools, for our attention: first, rock ’n’ roll was parties at predominantly white neither a “new,” nor indeed even a single musical style ; second, the suburban private schools, and rock ’n’ roll era does not mark the for socials in rural settings first time that music was written specifically to appeal to young peo­ catering to young people. If ple; third, rock ’n’ roll was certainly you were young in the 1950s not the first American music to fuse in the United Statess, no black and white popular styles. The new audience was dominated matter where you lived, no by the so-called baby boom gen­ matter what your race or class, eration born immediately following World War II. It was a much younger rock ’n’ roll was your music. target group than ever before, a large audience that shared specific charac­ New York disc jockey teristics of group cultural identity. coined the phrase “Rock ’n’ Roll.” These were kids growing up in the

62 promoted concert tours featuring Trousers and Motorcycle Boots” rageous performance style that ap­ black artists, playing to a young, ra­ and “Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yel­ pealed on the basis of its strangeness, cially mixed audience, and promoted low Polkadot Bikini”), social danc­ novelty, and sexual ambiguity; and them as “rock ’n’ roll revues.” The ing (“At the Hop” and “Save the ’s work embodied the term “rock ’n’ roll ” itself was derived Last Dance for Me”), and courtship continuity of rhythm & blues with from the many references to “rock­ (“Teen-Age Crush,” “Puppy Love,” “A rock ’n’ roll . Domino was the earliest in’” and “rollin’” found in rhythm & Teenager in Love,” and “Poor Little of the three to become an established blues and on race records. Fool”). Some rock ’n’ roll songs — for performer, but all three crossed over The purchase of rock ’n’ roll re­ example, “” and to mainstream success within the cords by kids in the 1950s proved a “Rock’n’Roll Is Here to Stay” — an­ first few months following the mas­ way of asserting their generational nounced themselves as emblems of sive success of the white rocker Bill identity through rebellion against a new aesthetic and cultural order, Haley’s “Rock Around the Clock.” adult standards and restrictions. dominated by the tastes and aspira­ The biggest rock ’n’ roll star to Thus the experience of growing up tions of youth. come from the country side of the with rock ’n’ roll music became a music world was . In defining characteristic of the baby Rhythm & Blues 1955, RCA Victor, a major label, set boom generation. So it is not sur­ about trying to turn the “ prising that the music catered to this Three prominent cat” into a mainstream performer age group, which by the late 1950s represent the rhythm & blues-based without compromising the strength had its own distinctive culture and side of rock ’n’ roll . of his appeal to teenagers. They its associated rituals: school and was a /performer who ad­ succeeded beyond anyone’s expec­ vacation (represented in songs such dressed his songs to teenage America tations. Although Presley’s televi­ as “School Day” and “Summertime (white and black) in the 1950s; Little sion performances were denounced Blues”), fashions (“Black Denim Richard cultivated a deliberately out­ by authorities as vulgar, the shows

Left : Chuck Berry broke racial barriers with tunes such as “Johnny B. Goode” and “.” Center: is known for his stylings and exuberant vocals in “Tutti Frutti,” “Good Golly, Miss Molly,” and other classics. Right: Fats Domino’s hits include “Blueberry Hill” and “Ain’t That a Shame.”

63 were attended by hordes of scream­ bridled exuberance of his live per­ an incontestable role in defining the ing young fans and admired on the formances during that era became character and spirit of the . screen by millions. And Presley’s re­ the model for every kid who wanted The baby boom generation played a cords racked up astronomical sales to move mountains by strumming a vital role in the political and cultural from 1956 on into the early 1960s, es­ guitar, shaking his hips, and lifting events of this period, and the boom­ tablishing him as the biggest-selling his voice. ers were a generation identified with solo artist of rock ’n’ roll , and then rock ’n’ roll . as the biggest-selling solo recording Rock ’n’ roll Women Three important trends emerged artist of any period and style—a title in the early 1960s. A new kind of he still holds at the beginning of the The 1950s was an inauspicious social dancing, inspired by “The 21st century! time to be seen as a rebellious and ,” gave rock ’n’ roll music a Presley’s extraordinary popular­ empowered young woman. The distinctive set of movements and ity established rock ’n’ roll as an un­ rebellious, empowered young men social customs. Members of the first precedented mass-market phenom­ of early rock ’n’ roll proved contro­ generation to grow up with rock ’n’ enon. His reputation as a performer versial enough, and most teenagers roll began to assume positions of and recording artist endured up to were happy admiring them from a shaping power in the music indus­ his death in 1977 at the age of 42 safe distance. The pioneering female try. And new stylistic possibilities — and continues beyond the grave. rocker Wanda Jackson, for instance, for rock ’n’ roll began to emerge out Presley made fine records at many recorded a number of classic singles of , spearheaded by the points throughout his career, but his and enjoyed the encouragement and Beach Boys. principal importance rests upon his mentoring of Elvis Presley himself formed the Beach achievements during the early years — but none of her records became Boys in Hawthorne, California, of rock ’n’ roll . In 1956 Presley cut hits. The post-World War II ideal of in 1961. was achieving a handful of records that changed domestic femininity proved to be national chart hits within a year. the musical world for himself and powerful and provoked no wide­ Wilson was the first self-conscious for those around him, and the un- spread challenges until the 1960s. second-generation rock ’n’ roll er. By 1960 America was at last He explicitly acknowledged his ready to embrace a young female reliance on, and reverence for, his recording artist with a feisty public predecessors in the rock ’n’ roll image, and the teenage , field, by covering and quoting from who became known as “Little Miss their records. At the same time, he Dynamite,” was there to fill the bill carved out distinctive new ground, with engaging rock ’n’ roll songs by deliberately moving the lyrics and like “Sweet Nothin’s” and “Rockin’ the music of his own songs beyond Around the Christmas Tree.” Lee the territory carved out by his pre­ also recorded a large proportion of decessors, into novel areas that were slow, sentimental love songs. of particular meaning to him, to his time, and to his place in America. The 1960s: Rock ’n’ roll ’s Second If we were to conceptualize a Generation defining model for the career of a self-sustaining, trend-setting rock Few eras in American history have group of the 1960s, it would look been as controversial as the 1960s, something like this: a period marked by the civil rights •S tart out by demonstrating a movement, the , and mastery of the basic early rock ’n’ According to Magazine, Wanda Jackson was “the first to bring the assassinations of President John roll ballad and uptempo styles; a woman’s intuition” to rock ’n’ roll. F. Kennedy and the Reverend Martin • C reate original material based on, Luther King Jr. Popular music played and extending, those styles;

64 “I’ll Never Stand in Your Way” (1953) is Elvis Presley’s first known recording. The “King of Rock ’n’ Roll” holds records for the most Top Forty and Top Ten hits, the most consecutive #1 hits, and the most weeks at #1.

65 Left: Founding Beach Boys (l. to r.) , Al Jardine, Brian Wilson, Dennis Wilson and became known for their close vocal harmonies. Right: founded Records. With his unmatched ability to discern popular taste, he launched the careers of many popular music giants.

• E ventually branch out totally “Motor town,” , the automo­ can pop music addressed to the wid­ beyond the traditional forms, bile production capital of America. It est possible listening public. sounds, and lyric content of rock came to be one of the most stunning It is almost as if Gordy launched ’n’ roll to create something truly African-American business success his enterprise as a kind of counterof­ different and unique. stories. The intensity and duration fensive against the expropriation of The reference point that most of Motown’s commercial success re­ African-American music and the people would use for constructing flected the distinctive dual thrust of exploitation of African-American a model like this would probably be Gordy’s vision. musicians that had been as much a . But the group that first First, he was determined to keep part of the early history of rock ’n’ established this model, and did so all of the creative and financial as­ roll as it had been of other periods with outstanding success, was the pects of the business under Afri­ in the development of American Beach Boys. were can-American control. This worked popular music. And the unique ge­ in fact a clear, and stated, model for because Gordy had an uncanny abil­ nius of Gordy was the ability to cre­ the Beatles, especially during the re­ ity to surround himself with first- ate a black music aimed right at the markably productive and innovative rate musical talent in all aspects of commercial mainstream that never years (for both groups) of 1965-67. the record-making process, and to evoked the feeling, or provoked the maintain the loyalty of his musi­ charge, of having sold out. With Motown cians for substantial periods of time. few exceptions, Motown recordings It also worked because Gordy had a avoided direct evocations of earlier The music of the 1960s includes a shrewd head for business as well as rhythm & blues forms and styles; 12­ remarkable spectrum of styles and for music, and this leads us to the bar blues patterns are strikingly rare, influences. In Detroit, Berry Gordy second element of his visionary plan. as are the typical devices of doo-wop Jr. was creating his own songwrit­ Motown’s music was not directed or anything suggestive of the 1950s ing/producing/marketing organiza­ primarily at black audiences. Gordy sounds of Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, tion. Motown was named after the sought to make an African-Ameri­ or Little Richard. Yet a generalized

66 blues or gospel manner remained a consciously addressed his record­ of talents Charles cultivated. He defining characteristic of Motown’s ings to the teen market. As soon as was a fine -writer, having writ­ performers; sometimes it could be he established himself as a mass- ten many of his early rhythm & very subtle, as is often the case with market artist with the blues-based blues hits, including classics of the William “Smokey” Robinson, and and gospel-drenched “What’d I Say,” genre like “I’ve Got a Woman” and sometimes much more overt, as is in 1959, he sought new worlds to “Hallelujah I Love Her So.” He was the case with Martha Reeves. This conquer; his next record was a high­ a highly skilled arranger, as well as proved sufficient to give a definite ly individual cover of Hank Snow’s an exceptionally fine keyboard play­ African-American slant to the pop- 1950 hit “I’m Movin’ On,” one of the er who was fluent in as well as structured, pop-flavored songs that biggest country records of all time. mainstream pop idioms. And above were characteristic of Motown. Within a year, Charles had achieved all he was an outstanding vocalist, his first Number One pop hit with with a timbre so distinctive as to be Charles and his version of the old Tin Pan Alley instantly recognizable and an ex­ standard “ on My Mind.” pressive intensity that, once heard, is Even as Berry Gordy’s Motown re­ Charles was not the first artist difficult to forget. But this still is not cordings defined one stream of to assay many different genres of the whole story. Charles’s most char­ 1960s popular music, another hugely , and he acteristic recordings are not only talented artist was defining the path was only one of many to achieve distinguished, individual statements that would lead to the “soul” music crossover success. What is it then but also unique and encompassing that appeared later that decade. Ray that made his career so distinctive, statements about American popular Charles was a constant presence on that made him such a universally ad­ music style. the rhythm & blues charts during mired pop musician — by audiences, Although the term “soul music” the 1950s, but major crossover suc­ critics, and other musicians — that would not enter the common vo­ cess eluded him until 1959. Charles the appellation “genius” has clung to cabulary until the later 1960s, it is was never interested in being type­ his name for decades? clearly soul music that cast as a rock ’n’ roll er, and he never Part of it is the astounding range was pioneering in his gospel-blues synthesis of the 1950s. He is now widely acknowledged as the first Ray Charles was a important soul artist, and his work Grammy-winning singer who blended gospel and proved an incalculable influence blues in heartfelt ballads on , , like “.” , , , and innumerable others. When Charles went on to record Tin Pan Alley and country mate­ rial in the 1960s, far from leaving his soul stylings behind, he brought them along to help him forge new, wider-ranging, and arguably even braver combinations of styles.

67 The and ing the “beat” literary movement of low sold over one million copies. The the 1950s, a lively urban folk music biggest celebrity in the group was scene, and a highly visible and vocal vocalist (b. 1939), who The explosive entrance of community. “Psychedelic rock” was the most important female mu­ into the wide arena of American encompassed a variety of styles and sician on the scene. popular culture coincided with musical influences, including folk Grace Slick’s only serious compe­ the development of increasingly rock, blues, “hard rock,” Latin music, tition as queen of the San Francisco innovative approaches to rock ’n’ and Indian classical music. In geo­ rock scene came from roll itself. This was a period of in­ graphical terms, San Francisco’s psy­ (1943-70), the most successful white creasing political restlessness and chedelic music scene was focused on blues singer of the 1960s. Joplin ferment in the . The the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, came to San Francisco in the mid­ youth audience for pop culture was center of the movement. 1960s and joined a band called Big directly implicated in the politics was the first Brother and the Holding Company. of the Vietnam War, as all young nationally successful band to emerge Their appearance at the Monterey American men between the ages of out of the San Francisco psychedelic Pop Festival in 1967 led to a contract 18 and 26 were eligible to be drafted scene. Along with the Quicksilver with , eager to into the armed forces. In addition, a Messenger Service and the Grate­ cash in on RCA’s success with Jef­ significant number of young people ful Dead, Jefferson Airplane was one ferson Airplane, and on the growing were involved with the many orga­ of the original triumvirate of San national audience for . Big nizations, demonstrations, and legal Francisco “acid rock” bands, play­ Brother’s 1968 Cheap Thrill initiatives that characterized the ing at Club (center of the reached Number One on the pop civil rights movement. San Francisco alternative nightclub charts. Joplin’s full-tilt singing style During the late 1960s an “alterna­ scene), larger concert venues such as and directness of expression were tive” scene established the and Fillmore, inspired by blues singers such as itself in San Francisco. The city had and at communal outdoor events and by the R&B re­ long been a center for artistic com­ such as happenings and be-ins. The cordings of Big Mama Thornton. munities and subcultures, includ­ Airplane’s 1967 LP Surrealistic Pil­

Left: The Jefferson Airplane in 1966. Right: Janis Joplin.

68 , the Guitar Hero jobs at all), who were looking for ro­ mance and excitement in the face of The 1960s saw the rise of a new repeated disappointments. Spring­ generation of electric guitarists steen performed with his E Street who functioned as cultural heroes Band, and their music was charac­ for their young fans. Their achieve­ terized by a strong, roots-rock sound ments were built on the shoulders that emphasized Springsteen’s con­ of previous generations of electric nections to 1950s and 1960s music. guitar virtuosos — , whose The band even included a saxophone innovative tinkering with electronic — virtually an anachronism in the technology inspired a new genera­ pop music of this period — to mark tion of amplifier tweakers; T-Bone the link with the rhythm & blues and Walker, who introduced the elec­ rock ’n’ roll of earlier eras. tric guitar to R&B music in the late Purists insist that rock music 1940s; urban blues musicians such is past its prime. The times have as and B. B. King, changed, and so has the spirit of the whose raw sound and emotional di­ times. Many others insist just as fer­ rectness inspired rock guitarists; and vently that rock continues alive and early masters of rock ’n’ roll guitar, healthy today, and many will agree Guitarist Jim Hendrix fused elements including Chuck Berry and Buddy of rock, soul, blues, and jazz. that it is hard to argue with their evi­ Holly. Beginning in the mid-1960s, dence. The profusion of forms and the new guitarists — including Jimi genres that can be called, in one way Hendrix, , , rock concerts, was not unrelated to or another, rock music, is astound­ , and the Beatles’ George the wild stage antics of some rhythm ing. One Web site lists 32 varieties Harrison — took these influences & blues performers. of rock music. Punk, thrash, metal, and pushed them farther than ever grunge, country rock, and glam before in terms of technique, sheer Rock ’n’ roll Will Never Die? rock, to name just a few, have all volume, and improvisational bril­ developed out of the rock ’n’ roll tra­ liance. During the , the music indus­ dition that began in the 1950s. They Jimi Hendrix was the most try created a number of rock genres, continue to be played and heard and, original, inventive, and influential designed to appeal to the widest just as significantly, to provide the guitarist of the rock era, and the possible demographic and promoted stimulus for new forms and styles most prominent African-American on Top 40 radio and television. Mu­ of popular music in America and rock musician of the late 1960s. His sicians as diverse as ; around the world. early experience as a guitarist was ; ; Carole gained touring with rhythm & blues King; ; ; Neil bands. In 1966 he moved to London, Diamond; Crosby, Stills, and Nash; where he joined up with two English ; musicians, Noel Redding and and the Mothers of Invention; and drummer Mitch Mitchell, form­ Santana were promoted by record ing a band called the Jimi Hendrix companies under the general head­ Experience. The Experience was ing of rock music. By the mid-1980s, first seen in America in 1967 at the the rocker found Festival, where Hen­ a large audience. Springsteen’s songs drix stunned the audience with his reflected his working-class origins flamboyant performance style. This and sympathies, relating the stories sort of guitar-focused showmanship, of still young but aging men and soon to become commonplace at women with dead end jobs (or no

69