ISSN No: 1472-4634

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association Issue no: 105 Summer 2006 £4.00

BIODYNAMICS & ENVIRONMENT

FARM & LANDSCAPE

KNOW YOUR SOIL

NEW BDAA VISITOR CENTRE

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AIMS & OBJECTIVES STAR & FURROW is the membership magazine of The Biodynamic Agricultural Association (BDAA). OF THE BDAA It is issued free to members. Non members can also purchase Star and Furrow. For two copies per annum the rates are: UK £9.50 including postage The Association exists in order to support, promote and develop Europe (airmail) £10.50 the biodynamic approach to farming, gardening and forestry. This Rest of the World (airmail) £12 unique form of organic husbandry is inspired by the research of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) and is founded on a holistic and spiritual BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION understanding of nature and the human being. The Painswick Inn Project, The Association tries to keep abreast of developments in Gloucester Street, science, nutrition, education, health and social reform. It is linked to Stroud, the Agricultural Department of the School of Spiritual Science Gloucestershire (Switzerland) and affiliated as a group of the Anthroposophical GL5 1QG Society in Great Britain. It is also a full member of Demeter Tel/Fax: 01453 759501 International, SUSTAIN, IFOAM and the Five Year Freeze. E-mail: [email protected] Membership is open to everyone interested in working with, Website: www.biodynamic.org.uk developing or learning about biodynamics. Current rates are £30 (£12.50 concessions). Members receive a quarterly newsletter, Star Editor: Richard Swann, and Furrow twice a year, regular information on events and access Contact via the BDAA Office or to a member’s library. Many local groups exist for further study and E-mail: [email protected] the exchange of practical experiences. The BDAA stocks more than a hundred books on biodynamic STAR AND FURROW Editorial Group: agriculture and related subjects. These are available from the office Richard Swann, Jane Cobbald, Bernard Jarman, by mail order. Anna Irwin, Jessica Standing, Laurence Dungworth SEED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT The Association is working to develop a sustainable on farm The function of Star and Furrow is to encourage the free exchange of ideas and plant breeding programme, increase the availability of high quality experience among those who work with, or are interested in biodynamic farming, seed varieties suited to organic growing conditions and encourage gardening and related subjects. Contributors subscribe to no dogma and are the establishment of a cooperative network of biodynamic seed bound by no rules. Their contributions are personal documents, not official producers. The breeding and development of appropriate site utterances by the Association. adapted varieties is of vital interest to biodynamic farmers and offers the only long term alternative to biotechnology. It also requires an Final dates for contributions are 1st April for the summer issue and 1st October ongoing research commitment that is entirely dependant on gifts and for the winter issue. Copy should either, be typed / printed in black on A4 paper, donations. on disk in a format accessible to Microsoft Word or sent by e-mail. Please send DEMETER CERTIFICATION articles to the editor at the BDAA Office. The Association owns and administers the Demeter Certification Mark that is used by biodynamic producers in the UK to Front cover picture: Richard Swann guarantee to consumers that internationally recognised biodynamic Design and layout: Bill Hicks production standards are being followed. These standards cover Printed on 115 gsm Era Silk 100% recovered paper waste by SevernPrint, both production and processing and apply in more than forty Gloucester countries. They are equivalent to or higher than basic organic standards. The Demeter scheme is recognised in the UK as Organic Published by the Biodynamic Agricultural Association Certification UK6. © BDAA 2006 Charity No: 269036 APPRENTICE TRAINING Atwo year practical apprentice training course is offered in biodynamic agriculture and horticulture. Apprentices work in exchange for board and lodging on established biodynamic farms and gardens and receive tutorial guidance and instruction from experienced practitioners. Practical training is supported with regular theoretical sessions either on the farm or in coordination with other local centres. Two week-long block courses are offered to all UK apprentices each year. Graduating apprentices receive a certificate from the BDAA. FUNDING The Association is a small organisation wholly dependent on subscriptions, donations and grants. There is a healthy and growing interest in biodynamics and to meet this welcome development additional funds are being sought to supplement the limited resources available. Becoming a member and encouraging others to join is an important way of supporting the work. Donations over and above the recommended membership subscription are also extremely helpful. Even the smallest contribution can make a real difference. For those considering making a will and possibly leaving something to support biodynamic development, a legacy leaflet is now available. Please contact the office for a copy.

For information on all aspects of the Association’s work contact: Biodynamic Agricultural Association, Painswick Inn Project, Gloucester Street, Stroud, Glos, GL5 1QG Tel. 0044 (0)1453 759501 Email: [email protected] Website: www.biodynamic.org.uk Issue Number 105 Summer 2006 ISSN 1472-4634

BDAA COUNCIL CONTENTS

Chairman: Nick Raeside 4 Biodynamics & the environment Vice Chairman: Laurence Dungworth Treasurer: Ian Bailey 8 Developing landscape & enhancing wildlife Other Council Members: Richard Gantlet, Liz Ellis, Pat Fleming, Chris Stockdale and Peter van Vliet 12 The BERAS project

BDAA Executive Director: 13 Biodynamics & the forest enviroment Bernard Jarman 16 Farm auditing for sustainability Email: [email protected] 18 What happened when biodynamic farming met Association Secretary: Jessica Standing permaculture design?

Seed Development Fieldsman 20 Review - SEKEM Peter Brinch Email: [email protected] - Ecovillages 21 Hay in the tree tops DEMETER STANDARDS COMMITTEE Chairman: Sue Bradley 24 A new centre for the BDAA Tel: 01509 673897 26 Reviews Demeter Standards Development Officer: - BD spray & compost preparations Timothy Brink Tel: 0131 478 1201 - Extrordinary plant qualities Email: [email protected] - The BD food & cookbook Scheme Co-ordinator and Secretary: Fiona Mackie 30 What does light say about food quality? Tel: 0131 6243921 33 Knowing more about soil Email: [email protected] 39 A new impulse for social change 40 Life forces in the plant organism 42 Beyond organics 43 Demeter market place 44 Advertisments EDITORIAL The environmental crisis is not far from the front pages of the newspapers on most days now and much is being made of it – some constructive and some not. So how can those who are working with biodynamics deal with this pressing issue? In this edition we have started to address this by looking at the biodynamic farm and forest and the contribution they can make to the local cultural landscape. A farm audit has also been included where you can assess the impact your farm or garden has on your local environment.

Having a solid knowledge and understanding of your soil is essential to creating a healthy biodynamic land organism and Richard Thornton Smith has written an excellent introduction. With the growth of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association, we are also announcing the BDAA Council’s wish to develop a new centre to give the Association a worthy home.

It feels to be very timely to also be devoting some space to the Demeter Market Place. This is not only because the marketing of Demeter products is gathering a new momentum, but also out of environmental reasons. The supermarkets are tightening their grip on peoples’ spending power especially when it comes to food. One way to counter that is to support your local supplier of biodynamic (or organic) food.

In the next issue we will continue with the environmental theme as well as dedicate some space to questions relating to food and nutrition. I would like to hear from you if you have any contributions to make on this very topical issue.

Have an enjoyable summer.

Editor BIODYNAMICS & THE ENVIRONMENT by Laurence Dungworth

ell, I have decided to do my bit for the huge barns with his many animals environment – to be a 21st century eco- kept in for much of the year. warrior. So, I am going to plant trees, buy Looking further afield two things Worganic food, run my car on bio-diesel and go attract my attention – one good on holiday in England’s National Parks. And then and one bad. Firstly there are everything is going to be alright, isn’t it. Isn’t it? several fields in which trees are establishing themselves due to less intensive management. Secondly, I can see the Well, unfortunately when it comes to the environment Nympsfield wind turbine sticking prominently up on the things are not that simple. To help us on our way we firstly ridge across the Stroud valley. I have carefully avoided need to come to a definition of the environment. saying which is good and which is bad though.

Whose environment? Far in the distance is the motorway with a seemingly When in doubt reach for the Oxford English Dictionary, and endless flow of vehicles, and overhead the jet streams are according to this the environment is: a constant reminder of the passing planes. All of these 1. The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant people going about their business. What effect can we lives or operates, or, possibly have on this? 2. The natural world, especially as affected by human activity. and an environmentalist is: Our environment A person who is concerned with the protection of the environment. In some of these instances it is obvious where our Further, if you type environment into Google, you get two influence lies and the immediate effect it has. However, and a quarter million results, with the focus being on the things are very subtle and cause and effect are finely second definition. intertwined. What does become clear is that the connection we have to an environment has a direct effect My environment on the care we take of it. There is a general feeling of My personal environment as I write this, is my room. I alienation from the environment, whether it is the share this with only a few people and it is subject to a destruction of the rainforest that is ultimately due to our particular temperature in which I am comfortable, to consumerism, or the piece of litter that we walk past musical noises of my choice, pictures I have chosen, and because someone else dropped it. When we experience of course a certain amount of radiation from the computer the environment as not being ours, then we allow all sorts screen. of things to happen that we shouldn’t. We have to embrace the fact that we all have a lot to do with the whole earth, If I step outside my house and into my garden there is an and the effect we have on her is determined by our choice immediate change. There are of course the flowers and of action. vegetables that I grow, but I share this space with several groups of other users and they all have their influence. If I Together with the earth we have gone through a process of look beyond the garden fence my view is also taken up co-evolution, and this brings us into a special relationship. with the town where I live and all the buildings that make it The environment of the earth has had long lasting effects up. Being in a town the noise also increases dramatically – on us, and increasingly through the 20th century we have and it is not my noise. It mostly comes from passing traffic, begun to have a lasting effect on it. Through working which one soon gets used to, but in addition there is also together with what the earth offered we were provided with all the exhaust fumes from all this traffic. Some of this must water, food and shelter, just as a mother provides a child find its way into my garden and surely pollutes the air I with these necessary things to nurture it into adulthood. breathe as well as the soil that grows my vegetables and But the earth has grown older over the years and now it flowers. This is very inconsiderate of all those drivers – do seems that we have rather outgrown our nest. It thus they not know they are polluting my environment? becomes necessary for us to begin to look after the mother who raised us, as she grows older and increasingly unable If we now go to the farm where I work we can look even to respond to the heightened demands we place on her. wider. We’d better drive, as we have to get there before the We have grown up now and need to become responsible end of the paragraph. The farm is on the edge of the within this relationship. We need to do our bit. Cotswolds which is an area well known for its beautiful landscapes. As I write the cowslips are blooming, and I am Doing our bit sure that by the time you read this there will be many other If we have a look at the actions I outlined at the beginning flowers in the chalk grassland hay fields. The farm is a of the article we can see some of the dilemmas we are community farm that I help to look after and so there are faced with. various influences working together but I am very active in Firstly, planting trees: this is considered one of those the shaping of the landscape. If I look over our recently laid environmental holy cows i.e. it is always good to plant hedge, then I can see our neighbours farm, and I can trees. Certainly their growing helps with carbon sometimes see him spraying his chemicals. I also see his sequestration – the absorption of the excessive carbon

4 Star and Furrow No: 104 dioxide that would otherwise contribute to global warming. However it has recently come to light that scientists have not appreciated the extent to which methane is emitted in this process. Methane as a greenhouse gas is 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide so it could possibly overshadow the beneficial effect of tree planting. Things are very uncertain, as these are preliminary laboratory tests and investigations by the Forestry Commission and foresters have questioned the assertion by the press that forests will no longer act as carbon sinks. It may well be that the effect of methane is negligible. Forests are a very beneficial wildlife habitat supporting many species and so it is good to have trees. However there is such a thing as inappropriate planting, which can cause a loss of valuable wildlife habitat. This is well known now with respect to the planting of conifers on heather above and below: Eco-buildings at Pishwanton, East Lothian, Scotland moorland (though this is not all bad) but also applies to lowland sites as well, such as planting (or scrub invasion) of chalk grassland, referred to earlier. In these cases it can be better not to plant trees but to look after the habitat that is there originally. One also needs to bear in mind not only the species one is planting but also their provenance. Most people are aware that it is better for us to plant English oaks (quercus robur) than turkey oaks (quercus cerris), but it is equally important that the seeds are sourced reasonably locally and not from as far afield as Hungary as has been the case with plantings of quercus robur (English oaks).

Buy organic food. Various studies have shown that organic farming is better for the environment from a wildlife point of view, as well as possibly producing healthier food. There is also the reduced reliance on fossil fuels that are otherwise used to produce the agrochemicals necessary under conventional production. However there is the danger that increasingly industrialised organic production negates the wildlife benefits associated with organic farming. It needs to be more than chemical-free production to avoid problems such as monocultures, and lack of habitats. In addition, consumer’s commitment to organic food could also increase the transport of food if they favour exotic, organic produce over local produce.

Bio-diesel. Being carbon neutral, i.e. releasing only the carbon dioxide that it absorbed through its growth, is a positive benefit of bio-diesel, as is its lower level of localised pollution. However, two of its methods of production are questionable. Firstly rapeseed is a common photographs by Richard Swann ingredient, but this can be a very intensive form of agriculture, with the crop often being sprayed off before harvest. There is also the danger of the crop not being GM- free. Another potential ingredient is palm oil. This is a tropical plant and the creation of vast palm plantations has been the cause of rainforest destruction in Asia.

National Parks. There are many positive things about our National Parks, and any holiday that is close to home is very positive due to the reduced travelling pollution. However some National Parks have been using agrochemicals to maintain an environment that some would not consider natural. An example of this is the spraying of heather moorland to prevent bracken encroachment. The moorland is valuable in itself, but is nature not trying to carry on its natural process, and are the national park authorities being completely responsible when it comes to the use of these ‘safe’ chemicals in a ‘natural’ area? So, a truly biodynamic farm should have less of an impact What can we do? on the environment in terms of transport and inputs, but a The world of environmentalism is fraught with greater positive effect in terms of diverse habitat creation contradictions and a lack of knowledge. So much so, that and maintenance. some espouse a hermitic, self-sufficient life where our detrimental effects become insignificant. There is some But if we look at Steiner’s indications of the process the value in this, but our higher nature is that of a social being, earth is undergoing, we can see that we are an integral and so more is required. part of the being of an aging earth that needs to become re-spiritualised. This is a long process, but one which we Our current justifiable preoccupation with environmental have to be actively involved in. Like an older lady, the issues was not present when Steiner was speaking, physical earth works less well, but she has to prepare for otherwise he would surely have had something to say the next phase of her life. How do we assist in that about it. Maybe this is just as well, because we have to transformation? How do we help her prepare? now think for ourselves. We can also look around and learn a great deal from the wider environmental movement. Well, the answer is in the last question – it is all in the preparation. The biodynamic preparations, given by One common realisation is of the separation of people Steiner, were explained in terms of the ways in which they from their environment, as a direct result of contribute to the quantity and quality of food. However, industrialisation and development. From an they also play a vital role in the transformation of the earth. anthroposophical perspective, this is a process of ego development in which we feel separate from everything. This is a very important development, but we must bear in The cow and biodynamics mind that it is a phase rather than an end, and we need to, as individuals, recreate the links we have with each other How to reconcile the importance of the cow within and our environment. biodynamics with the fact that they have been identified as a major producer of methane – a potent greenhouse In the first instance it is the farmers, gardeners and gas. foresters who work on the earth can begin to care for it Firstly, taking a historical perspective, there have been more. But, hopefully it will become apparent that that line many million ruminants for millennia with no noticeable between farmer and consumer must become more blurred change in climate. Recent climate change is considered and porous than it has tended to be in recent times, and we man-induced and has its source in industrialisation, must all develop a responsibility. So how should we do our especially road and rail transport. bit? Looking at the effect cows do have, we should examine the effect of our own diet. Nowadays people in the Biodynamics – Caring for the Earth ‘west’ consume far more meat and dairy products than Steiner’s audience when he gave the Agriculture Course in in the past, and than is possibly good for them. This 1924 were those mainly involved in the production of food, increases the ruminant population above what the earth and so this was the emphasis in the lectures. However, may be able to bear. biodynamics can potentially play a big role in the care for So, seen in context, the cow still has a place on our the earth, as the fundamental principles of biodynamics farms and within nature. are beneficial to the environment.

Firstly Steiner talks in lecture two about the farm aspiring to a state of being a self-contained individuality. This is Space does not permit the detail necessary to do justice to very different from the current status quo where it is the way the preparations work, nor does my patchy common for many farms, organic included, importing most understanding of them. Suffice to say, that when one of their inputs. A farm that is able to produce most of what applies them, the physical preparation is merely acting as it needs from within itself firstly reduces the amount of a carrier for forces that enable a transformative healing to transport that is involved with the production of its produce, occur. This is not a healing that returns the earth to how it and secondly can show those who are interested, a truer was before, but is part of an ever-dynamic process. So, if cost of this production. we are looking at forces working with the life of the earth, then we are in the realm of the ethers. There are four Later in the Agriculture Course, in lecture seven, he talks ethers, traditionally connected to the four elements. This is about the need for a variety of habitats on the farm – shown below with the addition of the preparations: extolling the benefits of woodlands, shrubs, meadows, damp areas and their associated flora and fauna. He Element Ether Preparations justifies this loss of productive land by stating that it “is so essential to good farming that your farm will be more Fire Warmth Valerian Chamomile successful even if this means a slight reduction in your Air Light Dandelion Yarrow tillable acreage”. However, at the beginning of lecture Water Tone Nettle Oak seven he discusses how nature was perceived at that time Earth Life Horn manure Horn silica and states: “Everything we are supposed to know about these things is neatly pigeonholed into species and This classification was the topic of the last IBIG conference genera. But that is not how things are in nature. In nature, (reported in Star and Furrow 104), and is simply one way and actually throughout the universe, everything is in of beginning to understand how the preparations work. By mutual interaction with everything else” using them we are strengthening the earth’s ether body and enabling her to go through this transformation.

6 Star and Furrow 105 The way forward Gardening for the Environment Hopefully this article has shown that the issues surrounding the environment are far from simple and Our gardens and allotments offer great scope for us to straightforward. However the only solution lies with our do a little for the environment – both locally and globally. beginning to understand the complexities and to applying ourselves in order to make sense of it. Within this, a With a little muck from a local friendly biodynamic and organic farm, and seeds from an organic or biodynamic perspective can help us to care for this, our biodynamic supplier, one is able to produce fruit and earth. To make a start, here are some things to attempt: vegetables and offer a haven for wildlife, without little other external input. If we have a garden we should look after it in a fashion that is as beneficial for the wildlife of the area as The use of the preparations is important even in backyard gardens, as is following the planting possible whilst producing some food for ourselves and calendar. This brings the earth into harmony with the friends. Using the preparations will improve the quality of cosmos, as does the imagination of all the planets this produce, but also helps with the earth’s going around the earth. We all know the sun is the transformation. If we only have a small area, it can be centre of the solar system, but we all have our helpful to share this with other gardeners or allotment gardens on the earth, and this imagination holders. recognises the wonderful dances the planets make around the earth. Whether you garden or not, make a connection to a local biodynamic farm. If you do not have a local biodynamic Composting all the ‘waste’ from the whole garden, or even growing things specifically to be composted (i.e. farm, make a connection to an organic farmer to see if green manure, nettles, comfrey) one is able to he would be interested in converting. Alternatively you maintain fertility for production. Some areas for could establish a Community Supported Agriculture wildlife habitat i.e. lawns are actually more diverse (CSA) project to be run biodynamically. There was a full and therefore more valuable if they are lower in article on CSAs in Star and Furrow 102. fertility. The compost heap itself is teeming with wildlife for Try to get as much of your produce from this or other instance slow worms, which also help with ‘pest’ local farms. If you want to plant trees, establish a control. It is important to remember that pests are landscape group connected to the farm to see if there is also wildlife and valuable for the environment, even if a need for more trees or hedges, or whether other not always so appreciated by us. landscape features and habitats need some special attention. Other habitats can be created or maintained, whether it is flower and herb rich grassland, fruit trees or even a pond. With the other issues affecting our environment, the earth, we need to constantly bring to mind the An area for vegetables makes a good contribution, reducing our dependence on imported food – there is consequences of what we do – becoming conscious of no more local than your own garden. The gluts that our actions. If we want to look then for alternatives we you may have can also be preserved to provide fruit can, but this must be a matter for the individual for it to and vegetables during more lean times. have a lasting effect.

Enjoy this beautiful earth that we are part of. Some say we Useful contacts: should leave it as we found it, but I think if we try quite Friends of the Earth - http://www.foe.co.uk/ hard, we can leave it in a condition better than how we Greenpeace - http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/ found it. Cultivating Communities (CSA) - http://www.cuco.org.uk/

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 7 DEVELOPINGDEVELOPING LANDSCAPELANDSCAPE ANDAND ENHANCINGENHANCING WILDLIFEWILDLIFE AA BIODYNAMICBIODYNAMIC APPROAAPPROACHCH TOTO FFARMINGARMING PRACTICEPRACTICE by Thomas van Elsen - translated by David Heaf

1. Why work with cultural landscape? between people and nature.

Why do people engaged in biodynamic agriculture and All responses seemed to have something to do with the horticulture also work on the development of the cultural attitude of human beings to nature. There are obviously a landscape? When this question is put to a workshop of number of standpoints from which we can view landscape people interested in biodynamic agriculture, the responses and the natural world. Firstly, the landscape is used for the show a great variety of viewpoints as illustrated by the cultivation of agricultural products and thus for feeding following quotes from the participants on an introductory people. Secondly, unspoilt landscape also contributes to course (Forschungsring, Frankfurt, January 2002): people's relaxation, to sensorial nourishment. Furthermore, landscape used for agriculture 'nourishes' a conserving natural flora multitude of organisms that have found habitats in Central protecting species Europe only through agricultural activity. Many species of increasing species diversity on permanent grassland; bird, butterfly, orchid and arable weed were introduced into managing poor (unfertilized) meadowland Central European landscapes through putting post-glacial establishing hedgerows for animals forests under cultivation. Agriculture was not always the creating intact surroundings for farmland greatest cause of species extinction or environmental working holistically with the environment destruction that it is today. On the contrary, regionally not exploiting the earth but caring for it differentiated and species-rich cultural landscapes, that a stimulating and healthy environment for our children today are regarded as in decline, only arose through creating and developing/networking habitats historical land use. Indeed, farming caused many animal preserving traditional varieties and plant species to move in. planting woodland promoting beneficial insects What is the connection between the changing no monocultures understanding people have of nature and these two wildlife refuges contrasting effects of human activities on nature – one human responsibility which once led to its enrichment and the other which now symbiosis of people with the natural world causes its impoverishment? There are also contrasts in the formation and maintenance of a cultural landscape contemporary debate on nature conservation. Whereas capable of giving people healthy food and conservative nature conservation aims at protecting nature surroundings from people, biodynamic agriculture places people in the creating a pleasant working environment for people centre; make the human being the very foundation. Many health an approach in organic agriculture restricts itself to farming landscape as a place where people live in a way that is as 'environmentally friendly' as possible, i.e. has the least possible impact on the existing natural All the participants readily agreed that it is important to world. Is this 'ecocentrism' an irreconcilable contrast to the develop cultural landscape. They made several references 'anthropocentrism' of biodynamics? We shall return to this to nature, species and habitat conservation and question. Before that, I should like to consider the motives maintenance. Others placed more emphasis on the behind nature conservation and landscape development in significance for people of an intact landscape. It should be capable of providing healthy food as well as pleasant and healthy working and living conditions. It should also be developed in such a way that beneficial insects are encouraged, in order to minimise crop pests. And finally the participants called for a holistic, responsible, caring approach to landscape: a symbiosis photographs by the author

8 Star and Furrow 105 organic agriculture and give an overview of some possible interested in the farm neighbourhood. This process must practical measures for organic farms. not only take into account the knowledge and experience of those who deal with and work in the farm landscape, but 2. Landscape development through organic must also be open to new points of view and insights. The farming adviser or planner can contribute to this with ecological and specialist nature conservation knowledge, map the In dealing with landscape issues in organic farming landscape habitats, and detect developmental potentials. practice, we can find several levels, and all conceivable He becomes a facilitator for 'fellow students', assists transitions between them. There are farmers who have development, and places himself at the disposal of those changed to pesticide-free farming for purely economic and engaged in the process. This participative planning rational reasons and who at the same time are somewhat process, which draws in the local knowledge and unconcerned about landscape development. Others try to experience of the farmer, may result in formulating a vision shape their farm landscapes by making use of organic for the farm in the form of a landscape development plan farming practices, for example planting hedges to protect that identifies and illustrates its developmental potentials. against erosion and to encourage beneficial insects. Thus the aim of this planning concept must be to set a Others think that what is important is not only landscape process in motion in which the course of what is being structure, but also the species diversity of the land under created can grow, along with the capacities and changing their management. They try through mowing regimes to attitudes of those responsible (van Elsen et al. 2000). Such produce the most species-rich and healthy hay for their processes may appear very different according to the cattle, even if the tonnage yield is lower. Agri- composition of the group of participants (cf. inter alia environmental schemes lend support to this, for the later Beismann 1995, Fuchs 1997, Vereijken et al. 1997, van mowing times not only allow more plant species to flower, Elsen 2000, 2001, 2005c), but they always involve an ensure their survival and provide nourishment for the intensive study of the landscape to be developed and raise insects that visit flowers, but also ground-nesting birds are awareness of people's intentions and viewpoints about it. enabled to raise their broods before mowing. Still others try to understand their farm as an organism of a higher order 2.2 Establishment, development and care of in which the individual landscape elements fulfil functions biotopes in agricultural landscapes as do the different organs in an organism. Thus they aim to set up and manage unproductive habitats in the landscape What practical measures can we take to develop the so as to introduce warmth and colour into it through the landscapes of organic farms? Planting hedges is what variety of insects and flowers at these sites. And there are usually first comes to mind. Hedges develop as 'linear farmers who try to work out a development plan for their woodland margins' into exceedingly valuable biotopes that farm based on its individual situation and landscape and in provide habitats for many plant and animal species. The doing so aim to involve people from outside in the process. ecological value of a managed hedgerow increases with In collaboration with farm customers they hold seminars age and width. Ideally, when planted it should be five- and organize working weekends in which upkeep and rowed or at least three-rowed. In the interest of animal development measures can be carried out together, and biodiversity indigenous shrub and tree species are planted. through which people can rebuild a connection with There are numerous publications available that give advice cultural landscape. But within this process, before anything on establishing and managing hedges and spinneys. is changed, the landscape is studied and specialist support Organic farmers are trying to go beyond the familiar uses from nature conservation organizations and consultants is of hedgerows as support for beneficial insects or as called in who can provide on-farm conservation and protection from erosion – for instance by using leaves and environmental advice. branches of the shrubs as a valuable supplement to winter fodder, as was the case in the past. In doing so they are 2.1 Developing cultural landscapes also reviving old techniques such as pollarding and – a matter of co-operation and study coppicing. Further landscape development options with timber include planting single trees and the establishment In 'refilling' cleared agricultural land with structural and management of meadowland orchards of standards elements and biotopes, before any reshaping work is (long-stemmed trees). done, it is useful to study the special farm and landscape context, so that instead of producing a conglomeration of Many habitats can be redeveloped using limited resources. arbitrarily established biotopes, a harmonious and Dry stone walls built with stone gathered from the fields appropriate continued development of the cultural and left to develop vegetation spontaneously provide a landscape is possible. This aspect should become more particular microclimate for animal species requiring the concern of farmers themselves. warmth. A newly established pond in part of a field, where each year the tractor gets stuck in the mud, is a magnet for There is no shortage of suggestions as to how farmers can all sorts of creatures that are driven out of the cultivated be supported in this. It helps if qualified nature areas. Such measures can allow scope for further conservation consultancies are set up to give on-farm developments, i.e. restore to nature some room for advice, as is already successful practice in a number of manoeuvre. places (van Elsen 2005a, 2005b, www.naturschutzberatung.info). Several people have Pioneer biotopes and areas of successional vegetation on suggested combining organic conversion with establishing which plants are free to develop without intervention, a landscape stewardship and development plan that is grassland subject to drainage reversal and newly worked out and implemented with the co-operation of the established ponds or lakes all offer such development farmer. This requires the farmer to take a fresh look at the potential. Where for legal reasons the establishment of landscape together with the farm staff and anyone hedges for dividing large fields is problematic, it is

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 9 nevertheless permissible to introduce to flower; species-rich 'flowering strips' with annuals or leaving strips of meadow until the next cutting (fallow perennials. rotations); no harrowing or rolling after the beginning of the Whereas in areas where land has been breeding season; use of game refuges at harvest; cleared for intensive agriculture, the prime avoiding repeated mowing of margins of fields and farm concern of nature conservation is re- tracks. establishing biotopes, in richly structured districts it is more a matter of managing and In fruit cultivation, the cultivation of scattered fruit trees is developing the existing structural diversity. incredibly valuable to animals compared with certain short- Here the requirements of land use present stemmed fruit plantations. Yet even in existing short- several threats to diversity of both biotopes stemmed plantations it is possible to improve the situation and species. If calcareous arable fields on for animals, for example by establishing strips of wild level ground are set aside they lose their plants around the plantations, individual long-stemmed annual wild flowers of cultivation. Poor fruit trees, and thoroughfares rich in herbaceous plants grassland turns to scrub when grazing that are cut in rotation. In addition, conservation measures ceases. Forest re-establishes on mountain pastures that for specific species can be implemented, for instance by are not mown. Deliberately keeping such marginal sites creating overwintering sites for insects, spiders, small under appropriate management through organic or mammals and reptiles (with piles of rocks or branches) and ecological farming, for instance within the framework of by providing opportunities for wild bees and solitary wasps contractual nature conservation such as environmental to nest. Nest boxes may be installed for birds. Birds of prey stewardship schemes, promises a future for orchids, are attracted if perches are erected. grasshoppers and butterflies on dry slopes and for summer pheasant's eye or summer adonis (Adonis aestivalis) and Last but not least, the arrangement of the farm and its large Venus' looking-glass (Legousia speculum-veneris) buildings offer many opportunities to encourage wildlife. on calcareous arable fields in Central Europe. It makes Optimizing the conditions required by swallows and other complete sense to integrate marginal sites in the overall bird species as well as bats, unsealing the surfacing on management of biodynamic farms. And it is not just a few farmyards, creating diverse gardens and tolerating farmers who value hay from montane sites as a worthwhile species-rich flora on waste ground and track margins are supplement to protein-rich clover-grass forage – with some examples of how, through conscious development of beneficial consequences for animal health. the farm, its customers can be given an understanding of the concerns of biodynamic farming with regard to the 2.3 Practical measures on cultivated areas association between nature and agriculture.

Encouraging the wild plant and animal life of cultural The above compilation of possible practical measures is landscapes can be integrated into actual management intended to be a list of ideas. In Britain there are practices for farmland, whether arable or pasture. In order commendable publications available from the Royal to promote species-rich wildlife communities on arable Society for the Protection of Birds, which are specially for fields it is advisable to avoid combining several arable farmers (Andrews & Rebane 1994, www.rspb.org.uk). fields into a single unit, and to divide existing large fields into smaller units. Marginal structures are valuable habitats 3. From conservation to development of for many threatened species of plants and animals in nature cultural landscapes. Where rarer wildflowers occur in arable fields it is desirable to supplement the existing It is clear that there are plenty of opportunities and herbicide-free management system with the establishment approaches in organic farming for conserving and of extensively managed strips along field margins and developing nature and landscape. To conclude, I shall without mechanical weed control and undersowing in return to the questions raised at the end of Section 1 them. Another practical measure to encourage many concerning the relationship of people and nature, and the species currently under threat is, on selected areas, to development of this relationship. dispense with stubble management immediately post- harvest. In contemporary discussion about the environment, the assumption is often made almost as a fundamental On grassland, radical changes in resowing the following principle, that agriculture, above all the human being, not crop, cutting for silage earlier, and increased frequency of only uses nature but takes advantage of it, over-uses it, usage have led to an impoverishment of formerly species- consumes it, and that nature would be a lot better off rich and differentiated plant communities. Practices that without human beings. The aforementioned approaches to are desirable for increasing extensive management in active conservation, to caring for nature and cultural organic farming and that simultaneously protect insects, landscape, already refute this assumption, and there are amphibia and meadow birds include: very many examples in organic farming of how farmers look after and develop their landscape in such a way that introduction of beam mowers and their further wildlife becomes more diverse and is enriched through development as an alternative to rotary mowers; human activity. And from a global and historical keeping the cutting height to at least 8-12 cm; perspective this contradicts the dogma that human beings mowing systems that allow animals a chance to escape, are a disruptive factor in evolution. Even the way that the such as staggered mowing, strip mowing and mowing surviving indigenous peoples who live close to nature deal patches from the middle to the outside; with animals, plants or minerals – obviously connected timing mowing so as to allow as many plants as possible with a consciousness of what is understood by 'nature' that

10 Star and Furrow 105 differs greatly from ours in the so-called civilized world – ANDREWS, J. & REBANE, M. (1994): Farming & Wildlife – A Practical can hardly be classified as destructive. When they 'take Management Handbook. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), Sandy, Beds., 360 pp. out' animals and plants, such peoples, who live in harmony BEISMANN, M. (1995): Ökologische Landschaftsentwicklung durch with nature, give thanks to its creatures for their own food. Landwirtschaft. Lebendige Erde 2: 89-97, Darmstadt. However, mythology and the archaeological discoveries FUCHS, N. (1997): Landschaft als Ausdruck von Betriebsindividualität. Lebendige Erde 1: 3-12, Darmstadt. from various cultures that ended long ago indicate that VAN ELSEN, T. (2000): Naturentwicklung – Zukunftsaufgabe der apart from 'using up' nature for the purposes of survival, Landwirtschaft? In: PEDROLI, B. (ed.): Landscape – Our Home. Essays there existed other motives and intentions in dealing with on the Culture of the European Landscape as a Task. Zeist (NL)/ nature, and that at times people went beyond the Stuttgart: 65-73. VAN ELSEN, T. (2001): Landschaft und Lebensräume durch partnership model of a mere awareness and respect for Landwirtschaft entwickeln. Lebendige Erde 2: 38-41, Darmstadt. nature to actively caring for and developing it. It is hard for VAN ELSEN, T. (ed.) (2005a): Einzelbetriebliche Naturschutzberatung – us now to imagine the consciousness that gave rise to this, ein Erfolgsrezept für mehr Naturschutz in der Landwirtschaft. Beiträge zur Tagung vom 6.-8. Oktober 2005 in Witzenhausen. FiBL Deutschland e.V., residues of which may still be found amongst certain 200 pp., Witzenhausen. indigenous peoples. VAN ELSEN, T. (2005b): Nature Conservation Advisory Service for Farmers - A New Approach to Integrate Nature Conservation on Farm We cannot return to such earlier states of consciousness, Level. In: KORN, H., SCHLIEP, R., EPPLE, C. (eds.) (2005): Report on the International Workshop 'Opportunities of EU Agricultural Policy but, unlike in earlier times, it is now possible for us to make Instruments for Biodiversity Conservation and Integrated Rural the maintenance and development of nature our personal Development in Protected Areas of the New Member States'. BfN-Skripten concern out of free choice. Human consciousness has 153: 65-69, Bonn. VAN ELSEN, T. (2005c): Practical Approaches on Organic Farms in developed in such a way that we come face to face with Germany to integrate Aims and Objectives of Nature Conservation and nature as something separate from us. It has become part Landscape Development. In: KÖPKE, U., NIGGLI, U., NEUHOFF, D., of the world of objects, something to manage. A first step CORNISH, P., LOCKERETZ, W., WILLER, H. (eds): Researching in reconnecting with nature, only this time out of free and Sustainable Systems. Proceedings First Scientif. Conf. of ISOFAR: 472- 475, Adelaide. self-aware resolve, is practical study of it. Getting to know VAN ELSEN, T., GODT, J., HESS, J. (2000): Landschaftsentwicklung nature by actual observation can lead to a new relationship durch Umstellung auf Ökologischen Landbau. Agrarspectrum 31: with it, to a personal involvement and a new recognition of Entwicklung nachhaltiger Landnutzungssysteme in Agrarlandschaften: 222-230, Frankfurt. its value. Thus, understood this way, making human beings STEINER, R. (1923): Lebendiges Naturerkennen, Intellektueller the very foundation, means making the foundation the Sündenfall und spirituelle Sündenerhebung. (GA 220) 2. Aufl. 1982, human being who endeavours to develop nature Dornach, 212 S. consciously, who takes seriously the fact that human VEREIJKEN, H., VAN GELDER, T., BAARS, T. (1997). Nature and landscape development on organic farms. Agriculture, Ecosystems and beings have nature to thank for the possibility of their Environment 63: 201-220. evolution on the earth, and now have the possibility of 'paying it back', as Rudolf Steiner put it (Steiner 1923). But Contact details paying back means more than mere conservation or Dr. Thomas van Elsen, FiBL Deutschland e.V. (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture) protection. It means 'developing'. Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, D-37213 Witzenhausen, Germany phone: +49 (0)5542 981655, fax: +49 (0)5542 981568, E-mail: For many years the pioneer work of the 'Landscape [email protected] Weeks' at the Science Section of the Goetheanum in www.fibl.org/english/fibl/team/van-elsen-thomas.php www.petrarca.info/englisch/index.html Dornach, Switzerland have contributed to the development www.naturschutzberatung.info/ (in German) of a new approach to nature which is appropriate for our www.uni-kassel.de/Frankenhausen/ (in German) time. Apart from Switzerland, these practical study weeks instituted by Jochen Bockemühl have so far taken place at Further information Local wildlife trusts listed at: http://www.wildlifetrusts.org various venues in Germany, Hungary, Russia, Norway, Farm Welfare Advisory Group: http://www.fwag.org.uk/ France and Scotland. Each one involves observation exercises on the landscape and its development in order to Farmcare, a branch of The Cooperative Group, runs the Silver Lapwing create new connections or contexts through practical Awards and provides on-farm environmental management advice: http://www.co-opfarmcare.com/ study. They are carried out at the locality together with the people and working groups who are concerned with nature Royal Society for the Protection of Birds: http://www.rspb.org.uk and its development. This year the landscape study will focus on an estate in the Netherlands. Information for participants can be found at the web site: www.petrarca.info.

References

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 11 THE BERAS PROJECT This was an EU funded project that set out to look at the environmental impact of agriculture on the Baltic Sea. It was coordinated by Artur Granstedt, PhD,, headhead ofof TheThe BiodynamicBiodynamic ResearResearch Institute in Jarna, Sweden. Summarised below are the main findings.

1. The main reason for the increased load of nitrogen and in-country production area and by 50% if the area used for phosphorus from agriculture to the Baltic Sea is the production of imported fodder is also included. The per specialization of agriculture with its separation of crop and capita nitrogen surplus in Sweden would be reduced by animal production. This restructuring of the agriculture 65% in this more vegetarian scenario when compared to sector took place through out the Scandinavian countries today’s conventional food consumption. after World War II and has resulted in farms with a high 10. An ecological and locally oriented food chain leads to density of animals and great surpluses of plant nutrients, freedom from chemical pesticides, greater diversity in the particularly in certain regions in Sweden, Finland and production and more grazing-based animal husbandry. All Denmark. of this promotes biodiversity in the farm landscape. 2. A specialization of agriculture in Poland and the Baltic Agriculture based on the integration of animal and crop states corresponding to the changes in Sweden, Finland production and on-farm self sufficiency in fodder and Denmark would lead to an increase of nitrogen production would prevent the disintegration of the pollution to the Baltic Sea by more than 50 percent . agricultural landscape in parts of the Baltic Sea basin where (like in Poland) the agricultural landscape is still 3. Agriculture based on the principles of ecological characterized by a high degree of diversity. In the parts of recycling would, according to the results in the BERAS the Baltic States where large-scale agriculture production project, lead to a decrease in the nitrogen leaching by half from Soviet times has collapsed and in the industrialized as well as a significant reduction in the loss of phosphorus. and grain dominated areas in Sweden, Finland and 4. Nitrogen losses would diminish more in the countries Denmark, introduction of such agriculture could lead to a that today have an intensive agriculture than in the Baltic restoration of the agricultural landscape. countries and Poland where today there is a more 11. Economic studies at the farm level show higher extensive form of agriculture. In Sweden the potential for production costs when environmental costs are included diminishing nitrogen losses are calculated to be between (internalized) in the production costs. This includes, among 70 - 75%. other things, the restrictions on using fodder concentrates. 5. The total output of animal and crop products would not There is a 12% lower production per cow without soy have to decrease with such an agriculture reform in the protein. Also limiting the number of animals to the farms Baltic Sea Basin, if the production level on the documented own fodder-producing capacity has economic ecological recycling farms in Sweden is taken as standard. consequences. In the Järna study the cost for milk production was 19% higher compared to conventional 6. The proportion of leys in a future ecological recycling agriculture. The food expenditure for the 15 Järna agriculture would increase in areas where there is now households with mainly ecological and to a great extent much one-sided grain production. Leys with both clover locally produced food was on average 25% higher. and grass would have to be produced on all farms. This However, there was a great variation depending on the would increase the chances of diminishing plant nutrients’ food profile. Conventionally produced food does not leaching, building up and protecting the humus content in include the environmental costs. They are instead pushed soil and promoting biological diversity. towards the future or to other parts of the world. 7. Increased ley production would result in the reallocation 12. Practical examples of ecological recycling agriculture, of meat production. Production of meat from non ruminant local food processing, cooperation with schools, ecological animal (poultry, pigs) would decrease by half, while beef tourism and the development of local markets have been production would have to increase correspondingly - documented in the eight countries of the project. These assuming today’s level of meat consumption. studies show how private initiatives, raised awareness of 8. Local production, processing and distribution of food the significance of the food chain for the environment and products from ecological recycling agriculture can diminish a more lively cooperation between people can contribute to primary energy consumption and green house gas a more ecologically, economically and sociologically emissions compared to the current conventional food sustainable society. Such a society provides more job system. According to a scenario based on studies of the opportunities in the countryside and strengthens the local ecological local food chain in Järna (Sweden) and the rural economy. This is expected to be of great importance average consumer in Sweden, the per capita consumption for saving and further developing a vibrant rural culture and of primary energy would decrease by 40% and the improving the quality of life in the Baltic Sea region. production of green house gases would decrease by 20 % Establishing such agriculture can have such positive in the food chain. effects both within the more impoverished rural areas in the new EU member countries as well as in the 9. A more vegetarian food consumption decreased energy depopulated rural areas in countries with a more consumption by 60% and green house gas emissions by industrialized and specialized agriculture. 40 documented by 15 families in Järna (75% less meat and 100% more vegetables) compared to the conventional This news is also of interest to biodynamic farmers and food consumption patterns. The area required for food consumers in the UK. Full reports can be found on their production would be reduced by 30% compared to today’s website: http://www.jdb.se/beras/

12 Star and Furrow 105 BIODYNAMICS AND THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT by Nick Raeside

’m sure we can all recall a special walk perhaps in the plantations, pulpwood, mechanised tree harvesters all early morning or at dusk seeing a timid wild animal coined in the phrase the forest industry. So even though hearing a nightjar or an owl and having a sense of forestry includes intervention operations which cause Iwonder at living things which have their own disturbance right through from cultivation and planting to independence. A deer barks at our interruption and hurtles felling and extraction, forest or woodland has always had a off straight over a fence which for the farm herd is a sister role in conservation, non intervention, protection. boundary to their world. The people centred farm with the Forest protects natural soil fertility and structure, clean forest at the periphery seems to create a number of water and air quality. It guards against erosion, extreme polarities, cultivated fields and uncultivated meadows and climate, excessive noise and disturbing visual elements in woodland, plants bred for food production and native flora, the landscape. Forest also provides us with a link to the domesticated animals and wildlife. For me the deer stands past. In former times most of Europe was covered by as a symbol of the wild forest. They have an intense nerve forest, which supported the majority of native plants and / sense communication with the surrounding world and animals. Indeed if one stands in a British farm field and from their antlers ‘certain streams are carried outward contemplates the vegetation thousands of years past the discharging to the periphery’. The cow on the other hand chances are that it was forest. In partly forested areas, the stands as representative of the people centred farm, with remaining forest must fulfill the role, which the larger forest its horns shut off from the outer, sending into it the astral area once performed. ethereal formative powers which penetrate right into the Consider for a moment some huge internationally traded digestive organism giving us our precious manure. agricultural commodities: rubber, coffee, chocolate and chickens they all have forest origins yet are produced in an When we look out from the farm into the wider landscape agricultural environment. In the UK we have numerous what comes to mind? A place to walk, cycle get away from food articles which also have forest origins from it all, that beautiful view, the wilderness experience, mushrooms and hazel nuts to raspberries and venison. perhaps also the home of wildlife, the protection of endangered ‘priority’ species, conservation. Our landscape When we think of biodynamics what comes to mind? is a production area for farmers, gardeners and foresters, Healthy food, preparations, Demeter certification, planting and yet it is also a place for recreation, a home for wildlife calendar; and the central purpose seems to do with and a chance to experience nature. Beauty and nutrition. Yet given that most farmland and some important conservation of biodiversity are not inevitable by-products agricultural products have their origin in forest and that of organic/biodynamic farming methods because modern Steiner attributes considerable space to forest and trees in practices can involve intensification and specialisation. the Agriculture course – is there a role for biodynamics in They can only be preserved and developed by shared the forest and wider landscape? knowledge, communal decisions and means. Government Are there BD principals we can apply to the forest and grants and regulations attempt to overcome this shortfall periphery of our farming and gardening activities? photographs by Richard Swann but it requires more than that - a change in attitude towards I will discuss below based on the Agriculture Course, Nature. This needs advice and above all a participatory holistic, cosmic, economic, restorative and ecological approach. principles and the farm organism.

Natural forest and landscape also do not assume optimal Biodynamics has a holistic world-view. It combines a diversity, beauty, vigour and health. In fact some long term knowledge of the influence of planetary rhythms, observations of non intervention woodland have shown imperceptible Nature beings and formative forces on the that with only rare natural disturbance biological and growth of plants and animals with practical physical day to structural diversity can actually decrease. I sometimes get day activities including working with machines and (health the feeling from the conservation movement that people bringing) technologies. Steiner points out that ‘the task of are an encumbrance, irrelevant to the needs of Nature and spiritual science is to observe the macrocosmic, the wide should be excluded or diverted from important areas. circumference of Nature’s workings and know how to Modern farming practice with emphasis on economies of penetrate into them.’ Here we may add Goethe's principal scale, mechanization and efficiency of transport to long 'nothing happens in living Nature that is not in relation to distance supermarkets somehow also downgrade our the whole'. Actions at the scale of a single tree will affect place in the environment. What then happens if we leave the stand, the whole forest and the whole landscape Nature entirely to her own devices? Will she be able to organism. overcome the on going reproductive pressures from introduced species like the grey squirrel, mink, There is a Cosmic Principle: - Everything that happens on rhododendron and other pressures like pollution of earth, Earth especially to plants is a reflection of what happens in air and water and global warming? the Cosmos. Plants are a kind of sense organ – sensitive to all that is revealed to the earth out of the cosmos. The Romans had a name for the uncultivated, wild land Coordinating these various cosmic rhythms with our outside the city walls or centres of habitation. They called farming activities can also be applied to hedgerows, trees it ‘forest’ and yet today the term has other connotations of and forest only the rhythms can involve decades as with

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 13 the outer planets as well as the seasons. Tree seed (mast) Between the bird world and coniferous forests - years do not have obvious rhythms and yet affect the otherwise birds can become harmful success of natural regeneration. Can we enhance our Between mammals and shrubs/ bushes – which allow astronomy to predict these events? Observations from mammals to regulate their fodder decades of research into the effect of sowing tree seed Between the fungi and the lower animal world during various outer planet oppositions shows how much (bacteria/parasites). Parasites will develop wherever the tree form, branching habit even leaf form can be affected fungal nature of undisturbed woodland and especially by these rhythms. Add to this the moon rhythms which meadows, becomes scattered or dispersed. affect the watery parts in leaf flush, growth of fine root hairs Mycorrhiza have a communication role in the forest and sap flow and we soon realize how such things as community rather like our nervous system they form links planting success, tree fruit and wood quality can be between trees and other plants and the earth. Research enhanced with a little coordination. Thus if the outer planet has shown a decrease in mycorrhiza following cultivation, influences work upwards from the centre of the earth do we compaction, and application of herbicide or artificial really wish to germinate our trees in plastic pots isolated fertilizer. It is thus a false economy to cultivate as much as above the ground? Also can cosmic knowledge help us we can because the land will compensate with problems understand the long term effects of artificially isolating elsewhere. seed, sperm and plants from warmth processes as in seed freezing and tree cold stores to extend the planting To understand these finer relationships we need to explore season? the spatial working of the ethereal or sun-like forces. And for this we need to develop, amongst other things, the idea There are Economic Principles: - Practical knowledge, of anti-space in addition to the physical space of normal experience and social renewal should primarily direct consciousness. The bud of a plant has an intimate relation Agriculture rather than financial considerations. to the centre of the sun a huge distance away because Increasingly farmers and gardeners are actively involving distance in the realm of the etheric has no meaning. In the community in helping to ensure continued care for the their book “Fundamentals of Therapy” Rudolf Steiner and land, whether through box schemes, community trust Dr. Ita Wegman describe how life and lifeless phenomena ownership or school visits etc. There is not much to have different orientations. Lifeless phenomena are prevent CSA practices being adapted to participatory subject to forces radiating outward from a relative centre to forestry: communal ownership, distribution of processed the periphery. Life phenomena are different. ‘Whenever a woodland products via BD farms (firewood, sawn timber, substance or process unfolds within forms of life it must fencing materials, mushrooms, venison). The main hurdle cease to be a mere portion of the earth and we can would be to formulate an optimal sustainable harvest from conceive it to be withdrawing from forces that ray outward diverse species and growth rates, but there are trained from the centre of the earth and subjecting itself to forces foresters about. that radiate inward as planes and do not have a centre but a periphery’. In a lecture on karmic relationships (1924 Vol. There are Restorative/Healing Principles: - Production 2), Steiner explains that the etheric world reaches up into from the land results in forces being taken away from both the firmament, the blue sky and at the boundary the stars earth and air and can be restored by vitalizing organic appear through which forces of spiritual beings enter the matter so that it is able to enliven the earth. This can be world of appearances. These are astral forces that stream applied to the forest by appropriate application of the in by way of the portals of the stars and they stimulate the preparations: Spray preparations to regeneration areas; ethers and create from them the formative forces. These manure concentrate preparation to woody compost heaps formative forces penetrate into the elements and create in for humus forming; compost preparations to high carbon them substance. The elemental beings bring the ether to low temperature mycorrhiza forming compost heaps for the plants as they spread and grow out into spatial tree propagation; tree bark paste and root dip made with manifestation. In every plant the root strives to let go of the manure, clay and horn manure preparation and afternoon ether while that which grows upwards tends to draw in the use of horn silica preparation to aid bud formation prior to astral more densely. All plants are surrounded by the astral transplanting. When the earth is treated this way, the but trees, being tall, are gatherers of rich astral substance plants become more sensitive to their environment and while the cambium makes the ethericity poorer within the responsive to cosmic rhythms. tree and the surrounding soil rather more mineralized. The animal kingdom in their evolution have interiorized the There are Ecological Principles: - biodynamics has a super astral forces. Instead of growing outwards, the animal ecological orientation. The first principle of ecology is that organism grows in on itself and forms more and more each living organism has an ongoing and continual infoldings during embryo genesis which give rise to the relationship with every other element that makes up its wonderfully organised higher bodies of the higher animals. environment. Steiner expands this principal to include The astral forces push inwards creating inner spaces, what Man, the cosmos and supersensible beings and forces. ‘In in the plant is outside becomes manifest in the animal in Nature and the universe all things are in mutual movement and sensation. The astral does not exist in interaction’, yet science generally studies phenomena in isolation, it needs to be ensouled. The astrality which isolation. ‘We need to observe Nature’s intimate touches the blossom of the plant appears in an (supersensible) relations as well as the underlying facts individualized form in the animal. One can easily imagine and conditions’. In addition to the courser ecological butterfly and blossom, bird and tree evolving at the same relationships of producers and consumers in the food web stages in evolution. there are also finer relationships or kinships between various animals and various plants which have arisen in Biodynamics adds a new dimension to ecology – it evolution and harmful processes occur when these are deepens and enlivens the intimate relationship between disturbed or broken: human consciousness, wisdom and Nature. Cooperation is

14 Star and Furrow 105 where human or other beings can work in common with production should ideally come from the farm itself. If we commonly agreed goals and methods, instead of working are obliged to buy in fencing or construction timbers is this separately in competition. In his book ‘Mutual Aid: A Factor not an incentive then to plant and utilize naturally durable of Evolution’ 1902 (written partly as a response to timbers around the farm? At the heart of biodynamics is the Darwinism), Peter Kropotkin drew on his experiences of ideal of the farm as a self-contained individuality, providing cooperation among the animals and concluded that its own seeds, fertility and feed for animals and a range of cooperation and mutual aid are as important in the environments from ponds and hedges to orchards, woods evolution of species as competition and mutual strife, if not and pasture. The art is to develop and to provide a more important. Conservation is not only the domain of harmonious and sustainable balance for each land environmental sciences, it requires a social cooperation holding. Silviculture is the art and science of controlling the and education so that people with different skills and establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of backgrounds can work together: the gardeners, farmers forests to meet diverse needs and values of landowners and foresters unique experience managing the land, the and society on a sustainable basis. Like farming it is environmentalists who know the needs of priority species affected by history, regional and owner interest and site and habitats, farm customers and friends and the informed conditions. public who give practical help to support the these A mixed species forest, by its very nature, will usually stakeholders to improve the landscape for all. provide greater stimulus to regeneration and structural diversity in terms of age usually increases biodiversity. Biodynamics can teach us to commune with nature in Agroforestry and farm ponds can add to the relationship conscious ways: between farm and forest from an ecological principle that Through carefully timing our work so that the rhythms of when two ecospheres overlap this can allow species from the cosmos and plant world can harmonize. both spheres to exist thus increasing biodiversity. Public By adapting our soul and with imaginative pressure is bringing changes to forested landscapes from consciousness, we can commune with the elementals who structured stands of fuelwood and timber to landscapes need our cooperation for their important work in Nature. trying to enhance aesthetics, habitats and biological Through making and applying the preparations which diversity. Landscape forestry provides concepts and enable healthy life processes where needed. methods for shifting management from traditional to Through developing an inner image of the land in our landscape forestry. care over many years we can with perseverance create an organ of perception for the soul of the land organism which Our rapidly developing world is in urgent need of wisdom, is related to the group soul of the animals and plants. meaning and communion with Nature. By being aware of the ethericity and astrality in the Man is not part of Nature and yet Nature is not whole landscape and their effect on the form of vegetation that without Man. We are necessary for the redemption of we manage. Nature but that is a whole subject in itself. In the past Man Forests, orchards, shrubs are regulators of the right growth has had an intimate relationship to Nature through and development of plants over the earth’s surface. They instinctive wisdom, indeed the language of numerous guide the astrality in the right way just as certain forces primitive peoples like the forest Indians of the Amazon guide the blood in our body. have no word for ‘Nature’. Increasingly Mankind is obliged If vegetation is too stunted we should increase the woody to take responsibility for the earth. This will require both areas whereas if plants tend to be rampant with insufficient knowledge of the supersensible aspects of Nature but also seed formation then we should make clearings in the the admittance that we cannot do it alone and have to forest. cooperate.

There is the principle of the farm organism:- ‘A farm is true © Nick Raeside May 2006 to its essential nature if conceived as a self-contained individuality’. Whatever you need for agricultural

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 15 FARM AUDITING FOR SUSTAINABILITY by Mark Measures

Abstract ground is however lacking, although there have been Policy makers have now established sustainability as the efforts to identify the desirable outcomes on a national new aim for UK farming. The development of the Farm scale (MAFF, Towards Sustainable Agriculture - A Pilot Set Audit for Sustainability involved identifying the objectives of Indictors, 2000). of sustainable farming, based on the Principles of organic Organic farming is the only system of agriculture which farming as set out by the International Federation of has a track record of setting a clear aim of sustainable Organic Farming Movements (IFOAM) and establishment farming, (IFOAM Standards 2000), one which meets of indicators to assess the effectiveness of individual farms societies’ wider objectives for farming including: human in meeting these objectives. On-farm use of the Farm Audit health and welfare, environmental care, resource demonstrated that the tool was able to provide a conservation and animal welfare in what is self evidently a comprehensive assessment of sustainability of the farming finite world. It achieves this through the operation of system and that it is an information and advisory tool which farming practices that are characterised by an emphasis is potentially useful in benchmarking and development of on biological systems and management techniques, rather the farming operation. than the use of inputs which characterise conventional farming. Introduction The Organic Advisory Service (Elm Farm Research Government Policy in the UK has commenced a Centre) has set up a new initiative, the Organic Systems programme of change for British farming towards what is Development Programme (OSDP), which is seeking to loosely described as “sustainable farming”, one which not help farmers develop their farm management in order to only ensures that the production of food is a commercially better meet the overall objectives of organic farming. The viable business but also one which delivers across a broad OSDP, headed by Mark Measures, is working with a group range of public goods and services. This policy is being of nine mixed, well established organic farms which are driven by changes in EU policy and support and is being committed to going beyond the absolute minimum set by vigorously encouraged through the Report of the Policy organic standards to better address the broader needs of Commission on the Future of Farming and Food which society in the way in which they produce food and to has been largely adopted by DEFRA. The imminent progressively develop more sustainable systems. application of new support measures following the Mid Term Review will more or less facilitate aspects of this Methods process of change on the farm. A clear understanding of The literature on the use of sustainability indicators was the real, practical meaning of sustainable farming on the reviewed (Bell and Morse) and existing procedures for

16 Star and Furrow 105 monitoring assessed (Wackernagel and Rees 1996; Haas something which this group of farmers is keenly interested et al. 2000; LEAF Audit 2001; Rigby et al. 2001; Leach and in. Early indications are that they are already relatively Roberts 2002). In the light of this, a new auditing system efficient due to their non-use of nitrogen fertilisers but there was formulated in order to meet the needs of the farmers is clearly great scope for improvement and this information involved, one which assessed their achievements, through will begin to provide them with data by which to measure measurement as far possible and which could be applied there progress. quickly and with the involvement of a farm adviser to An important outcome of the work has been to focus provide independent assessment. farmers’ attention on the impact of their day-to-day Development of the Farm Audit involved a meeting with practices on sustainability, it has also identified major Elm Farm Research Centre staff in order to consider how shortcomings in information available to farmers and the work related to their research programme, which had provides a useful means of identifying research needs. already identified key issues relating to sustainability and developed techniques to address these issues. This was Conclusions followed by a meeting with the farmer members of the The Farm Audit is a practical advisory tool that has been OSDP to assess the relevance of the approach and to tested in the field and proved itself to be an effective way engage their input. The Farm Audit was conducted on five in which farmers can be supported in achieving change farms during routine advisory visits. During the following towards a more sustainable farming system. year the Farm Audit was used as part of on-farm group meetings to highlight the performance of the host farm and Acknowledgements to refine the procedures. Input to the development of the Farm Audit by Abbey Creation of the Farm Audit required the development of Home Farm, Bagthorpe Farm, Commonwork Organic an audit procedure and a spreadsheet to calculate farm- Farm, Duchy Home Farm, Lower Pertwood Farm, gate energy and nutrient balances, preparation of a farm Luddesdown Organic Farm, Manor Farm Godmanstone, record sheet and collation of standard data for comparative Sheepdrove Organic Farm and Woodlands Farm, staff purposes. The latter is still in the process of compilation as from Elm Farm Research Centre and students of the more farms are audited. Sustainable Development Advocacy Programme (Holme The Farm Audit identifies all the key objectives of Lacy College PGC) is gratefully acknowledged. sustainable farming, it does this by focusing on the key criteria or objectives set out by the IFOAM Standards and References then aims to select indicators for each criterion which can Bell, S. and Morse, S. (1990) Sustainability Indicators - be measured, or some meaningful assessment made and Measuring the Immeasurable?, Earthscan Publications graded accordingly, of the degree to which the farm is Ltd. sustainable. It does not therefore endeavour to asses every component of every criterion, such an approach Haas, G., Wetterich, F., Kopke, U. (2000) Life cycle risks being excessively time consuming, neither does it assessment of intensive, extensified and organic focus on monitoring activities (much of this is already being grassland farms in southern Germany. Proceedings 13th undertaken by the organic certification procedures) but IFOAM Conference p157. instead attempts to monitor the outcome of the farming system and practices. IFOAM Basic Standards for Organic Production and Processing (2000). Audit Procedure The Auditing procedure in the diagram opposite was Leach, K.A., Roberts, D.J. (2002) Assessment and used on all farms. Improvement of the Efficiency of Nitrogen Use in Clover Based and Fertilizer Based Dairy Systems. 1. Auditing in Practice Benchmarking using Farm Gate Balances. Biological The application of the Farm Audit was relatively Agriculture and Horticulture, 2002, Vol. 20 pp 143-155. straightforward, requiring between one and two hours to conduct, plus a variable amount of time by the farmer to LEAF (2001) The LEAF Audit. access the information which was generally readily available. The use of benchmarking for factors other than MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food). (2000) those directly related to financial performance is unfamiliar Towards Sustainable Agriculture – A Pilot Set of Indicators. to most farmers, however the Farm Audit was effective in highlighting those Rigby, D., Woodhouse, P., Young, T., Burton, M. (2001) areas in which a farm was particularly effective. This was Constructing a farm level indicator of sustainable very encouraging for the farmer concerned, for example agricultural practice. Ecological Economics 39 pp 463- one farmer achieved a veterinary cost of 20% of the 478. national average which was rewarding and indicated that there were farm practises from which others could learn. It Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W. (1996) Our Ecological also highlighted some shortcomings, which was of real Footprint – reducing Human Impact on the Earth, New help in focusing the attention of the farm owners, manager Society Publishers. and adviser. The Farm Audit helps prioritise areas for development. Contact The use of the energy and nutrient budgeting tool is in its Elm Farm Research Centre, Hamstead Marshall, Newbury, infancy as the facility was not available at the start of the Berkshire, RG20 OHR, UK programme, however for the first time it is providing Tel. + 44(0)1588 640118 [email protected] farmers with some indication of how efficient they are. Understanding their energy efficiency and improving it is

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 17 WHAT HAPPENED WHEN BIODYNAMIC FARMING MET PERMACULTURE DESIGN? by Jan Martin Bang

ornach in February, short days, cold weather and Permaculture had emerged as a tool which could help thick fog the whole time. It was my first time solve the world crisis. there, and I had been assured it was very pretty. DI didn’t see a thing, just a vague suggestion of a Back in Dornach the bad weather kept everyone indoors, village below us, and some hills above. Still, all things have except for the committed smokers, who gathered in tight their positive sides, so for me there were no distractions, clumps just outside the main doors, huddling against the no temptations to go for walks to admire the scenery. I was grey fog blowing in tattered streams. So I had plenty of happy to stay within the Goetheanum and concentrate on opportunities to drink endless cups of coffee, freshening up talking to the other delegates at the International old friendships with people I recognised, and making new Biodynamic Conference. I had been invited to present a ones with people I met in the workshops. workshop on Permaculture, and see what happens when it meets Biodynamic farming. For me, the conference was an opportunity to understand Biodynamic farming. As a Camphill co-worker, I am This was not a meeting of equals. Biodynamic farming surrounded by a biodynamic farm and vegetable gardens, appeared to me as a mature movement, eighty years of but my everyday work in the village does not take me powerful work in the world, with strong links to many other regularly to those workshops. As I talked to people, forms of human endeavour. Permaculture came as a listened to keynote lectures, and participated in various youth, barely thirty years old, full of the enthusiasm of a workshops, a new understanding of Biodynamic farming youngster, and with the bravado of a movement which has emerged within me. There were two aspects of Biodynamic spread world wide very quickly, and has established itself farming which impressed me deeply: in many forms of design. One was the view of the farm as a whole organism, this There were nearly five hundred participants at the was an area which I felt that Permaculture, with its clear Conference as a whole, and about thirty in the workshops design tools, could both contribute to, and learn from. devoted to an exploration of the meeting between these two ideas. Most were people steeped in Biodynamic The other was the human element, the farmer as a farming, while few had any serious background in person who was in a process of personal spiritual Permaculture. This may be true of many readers of Star development, using agriculture as a method of self and Furrow also, so it might be advisable to give a short improvement. This gave Biodynamic farming a spiritual, description of what Permaculture consists of. cultural and social dimension. It is much more than just a better way to grow carrots. The idea of a perma-nent agri-culture emerged at the University of Tasmania in the early 1970’s as a response to Biodynamic farming is a balanced form of agriculture, the global environmental and social crisis. David Holmgren taking into account cosmic aspects, natural rhythms and and Bill Mollison were looking for solutions in the design of remedies, trace elements, and the spirit of the place. It is a human support systems, meaning this in the widest sense: radical, cutting edge farming system, harmonising spirit food, housing, technology, economics and social support. and matter. It is one of the established forms of organic Three aspects gave Permaculture a vitality that created a farming in the modern world, dealing with living processes world wide movement within a decade: in animals and plants to produce living food to promote vitality and health in the broadest sense. One was the idea of basing design solutions on “templates” or models taken from patterns observed in The reason I was there was to create an interface between natural ecology. two thought systems, both of which were active in the physical world. Where do Permaculture and Biodynamic The second was to encourage personal responsibility, farming meet? Where is the dialog? These were the emphasising that each one of us is responsible for the questions that came up over those endless cups of coffee. global situation, and each one of us needs to do something about it. What can Biodynamic farming learn from Permaculture? It began to emerge in our discussions that Permaculture has The third was an emphasis on action, not just preaching, incorporated many practical ideas: how to save on labour, but to get out and actually create change by oneself. how to reduce fuel consumption, how to cut down on weeding. Permaculture is very aware of the need for The development of a standard curriculum for a common sense in costs and yields, and encourages more Permaculture Design Course helped the idea to spread efficient water and nutrient cycles. One of its main world wide, with a network of teachers, emerging contributions is the conscious application of smart associations in many countries, and a system of accepted ecological connections. and qualified designers. Within a quarter of a century there was a global network which could point to a wide spectrum Of course, the next question had to be the reverse of the of successful projects in virtually all climatic and social last one: what can Permaculture learn from Biodynamic environments. farming? One of the main strengths of Biodynamic farming

18 Star and Furrow 105 is its spiritual and philosophical background, its firm foundation in Goethian science, and Anthroposophy. In its connections between spirit and earth it opens up broad new vistas for a deeper understanding of how our physical world really functions, and gives a solid foundation for future development.

In our discussions we came to see that there were two clear aspects where we could encourage some co- operation. One was to create more direct contact between people. Both Biodynamic farming and Permaculture have extensive networks throughout the world, and it would be good to encourage individuals to network between the two. Volunteers from the Permaculture network could work on Biodynamic farms, and likewise Biodynamic farmers could attend Permaculture gatherings. The other recommendation had to do with the foundation courses that are used as introductions. We agreed that it would be good if the Permaculture Design Course contain an explanation about Biodynamic farming, and likewise, that Biodynamic foundation courses contain an introduction to Permaculture.

In any comparison between Biodynamic farming and Permaculture it must be borne in mind that we are not comparing like to like. Permaculture is a design system applicable to anything. Permaculture is just as applicable to an architectural conference, or a discussion on economics. Because of this, we should really have referred to “the agricultural application of Permaculture” throughout Pictures from Ecovillages by the author the conference and throughout this article. With Biodynamics, it is Anthroposophy which is the system, and above: Israeli cob building Biodynamic farming is just one application of below: Cob building Anthroposophy, this time specifically in the area of agriculture. The theme of this year’s conference at Dornach was “Openness and Identity”, and it is only by having a clearly understood identity that one can be open enough to enter into a dialog with different ideas without either feeling threatened, or feeling the need to play the missionary. In view of the current world situation, with climate change, social dislocation and global conflicts over resources, it is vital that we should be seeking partners with whom we can work together to create positive change. Neither of us was seeking to get married, but I felt a strong desire for neighbourly co-operation.

In summing up during the last plenum gathering, I suggested that Permaculture was a smart system, but not always wise, and that Biodynamic farming was full of wisdom, but not always so smart! We have many things we might learn from each other, and it is my hope that a closer co-operation will strengthen each of us.

Jan Martin Bang is a Permaculture teacher with extensive experience in the Middle East, now living at Camphill Solborg in Norway, where he has domestic and administrative responsibilities. He is also editor of “Landsbyliv” (Village Life), the Norwegian Camphill magazine. He is currently secretary of the Norwegian Permaculture Association, and is also active within the Norwegian Ecovillage Trust. He has written a book on Permaculture Ecovillage Design published by Floris Books in 2005, called “Ecovillages – a practical guide to sustainable communities”.

Jan can be contacted at: [email protected]

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 19 SEKEM by Dr Ibrahim Aboulish reviewed by Richard Swann

his is the story not only of Sekem is a gem in the desert of Egypt, not only because Sekem Community in Egypt of the outer structure that has been created with but also an autobiography of biodynamic farms, schools and factories but also because TDr Ibrahim Aboulish its of the social way this has been achieved and continues to founder. The book traces the story be maintained. Festivals are celebrated and everyone is of Dr Aboulish from his earliest involved in the running of the place. One of the most days in Egypt through to the striking pictures in the book is of the whole community establishing of the Sekem standing in a large morning circle. What better image of Community in the Desert. He hope could be displayed from the Middle East which graphically describes how they usually only send us images of conflict and strife. transformed a piece of desert wasteland into a thriving Dr Aboulish was awarded the Right Livelihood Award or garden. The book describes “Alternative Nobel Prize” in 2003 for his work in creating how the community was business model for the 21st century in which commercial slowly built up over many success is integrated with and promotes the social and years starting with the cultural development of society through the 'economics of laying of roads, planting trees love' and establishing the ever so vital water supply. Sekem is available from Floris Books for £16.99

ECOVILLAGES a practical guide to sustainable communities by Jan Martin Bang - reviewed by Laurence Dungworth

e are all aware of little ways in which we can lessen our impact on the earth and some This is where the book really shines. Bang even manage to take steps to alter their is able to share his knowledge, Wlifestyles for the benefit of the environment. experience and observations and present But what if we want to take a bigger step. Not to opt out of us with a book that is on the one hand a society, but to opt into a mutually supportive community pleasant and informative read, and on that has a commitment to sustainability as one of its core the other can be used as a workbook principles. In this instance we can either seek out a for a nascent or existing community. community of our choice or we can create our own. The design section for instance begins Jan Martin Bang’s book, ‘Ecovillages – A practical guide to with the Social Aspect before covering all the sustainable communities’, contains inspirations for both of physical factors involved, from energy to economics. these options. Peppered through the book are illustrated This makes complete sense, because you cannot start case studies of functioning communities. Their focus talking about things and making decisions until as a group ranges from the spiritual to the environmental, with many you have agreed how you are going to talk about things tangents in between, but they all exhibit some form of and make those decisions. sustainability. This can be environmental, which is often the focus in debate around sustainability, but equally The whole book is a bit of a revelatory journey, as mirrored important is social sustainability. Without this, people will in Bang’s personal conversion from the ‘NO!’ protest not be able to maintain the ground gained. And even of movement to the ‘YES!’ Activist movement. course for the many still in existence, economic sustainability. There is a lot of positivity in this book, about what has been achieved and what is possible. Its style though tempers it This is a whole new movement and one in which many with realism. At the beginning of the book Bang suggest things are being learnt. For this reason many of the how to use this book and ways in which it can influence communities focus on one particular aspect, and are not and inspire the Ecovillages of today and tomorrow. Yet he able to cover every facet. As Bang points out, each of also finds space to remark, ‘You can also use this book as these is a compromise between what is desirable and what a door stop, to prop up a bookshelf or maybe plaster it into actually happens in practice. But it will only be through your wall as an insulation brick’. If you read this book I am practicing that we can learn how to do these things. And sure you will put it to grander use. once we have learnt one thing we can move on to the next element of sustainability. Ecovillages is available from Floris Books for £20.00

20 Star and Furrow 105 HAY IN THE TREE TOPS Discovering the lost art of making leaf hay by Bernard Jarman

Pollarded plane trees in Parc de la Ciutadella, Barcelona

he landscape with which we are so familiar today, hands, became an expression of harmony, stability and with its fields and meadows, its trees, hedgerows diversity. It was a wisdom that lived within these peasant and woodlands, has evolved in the course of folk and which was passed on down through the Thundreds and even thousands of years. It has generations as skill and craftsmanship. It is this changed as the climate has changed during the period craftsmanship and understanding for the cultivated soil, for since the last Ice Age. In more recent times changes have livestock and for landscape development that I would like come about largely with the help of human hands. Virtually to explore further here. nothing remains, in Western Europe at least, of the once great forests which extended across the land. Walking I recently came across a fascinating book written by a through a favourite glade today or scaling a local viewpoint travelling researcher who set out to explore the relics of an somewhere in England, we may contemplate how things old and nearly forgotten peasant culture in the alpine photograph by Bernard Jarman might have looked when people first arrived. The vast landscape of Austria. This book written in German by forest of largely deciduous trees, broken open here and Michael Machatschek is called "Laubgeschichten" (stories there by rocky outcrops or recently fallen forest giants, of the leaves) which is as yet untranslated (1). He was would have contained what we rarely see today, namely particularly interested in observing the interdependence massive trees of more than 500 years. This wilderness between farmland and forest that was so clearly a feature would have been filled with a great diversity of wild of life in these peasant communities. In the course of his animals, birds, insects and all manner of wild flora. The research he made some fascinating and in some cases ecosystem would have been stable, pristine but as yet surprising discoveries. In many of the villages through untamed. which he travelled he came across strangely shaped trees. Trees which in some bygone time had been subject to As mankind gradually settled the land, grazed it with regular pruning and shaping. These trees became livestock and cultivated crops, the landscape started to windows through which he could discover the cultural change. Forest was cleared and cultivated areas were history of a whole landscape. established. Sometimes this change was carried out in a brutal exploitive way particularly in areas with a strong city Leaf Hay culture and when wars were prevalent. In the rural In biodynamic circles the value of leaf hay as a feed communities where for generations people lived in intimate supplement has long been recognised. Its practical use connection with their land this was different. The so-called however has been limited. This is largely because the peasant culture of Europe, now largely vanished, collection, drying and storage of leaf hay is very labour possessed a deep and rich understanding for all that took intensive. Few farms today have the resources to invest place in nature, on the fields and in the forest. To survive time in this activity despite its undoubted value. There was they had to work from dawn to dusk and make use of a time when the harvesting of leaf hay formed an important everything the earth could provide. Nothing was wasted. part of the farming calendar right across Europe. Evidence Livestock and family had to be supplied not only through of this can be found in the ancient crafts of pollarding and the summer but also in the winter season of scarcity since coppicing trees. The term pollarding is used to describe the there was no chance of popping out to the local store for practice of cutting off the young growth from the crowns of provisions. Despite this constant struggle to survive, many mature tree trunks while coppicing involves regularly of these peasant communities had a very full and rich cutting new growth down to ground level. Many other more cultural life that was guided first by the ancient divinities of local variations to this practice also took place. One for nature and later the early Christian Church. This devotion instance was to allow some corner of a field to grow over and spirituality helped build the strong inner fabric of these with scrub trees, mainly alder and sycamore. After about peoples. 15 years, the nearly impenetrable thicket was cleared to leave some well spaced single trees whose stems were Out of this richness and innate wisdom these people were cleared of all branches. With the dramatic increase in light able to transform, build up and care for a European new bushy growth was encouraged all the way up the landscape which, while thoroughly penetrated by human stems. In succeeding years this would be cut and used for

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 21 leaf hay. Newly planted leaves of hazel, alder, lime and sycamore have a dry trees for pollarding were matter content of 2-3% calcium, 0.6-0.8% phosphoric acid placed in sites along field and 12.5-18.7% protein as well as a liberal amount of boundaries, at the edge of potassium and silica. This is far more than is found in the woodland or as small in the various feed grasses. The different tree species also copses on hill tops and in contain varying combinations of minerals. Birch for other odd corners of the instance, in addition to special fats, resins and tannic acids farm. They were usually also contains betulin whose effect is to cleanse and planted out as young stimulate the bladder. trees and gradually trained into their form. One of the most intractable mineral problems in western Today pollarding is still Europe today is that of copper deficiency. Without widely practiced in urban supplements and medicinal treatments it is very difficult to settings though purely for address. A liberal use of leaf hay however could help to amenity purposes and solve this problem. Leaves from maple, elder, alder, birch sadly often without the and oak can contain as much as 12mg/Kg and ash up to degree of care that was 18mg/Kg of copper! In the days when leaf hay was widely once invested by the leaf used, mineral and salt licks were less necessary. Regular hay gatherers. intake of twigs, leaves and woody material provided most above: Carrying fallen leaves the traditional way. of the minerals needed. St Veit, Salzburg, Austria In order to maximise leaf production and facilitate It is estimated that 1,000 bundles of leaf hay were needed the harvesting of leaves young shoots were cut back in a per cow over a 6 month period. A bundle is of similar size very precise manner. The method varied according to to a sheaf of corn. One person should be able to cut an whether the trees grew in rich lowland soil or high up on a average of 30 bundles of fresh twigs and leaves per day. stony hillside. It was usual to cut the new growth back to With practice this can increase to about 100 bundles per the crown every two years. These strangely shaped day. If an ash tree is cut once every four years (as happens crowns sculpted by years of cutting and filled with future in parts of southern Austria) an annual yield of between 20 buds, were seen as a precious resource and not to be cut and 25 bundles can be expected. Nutritionally this is the into under any circumstances. To do so would leave the equivalent of about 10 pounds of good meadow hay with crowns open to all kinds of infection. Cutting meant that all the added benefits of a higher mineral content. new shoots had to be removed from the crown leaving the tree naked and twig less. During the alternate years, Leaf hay can be used for all animal species especially leaves were stripped direct from the branches without when fattening. For some animals such as pigs, it needs to cutting the wood. By this means an annual harvest of be ground up and fed as meal. Elm and ash is particularly leaves could be obtained without causing too much stress good for them. Ash leaf hay is also good for fattening cattle to the tree. and has been a vital ingredient in their feeding rations. The astringent properties of the bark stimulates metabolism Traditionally leaf hay was gathered from late spring and strengthens the functioning of the liver. This in turn through to the autumn. The timing varied according to the reduces the occurrence of worms and other internal particular climatic and livestock requirements of the region. parasites. The leaves and fruits of the rowan are The highest quality leaf is produced before the end of July, particularly valuable for this. Branches of maple, ash, the richer twig material in September. A too frequent elder, alder, birch and oak are important too for enhancing September harvest could result in a weakening of the tree. the take-up and transformation of iron. Birch counteracts The traditional time chosen in the Alps was therefore early sclerosis and hazel enhances fertility while shrubs such as in summer. This provided high quality leaf hay, ensured the cherry and blackthorn have a rejuvenating and vitalising best regrowth and if cut every two years, allowed the tree effect on the organism. For sheep the feeding of leaf hay to build up its reserves. has been found to provide protection against lung infections especially in wet years or on damp pastures. There is a long list of native European trees and shrubs which have been used to gain leaf hay including sycamore, Another interesting phenomenon is that only trees which oak, alder, poplar and sweet chestnut and for coppicing, have been managed regularly through pollarding and hazel, alder, oak, hornbeam, cherry, poplar and several coppicing are able to provide the high quality material willow species. The most important species however have beloved of the livestock. Twigs and branches taken from always been ash and elm. Ash was once considered such otherwise unpruned trees and bushes tend to be tough and a valuable tree for producing leaf hay that it was introduced unappetising. This makes sense since by pruning back the on farms throughout Europe. The main reasons for this branches, lots of new, fresh and young growth is produced. are that its leaves are very palatable, rich in minerals, This is tender and more easily digestible. easily digested and quick growing. pictures on pp22-23 reproduced with kind permission from “Laubgeschichten” by Michael Machatschek It was not only leaves harvested green from the trees that Carefully harvested and dried during the growing season was used. Fallen leaves too were carefully gathered for or used fresh, tree leaves were highly valued for their feeding livestock. It was often the case that the second medicinal properties and high mineral content. It was also crop of leaves from the trees which earlier in the season an extremely good supplementary feed for fattening had provided leaf hay were now gathered in the autumn animals. According to analyses undertaken by Nikolaus from the ground after they had fallen. These leaves were Remer (2), leaf hay and woody twigs contain valuable fats, of especially high quality. Many other fallen leaves were etheric oils, resins and tannic acids. Furthermore the also gathered and allowed to ferment in a pile usually

22 Star and Furrow 105 undercover. Fermentation involved spraying a pile of could damage the fine leaves lightly with water and allowing it to heat gently. This tree roots immediately created a mass of fungal growth which resulted in strongly below the leaf mulch. aromatic and apparently tasty leaves. This fermented Such damage could then material was always eagerly sought after by cattle and cause heart rot to the other livestock. trees. Sweeping up of leaves did not do this and Fallen leaves was carried out each year In the days before the widespread use of straw for somewhere in the bedding, it was the practice of the peasant community to neighbouring woods. A gather fallen leaves from field and woodland each autumn period of seven years was and to use them for bedding. The combination of manure left before the same place and leaves created a well balanced and mineral rich was swept again. It is compost for returning to the soil. In contrast to straw which strange to think that all is relatively poor in minerals, the leaves of our broadleaved over Europe this trees contain many trace elements. It has been suggested sweeping of the forest that an important cause of trace element deficiencies, is floor was going on. Surely, the use of bedding straw taken from highly bred cereal one would imagine, this varieties. activity is robbing the forest of its fertility. above: Fallen leaves were once used as fodder for young cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses Amongst old peasant communities all waste materials Apparently not, it is and later also for bedding were put to good use including fallen leaves. On snow free suggested that one days they would be collected from field and forest. Leaves reason for the decline in forest health over the last 100 from the forest were usually gathered later once they had years has been the ending of this practice. The started to break down. This half broken down material was accumulating leaf mulch makes the forest soil too rich for more absorbent when used for bedding than the fresher the trees. They need to grow slowly. The richer soil appears to increase growth rates and therefore susceptibility to pest and disease attack. It is even suggested that the phenomenon of the "dying forest" might be connected with the discontinuation of this practice. It would seem from Machatschek's research that soil fertility particularly in the mountain regions of Austria, depended on the care and management of woodland as much as it did on the care of soil, livestock and crop land.

There was once an intimate co-dependency between farmland and forest that has gradually been lost with the disappearance of European peasant culture. Trees, bushes, hedges and woodland areas however remain essential to any wise landscape management. They also play a vital role in maintaining livestock health and soil fertility. Is it possible to find a new and mutually supporting relationship between farm and forest? Clearly the old form of co- dependency is no longer possible but perhaps material gathered from open ground. we can incorporate some of the timeless wisdom of our peasant forbears. Special brooms were used to sweep up leaves in the forest. These brushes were specially curved so as to be able to sweep in the most efficient way possible. Unique craftsmanship methods were employed to make these References: brooms. Thin spruce branches were collected from young (1) Michael Machatschek lives and works in Austria. He is trees and tied together through an iron ring which was then an independent travelling researcher who has written attached to a broom handle bent almost to a right angle at several books about farming, food and forestry. These the end. The needles were then burnt off over a fire. This have included subjects such as wild foods and subsistence caused the resin in the twigs to become soft making them living as well as this 550 page book researching former pliable. Thus roasted, the broom was taken to a stream tree management and the use of trees for food, animal and weighed down with large stones in order to bend the fodder and medicine. "Laubgeschichten - twigs as the resin cooled. The curvature was sometimes Gebrauchswissen einer alten Baumwirtschaft, Speise- und also achieved by standing on it until the resin set. These Futterlaubkultur" by Michael Machatschek is published in special tools allowed the leaves to be gathered quickly and Vienna by Bölau Verlag 35.00 Euros ISBN 3-205-99295-4. even sent several metres through the air to a pile. pic. 5 One copy is available in the BDAA members’ library for those who read German. Rakes were never used amongst the trees because this (2) Nikolaus Remer "Laws of Life in Agriculture" Published

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 23 A NEW CENTRE FOR THE BDAA by Bernard Jarman

hen the BDAA first moved to Stroud and opened its new office, the intention was for it to become not only the main office of the WAssociation but also a visitor centre. We were at the time located at ground level in the Painswick Inn complex in Stroud and therefore potentially accessible to passers by. To really develop in this direction however would have required a lot more input and promotional activity than available resources allowed. After a couple of years we moved upstairs to the room we now occupy.

This space is less accessible to the public and the idea of being a visitor centre had for the time being to fade into the background. Meanwhile space had to be found for 70 odd years of archive material, the member’s library, exhibition materials and an ever increasing stock of books. Several years later this space is now bursting at the seams. It is a beautiful room but no longer large enough to meet our needs.

Gradually while pondering the next possible steps, a new idea was born. Would not this be the moment to find or even create new premises? Could we create something really special that would express our values while providing the BDAA with a place of its own? With such in mind the following ideas began to take shape.

A Vision for a future Building The building which could be new build or a converted existing building should aim for the highest ecological standards. Our building will stand as a demonstration of the latest ecological building techniques and state of the A shop area for the book stall and a public meeting area art renewable energy technology. Internally it will be with a simple cafe space on the ground floor. furnished with high quality locally crafted materials and A meeting room large enough to seat up to thirty people. tastefully and artistically decorated. Its physical existence This would also provide space for the member’s library will express a commitment both to the local economy and and a standing exhibition etc. to sustainable living. Office space and an adjoining room of similar size to store books, archive materials, packaging etc. If it is a building conversion then a two or three story A dwelling flat possibly on the third floor could provide a building can be imagined with sufficient space on the useful source of income and help with general security. ground floor for a shop space and small café, on the first An outdoor/half-covered yard area would be desirable. floor a meeting room containing a member’s library, two This would be used to house outdoor demonstration office spaces and a storage room to house archive materials and be a place for small practical workshops. material, books etc. On the third floor there could be living It could also serve for bicycle parking. space which might be let out to someone willing to keep an eye on the property at times when it may be otherwise As regards site, a town context would more easily fit these unoccupied. intentions than one linked to a farm in the country. This would make it possible for people to drop in from the street Such a set up would allow small enterprises like a shop, and enable it to become a local focus of interest. Being a café or flat to provide a revenue stream that could help national organization easy access by public transport and meet general building maintenance costs. If all the initial proximity to a railway station is important. Bearing in mind capital costs are covered and highly efficient low energy the present constellation of staff, Stroud would seem a systems are in place then it is possible for such a goal is sensible location although other options should not be conceivable. excluded.

If a new building were created from scratch then some If a suitable site were found close to town but with a couple exciting architectural opportunities would also exist. The of acres of land attached to it, other additional possibilities building could even become truly carbon neutral. could be considered. A particularly appealing idea is that the BDAA might host a new form of allotment garden Facilities activity. In this scenario people from the local community The new centre needs to be large enough to provide: would rent a plot in the usual way to grow their own

24 Star and Furrow 105 therefore is I believe to retain the value of being small in size and therefore not be tempted to grow ever larger on one site. If the organisation were to grow beyond the capacity of the building and its land, then instead of considering larger premises, a new centre of a similar size should be created in another region. The second centre might have similar purposes. It could also have a shop front and a meeting room but perhaps meet some of the other administrative needs of the growing organization. It might for instance focus on certification, training or research work. Such an approach to development helps to maintain an intimate human scale, avoid the pitfalls of continual growth and encourage regional development. It would also mean that while Stroud is likely to be the location for this centre at present, another region could take it on at some future date.

While ownership of the building and land should be with the BDAA, the management of certain areas such as the cafe or book shop could be taken on by sympathetic partner initiatives within a cooperative structure. Developing a cooperative climate and encouraging networking is part of the Association’s ethos. Given a suitably sized shop front area, other compatible initiatives could also be offered space for information displays. The meeting space could likewise be shared as could possibly some of the office facilities.

Funding such a project will of course be no easy task and it is unlikely that the purchase and development of such a property would leave much change from a million pounds. Because of its sustainable, energy efficient and community focused intention however it should prove an interesting project for some funding bodies. Drawing by Dilly Eeles What do you think? Before proceeding any further with these ideas however we would like to involve you the readers and members of vegetables. the Association. What do you think about having a new centre? Do you think the ideas outlined here befit an A condition would be that they follow biodynamic organization such as ours? If not what other suggestions gardening principles or at the very least operate do you have? If you are inspired by these ideas do you organically. These individual plots would need to relate to have any funding suggestions and can you offer any help one another and together form an integrated whole. This in this direction? Are there other ways you might wish to would require consciousness not only for maintaining contribute? paths and hedges but also developing a concept of beauty for the whole garden and the planting of attractive flower One of the first things we will have to do of course will be borders. Such a garden would require some indoor space to identify a suitable property. We are currently keeping our with tea making facilities and carefully designed individual eyes open for such a place but if anyone has a place in tool storage areas. A play area for children would be mind or even knows someone who might offer a site, do needed as well possibly as a small research and get in contact. demonstration plot. In the next few months I look forward to being flooded by The site could be used to run all kinds of workshops to all your thoughts and ideas. Please do write in or email demonstrate and explain compost making, the your comments to me at the office. I will then collate all the preparations, the planting calendar and much else comments, suggestions and ideas which have been sent in besides. It would also aim to encourage real community and bring them to our AGM which will take place in the involvement. autumn (6-8th October). Human-scale growth We will have a space at this meeting to discuss the As with many things connected with biodynamics, it is proposed new centre and share all the hopes and important to consider the broader longer term aspects of intentions as well as the concerns there may be regarding such an initiative and above all to maintain the integrity of such a project. Afterwards I hope that we will be in a our objectives. Such aspects include answers to the position to take a further step towards realizing this question what happens when we grow? Size of operation initiative. Please send all comments to the office. is something which is often not considered when a project begins. Later when growth takes off it is often too late to change course. An important principle behind this project

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 25 PRINCIPLES OF BIODYNAMIC SPRAY AND COMPOST PREPARATIONS by Dr Manfred Klett - reviewed by Alan Brockman

ith the ever growing interest in biodynamic Chapter 3 ‘Stirring and Spraying the Preparations ’brings agriculture it is very timely that a second us further into practice and how this can lead to a new combined edition of this study material, is now insight into their relationships with growth. A transmutation Wavailable. It was originally issued by the of substances is going on in which we are taking part. This ‘International Biodynamic Initiatives Group’ as a result of allows a new relationship to develop to natural processes. conference lectures. (The Biodynamic Spray Preparations’ In the past a more dreamy consciousness allowed an -1994: ‘The Biodynamic Compost Preparations’ – 1996). awareness of these elemental forces to be experienced but now a more conscious relationship is not only possible The biodynamic preparations are but urgently needed. As this develops we become part of perhaps the outward expression of the flow of natural events and a feel for the right time to act the fundamental difference between gradually develops. organic thinking and a thinking that strives to approach and ‘Life Forces and the Land’ are dealt with next. Here understand the dynamic life polarities of growth and decay and their manifestations of forces in nature. This requires ‘etheric’ life forces are differentiated to embrace the wider more than a replicating of environment. Landscape, life processes and lack of natural processes, a copying of harmony in these (dying forests!) are put into a healthy sustainable forms of comprehensive picture. Soil structure in relation to both growing as practised for long chemical ‘fertilising’, homeopathy and effects of varied periods in the past. potencies lead us into aspects of how these work in the preparation plants. Future prospects for the earth are A helpful foreword by indicated. Results of the use of the preparations backed by Bernard Jarman, experimental work are a welcome section for practising (executive director of the growers. BDAA) sets the scene and background which is then followed by a first chapter, ‘The In the next chapter, ‘Protein and Yarrow’ are used as a development of consciousness and of agriculture’. In this guide to a better understanding of the principles, make up brief but penetrating look into origins we are led to see the and usage of the preparations. From yarrow’s appearance present in a much wider time frame of human development we are led to the contrast of sulphur to potassium. We and relationship to the earth. The progress of human have here again a polarity; above/below. This description thought to freedom puts Rudolf Steiner’s work in a living is perhaps one of the most inspiring insights offered. It is relationship with our present time. Today we need to know developed in an imaginative characterisation of how how to relate in a free way not only to almost overwhelming yarrow relates to the whole. The reason for associating the materialistic logic but to the consequences which this preparation plants with animal organs, in most cases, also 'logic' leads to. In the ‘Agriculture Course’ as Steiner’s leads us into wider connections. Further descriptions suggestions for a renewal of agriculture are referred to, we concerning making the preparations show how an ongoing are led to find a new relationship not only to our farms and earth enlivening process is developed when the more gardens but to the way we view the world. This chapter enduring quality of animal nature is involved. This quality of could well be an introduction to the whole of his approach enlivening the solid earthly element is connected with a to fundamental polarities: I and world; above and below: ‘new nitrogen’ formation process furthered by the yarrow, death and life. camomile and nettle preparations. As free human beings we are not only taking on responsibility for the continuation The biodynamic spray preparations are introduced in of nature but are involved in the development of a new chapter 2 .These are based on cow horns. but before going nutrition which can arise when natural processes are into a detailed description of these we are pointed to the guided to a higher level. We are, out of insight, in the personal involvement which .is recommended if we are position to take nature further, to add a further step which really to ‘grow’ into our work. There are two spray she cannot take by herself. New ‘super substances’ can be preparations, one made by filling cow horns with cow added to evolution! manure and the other by filling them with finely ground silica quartz powder, buried at different seasons .they are Chapter six, ‘The Six Preparations’. Here we are subject to different forces in the rhythm of the year. confronted with the polarity of materialistically orientated Interesting descriptions and characterisations are given thought to that of Steiner’s approach. This is seen in the including why we bring such different materials together reductionist view of a condensation process, as typified in and ending with the fundamental polarity involved with the periodic table being counteracted by that where the their use. The possibilities of enhancing the basic polarity biodynamic preparations represent a path of reintegration of form and substance are described in relation to the of substances with their origins. This process is traced different living ‘ether forces’ through the revivifying plant world, the ensouling animal world to the view that a further stage can be developed, a

26 Star and Furrow No: 104 spiritualization by way of the preparations. This last is a (related to calcium & potassium) and stinging nettle free human deed born of insight! This approach requires (calcium, potassium & iron) into the heart of nature. From that we view nature as having originated in a higher ideal there on the ascent towards the super-natural world and world and as having materialised by condensing and seed formation goes via oak bark (calcium in living solidifying. The need for this connection of solidity and the process), dandelion (silica & potassium), to valerian (light, consequent possibility of orientation in space e.g. warmth, air). The connections with the various animal uprightness and ego consciousness, is implied. That we organ sheaths, used in four of these preparations, are are on our way to re-establish our connection with our explained and put once again into a much wider picture of divine origin through prayer and inner work is something the relationship of the animal kingdom to the world. we do for ourselves what we do as a free deed using the preparations is repeating this process for nature. The A whole lifetime’s work is embodied in this little book. It is preparations are a kind of meditation for nature, only little in size, (105 pages including a useful reconnecting it with its origins. bibliography,) in content it is addressing world-wide responsibilities. These are taking on an ever more urgent The concluding chapter ‘The Biodynamic Preparations as form; global warming; droughts; dying forests; nature Sense Organs’ poses the question in what sense is the catastrophes; unsustainable forms of food production. reader to understand this? Our task as self conscious Rudolf Steiner suggested ways to meet such problems so (ego) beings is to create an addition to nature, out of a that we can work more wisely with nature. Mankind can moral approach, which can give a new direction to the only be thankful for the insights, into the inner workings beings active there. If we become ever more aware and relationships, of nature that he gave. Manfred Klett through observation, study and working with the has ‘put us in the ‘picture’. His life’s activity has been preparations we can develop our imagination, and devoted to the service of the earth, especially in its inspiration which lead to enthusiastic action. This connection with social ideals. For many years he was the enthusiasm brings an enlivening gift to nature. A real leader of the ‘Agricultural Section of the School for Spiritual Christianising impulse is given to the elementary beings Science’ at the Goetheanum, Dornach, Switzerland. engendered by such actions of care and love. Before that he was a founding member of the Dottenfelderhof farm community near Frankfurt in Referring to the six preparations, two groups can be Germany. One can hope that this book will inspire many; it distinguished: the first working from below the surface: the leads us into the future giving hope in what seems an second above. These are then considered in detail as uncertain world. regards composition and wider relationships. Moving upwards from the sub-natural world and the connection of This review originally appeared in New View and is potassium with radioactivity, a substance with which reproduced here with their permission. yarrow has a special relationship, we are led via camomile

Extraordinary Plant Qualities for Biodynamics by Jochen Bockemühl / Kari Järvinen - reviewed by Bernard Jarman

he medicinal plants which are used for making the Dornach. The two authors of this biodynamic compost preparations have often been book, Jochen Bockemühl and studied by farmers, gardeners and scientists. A lot Kari Järvinen, have spent their Tof fascinating insights have been gained and many lives pursuing this approach books and essays have been published on the subject which is now widely referred to during the course of the last eighty years. Is there anything as 'Goethean Observation'. more to learn? Well, yes actually. In order to understand this This book has been put together by two unusual botanical method, the reader is invited scientists, who approach the subject using the very to explore simple phenomena disciplined method of observing plant life inspired by JW of nature without drawing on previous Goethe. Though best known in the English speaking world knowledge. By simply looking at a bare twig, at its for his poetry, Goethe was also an accomplished scientist structure and form and the way it relates to the dimensions who discovered, amongst other things, the metamorphosis of space a lot can be learnt about the way it lives and of form in a growing plant. Through combining an artistic grows. The deeper one can enter into its nature the more appreciation of plant life in its full context with a rigorous can one understand of its quality. A plant is also not alone. scientific study of the observed phenomena he was able to It is embedded in its surroundings and has a context. develop a valuable technique for understanding the true Gradually as one enters into it more aspects become nature of plant life and indeed life as a whole. Inspired by apparent and the whole picture of the plant being begins to the enthusiasm shown by Steiner towards Goethe's ideas, emerge. this technique was then developed further in the context of the Natural Science Section at the Goetheanum in The many years spent developing and refining this

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 27 encourages a rich range of plant and animal species to thrive around it. Then there is the strange plant horsetail at home on disturbed soil. Colourful paintings accompany each description.

In the following chapters these different plant gestures are developed further and related to the cycle of the year, the Soul Calendar of Rudolf Steiner and our own inner experiences of the changing seasons. There then follows a section which considers the botanical details of each of the preparation plants in turn. How they grow, what their leaf sequences are, whether they are perennial or annual etc. They are considered in pairs - yarrow and chamomile, nettle and valerian, oak and dandelion and horsetail.

At this point begins one of the most fascinating parts of the book, an observational approach means that it can now be used as exploration of what an organism is and where organs can a scientific tool. In this book the biodynamic compost be found in the landscape. An animal organ is one thing, preparations are the main focus. As always when but a plant? The place where it is growing, the site and all considering living organisms and especially when using that goes on there, can this become an organ of the this this method, it is important to first look at the whole landscape? What of the animal organs used to make the before considering the parts. The first chapters therefore preparations? How can they be understood? And what of concentrate on the type of landscape in which the various the medicinal properties of these plants? All these preparation plants are to be found - woodlands, flowering questions and more are addressed in a remarkably meadows or rocky hillscapes. One is led through a sensitive and artistic way. The process expressed through process of sensing (smelling, hearing and touching as well this book is one of feeling amd sensing one's way into the as seeing) the unique qualities of each site and how light being of nature. and shade interelate differently. The next step is to live into the specific site conditions that the plants require in order The ideas and inspirations from the agriculture course, run to thrive. as an unseen thread through the book where they are presented and reworked in quite a unique and very Once the context is established each plant is considered in accessible way. There is even a section on the 'five sisters turn beginning with the dandelion for it is the first of the of protein'. It is all in all an inspirational book that will be preparation plants to flower. The order chosen is that of the invaluable for students, newcomers and old timers in equal seasonal succession of their flowering periods. Since measure. It offers a well grounded method for exact dandelions never grow alone in nature, the plant learning and at the same time seeks to awaken the artist in community in which they are embedded needs to be each of us. No other book about the preparations considered too . So it is for each of the plants. Nettles are approaches the subject in quite this way. shown growing in the half-shade of the woodland edge. Then comes chamomile out in the open beside a field of "Extraordinary Plant Qualities for Biodynamics" will be corn and around midsummer Valerian flowers in moist published by Floris Books in September places where wood and meadow intermingle. Later comes 2006www.florisbooks.co.uk It will then be available from yarrow. It is at home on dry sunny banks where the soil BDAA £12.99 tends to be poor. The oak tree grows in the woodland and

THE BIODYNAMIC FOOD & COOKBOOK by Wendy Cook - reviewed by Karin Jarman

ry and invite Wendy for dinner. You will find her a I am not a professional cook, I enjoy cooking when I have very appreciative guest and one who is, naturally, the time for it. I often invent my recipes as I go along very interested in the food you serve her. She depending on my mood, my larder and the time available, Ttastes the food with her whole being. Eating is a but I am not capable of the "fancy" tricks that good cooks totally sensual experience for her, she just savours it! It is get up to and my pastry is hit-and-miss. Wendy was a a sublime pleasure to her. So do not be daunted by the lovely presence in my kitchen, not critical but inspiring, and prospect, she'll even offer to do the washing-up! - wait for it - eager to learn from me! This is how Wendy's cookbook came about. It is full of references of her having

28 Star and Furrow 105 been inspired by others. She is truly generous in this encouragement to work as much as possible with respect. seasonal, locally sourced foodstuffs. She has a chapter on ecology as well and offers special festive recipes to crown So how does this book earn a space on the cramped each season with the gifts of its bounty. I was eager to try bookshelf of cookbooks? Well, first of all it is so much more one of her recipes that included wild food - the nettle than a cookbook. We can follow Wendy's own journey dumplings. These were a great success with friends who through some autobiographical snippets that trace her were invited to an experimental dinner in order to do this interest in good food from a frugal post-war childhood, book review. Soup was followed by her Coca Mallorquina, through her time as a high-society entertainer and on to which is a kind of a pizza but without cheese but instead is being the mother of a young child with severe asthma that with the Moorish inspiration of raisins and pine kernels. led her on a search for truly wholesome food. One of her Although a recipe from the summer section I just happened enduring childhood memories is of her father cutting a to have the right ingredients to hand. Again this worked a mars bar and jelly babies into waver-thin slices and treat, including the yeast dough which I felt slightly daunted arranging them in a beautiful pattern on the plate! by at first. At Easter I treated my family with the Asparagus Tart with Wild Garlic and the Honey, Saffron and Pistachio Her approach is not fundamentalist or extreme in any Rice 'Bavarois'. The latter is like two recipes in one and I sense of the word. Her search led her via macrobiotics to would say a little too rich for my liking, so if you use the first biodynamics which she now fully embraces. From a fairly half only you will still end up with a stunning dish flavoured narrow and limiting approach she was led to one that with exotic and unusual spices but not quite so heavy on appeals to her for its diversity and flexibility. It is a holistic the stomach. concept that acknowledges the divine nature of our food from its origin right through to the table. The chapter It is beautifully illustrated with lavish photographs. The lay- dedicated to this is once again filled with her own sense out however is not always satisfactory as when for experiences, you walk over the farmyard with her, smell instance you have to turn a page in the middle of some the good smells of a well-kept farm and meet the people recipe, especially since you cannot get it to lie flat. Also, I running it, rather than being confronted by some would have liked this fairly large book to have come in a philosophy. more sturdy cover since it will no doubt get a lot of use.

The descriptions become even more colourful in the This book is a worthy window on to biodynamic agriculture. chapter about her time in Majorca where for some years I have no doubt that it will bring this approach to the she lived a simple life with her family. We are taken there attention of people who might not otherwise have met it. in order to experience the wonderful climate that brings Well done, Wendy! And please come again soon to visit forth nature's abundance to such an extent that you feel and bring your sense of celebration and fun into my that it cannot be far off from the original garden of paradise. kitchen! You get to smell the orange blossoms as well as the more earthy aspect of freshly slaughtered meat. She spares us "The Biodynamic Cookbook - Real Nutrition that the details of this since it proved too much for her as well. Doesn't Cost the Earth" is published April 2006 by You meet the locals by name and get taken to one of their Clearview Books. It is available fro the BDAA office rich festivals with the tables groaning under the weight of £18.99 food. You will find throughout how she walks her talk and uses her senses wherever she goes. She is someone who lives life to the full. Not for her are strict dietary rules, what counts is the sheer joy of cooking, eating and sharing food with friends, celebrating and giving thanks. I was grateful, for example, to see the divine properties of honey again restored to its rightful place having lately been given a bad name alongside refined sugar.

Although vegetarians will find a lot of inspiration she also offers some good meat and fish recipes. These often have a vegetarian or vegan option to go with them.

She traces the development of food culture through the ages in different countries and continents and considers the important quality questions of our time. At the same time she provides some very practical ideas such as how to equip your kitchen with no-nonsense gadgets and which heat source best preserves the nutrients in food. She also gives step-by-step instructions on how to make successful pastry. Did you know that pastry has a warp and a weft and that it will shrink unevenly if pulled into too many directions whilst rolling it out? This happens to mine all the time! There is something new to learn even with basics like this.

What I like best is that her recipe section that is arranged according to the seasons. This makes it possible to create an immense variety throughout the year and provides an

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 29 WHAT DOES LIGHT SAY ABOUT FOOD QUALITY? by Jürgen Strube and Peter Stolz

lants thrive in the light and glow in the dark. If the chemical substances stood at the one pole (represented transition between night and day is reproduced in by citric acid in diagram 1) and were stimulated by blue an apparatus, clear differences can be observed light. At the other pole were the fruits and leaves, Pbetween organic and conventionally grown plants stimulated by red, yellow and green light. A mid position when they are exposed to coloured light. Being dormant is was taken by the seeds. To our sense observation they part of seed nature. With organic seed this was appear lifeless in their dormant state and being stimulated significantly enhanced. Organic apples appeared, by blue light are similar to that of chemicals. On the other according to the light measurements, to be more ‘fruit hand seeds were also stimulated by red, yellow and green typical’. This was then verified through chemical tests. It light thereby revealing a connection with the life processes. was possible to draw these conclusions because the measurements were related to the development of the If this classification is to have validity, then the colour plant. spectrum of the seed would need to change with germination, that is at the moment of transition from a What is measured? dormant to a vegetative active state. Through increasing The whole sample, e.g. an apple, was first of all illuminated excitation by red, yellow and green light the middle (excited) by a dark red light. Afterwards (in total darkness), spectrum in figure 1 (wheat seeds) gradually becomes similar to the ‘leaf’ type. This is exactly the case. The alteration of the spectrum from ‘seed type’ to ‘leaf type’ is easily measurable.

Interestingly the opposite also holds good. Indeed, not much research has been done with respect to the changes in the spectrum with regard to the ageing or breaking down processes. However with the already investigated food samples, results shows that for example tomato puree manifests as numerous single substances. (Strube et al. 2004).

Ripening expressed as differentiation Growth and differentiation are well known manifestations of plant development processes at the cellular level as well as in the whole plant. Therefore, at first a seed sprouts and forms as a first step of differentiation the seedling and the root. After these have grown a while, a further differentiation comes about with the formation of a leaf from the stem. Growth and differentiation alternate with one another until in the end a fully developed plant with stem and leaves arises.

An interplay of growth and differentiation applies to the light given off by it was measured. The same procedure apples too, even if as a fruit it presents only a part of the was followed with red, light red, yellow, green, ultra-violet complete plant besides root, trunk, twigs and leaves. At the and white light. The diagram shows how the measuring beginning of its development e.g. in its ‘cherry’ sized stage, instrument was set up. the colouring of the inside is relatively uniform and it has very little differentiated form. Only with larger apples are If the intensity of the reflected radiance is expressed on a the seed cavities and seeds clearly visible. On graph (spectrum) it becomes clear that this radiance is approaching to ripening their colours at last change from dependent on the colour used. According to the kind of test whitish to brown. The peel also alters, depending on there are shown to be three basic forms, which can be variety, from a uniform green through yellowish colour named as leaf/fruit type, seed type and chemical type. tones to varied nuances of red. With increasing ripeness, These three types of spectrum are shown in figure 1. sugars and aromatic substances arise in the apple. Ripening can therefore be described as an increasing Measurable plant development and decay. differentiation. A picked apple keeps its condition for some KWALIS began by first comparing a number of samples time without alteration. At some point however, the apple using fluorescent excitation spectroscopy. Among the rots and gradually goes into a state of decay – the former tested samples a noticeable polarity emerged. Isolated highly differentiated ordering of the fruit disappears again.

30 Star and Furrow 105 Fig 1 above: Basic forms of the spectrum. Leaf/fruit types have higher values with red and yellow, lower with blue. The chemical type only shows a significant blue value. The seed type has its highest value in blue with values diminishing towards the red. In the white light each sample measured 100%.

Fig 2 above: Yellow/blue ratio of apples at different harvesting dates. The flesh of the fruit becomes more 'fruit typical', the pips more 'seed typical'. Ripening occurs in a differentiated way and is expressed by the increasing differences between flesh and seed values Fig 3 below: Different calendula seeds measured with the spectroscope. Darker (left) and lighter (right) samples of the variants were measured separately. The two samples with relatively low values (green) are 'seed typical'. They were Fig 4 below: Light intensity of egg yolks according to their origins. Eggs from grown organically. The samples with higher values is more vegetative in quality conventional battery and straw yard systems have the lowest values. Those of and was grown conventionally. The two organic samples also differ from one biodynamic origin have the highest values but also appear in the medium range another. The most 'seed typical' samples (lowest value) are biodynamic. (see text)

When contemplated, ripening and differentiation open an Through comparison of the yellow/blue ratio this test also interesting perspective of measurable polar relationships. allows the differentiation of the samples to be assessed With an apple the flesh can be measured as a ‘fruit type’ with regard to their seed dormancy. In wheat from the spectrum and the seeds as a ‘seed type’ spectrum. That is research plots of the ’Forschungsinstituts fur Biologisch actually so. Many tests on apples have shown that the Landbau’ (FiBL Schweiz) it was possible in the four spectrum can be simplified and replaced by a investigated growing seasons to ascertain, without doubt, characteristic numeric value, the yellow/blue relationship. If the difference, for example, between the organic and the yellow value rises the blue value falls and vice versa. conventional variants (yellow/blue ratio). The illustration shows the alteration of the yellow/blue ratio with the ripening of the apple, in the upper part for the fruit In a trial with white beans Hiss and Buchmann flesh, in the lower part for the seeds. The apples come (BUCHMANN et Al 2000) showed that even after two years from a trial at the Louis-Bolk Institute (Dreibergen / the origin of the conventional or the biodynamic seed could Holland) (Bloksma et al 2001). The yellow/blue relationship be differentiated. Parallel trials were carried out using in the spectrum of the fruit flesh becomes ever more a fruit conventional and biodynamic seeds (variety Trebona). In type with increasing ripeness. Correspondingly, the the trial the biodynamic was grown in soil and conventional reverse happens with the yellow/blue relationship in the one in a soil-less nutrient solution. After two growing seeds falls and thereby becomes more ‘seed typical’. cycles, in both the soil as well as the soil-less media the biodynamic could clearly be distinguished from the With the cereals, only the grains can be investigated. conventional seed by means of fluorescent excitation

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 31 spectroscopy. (STRUBE et al 2004). From the bean In organic growing the provision of nutrients probably research it can be concluded that instead of the current two results indirectly from the participation of the organisms in years then a longer cultivation time could be used e.g. four the soil. The plant is less stressed, the relationship of years. It must be proved experimentally how many years of growth to ripening is evened out. It clearly gives a stronger cultivation are needed before conventional seed adjusts typical ripening. through organic methods. In any case, hybrid varieties Previous data allows the supposition that the biodynamic should perhaps be more thoroughly researched. methods, through using the preparations, strengthen the harmonious relationship of growth to ripening. In our tests Biodynamic Growing - measuring seed type it often provides the clearest ripened products. We were asked for an evaluation of calendula seeds, used as raw material for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use, Dr. Jurgen Strube and Dr. Peter Stolz, using fluorescent excitation spectroscopy. Each of the KWALIS Qualitatsforschung Fulda GmbH, samples sent consisted of lighter and darker parts. In order Fuldaer Str. 21, 36160 Dipperz to avoid a differentiation due to mixed conditions, the lighter and darker parts were measured separately. Two Originally published in January 2006 in Lebendige samples showed with the yellow/blue relationship as ‘seed Erde and based on a translation by Alan Brockman typical’ and one was relatively of a more vegetative quality. Between the two seed type tests there was also a clear References: measurable differentiation. As was established later it was Bloksma, J., et al. (2001). Parameters for Apple Quality. the biodynamic sample that showed the most expressed Part 1 Report. Louis Bolk Instituut. Driebergen. 2001. 90 dormancy. 74021 22 0 Buchmann, M., et al. (2000). Wachsen Pflanzen ohne Organic Feed for laying hens Boden anders? Qualitätsforschung am Beispiel Information on the effect of organic food on human being bodenunabhängiger Kulturverfahren im Vergleich zu was demonstrated through the Monastery Study by of Biologisch-Dynamischer Wirtschaftsweise. Lebendige HUBER et al (2003) as well as in animal feeding Erde (4/2000) S. 46-47 experiments (VELIMIROV 2001). It was possible to Huber, K., et al. (2003). The Monastery Study - How does measure the effect of different feeding regimes using the food quality affect body, soul and spirit? Published by the light measurements on the egg yolk (Kohler 2001). High Forschungsring für Biologisch-Dynamische light emission of the egg yolk is, in comparison to the Wirtschaftsweise, Darmstadt , Germany 2004 English feather condition is easy to assess. Tests of eggs in translation available on the BDAA website practice also show clear differences in luminescence. Eggs www.biodynamic.org.uk)Wie wirkt die Erzeugungsqualität were collected from the producers or bought from the trade von Lebensmitteln? Kann eine konsequente Ernährung mit and afterwards coded and sent to KWALIS for testing vorwiegend biologisch-dynamisch erzeugten (MEHLHASE 2002). Lebensmitteln Veränderungen im körperlichen, seelischen und geistigen Bereich hervorrufen? - Ergebnisse der It is likely that the hens that were kept in straw yards or Ernährungs-Qualitäts-Studie des Forschungsring battery conditions were given conventional feed, while (Klosterstudie). Lebendige Erde (4/2003) S. 42-47 those from organic farms were primarily fed on organically Köhler, B. (2001). Der Einfluß von Haltung, Fütterung grown feed. Following the investigations of Kohler it is to und Beleuchtung auf die Biophotonenemission (delayed be expected that the higher measurements of the organic luminescence) sowie herkömmliche Qualitätsparameter eggs rests on the influence of organic feeding and on free- von Hühnereiern. KWALIS Qualitätsforschung Fulda ranging. The data from the two farms in the mid section GmbH, Dipperz. 3-935769-00-8 (see diagram 4) gave rise to an inquiry into these Mehlhase, J. (2002). Herkunftsbestimmung von producers in particular because one of the two Demeter Hühnereiern durch Isotopenmassenspektrometrie und farms had taken the highest place in a previous Biophotonenanalytik. Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms- investigation. It turned out that before this investigation, as Universität Bonn. Landwirtschaftliche Fakultät, a result of special conditions on this holding, bought in feed Fachbereich Oecotrophologie. Bonn. Diplomarbeit. 181 constituents (within permitted limits) had been used. Seiten Strube, J., et al. (2004). Lebensmittel vermitteln Leben - Typical Forms of Ripeness through Organic Lebensmittelqualität in erweiterter Sicht. KWALIS Growing Qualitätsforschung Fulda GmbH, Dipperz. 3-935769-01-6 The plant products that were investigated up to now, the Strube, J. und Stolz, P., (2004) "Extra Quality" of Organic characteristic seed dormancy and inner differentiation Food ? - Results by Fluorescence excitation spectroscopy could be recognized according to the way they have been method as applied on selected plants From: DOES grown. Organic Food Have An ‘Extra Quality’? New Research, New Perspectives and New Insights Elm Farm Research If one brings together the results with those carried out Centre through out chemical testing to determine the nitrogen Strube, Jürgen und Stolz, Peter (2000) Fluorescence metabolism and protein formation, one can conclude that Excitation Spectroscopy for the Evaluation of Seeds. the conventional method with its mineral fertilisation Proceedings 13th International IFOAM Scientific intensifies the growth phase. The later ripening phase of Conference the plant failed however to have a corresponding Velimirov, A. (2001). Ratten bevorzugen Biofutter. intensification. The result was that the plant gave a Ökologie & Landbau (117) S. 19-21 predominant vegetative impression and indicated less inner ripeness.

32 Star and Furrow 105 KNOWING MORE ABOUT SOIL by Richard Thornton Smith

oil is self-evidently what plants grow in – it is the weathered and generally richer in nutrients. It is principally interface between lithosphere and atmosphere the light-coloured feldspars in these rocks which become where life processes are concentrated. In a truly clay minerals. A sandstone of mostly quartz sand particles Svisible way earth and cosmos are linked by plants cannot lead otherwise than to a sandy soil. A mudstone, which means that soils too, embody a working together of shale or greywacke leads to a soil rich in silt and clay these polarities. Earth and cosmos were a unity for Rudolf particles. A limestone – largely biogenic – presents more Steiner while this concept, and specifically that of the earth difficult problems, for as a living organism, were things of which ancient peoples any residual soil were formerly conscious – the mythological lineage of depends on how Gaia, Demeter and Persephone reflected this. ‘Mother much impurity is earth’ is today merely an affectionate and grateful contained in the reference to our planet, even finding a place in scientific sediment, or on other literature on soil. materials deposited over it. In practice, At the heart of biodynamics is the creation of a healthy most soils are of farm organism where the skin of our mother earth is made mixed parentage as sensitive as possible to cosmic influences. It is owing to the effects axiomatic therefore that we try to understand the nature of of changing climate our soil before considering how it can best be managed by during and after the organic and biodynamic practices. Ice Ages, and to above: Dutch polder lands human interference with all its Soil formation complexities. Under natural circumstances the development of soil mostly takes place over long periods of time by chemical and biological processes which break down what is called parent material. This is usually of mineral nature and can be the solid geological formation underlying the present soil or a superficial cover provided by glacial moraine (till), sand or dust (loess). It can be derived from slope wash, river alluvium, dune sand or even volcanic ash and lava flows. Soil can develop above: Felspar crystal in drained estuarine muds and fen peats, these having formed a basis for highly productive horticulture.

Mineral decomposition, or weathering, takes place through the action of rainwater and groundwater, together with organic substances from living and decaying matter, above: Prairie soil, Texas for the essence of soil is its relation to living below: Soil under rainforest, Malaysia processes. The result is a loose fabric of altered alumino-silicates (typically clay minerals), together with resistant minerals (typically quartz and mixed oxides of iron and above: Calcareous soil on chalk, Wiltshire aluminium). Other substances extracted by below: Weathered soil to ten metres, Thailand mineral breakdown – mostly plant nutrients – dissolve in the soil moisture. In this way, stony material is broken down to an assemblage of sand, silt and clay-sized particles, the proportions of which are referred to as the soil texture.

All sediments have been derived from two very broad categories of crystalline igneous rock, granitic or basaltic. The granites are silica- rich, containing minerals less easily broken down while the basaltic types are more readily

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 33 Environmental change and human impact eventually disappear under layers of peat or develop into Because of the long period of their development soils have heather moorlands whose grazing and sporadic burning a biography. If not exactly like people, it is still fascinating effectively restrained tree regeneration and reinforced a to contemplate landscape history and the vegetative forces regime of soil acidification. Meanwhile in the Craven which have gone into soil formation over time. Soils in district of Yorkshire, exploitation of the thin soil above the Britain and many other areas have developed under Pennine limestone accelerated the emergence of forests, a fact drawn not only from the physical remains of limestone ‘pavements’ and possibly the same was true of trees in bogs but from studies of pollen in stratified the Burren of western Ireland. deposits. After the end of the Ice Age there is already widespread evidence of human activity in the Mesolithic so Soils contain fragments of pottery, charcoal, brick, bone it remains an open question as to how far early groups of and flint implements showing how widespread have been people determined the altering composition of forest. The the activities of human beings – often far from the horrors first systematic clearances appear to have been in the of modern housing estates. Besides incorporation through Neolithic and Bronze Ages with the beginning of settled ploughing, anything dropped onto the surface will work its life. Dartmoor, the Yorkshire Dales, the Vale of York and way into the soil in time through the action of earthworms. parts of Ireland were laid out to long parallel land It was noted in the most ancient times that rubbish thrown allotments within which farmsteads were located. Upland out of settlement areas replenished soil fertility. In some forests were probably easier to clear and cultivate with ancient village sites in northern Europe and elsewhere, the primitive methods and presented less daunting drainage soil close to remains of settlement retains higher levels of problems than the lowlands. But with their predominantly organic matter to this day. acid soils they were not able to reward settlement continuously for many generations, particularly in face of a The soils of the plains and prairies of North America and deteriorating climate. Most early agricultural features the steppe lands of Russia began their formation after the

34 Star and Furrow 105 Ice Age under birch and coniferous woodlands – only in the course increased the value of much agricultural land while last 5-6000 years have they been grasslands. Tropical rain decimating wetlands and their wildlife. Soil drainage also forests experienced dryness during glacial periods and leads to release of carbon dioxide and to a diminishing became practically savannah. Mediterranean areas had supply of soil organic matter. Here, as in other respects, deciduous woods but by Classical times widespread ‘agricultural improvement’ is synonymous with clearance of evergreen oak woodland was occurring. This environmental disaster. process denuded the soils of higher areas, led to the widening and elevation of river flood plains and to ports Soils have therefore been adjusting to changing being stranded some distance from the sea. environmental pressures throughout their long histories but the rate and scale of human Although forest has been stripped, re-grown and stripped destruction has increased alarmingly. It is the legacy of again from the British Isles over several thousand years, this waste of natural fertility together with the philosophy of the process has been confined to only the last few hundred 20th century agriculture with which we must now contend. years in other agricultural landscapes such as those of New Zealand and the eastern United States. In New Soil types Zealand the upland volcanic soils were particularly As handed down to us from the past, soils are strictly sensitive so that large areas lost much of their topsoil after individuals but they can be grouped into various classes on European contact. This process has been more recent in a local and global scale. In most agricultural landscapes, many tropical and sub-tropical countries, such as sub- temperate or tropical, parent material provides the Saharan Africa and parts of India where deforestation and foundation while topographic position and its impact on soil subsequent farming has led to widespread soil depth and drainage provide a template for predicting soil deterioration, erosion and even to desertification. It has characteristics. In temperate regions, where drainage is meant that rivers in countries like Bangla Desh, Sri free we have the brown earth where plant roots, Lanka and Thailand, once able to maintain a steady bacterial and earthworm activity extend well into the flow, now discharge violently after monsoon rains soil – particularly well illustrated when lime is while running almost dry at other times. To make present. While the surface is darker from organic matters worse, farmers have to compete with golf matter, the subsoil varies from bright ochre to courses for precious water! greyish-brown in colour. On the other hand, where drainage is impeded due to high silt From post-Roman times in Britain, the use of and clay content or restricted due to build-up heavier ploughs and oxen made it possible of ground water we find gley soils. The to cultivate the heavier soils of lowland grey tone of these soils derives from areas which were much more capable hydrated iron oxides in their reduced of sustained use. Much historically state while rusty-coloured mottling poorer drainage of these lowlands along root channels results from owed its existence to stripping of periodic drying out. Black forest cover on the higher, manganese nodules, indicating better-drained areas so it was the maximum level of seasonal to be drainage, especially groundwater, may also occur. from the 18th century, In the tropics, a similar which became a major slope sequence would preoccupation of reveal red soils on the agriculturalists as upper landscape and population black soils – due to increased. differently formed Drainage, clays – in the supported valleys. more recently by On a wider grant aid, scale one has of can see the

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 35 imprint of climate as rates of processes double for every 10 Organic matter and soil structure degree celsius increase of temperature. Towards the Soil organic matter has the effect of moderating the tropics one finds more intense and deeper weathering, adverse impact of other physical and chemical soil organic matter with more ephemeral existence and characteristics. In agricultural soils, it normally comprises nutrients prone to rapid leaching under high rainfall. The 1.5 – 3.5% by weight. Organic matter and in particular its strong red colour of Mediterranean and tropical soils, ultimate breakdown product humus, are of great including the soils of Australia, comes from accumulation importance in the development of soil structure – the way of resistant iron oxides on these ancient land surfaces. In that soil particles are held together into aggregates. higher latitudes and altitudes, beyond the margins of Structure includes the pattern of cracks or passages within agriculture, soils tend to accumulate surface organic the soil which facilitate root development and promote matter due to combinations of low temperatures, infiltration and drainage. Soils with stable structure resist waterlogging and acidity. Podzolic soils predominate on the impact of raindrops, also disruption due to wetting and the better-drained areas, usually under birch and spruce drying, freezing and thawing. The presence of lime is forests or heath-type vegetation, while extensive areas beneficial in that it forms bridges between microscopic subject to frozen ground and snowmelt have gley soils. In particles of clay and humus. Britain, the soils of lowland heaths and upland areas have Loss of organic matter leads either to total collapse of soil combinations of these features. These soils, together with structure (sandy soils) or to a blocky rather than crumb the red soils of low latitudes are inherently low in fertility. structure. Because structural deterioration adversely Between these zones we find the most fertile soils are, or affects infiltration rate, it also increases the risk of severe certainly once were, those of the world’s great temperate runoff and erosion. On the other hand, in greenhouses grassland (wheat-growing) areas, characteristically the and polytunnels where heat is generated and water chernozem type – a deep organic-rich soil containing lime demands are large, insufficient attention to drainage and nodules as a result of upward capillary processes taking progressive structural deterioration, often lead to capillary place in summer. Many soils, due to slope instability or salt accumulation. frequent surface additions of material, are immature while many of the soils nowadays most important to farming are While cultivation practices exert a strong influence on artificial, being based on bulldozed terraces or the levels of soil organic matter, animal grazing is also enriched soils of protected horticulture. sometimes a threat. Overgrazing and poaching of pastures thus causes compaction, weakens vegetative cover and exposes soil to erosion. Much structural Aeration and drainage damage to soils is also due to deformation of soil by Let us now look at a number of soil properties of machinery. Today’s 4-wheel drive tractors may lead to importance to agriculture – firstly aeration and drainage. soils being tilled at too high a moisture content with All soil life takes place in the water films around soil consequent smear, or at a speed likely to crush rather than particles so the nature of this inner world is of more than fold the soil. academic interest. Texture provides soil with much inner space or voids, which we refer to as pores. Larger pores (macropores), as in a sandy soil, form a connected system Soil microbiology leading to a freely draining soil. In silt or clay-rich soils The presence of organic matter, through its influence on much of the porosity is microscopic or capillary in nature so moisture retention and provision of food substrate, is vital they take longer to moisten or to dry out and drain. Unless to the well-being of soil organisms of all kinds. Of under permanent pasture, these soils depend more on particular importance in plant nutrition are the micro- ploughing or subsoiling to introduce air while any field organisms. Many bacterial types – primary decomposers drains will have to be more closely spaced to be effective. as well as nitrifiers – lead to mineral nutrients and nitrate How many of us actually have plans of the field drains on becoming accessible to plants. Meanwhile specialised our farms? Some clays allow water to penetrate their symbiotic organisms (Rhizobium species) provide nitrate crystal structure – these will swell when they wet and for the Leguminosae. Free-living nitrogen fixers such as shrink on drying out. Drainage in such soils owes much to Azospirillum, also provide nitrogen in some environments. the formation of larger structural cracks. Agriculturally useful legumes in temperate regions require soils which are above pH 5.5. Their germination is No higher life processes are possible without water or adversely affected by cold and damp conditions while oxygen so soil moisture must always be balanced by subsequent performance is limited by low phosphate. aeration. Water contains dissolved oxygen – less as the Nodulation will be inhibited by high nitrogen levels and low temperature is raised, and less the longer it takes for water molybdenum. to move through the soil. The majority of plants and soil organisms require the exchange of atmospheric gases into Plants also form symbiotic associations with a number of the soil for healthy metabolism and to avoid build-up of fungal genera which significantly increase growth and toxic substances. Wet soils will take longer to warm up in yield. These are the mycorrhizas which are present on all springtime, offer a more limited growing season and a less plants except the Leguminosae and the Cruciferae, satisfactory environment for plant roots. Earthworms including sugar beet, swedes, kale etc. The important emerge from wet soils while legume nodulation and group for agricultural crops are vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal development cannot occur. However, while mycorrhizas. Here, the fungus invades and modifies root sandy soils allow warmth to penetrate, they are also the surface cells while an extensive mycelia, finer than most susceptible to late ground frosts. While freely ordinary root hairs, extends into the soil, greatly increasing draining, they may also be drought-prone which, of course, root surface area. As with legume Rhizobia, the plant underlines the importance of organic matter. provides carbohydrate, in return for which the fungus provides a flow of mineral nutrients which would often not

36 Star and Furrow 105 be available to the plant under the prevailing soil pH. The On the other hand carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater to fungus uses enzymes as do lichens, to extract soil form carbonic acid and is also generated by biological minerals, including vital micro-nutrient elements. Soil fungi activity within the soil. For this reason there will usually be have more of an affinity for soils which are on the acid side a seasonal variation in soil pH which is worth bearing in and because of this they are able to help plants extract mind whenever soil analyses are carried out. nutrients where they would otherwise be scarce. For this reason, if for no other, use of lime should be very Soil pH has a strong influence on whether mineral nutrients restricted. Other factors likely to limit good mycorrhizal will dissolve in the soil water and will therefore be available development include waterlogging, and soils which are left to plants. There is an optimal range of pH for nutrient bare without a cover crop over winter. uptake from pH 4.5 to 6.5. Although agriculturalists choose Nutrient holding crops and pasture species which are broadly suitable for Here, we are concerned with the behaviour of nutrient prevailing soil conditions, many soils remain blighted substances in soil moisture and how they are held on soil unless their pH can be adjusted. Traditionally, acid soils particles. We should start with water. This, as we know, have been limed or marled (calcium carbonate usually consists of hydrogen and oxygen, but a very minute being the main constituent) while alkaline soils have had proportion at any one instant comprises electrically gypsum (calcium sulphate) applied in order to promote charged H+ and OH– ions. For any substance to dissolve maximum nutrient availability. If a soil has a high cation in water it needs to form ions and it is water’s dynamic exchange capacity (CEC) (clays and organic rich soils) it character which brings this about. We should understand has a higher lime requirement than in the case of a sandy that once a substance has become an ion in water it is in soil with low exchange capacity. There is therefore a the dissolved or non-particulate state – it is able to move danger of over-liming sandy soils. While soil pH can be freely and to connect with the surfaces of minerals. If one used as a guide to microbiological activity and nutrient wishes, one can view an ion as taking on part of the living, availability, where there is more humus in the soil, or etheric quality of water, a necessary first stage to agriculture can often remain productive at comparatively entering the living plant. low pH because of higher exchange capacity and potentially greater nutrient reserves. Ions, both negative (anions) and positive (cations) are held on soil particles by oppositely charged surfaces. It is in this way that soils resist the tendency of rainfall to leach out What benefits might we expect from working soluble substances. The alumino-silicate clays have organically? surfaces and edges which offer charges while similar properties are displayed by humus. In fact humus, by Plant and animal health weight, is ten to fifty times more effective than soil clays in It is widely acknowledged that farming organically brings holding nutrient substances (see compost calculation benefits to wildlife while animal husbandry shows greatly below). Oxide minerals also contribute exchange capacity reduced veterinary problems arising from living conditions but at usual soil pH values they attract mainly anions. The and quality of feed. The general objective of creating a mechanism by which ions are held at particle surfaces is wholesome farm organism embodying biodiversity means known as adsorption. All similarly charged ions may that many crop pests can be countered by their natural exchange for each other at particle surfaces according to enemies. In the soil it is no different. For example, circumstance, so we refer to the ability of a substance or a parasitic nematodes will, in the absence of nematocides, soil to hold nutrients, as its exchange capacity. increasingly be attacked by free-living types providing a suitable cropping regime is adhered to. In some instances, nutrients can become attached too strongly onto soil particles, phosphate for example. The The manner in which nutrients become accessible to sites where the phosphate anion becomes strongly plants leads to healthier plant morphology and to the adsorbed are the positive edges of clay crystals and development of thicker-walled cells with a higher content of positive charges on humus and iron-aluminium oxide plant-protective chemicals such as polyphenols, minerals. Phosphate can also replace structural oxygen cyanogenic glucosides and flavonoids. This all acts as a and hydroxyl ions on the flat surfaces of clays, a process significant deterrent to pests while higher levels of these known as ligand exchange. These processes are known substances connects with the stronger flavour of organic as fixation (see nutrient access below). and biodynamic produce and to its superior keeping quality.

Acidity and alkalinity Building organic matter reserves The relationship between H+ and OH– activity in water is The use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers such as urea has expressed by the pH value. In pure water where H+ = OH– the effect of depleting stocks of soil organic carbon. By we have neutrality and the pH is 7 (pH being the negative comparison, an organic farming regime can build organic logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity). Readings above 7 matter content and humus stability, leading to improved are alkaline while readings below are acid. Each unit soil structure and water holding capacity. Better rooting increase or decrease of pH represents a tenfold change in characteristics, especially under biodynamic management, the relative activity of the two ions. lead to increased depth of organic matter penetration. This results in increased drought resistance and less irrigation The concentration of certain basic cations in the soil, such need, as organic matter can hold many times its weight in as calcium, potassium and magnesium, together with water. Here, we should note that repeated wetting and carbonic and humic acids, affects the acid-alkali balance. drying leads to accelerated microbiological loss of organic Basic cations react with water to generate hydroxyl (OH–) matter. Simple tests also show that repeated wetting and ions causing the soil to become alkaline in their presence. drying will make organic substances less able to absorb water. One can therefore better understand why compost character. Organic anions are larger than the largest of heaps should be covered and compost always dug into the several different phosphate anions and therefore become soil and never thrown out and left on the soil surface. preferentially adsorbed at particle surfaces. In this way phosphate is released for use by plants. Soils with a It is well-known that continuous cultivation leads to higher organic content will normally be less susceptible to diminished organic carbon – so also will global warming. A phosphate fixation – a widespread and wasteful problem in recent study found that of over 5000 sites in England and arable agriculture. Furthermore, under organic farming, Wales only a tiny 8% had not experienced a loss of soil bacterial release of phosphate will be more efficient as organic carbon between 1978 and 2003. There is there will be no interference from pesticide residues. justification for saying that organic methods – without explicitly doing so – represent an effective agricultural way Mention has already been made of the role of nodule of addressing this problem and improving carbon bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. These organisms are sequestration in soils. adversely affected by use of synthetic fertilizer, particularly phosphate in the case of mycorrhizas, as well as by The value of compost pesticide residues. It will be very clear that measures The subject of compost deserves more expansive adopted in organic husbandry actively promote these treatment than is possible here but suffice to say that it organisms. provides several major benefits to the soil. It is, of course, The role of mycorrhizas was not seriously recognised until a source of plant nutrients, notably nitrogen, phosphorus the 1980s, long after chemical culture had swept the and sulphur but it includes all the mineral nutrients. It landscape – these at least doubling the uptake of trace enhances the soil’s structural condition and all that flows minerals compared to non-mycorrhizal soils. They also from that. It is an important source of, and substrate for, transfer plant defence and growth-promoting chemicals, soil organisms and in the wider view of biodynamics it which can, for example, protect against nematode infection provides energies which radiate into the soil to promote the of plant roots. Some of the chemicals evidently improve healthy growth of crops. But there is a further part which drought resistance for studies have shown higher rates of compost plays with regard to nutrient retention. Increased photosynthesis in mycorrhizal, as opposed to non- soil humus leads to increased exchange capacity. Now mycorrhizal, drought-stressed plants. It is also clear that because of the importance of compost to organic farmers mycelia penetrate smaller soil pores than would be and gardeners it seems worthwhile to set out, for the more accessible to plant root hairs. patient reader, a worked example showing how much benefit might arise from adding even a small amount. Final thoughts Please note that it is dry weights which will be referred to. All farming involves an exploitation of environmental resources – it is something we impose on the environment Clay minerals have CEC values ranging from 5 to around we have inherited from the past. Organic farming aims to 150 cmol /kg whereas humus substances have values of work with natural processes and allow them to freely help 200-500 cmol /kg. We shall assume that clay comprises the farmer, in comparison to which, the conventional 25% of our original soil and that its CEC is 17.5 cmol /kg (a chemical approach ends up fighting a costly and self- 50% kaolinite / illite mixture typical of acidic temperate defeating battle – and one which acts as a severe soils). Without any further material contributing exchange constraint on the health of the human race. surface, the soil’s CEC per kilo would be 4.4 cmol. However, it would be normal for the remaining 75% of the But if soil is the foundation, the success of agriculture soil to contribute around twice this amount, from other depends on how well it works in relation to the soil. This is minerals and humus, giving the soil a total value of around often a bone of contention, for marketing opportunity, and 15 cmol/kg. even the ideal of a mixed farm, can conflict with what is otherwise the best or most sustainable use of particular Let us now say that our compost has a CEC of 200 cmol soils. Individual circumstances often don’t allow an ideal /kg (this reduces its potential to allow for a proportion of its solution yet with organic farming, the rotation adopted dry weight not being humus in the strict sense at the time should not only be mindful of nutrient fertility but also of the of application). We now add just 100g of this to 1 kg of our soil’s physical and biological condition arising from all the soil sample. 100g is one tenth of a kilo, so 100g compost work we require of it. We should reflect that unless pasture @ 200 cmol /kg offers another 20 cmol to our soil. (NB. management and rotation systems are effectively Final soil weight is 1100g and this now contains 35 cmol). implemented it is unreasonable to expect the full range of When the compost is mixed with original soil the overall benefits to follow from working in an organic, let alone CEC per kilo becomes 31.8 cmol – a 112 % increase. biodynamic way. Thus, small amounts of humus significantly impact on CEC while the lower a soil’s original exchange capacity, the greater will be the proportional benefit. If ‘sustainable’ Suggested further reading farming is in need of proper definition, this must surely be Nyle Brady The Nature and Properties of Soils one of its criteria. Macmillan New York David Rowell Soil Science : Methods and Nutrient access Applications Longman Over many years much applied phosphate fertilizer has Russell’s Soil Conditions and Plant Growth Ed. Alan disappeared into chemically-farmed soils without being Wild Longman recovered by crop plants. As already mentioned, this is Sattler / Wistinghausen Biodynamic Farming Practice due to fixation on soil minerals. However, when organic BDAA matter decomposes it releases a variety of substances which have either cationic (positive) or anionic (negative)

38 Star and Furrow 105 A NEW IMPULSE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE by Bruno Follador

he life of the Earth depends on the will of the acquaint yourself with it and human being. The Earth will be what man makes understand its views. Only of Her. We live, from now on, in a historically then can you disprove it. You Tdecisive moment of earth evolution.” These have to take the bull by the powerful words by Rudolf Steiner find a home in horns and refute biodynamic agriculture. The possibility of Biodynamics materialistic science by its taking root in Brazil, one of the largest agricultural own methods.” This is countries in the world, is a powerful thought, for there exactly what is happening arises a new impulse for social change. with Professor Attila’s initiative in Ipero and through The Landless Rural Workers’ Movement in Brazil, or MST his pioneering work bringing (Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra), is the Spiritual Science into the largest movement for social change in Latin America, academic world. In offering organized in 23 out of the 27 Brazilian states. It is Goetheanistic comprised of 1.5 million (and growing) farmers and Phenomenology to his families who were extricated from their land mainly classes, Attila provides his because of the Green Revolution and the industrialization students the possibility of above: Senor Joao and his goat of agriculture. The MST was one of the first to boldly defy perceiving the landscape in GMOs when they began to filter illegally into Brazil through a holistic way - a way which the duality of matter and spirit Argentina. They are striving for land reform in a country are overcome. It is allowing Anthroposophy to bridge the where three percent of the population owns two-thirds of all gap between teacher and student, young and old. Rudolf arable lands, and are fighting for more just educational and Steiner states, in his lecture cycle The Younger economical systems. I have witnessed in their eyes the Generation, that this gap is “... due to the fact that the pain unfortunately characteristic of those who have young cannot allow the dead thorn to be thrust into their suffered such injustice, as well as the incredible strength living heart - the thorn which the head produces out of that is also inherent in these families. It is a strength that intellectualism. The young demand the livingness that can will change the agricultural situation Brazil faces today. only come out of the Spirit.”

Andreas Attila, a biodynamic farmer and professor of In addition to trying to restart the MST project, students at Geography at the University of Sao Paulo, together with USP are also exploring the necessity of offering free or agronomist Jose Guilherme, became aware that bringing inexpensive biodynamic courses to students, farmers from Biodynamics to this movement would not only help the MST, and all others who have interest. Since USP is a improve the lives of the families, but would also allow public university, and, unfortunately, the Humanities are Biodynamics to rise up as an alternative to industrialized not highly valued by the government, the Geography agriculture. With support from the Biodynamic Association department often struggles with faculty and student strikes, of Brazil, Attila and Guilherme started a project with ten poor conditions, and scarce resources. The success of families in a MST settlement in Ipero, Brazil. The farmers these initiatives, then, will depend on the generosity of responded with an almost immediate affinity toward outside financial assistance. Biodynamics and Anthroposophy, which seemed to resonate with truths already present in their hearts. The implications of Brazil embracing the spiritual foundations for the renewal of agriculture is of extreme As progress was made, there was an attempt to certify the importance for the future of humanity. It would water seeds farms with Organic and Demeter labels in order to improve of hope, shed sunlight on the trueness of what it means to financial stability. Unfortunately, before this was made be a caretaker of the Earth, and could, through its own possible, Guilherme died in a car accident, and the project success and practicality, sprout new initiatives worldwide. came to a hault. I had the privilege of speaking with Ligeirinho, a humble man from this settlement struggling to References farm 10 acres. He spoke deeply of his faith in Biodynamics, Attila, A. 2001. A Dissociacao Entre Homem e and anxiously waits to learn more. Natureza: Reflexos no Desenvolvimento Humano. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Editora Antroposofica. Today, a group of students from the University of Sao Branford, S., Rocha, J. 2002. Cutting the Wire: The Paulo are trying to restart the project at Ipero. As a student Story of the Landless Movement in Brazil. London, of Attila’s, myself, I wonder, “What role could Geography, England: Latin America Bureau. the study of the relationship between man and nature, play Selawry, A. 1992. Ehrenfried Pfeiffer: Pioneer of in uniting Biodynamics and the Landless Workers’ Spiritual Research and Practice. Spring Valley, NY: Movement? What is my part in this revolutionary impulse? Mercury Press. What possibilities could bringing Biodynamics and Steiner, R. 1967. The Younger Generation. New York, Anthroposophy to youth and universities create?” NY: Anthroposophic Press, Inc. GA 217

In a conversation with E. Pfeiffer, Steiner said “If you wish For More Information to overcome the materialist point of view, you must first Contact Bruno Follador: [email protected] LIFE FORCES IN THE PLANT ORGANISM by Thomas Link - translated by Michaela Hirschnitz

n many references and lectures Rudolf Steiner draws the characteristics under consideration can be described attention to the etheric world, that part of the spiritual as being genetically determined, i.e. this particular oak will world which is closest to us, and makes us mindful that consistently produce English Oak trees. Yet even here, the Iin order to orientate ourselves in it, we need to follow a botanist is familiar with a great many modifications in form path of inner training. Very little research has been carried and shape. out into this subject over the last 75 years. There have been however a number of individual researchers who At this point in our contemplation of the English Oak, our were charged directly by Steiner to study of the laws perceptions are far from exhausted and we discover operating in the etheric world and their effects on the attributes such as: strong and old, gnarled, awe-inspiring, physical-material plane. Thanks to eminent individuals like attractive, repulsive, mighty and stately and many more, Günther Wachsmuth and Ehrenfried Pfeiffer some which no longer have anything to do with a botanical outstanding books and study materials are available which description as such. We find the tree to have vitality, to be can help to train one's perceptive capacity with regard to flourishing or dying, flexible or rigid, colourful and glossy, the etheric world. sallow, dull, fragrant, beautiful or ugly and many other things besides. So, what engages us at this moment, and The biodynamic movement still tends to follow to which level or plane of experience do such perceptions conventional scientific research methods and draws its and observations point? Our ordinary perceptive capacities conclusions from observations made primarily on the actually reach their limits at the chemical level of the tree. physical-material plane. The more subtle the processes Although we can comprehend the biochemical processes are however, the more difficult (if not impossible) it is to and study the results, we cannot “see” the processes adhere to these methods. The spiritual world does not taking place in the tree. Here we have in fact arrived in the obey sense-based physical laws - indeed the opposite is ‘super sensible-realm’, at one of the levels of activity in the true, physical laws are governed by spiritual realities. world of living forces.

Martin Schmidt, who participated in the 'Agriculture I would now like to elaborate this further: In the realm of Course’ given in Koberwitz in 1924, and later also his son, etheric formative forces (etheric forces) everything is to be Georg Wilhelm Schmidt, continued to pursue the line of found that lies beyond the dense material body of the plant inquiry initiated there. Their research in the field of plant organism and which defines its state of being alive. This regeneration opened up a whole new approach for includes growth, the build up of matter, the circulation of understanding the physical expressions in the plant fluids, respiration, warmth processes and rhythm. organism of etheric formative forces and the laws governing them. In my own biographical development and Beyond this are the previously listed qualities such as in my forestry work, it has become a passion to experience ‘strong’, ‘beautiful’, ‘mighty’, ‘gnarled’, ‘awe-inspiring’, and understand this world of living forces, so as then to be able to carry healing impulses into the forests and landscapes in my care. Photographs of Oak leaves

Using the English Oak (Quercus robur) as an example, I would like to describe some of the interrelationships in the world of living forces and explain how they can be understood.

It is important to be clear in one’s mind that there are several levels (or planes) in the spiritual-super sensible realms and to know which level one happens to be in at any given moment, one must be able to identify the boundaries between them.

In the case of the English Oak, we are first faced with the physical-material nature of the tree which reaches deep into the earth with its roots, builds a long lasting trunk, and lifts its crown high above the ground. This however is true for more or less every tree. What is it then that makes this tree, which we can imagine so clearly to ourselves, an English Oak? The botanist can describe numerous details which will lead to the unmistakable conclusion, that this is an English Oak and not some other kind of tree or another variety of oak. However detailed this description may be however, we are still on the level of the physical- observable. We then cross a boundary into what is not so readily accessible to sense-perception. In scientific terms ‘attractive’, etc. These attributes correspond to the inner In the wider universe experiences the human being has of the tree. These do not these forces also belong to the world of etheric formative forces, but rather interact with the to the next higher level, the Astral plane. This realm planets, as revealed by corresponds to that of human feelings and emotions and the planetary influences which only play a peripheral role plant growth. The astral on plant development. forces, which in the animal kingdom and in human beings The following are of major importance, affect the plant kingdom for illustration of three example during pollination. double sets of oak leaves shows the And finally we come to the highest level, the Spiritual results of a trial project plane, which ensures that an acorn always produces an carried out at the oak, where beings within the zodiac create the so-called Baumschule ‘plant-archetypes'. Rittershain (Tree Nursery in Rittershain, In order to penetrate further into the nature of the earth and Germany). Three plant organisms, it is sufficient to consider in the first place groups of acorns - all the physical-material realm and that of etheric or formative from the same tree - forces. This etheric world can be differentiated into the four were seeded within distinctively different and primary ether qualities: several weeks of one other under significantly Above: The Four Ethers 1. Warmth Ether different planetary 2. Light Ether constellations. Each double-set of oak leaves represents a 3. Chemical Ether typical example of the ‘average’ variation of each particular 4. Life Ether group.

These four ethers which, in accordance with the Even out in the vast expanse of the Zodiac the activities of fundamental laws governing their activity, are always in these ether forces, influencing as they do root, leaf, movement and through their ceaseless interweaving, blossom, and fruit development, are of considerable come to physical expression on the earth as the four Greek importance for our plants - something which is elements: corroborated by the research and the sowing and planting 1. Warmth Ether as Warmth calendar of Maria Thun. 2. Light Ether as Light 3. Chemical Ether as Water Ultimately, it is a matter of practice and of developing one’s 4. Life Ether as Earth capacity for "hineinleben" or entering into the language of these living etheric forces whose image is imprinted in the Without the activities of these forces, all forms of life and physical appearance of the plant. A true knowledge of the rhythms that sustain them would be inconceivable and these interweaving forces of the earth and of the plant the earth itself would be a lifeless desert. renders gene technology unnecessary. Already in ancient times plant breeding and development that was based on Applied to our English Oak example, the following true insight and understanding for the connections (simplified) representation emerges: between plant, earth and cosmos, was being carried out for the benefit of mankind. 1. The Oak appears to us first in its material manifestation, in which the Life Ether comes to expression. 2. In the upward and downward flow of sap, in The Author photosynthesis, in the forming of substance and in the reproductive vigour, one finds the activity of the Chemical Thomas Link is a forester living and working in Ether. Germany. For many years he lived with the question of 3. Form, Shape & Structure, Resistance to disease and how to bring renewed life and healing to landscapes in colour variations of the tree are connected to the forces of decline. When he came across the work of Georg the Light Ether. Wilhelm Schmidt he found the inspiration he needed to 4. Quality, uprightness, articulation und fragrance belong to explore this theme and apply the principles of the qualities of the Warmth Ether. biodynamic agriculture to his own work with trees.

Because these ether forces are not bound exclusively to He is coming to England this summer and will be plants, but envelop the entire globe, move around freely leading a five day course entitled "The World of Living and are being breathed in and out rhythmically, the Forces". He will be joined by Karin Jarman who is an different seasons arise. A wonderful illustration of this is the art therapist. She will work artistically with the theme marked difference in the quality of warmth in May and in and help participants to deepen their understanding of July despite identical periods of sunlight. This this etheric world using the medium of colour and the phenomenon can be traced to the fact that it is only at discipline of painting. It is an introductory course and Pentecost / Whitsun that the warmth ether envelope is no previous knowledge or artistic experience is “breathed in” by the earth. By mid-August it reaches its required. "The World of Living Forces" takes place at point of greatest activity before departing from us once St. Luke's Medical Centre, Stroud from 27th August to again in November. 1st September 2006. Further information Tel. 01453 757436 or email: [email protected]

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 41 BEYOND ORGANICS A Part Time Course in Biodynamic Agriculture at Emerson College by Ian Lawton

t is an expression of the conditions in the economic that it gives a framework of thought and tools to look at the sphere at this time in Great Britain that more and more living aspect of plants. There is so much known about the people out of necessity are choosing to take up a part- life forces in biodynamics but not that many people are well Itime education option. The part-time Steiner Waldorf informed about it." education courses at Emerson College, which began in 2004, have been booming as a reflection of this. Along side "The world needs farmers who don't regards organisms as this there is more and more awareness of green issues, just bags of genes and proteins. That kind of thinking is questions of sustainability, of nutrition and a continual very materialistic and has expressed itself in chemical growth in demand for organically produced food and this fertilisers, pesticides, and industrial farming right down to has given rise to shortage of biodynamic farmers. The genetic engineering. We need to understand and respect realisation that many wannabe biodynamic farmers have the life forces that manifest themselves in plants and too many commitments to simply up shovel and study full- animals." time for three years and that many have the basic A biodynamic farm is a recycling farm and the ideal farm is agricultural knowledge already and just need to re- able to sustain itself without the need for external orientate to the biodynamic way of doing things, has given resources, in the same way that a healthy human body the inspiration to create a one year part-time course that does not need to be propped up by chemical medicines. can fill a need in this area. "On the course", says Arjen, "We will help people to The first course will take place over a series of seven understand the balancing of the farm organism in all its weekends and two full weeks running from October 2006 aspects. If you have an overwhelming presence of cows to March 2007. It is primarily designed for those already you can think of that as being analogous to having a huge working in an agricultural or horticultural context, to provide digestive system, or if you have too many chickens it would an understanding of the biodynamic way of farming and be like having a huge head (nervous system) and a tiny gardening. Basic knowledge and experience of agriculture body. So during the year participants will also develop an is expected. Students will work with Goethean observation understanding of the different animal qualities that help to of the natural world and come to an understanding of the harmonize the farm." realm of life forces. The course also will provide a rich understanding of how to work with the rhythms of the farm "I think there is, you could say, an archetype of a healthy organism, how to create a balance of soil plant, animal and farm organism but of course you can't just apply the same human elements and how to make and use the biodynamic fixed pattern to your farm wherever you are. You can't just preparations. There will also be an astronomy component say 20 cows to 30 goats to every 100 chickens and apply to the course. that as a healthy balance across the whole world, so we will be helping people to understand the qualities of a The course will be carried by Juergen Schumacher and particular piece of land, and the wildlife that exists there. Arjen Huese, supported by the faculty of Emerson College Then they can go away and apply the knowledge and other visiting tutors. Juergen was a biodynamic farmer anywhere in the world." for 15 years on his own farm in Germany. Arjen has run biodynamic market gardens in both Germany and the The cost of the course is £1600 per year, which can be Netherlands. Both are also course carriers for the full-time paid in instalments. A limited number of bursaries will be Biodynamic Organic Agriculture Training. Arjen's available to applicants who are accepted on the course, description of how he came to biodynamic horticulture will but are prevented for financial reasons. If required probably resonate with many who have found their way accommodation and meals are available. into biodynamic agriculture. Further details can be obtained from the college website "First I went to a normal university and all we were doing www.emerson.org.uk or on was cutting plants into pieces and looking under the +44 (0)1342 822238 microscope. Living organisms were only considered at a physical level. When I then encountered biodynamics what made it so interesting to me was

42 Star and Furrow 105 DEMETER MARKET PLACE

The following is a list of some of the places in the UK where you can buy Demeter produce. It is the result of a survey sent out to all producers in 2005. It is intended that this will be a regular feature in Star and Furrow and on the BDAA website. If any of the details on the list below have changed since the survey or if you would like to be included in the listing in the next issue, then please contact the BDAA Office (details at front of magazine).

BRISTOL grain available direct MONMOUTHSHIRE Paul Pieterse Watch Oak Farm - tel:01454 418954 fruit, vegetables or meat available from occasional sales Richard & Sarah Stacey Daren Farm Ltd - tel: 01873 CLEVELAND 890712 meat, wool from farm shop sales (phone) Donald Ash Larchfield Market Garden - tel: 01642 579805 NORFOLK vegetables, top fruit, herbs from farm shop COUNTY TYRONE David Barker Baker’s Organics - tel: 01263 768966 vegetables, fruit, herbs from box & market Martin Sturm Clanabogan - tel: 02882 256111 David Wrenn Orchard End - tel: 01508 558646 vegetables, meat, bakery products available by appointment vegetables, herbs from box & market CUMBRIA NORTH YORKSHIRE Judy Stalker Houker Hall Herbs Riddings Croft - tel: 01229 William Pickard Falcon Farm - tel: 01287 661234 885313 meat from farm shop & box herbal tinctures by mail order Ben Davies Botton Farm - tel: 01287 661211 DEVON meat, milk from farm shop Peter van Viet Botton Walled Garden - tel: 01287 661301 Pat Fleming Spitchwick Herbs - tel: 01364 631233 vegetables, soft fruit, herbs, plants from box scheme vegetables, herbs available direct PEMBROKESHIRE Derek Lapworth Lower Velwell - tel: 01364 644010 vegetables from box scheme (full at present) Andre Kleinjans Plas Dwbl - tel: 01994 410352 DUMFRIES & GALLOWAY vegetables PERTHSHIRE Joscha Huter Loch Arthur Horticulture - tel: 01387 760544 vegetables, fruit, herbs from farm shop Anneke Kraakman Corbenic Camphill Community - tel: Richard Cunningham Craig Farm - tel: 01644 420636 01350 723206 meat, private sales from farm fruit, plants, baked goods by box scheme EAST LOTHIAN ROSS & CROMARTY Susannah Aykroyd 24 Boggs Holdings - tel: 01875 340227 Duncan Ross Poyntzfield Herb Nursery - tel: 01381 610352 veg, fruit, eggs from box scheme, farm shop & farmers’ market herbs, plants, seeds by mail order GLOUCESTERSHIRE RUTLAND Kai Lange Oaklands Park Garden - tel: 01594 826735 Paul Chenery Town Park farm - tel: 01572 724545 vegetables, fruit, lamb, herbs from box scheme & wholesale herbal medicine by mail order Laurence Dungworth SUSSEX GREEN - tel: 01453 753768 vegetables, fruit, herbs mostly to local cafe only Linda Beaney Holly Park Farm - tel: 01424 812229 Laurence Dungworth dairy goat milk products from farmers’ markets Stroud Community Agriculture - tel: 01453 753768 Peter Brinch Plawhatch Seeds - tel: 01342 826067 vegetables, herbs, meat from box scheme (full at present) seeds mail order from Stormy Hall Seeds only Henk Reyneke Dorothea Leber Michael Hall School - tel: 01342 825604 Oaklands Park Farm - tel: 01594 516285 vegetables, fruit, herbs from local shops vegetables, meat from box scheme & shop Andre Tranquilini Emerson Garden - tel: 07931 245670 HAMPSHIRE vegetables, fruit, eggs from local shops WEST LOTHIAN Sally Viney Harbridge Herbal Clinic - tel: 01425 652233 medicinal herbs available through consultation Diana O’Neil Garvald School - tel: 01968 682211 HEREFORDSHIRE vegetables, herbs WILTSHIRE Elaine Povey The Buzzards - tel: 01568 708941 vegetables, fruit, herbs, meat, eggs from the farm Eamonn & Oriana Wilmott The Beeches - tel: 01985 Jane Scotter Fern Verrow - tel: 01981 510288 840820 veg, fruit, herbs, meat by order & Borough Market in London lamb by mail order LANCASHIRE WORCESTERSHIRE Jenny Gabrysch Hollinwood - tel: 01995 640189 Charbel Akiki Elms farm - tel: 01905 381420 vegetables, fruit, poultry, eggs from farm shop & box eggs from box scheme & farmers’ market LINCOLNSHIRE George Glide Tree House Farm - tel: 01886 880681 beef (hay) - direct Malcolm Robinson Aura Soma Products Ltd - tel: 01507 533581

Journal of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association 43

Elysium Natural Products Ltd Unit 12 Moderna Business Park Mytholmroyd, Halifax, West Yorkshire England HX7 4QQ Tel: 01422 885523 Fax: 01422 884629 E-mail: [email protected] FOR ALL YOUR DEMETER NEEDS We have a great range of Demeter Quality products and are adding to our range all the time. We now have Demeter products coming in from all over Europe, so far we have great partnerships with companies from Holland, Germany, Belgium and Italy. For more Information on our products and ranges please do not hesitate to contact us on 01422 885523 or you can check out our new web-site, www.elysium-naturalproducts.co.uk

A WHOLE WORLD OF ORGANIC/ DEMETER BABY FOOD RIGHT HERE!

Guaranteed no GMO ingredients No added sugar No added table salt No added Flavours No added colours No added preservatives

For more Information contact Elysium Natural Products WHOLESOME FOOD NETHERFIELD FARM GUEST HOUSE & CONFERENCE COTTAGES Lochanhead, Dumfries DG2 8JE Tel: 01387 730217 Green & Away Eco-conference Centre Contact: Jimmy & Pauline Anderson Glos, 11-13th August www.netherfieldguesthouse.co.uk BOTHY COTTAGE: sunny, spacious and open plan with separate kitchen. A harmonious and beautiful space. Sleeps 2 Organised by: Good Garderners’ Association STABLE COTTAGE: unusual and attractive conversion with a balcony bedroom, lovely colours and very cozy. Sleeps 2 Soil Association Both cottages have wood stoves, central heating and all facilities provided. Wholesome Food Association £195-£250pw and Edcombe Farm. (1 month : 15% reduction) There will workshops and discussions ranging from how to The guesthouse is vegetarian and the farm & garden are Demeter get started in veg/meat box schemes, farm shops and registered ( to bring healing to the earth and grow food plants of nutritious farmers’ markets to how to ensure greater mineral uptake quality; bordering the Galloway hills it has many fine views).The aim is to offer rest, care and rejuvenation with good food. for healthy plants. Laurence Dungworth, biodynamic grower and council member of the BioDynamic Agricultural There is a beautiful garden rich in wild life, a comfortable sunny lounge Association, will be co-leading a workshop on the physical with wood stove and a warm and welcoming atmosphere. and spiritual aspects of human nutrition. Vegetarian organic meals are cooked with imagination using home grown fruit & vegetables. For details visit Hauschka Rhythmical massage is available. www.wholesome-food.org.uk/conference.html Prices: £22.50 - £25.00 pppn (5 days: 15% discount) Meals: £5.00/£8.50

ADVERTISE IN THE STAR & FURROW!

Star and Furrow reaches not only The closing dates are: 1st April for the membership of over 1000 people, the Summer issue and 1st October it is also read by a wider audience in for the Winter issue. the organic movement and in Advertisements not received and educational institutions around the paid for by these dates may not be country and abroad. accepted. The advertising rates are as follows: Please send advertisements to the The charge for small advertisement BDAA Office. is 12p per word for members of the Biodynamic Agricultural Association and 25p per word for non- Back cover outside: £300 members.The charges for display Back cover inside: £200 advertisements are in the box Full page £200 opposite. Half page £100 Quarter page £50 Cheques and money orders should Eighth page £25 be made out to the Biodynamic Inserts per 1000 £65 Agricultural Association or BDAA. (all prices inclusive of VAT) Foreign advertisers are requested to pay by international money order. Appeal www.biodynamic.org.uk needs your support!

The BDAA website has served us well for the past 7 years and is now desperately in need of a major overhaul. The site was set up in 1999 and has grown and developed to try and meet the demands of the ever changing situation in agriculture. It is often the first port of call for enquirers, journalists and researchers. On the current site you can find news, calendar of events, job adverts, annual reports, information leaflets, Demeter documents, the Demeter Marketplace and much more. In April and May this year we were getting an average of 1000 'hits' per day and the site has achieved a high rating with the Google search engine. In developing the website we need to redesign the whole site so that all the pages are better integrated and it will be easier to find your way around. We want to: Change the format (colouring, font and design) in order to make it clearer and easier to read crisper and easier to read Simplify the navigation so that it easier to find what you want Develop the Demeter marketplace so that the public is kept up to date about where to buy Demeter produce Set up online membership application Make it possible to buy books online Start a Forum for Producers/Processors/Distributors to communicate their needs with each other increase the number of documents to give easier access to members and enquirers

For this development we are needing to raise £3000 over the next 6 months If you can help please contact: The Secretary, The Biodynamic Agricultural Association (BDAA), Painswick Inn Project, Gloucester Street, Stroud, Glos GL5 1QG Tel/Fax: 01453 759501 or Email: [email protected]

New Books from the BDAA Please post your orders and payment to the BDAA Office (NB all prices are plus 15% P&P)

Betwixt Heaven & Earth, Brian Keats £12 A compendium of essays pertaining to the Earth as a part of the Living Cosmos. Includes a supplement to the Biodynamic Planting Calendars

Biodynamic Growing Guide: Healthcare for Earth & Humanity, Brian Keats & Stefan Mager £8 6 A4 pages Full Colour - Packed full of info on : The Big Picture, Enhancing Nutrition, Using BD Preparations, Increasing Soil & Atmospheric Vitality, Perpetual Tool for Sun & Moon Rhythms, Conscious awareness of Universal Processes.

The Biodynamic Food & Cookbook: Real Nutrition that doesn’t cost the earth, Wendy Cook £18.99 Features over 150 delicious seasonal recipes and includes: information on Biodynamic Agriculture, nutrition, ethics of modern food culture plus practical info on methods of cooking, getting started, cooking tips and what ingredients to stock in your larder.

Principles of BD Spray & Compost Preparations, M Klett £6.99 Combining 2 booklets from the IBIG series, Klett provides a fascinating overview of the history of agriculture, then goes on to discuss the practicalities of spray & compost preparations and the philosophy behind them. An essential read for any BD gardener or farmer who wants to understand the background to core BD techniques.

Back Garden Seed Saving: Keeping our Vegetable Heritage Alive, Sue Strickland £12.99 The latest strains of runner beans may give long stringless pods, but will they crop well on a cold windswept site? Dwarf peas may be the easiest to grow commercially, but you will still find the six foot types in many gardens – they look attractive, crop for longer and taste “like peas used to taste”. Whatever the benefits of modern hybrids, old varieties still have much to offer gardeners.

In this book you can find out about some of the vegetable varieties no longer found in the seed catalogues, and others that are there now but may not be for much longer. It introduces you to some of the gardeners who grow such varieties, their tales and tips and their infectious enthusiasm. Most importantly it gives easy to follow crop-by-crop guidelines to help you save seed for yourself.