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Outline of social

The following outline is provided as an overview of and among , collecting data about the ef- topical guide to : fect of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities. Social science – branch of science concerned with soci- ety and behaviors. • – scientific study of dynamic re- lationships between peoples, biota, and envi- ronments, from the distant past to the imme- 1 What type of thing is social sci- diate present. • – systematic study of people and ence? cultures. • Ethnology – branch of that com- Social science can be described as all of the following: pares and analyzes the origins, distribution, , religion, language, and social • Branch of science – systematic enterprise that builds structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national and organizes in the form of testable ex- divisions of humanity. [1][2][3] planations and predictions about the universe. • Ethnopoetics – method of recording text ver- sions of oral poetry or narrative performances • Major category of academic disciplines – an aca- (i.e., verbal lore) that uses poetic lines, verses, demic discipline is focused study in one academic and stanzas (instead of prose paragraphs) to field or . A discipline incorporates ex- capture the formal, poetic performance ele- pertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, ments which would otherwise be lost in the studies, inquiry, and areas that are strongly written texts. associated with academic areas of study or areas of • professional practice. For example, the branches of Evolutionary anthropology – interdisciplinary science are commonly referred to as the scientific study of the evolution of human physiology disciplines. For instance, gravitation is strongly as- and human behaviour and the relation between sociated with the discipline of , and is con- hominids and non-hominid primates. sidered to be part of that disciplinary knowledge. • Experimental – Experimental archaeology employs a number of differ- ent methods, techniques, analyses, and ap- 2 Branches of social science proaches in order to generate and test hypothe- ses, based upon archaeological source mate- rial, like ancient structures or artifacts. • Anthropology - study of humans, past and present, • Historical archaeology – form of archaeology that draws and builds upon knowledge from the so- dealing with topics that are already attested in cial and biological sciences, as well as the written records. and the natural sciences. • Linguistic anthropology – is the interdisci- • Anthropology of religion – study of religious plinary study of how language influences social institutions in relation to social institu- life. tions, and the comparison of religious beliefs • Medical anthropology – interdisciplinary field and practices across cultures which studies “human health and disease, • Applied anthropology – application of the health care systems, and biocultural adapta- method and theory of anthropology to the tion”. and solution of practical problems. • Physical anthropology – study of the physical • Archaeology – study of cultures via material development of the human species. remains and environmental data (Outline of • Psychological anthropology – interdisciplinary archaeology) subfield of anthropology that studies the inter- • – branch of anthropol- action of cultural and mental processes. ogy focused on the study of cultural variation • Zooarchaeology – study of faunal remains.

1 2 2 BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• – study of human-animal inter- • – branch of deal- action. ing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy • Business studies – academic area that consists of • – branch of economics that many sub-areas pertaining to the social relationships studies the behavior of individual that comprise the human economic systems. and firms in making decisions on the allocation • Accountancy – the measurement, processing of limited resources and communication of financial information • Behavioural economics – Behavioral eco- about economic entities. nomics and the related field, behavioral fi- nance, study the effects of social, cognitive • Finance – a field dealing with the study of in- and emotional factors on the economic deci- vestments. sions of individuals and institutions and the • Human resource – a function consequences for market prices, returns and in organizations designed to maximize em- the resource allocation. ployee performance in service of an em- • Bioeconomics – applies the of thermody- ployer’s strategic objectives. namics to economic theory • Management – the administration of an orga- • Comparative economics – comparative study nization, whether it be a business, a not-for- of different systems of economic organization, profit organization, or government body. such as , socialism, feudalism and • – the study and management of ex- the mixed economy. change relationships. • Socialist economics – economic theories • Organizational studies – the examination and practices of hypothetical and existing of how individuals construct organizational socialist economic systems. structures, processes, and practices and how • – branch of eco- these, in turn, shape social relations and create nomics which deals with economic aspects of institutions that ultimately influence people. the development process in low-income coun- tries. • Economics – details of this area and its own • sub-areas are provided in this taxonomy below. – an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field that aims to address • – study of the theoretical and practical as- the interdependence and coevolution of hu- pects of citizenship, its rights and duties; the duties man economies and natural ecosystems. of citizens to each other as members of a political • Economic – study of the location, body and to the government. distribution and spatial organization of eco- nomic activities across the world. • – interdisciplinary scientific study • Economic – study of economies or of the mind and its processes. It examines what cog- economic phenomena in the past. nition is, what it does and how it works. • Economic – studies both the social • – study of the , extent, causes, effects and the social causes of various eco- and control of criminal behavior in both the indi- nomic phenomena. vidual and in society. • – broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply • – academic field grounded in critical and use of energy in societies theory and literary criticism. • Entrepreneurial Economics – study of the en- • – statistical study of human popula- trepreneur and entrepreneurship within the tions and sub-populations. economy. • – subfield of eco- • – multidisciplinary branch of nomics concerned with environmental issues. social science which addresses issues of concern to • Evolutionary economics – part of mainstream developing countries. economics as well as heterodox school of eco- • Economics – analyzes the production, distribution, nomic thought that is inspired by evolutionary and consumption of goods and services. It aims . to explain how economies work and how eco- • Financial economics – branch of economics nomic agents interact. (The term 'economics’ is concerned with “the allocation and deploy- erroneously conflated with the current mainstream ment of economic resources, both spatially Neoclassical economics.) and across time, in an uncertain environment”. 3

• Heterodox economics – approaches or to • Public economics – study of government pol- schools of economic thought that are consid- icy through the lens of economic efficiency ered outside of “mainstream economics” and and equity. sometimes contrasted by expositors with neo- • Real estate economics – application of eco- classical economics. nomic techniques to real estate markets. • Green economics – one that results in im- • Resource economics – study of supply, de- proved human well-being and social eq- mand, and allocation of the Earth’s natural re- uity, while significantly reducing envi- sources. ronmental • Feminist economics – diverse area of • Welfare economics – branch of economics economic inquiry that highlights the that uses microeconomic techniques to eval- androcentric biases of traditional eco- uate economic well-being, especially relative nomics through critical examinations of to competitive general equilibrium within an economic , , economy as to economic efficiency and the re- history and empirical study. sulting income distribution associated with it. • Islamic economics – body of Islamic • – study of the production, studies literature that “identifies and pro- buying, and selling, and their relations with motes an economic order that conforms , custom, and government, as well as with to Islamic scripture and traditions,” and the distribution of national income and wealth, in the economic world an interest-free including through the budget process. Islamic banking system, grounded in • Socioeconomics – considers behavioral inter- Sharia’s condemnation of interest (riba). actions of individuals and groups through so- • Industrial organization – field of economics cial capital and social “markets” (not exclud- that builds on the theory of the firm in examin- ing for example, sorting by marriage) and the ing the structure of, and boundaries between, formation of social norms. firms and markets. • economics – branch of economics • International economics – study of the ef- that deals with the allocation of resources fects upon economic activity of international within the transport sector and has strong link- differences in productive resources and con- ages with civil . sumer preferences and the institutions that af- • fect them. Economic methodology – study of methods, especially the scientific method, in relation • Institutional economics – study of the role of to economics, including principles underlying the evolutionary process and the role of insti- economic reasoning. tutions in shaping economic behaviour. • Computational economics – research dis- • Labor economics – seeks to understand the cipline at the interface between computer functioning and dynamics of the markets for science and economic and management labour. science. • Law and Economics – application of economic • – application of mathemat- methods to analysis of law. ics and statistical methods to economic • Managerial economics – “application of eco- data nomic and economic analysis to the • – applica- problems of formulating rational managerial tion of mathematical methods to rep- decisions” resent economic theories and analyze • Monetary economics – branch of economics problems posed in economics. that historically prefigured and remains inte- • Economic – topic in applied grally linked to macroeconomics. statistics that concerns the collection, • Neoclassical economics – focuses on goods, processing, compilation, dissemina- outputs, and income distributions in markets tion, and analysis of economic data. through supply and demand. • Time series – sequence of data • Neuroeconomics – interdisciplinary field that points, measured typically at suc- seeks to explain human decision making, the cessive time instants spaced at uni- ability to process multiple alternatives and to form time intervals. choose an optimal course of action. • Experimental economics – application of • Public finance – study of the role of the gov- experimental methods to study economic ernment in the economy. questions. 4 2 BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• – in the general sense is any act or experi- • – sub-field of geogra- ence that has a formative effect on the mind, charac- phy that is used by, not only the military, ter, or physical ability of an individual. In its tech- but also academics and politicians to un- nical sense, education is the process by which so- derstand the geopolitical sphere through ciety deliberately transmits its accumulated knowl- the militaristic lens. edge, skills, and values from one generation to an- • – concerned with the other. control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of na- • – interdisciplinary academic tions. field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. • – study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribu- • and sexuality studies – field of interdisci- tion, composition, migration, and growth plinary study and academic field devoted to gender of populations are related to the nature of identity and gendered representation as central cat- places. egories of analysis. • – branch of human ge- • Geography – study of the lands, features, inhabi- ography that is most closely related to so- tants, and phenomena of Earth. cial theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of so- • – study and practice of making cial phenomena and its spatial compo- maps or globes. nents. • – branch of the social sci- • – approach to hu- ences that studies the world, its people, com- man geography that examines human be- munities, and cultures with an emphasis on re- havior using a disaggregate approach. lations of and across space and place. • Children’s – area of study • – takes a critical the- within human geography and Childhood ory (Frankfurt School) approach to the Studies which involves researching the study and analysis of geography. places and spaces of children’s lives. • – study of cultural • – application of geo- products and norms and their variations graphical information, perspectives, and across and relations to spaces and places. methods to the study of health, disease, • – approach in hu- and health care. man geography which applies the theo- • – study of travel and ries, methods and critiques of tourism, as an industry and as a social and to the study of the human environment, cultural activity. society and geographical space. • – study of areas which • – study of the loca- have a high concentration of buildings and tion, distribution and spatial organization infrastructure. of economic activities across the world. • Environmental geography – branch of geogra- • – branch of ge- phy that describes the spatial aspects of inter- ography with reference to the standard of actions between humans and the natural world. living and quality of life of its human in- habitants. • – branch of natural sci- • – study of the hu- ence which deals with the study of processes man, physical, fictional, theoretical, and and patterns in the like “real” geographies of the past. the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or , • – the domain of human geography. • & geopolitics – field • of human geography that is concerned – study of the distribu- with the study of both the spatially un- tion of species (biology), organisms, even outcomes of political processes and and ecosystems in geographic space and the ways in which political processes are through geological time. themselves affected by spatial structures. • – Atmospheric physics At- • – strand of critical ge- mospheric dynamics (category) ography that uses the theories and philos- • Palaeoclimatology – study of changes in ophy of to examine the spatial climate taken on the scale of the entire relations of human geography. history of Earth. 5

• – study of the dynamic cation, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissem- interface between the ocean and the land, ination of information. incorporating both the physical geogra- phy (i.e. coastal , • – study of the major politi- and ) and the human geog- cal, economic, social, cultural and sacral issues that raphy (sociology and history) of the coast. dominate the international agenda • Geomorphology – scientific study of • Law – set of rules and principles (laws) by which landforms and the processes that shape a society is governed, through enforcement by gov- them. ernmental authorities. • – scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation • Legal management – social sciences discipline that of the Earth, including its gravitational is designed for students interested in the study of field, in a three-dimensional time-varying State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Re- space. search and , legal , Crimi- • – study of the movement, dis- nal Justice, Governance, Government structure, Po- tribution, and quality of water on Earth litical history and theories, Business Organization and other planets, including the hydro- and Management, Entrepreneurship, Public Admin- logic cycle, water resources and environ- istration and Human Resource Development. mental watershed . • Paralegal studies – social sciences discipline • – mapping (charting) of wa- that is designed for students interested in the ter topographic features through the mea- study of State and its elements, Law, Law surement of the depths, the tides and cur- Practice, Legal Research and Jurisprudence, rents of a body of water and establishment legal Philosophy, , Gover- of the sea, river or lake bed topography nance, Government structure, and morphology. and theories, Business Organization and Man- • – study of glaciers, or more agement, Entrepreneurship, Public Adminis- generally ice and natural phenomena that tration and Human Resource Development. involve ice. • – study of inland waters. • Library science – study of issues related to libraries • Oceanography – branch of and the information fields. that studies the ocean. • – scientific study of natural language. • – study of soils in their natural environment. • Anthropological linguistics – study of the rela- • Landscape – science of studying tions between language and culture and the re- and improving relationships between eco- lations between human biology, and logical processes in the environment and language. particular ecosystems. • Applied linguistics – interdisciplinary field of • – study of what the ge- study that identifies, investigates, and offers ography was in times past. solutions to language-related real-life prob- • – study of world . lems. • Gerontology – study of the social, psychological and • Biolinguistics – study of the biology and evo- biological aspects of aging. lution of language. • Clinical linguistics and speech and language • History – discovery, collection, organization, and pathology – sub-discipline of linguistics which presentation of information about past events. His- involves the application of linguistic theory to tory can also mean the period of time after writ- the field of Speech-Language Pathology. ing was invented. This category includes many sub- domains of history such as, art history, diplomatic • Cognitive linguistics – branch of linguistics history, , , envi- that interprets language in terms of the con- ronmental history, , political history, cepts, sometimes universal, sometimes spe- , women’s history and many others. cific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms. • Industrial relations – multidisciplinary field that • studies the employment relationship. Comparative linguistics – branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing • – interdisciplinary field primar- languages to establish their historical related- ily concerned with the analysis, collection, classifi- ness. 6 2 BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• Computational linguistics – interdisciplinary • Philology – study of language in written his- field dealing with the statistical or rule-based torical sources; it is a combination of literary modeling of natural language from a compu- studies, history and linguistics. tational perspective. • Phonetics – branch of linguistics that com- • Developmental linguistics – study of the de- prises the study of the sounds of human velopment of linguistic ability in an individ- speech, or the equivalent aspects of sign. ual, particularly the acquisition of language in • Phonology – branch of linguistics concerned childhood. with the systematic organization of sounds in • • language acquisition – the process by languages. which humans acquire the capacity to • Phraseology – study of set or fixed expressions, perceive and comprehend language, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types as well as to produce and use words of multi-word lexical units (often collectively to communicate. referred to as phrasemes), in which the com- ponent parts of the expression take on a mean- • Dialectology – scientific study of linguistic di- ing more specific than or otherwise not pre- alect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics. dictable from the sum of their meanings when • dialectometry – the study of high levels used independently. of structure in geographical dialect net- • Pragmatics – subfield of linguistics which stud- works. ies the ways in which context contributes to • – general term for a num- meaning. ber of approaches to analyzing use of written, • Psycholinguistics – study of the psychologi- oral or sign language or any significant semi- cal and neurobiological factors that enable hu- otic event. mans to acquire, use, comprehend and pro- • Etymology – study of the history of words, duce language. their origins, and how their form and meaning • Sociolinguistics – descriptive study of the ef- have changed over time. fect of any and all aspects of society, includ- • Evolutionary linguistics – the scientific study ing cultural norms, expectations, and context, of both the origins and development of lan- on the way language is used, and the effects of guage as well as the cultural evolution of lan- language use on society. guages. • Speech science – Speech science refers to the • Forensic linguistics – application of linguistic study of production, transmission and per- knowledge, methods and insights to the foren- ception of speech. Speech science involves sic context of law, language, crime investiga- anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the oro- tion, trial, and judicial procedure. facial and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics. • Geolinguistics – branch of human geography • Stylistics – study and interpretation of texts that studies the geographic distribution of lan- from a linguistic perspective. guage or its constituent elements. • Syntax – “the study of the principles and pro- • Historical linguistics – study of language cesses by which sentences are constructed in change. particular languages.” • Lexis – total vocabulary or lexicon having • – study of meaning. items of lexical, rather than grammatical, • Writing systems and orthography – represen- meaning. tation of language in a textual medium through • Linguistic typology – subfield of linguistics the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as that studies and classifies languages according a writing system). to their structural features. • Management – act of getting people together to ac- • Morphology – identification, analysis and de- complish desired goals and objectives using avail- scription of the structure of a given language’s able resources efficiently and effectively. morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intona- • – and field of tion/stress, or implied context (words in a lex- study that deals with the content, history and effects icon are the subject matter of lexicology). of various media; in particular, the 'mass media'. • Neurolinguistics – study of the neural mecha- • – academic field that nisms in the human brain that control the com- deals with processes of human communica- prehension, production, and acquisition of lan- tion, commonly defined as the sharing of sym- guage. bols to create meaning. 7

• Philosophy – study of general and fundamental • Philosophy of education – Philosophy of ed- problems concerning matters such as existence, ucation can refer to either the academic field knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. of applied philosophy or to one of any edu- Academic philosophy is considered a science by cational that promote a specific some.[4] Others say that philosophy is not a science type or vision of education, and/or which ex- but it is instead a precursor of it.[5] The role of phi- amine the definition, goals and meaning of ed- losophy is also a philosophical question.[6] ucation.

• Philosophy of language – is concerned with • Planning four central problems: the nature of meaning, • – studies the development and language use, language cognition, and the re- use of land, protection and use of the environ- lationship between language and reality. ment, public welfare, and the design of the ur- • Philosophy of information – (PI) is the area of ban environment, including air, water, and the research that studies conceptual issues arising infrastructure passing into and out of urban ar- at the intersection of computer science, infor- eas, such as transportation, communications, mation science, information technology, and and distribution networks. philosophy. • – deals with the efficient • – is the study of top- placement of land-use activities, infrastruc- ics such as , liberty, justice, , ture, and settlement growth across a larger area rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code of land than an individual or town. by authority. • – social science discipline con- • Epistemology – study of how we know what cerned with the study of the state, government, and we know; study of the nature and scope of politics. knowledge. • – field and a method • Ethics – major branch of philosophy, encom- used in political science, characterized by an passing right conduct and good life. It is sig- empirical approach based on the comparative nificantly broader than the common concep- method. tion of analyzing right and wrong. • Game theory – study of strategic decision • Logic – of using reason making. • Philosophy of mind – branch of philosophy • Geopolitics – theory that describes the relation that studies the nature of the mind, men- between politics and territory whether on local tal events, mental functions, mental proper- or international scale. ties, consciousness and their relationship to the • political geography – field of human ge- physical body, particularly the brain. ography that is concerned with the study • – questions the assump- of both the spatially uneven outcomes tions, foundations, methods and implications of political processes and the ways in of science; questions the use and merit of which political processes are themselves science; sometimes overlaps metaphysics and affected by spatial structures. epistemology by questioning whether scien- • Ideology – set of ideas that constitute one’s tific results are actually a study of truth. goals, expectations, and actions. • Social philosophy – is the study of questions • Political economy – Political economy orig- about social behavior and interpretations of so- inally was the term for studying production, ciety and social institutions in terms of ethical buying, and selling, and their relations with values rather than empirical relations. law, custom, and government, as well as with • Aesthetics – is a branch of philosophy dealing the distribution of national income and wealth, with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with including through the budget process. Politi- the creation and appreciation of beauty. cal economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the study • Philosophy of mathematics – is the branch of of the economies of states, polities, hence po- philosophy that studies the philosophical as- litical economy. sumptions, foundations, and implications of • mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of Political , bureaucratic, adminis- mathematics is to provide an account of the trative and judicial behaviour – nature and methodology of mathematics and • – branch of political science which to understand the place of mathematics in peo- deals with the study and scientific analysis of ple’s lives. elections. 8 2 BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• Voting systems – methods by which voters applied work in several broad domains: make a choice between options, often in an counseling process and outcome; supervi- election or on a policy referendum. sion and training; career development and • – houses the implemen- counseling; and prevention and health. tation of government policy and an academic • Educational psychology – study of how discipline that studies this implementation and humans learn in educational settings, that prepares civil servants for this work. the effectiveness of educational interven- tions, the psychology of teaching, and the • – generally the principled of schools as organiza- guide to action taken by the administra- tions. tive or executive branches of the state • with regard to a class of issues in a man- Forensic psychology – intersection be- ner consistent with law and institutional tween psychology and the courtroom— customs. criminal, civil, family and Federal. • • Local government studies – form of pub- Health psychology – concerned with un- lic administration which in a majority of derstanding how biological, psychologi- contexts, exists as the lowest tier of ad- cal, environmental, and cultural factors ministration within the a given state. are involved in physical health and illness. • • International politics – study of rela- Industrial and organizational psychology tionships between countries, including – scientific study of employees, work- the roles of states, inter-governmental places, and organizations. • organizations (IGOs), international non- Legal psychology – involves empirical, governmental organizations (INGOs), psychological research of the law, legal non-governmental organizations (NGOs) institutions, and people who come into and multinational corporations (MNCs). contact with the law. • Media psychology – seeks an understand- • theory – study of inter- ing of how people perceive, interpret, use, national relations from a theoretical perspec- and respond to a media-rich world. tive; it attempts to provide a conceptual frame- • work upon which international relations can be Military psychology – research, design analyzed. and application of psychological theo- ries and experimentation data towards • Psychology – science of behavior and mental pro- understanding, predicting and counter- cesses ing behaviours either in friendly or en- emy forces or civilian population that may • Applied psychology – use of psychological be undesirable, threatening or potentially principles and theories to overcome problems dangerous to the conduct of military op- in other areas, such as mental health, business erations. management, education, health, product de- • Occupational health psychology – con- sign, ergonomics, and law. cerned with the psychosocial characteris- • Psychological testing – field characterized tics of workplaces that contribute to the by the use of samples of behavior in or- development of health-related problems der to assess psychological construct(s), in people who work. such as cognitive and emotional function- • Pastoral psychology – application of ing, about a given individual. psychological methods and interpretive • Clinical psychology – integration of sci- frameworks to religious traditions, as well ence, theory and clinical knowledge for as to both religious and irreligious indi- the purpose of understanding, preventing, viduals. and relieving psychologically based dis- • Political psychology – interdisciplinary tress or dysfunction and to promote sub- academic field dedicated to understand- jective well-being and personal develop- ing political science, politicians and polit- ment. ical behavior through the use of psycho- • Community psychology – Sense of com- logical theories. munity Social capital • Psychometrics – field of study concerned • Consumer behaviour – study of when, with the theory and technique of psycho- why, how, and where people do or do not logical measurement, which includes the buy a product. measurement of knowledge, abilities, at- • Counseling psychology – psychological titudes, personality traits, and educational specialty that encompasses research and measurement. 9

• School psychology – field that applies • Experimental psychology – application of ex- principles of clinical psychology and ed- perimental methods to the study of behavior ucational psychology to the diagnosis and and the processes that underlie it. treatment of children’s and adolescents’ • Forensic psychology – intersection between behavioral and learning problems. psychology and the courtroom—criminal, • Sport psychology – interdisciplinary sci- civil, family and Federal. ence that draws on knowledge from the • Health psychology – concerned with under- fields of Kinesiology and Psychology. standing how biological, psychological, envi- • Systems psychology – branch of applied ronmental, and cultural factors are involved in psychology that studies human behaviour physical health and illness. and experience in complex systems. • Humanistic psychology – psychological per- • Traffic psychology – study of the behavior spective which rose to prominence in the mid- of road users and the psychological pro- 20th century in the context of the tertiary sec- cesses underlying that behavior (Rothen- tor beginning to produce in the most devel- gatter, 1997, 223) as well as to the rela- oped countries in the world more than the tionship between behavior and accidents secondary sector was producing, for the first • Behavior analysis – time in demanding based on the proposition that all things that or- and new understanding of human capital. ganisms do can and should be regarded as be- • Industrial and organizational psychology – sci- haviors, and that psychological disorders are entific study of employees, workplaces, and best treated by altering behavior patterns or organizations. modifying the environment. • therapy – allied health profession and • Biopsychology – application of the principles one of the expressive therapies, consisting of of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the an interpersonal process in which a trained study of physiological, genetic, and develop- music therapist uses music to help clients to mental mechanisms of behavior in human and improve or maintain their health. non-human animals. • • – subdiscipline of psy- Neuropsychology – studies the structure and chology exploring internal mental processes. function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors. • Clinical psychology – integration of science, • theory and clinical knowledge for the pur- – branch of psychol- pose of understanding, preventing, and reliev- ogy that studies personality and individual dif- ing psychologically based distress or dysfunc- ferences. tion and to promote subjective well-being and • Psychometrics – field of study concerned with personal development. the theory and technique of psychological • Cultural psychology – field of psychology measurement, which includes the measure- which assumes the idea that culture and mind ment of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, per- are inseparable, and that psychological theo- sonality traits, and educational measurement. ries grounded in one culture are likely to be • Psychology of religion – application of psy- limited in applicability when applied to a dif- chological methods and interpretive frame- ferent culture. works to religious traditions, as well as to both • – scientific study religious and irreligious individuals. of systematic psychological changes, emo- • Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the tional changes, and perception changes that relationship between physical stimuli and the occur in human beings over the course of their sensations and perceptions they affect. life span. • Sensation and perception psychology – • Educational psychology – study of how hu- • mans learn in educational settings, the effec- Public administration – houses the implementation tiveness of educational interventions, the psy- of government policy and an academic discipline chology of teaching, and the social psychology that studies this implementation and that prepares of schools as organizations. civil servants for this work. • – approach in the so- • – professional and academic discipline cial and natural sciences that examines psycho- that seeks to improve the quality of life and well- logical traits such as memory, perception, and being of an individual, group, or community by in- language from a modern evolutionary perspec- tervening through research, policy, community or- tive. ganizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of 10 8 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS

those afflicted with poverty or any real or perceived • History of library science social injustices and violations of their human rights. • History of linguistics • Sociology – studies society using various methods • History of management of empirical investigation and critical analysis to un- • History of political science derstand human social activity, from the micro level • of individual agency and interaction to the macro History of international studies level of systems and social structure. • History of international relations • History of political economy • Criminology – study of the nature, extent, • History of public administration causes, and control of criminal behavior in • both the individual and in society. History of psychology • • Demography – statistical study of human pop- History of social psychology ulations and sub-populations. • History of social work • Urban and - the analysis of so- • History of sociology cial life in metropolitan and non-metropolitan • History of criminal justice areas. • History of demography • – the process of meeting human development goals while sustaining the abil- ity of natural systems to continue to provide the 4 Education and degrees natural resources and natural system services upon which the economy of human society depends. • Bachelor of Social Science • – focuses on the interdisci- • Bachelor of Science plinary perspective of the sustainability . Programs include instruction in sustainable devel- • Bachelor of Arts opment, geography, environmental policies, ethics, • Bachelor of Economics ecology, , city and regional planning, economics, natural resources, sociology, and anthropology, many of which are considered so- cial sciences in their own right. 5 General social science concepts

• Ethical research in social science 3 History of social science • Open and closed systems in social science

• History of the social sciences • Philosophy of social science

• History of anthropology • History of archaeology 6 Social science organizations • History of • History of communication studies 7 Social science publications • History of cultural studies • • History of development studies List of social science journals • History of economics • History of education 8 Social scientists • History of environmental studies • • History of List of anthropologists • • List of business theorists • History of human geography • List of developmental psychologists • History of history • List of economists • History of information science • • History of journalism List of socialist economists • History of law • List of educational psychologists 11

• List of 11 External links • List of psychologists • Social Science Virtual Library

• List of political scientists • UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Labora- tory • List of social psychologists • Intute: Social Sciences (UK) • List of sociologists • History of Social Science • List of urban planners • On the Social Sciences Critical Essays

• List of urban theorists • praxeology as the method of the social sciences • in defense of extreme apriorism 9 See also

• Outline of science

• Outline of • Outline of physical science • Outline of earth science • Outline of formal science • Outline of social science • Outline of

10 References

[1] Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1st ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. pp. 49–71. ISBN 0-679-45077-7.

[2] "... modern science is a discovery as well as an inven- tion. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstrac- tions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regu- larities and securing their law-like descriptions.” —p.vii, J. L. Heilbron, (2003, editor-in-chief). The Oxford Com- panion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Ox- ford Press. ISBN 0-19-511229-6.

[3] “science”. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam- Webster, Inc. Retrieved 2011-10-16. 3 a: knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method b: such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena

[4] COLIN MCGINN, New York Times, March 2012

[5] Friedland, New York Times, April 2012

[6] Philosophy: The Journal of the Royal Institute of Philos- ophy, 81(316), 189–207. 19 p./ Priest, Graham, April 2006] 12 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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