The Biomolecular Archaeology of the Black Drink: Alkaloid Residue Analysis of Ilex Vomitoria on Experimental Vessels and Applications for Prehistoric Specimens

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Biomolecular Archaeology of the Black Drink: Alkaloid Residue Analysis of Ilex Vomitoria on Experimental Vessels and Applications for Prehistoric Specimens The Biomolecular Archaeology of the Black Drink: Alkaloid Residue Analysis of Ilex vomitoria on Experimental Vessels and Applications for Prehistoric Specimens Paper presented at the 2011 Southeastern Archaeological Conference, Jacksonville, Florida Shannon Tushingham1*, Matthew Palumbo2, Charles H. McNutt3, and Ulla Anderson4 1Department of Anthropology, Washington State University’ 2Department of Biology, University of Florida; 3Department of Anthropology, University of Memphis; 4Department of Chemistry, UC Berkeley; *Corresponding Author: [email protected] ABSTRACT Early historic accounts document widespread use of a purgative known as “the black drink”, a caffeinated ceremonial tea famous for its use in purification rituals by elite males. The beverage was prepared from roasted leaves and twigs of yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria), an evergreen shrub native to the southeastern coastal plain. Prehistoric use is poorly understood but often associated with shell cups found in mortuary contexts and the SECC. Our work, designed to track ancient use of psychoactive plants via Gas Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry, includes identification of medicinal tea biomarkers, experimentation with brewing black drink, and residue extraction from pottery/shell specimens. Sampling included preparing and extracting a range of experimental vessels which served different functions in black drink cooking and consumption (cooking vessels, clay and shell cups), with extractions taken directly from the vessels and from tea residue on vessel interiors. Our findings suggest that chemical changes occur through the cooking process, but the presence of the biomarker caffeine remains stable and correlated the experimental vessels to the Ilex vomitoria plant in all but one case. We also describe the non‐destructive method we developed where alkaloid residues can be extracted directly from the matrix of prehistoric shell cups and pottery vessels through a sonication process. INTRODUCTION Early historic accounts document widespread use of a purgative known as “the black drink”, a caffeinated ceremonial tea used as an everyday beverage by many southeastern Indians, but perhaps most famous for its use in dramatic purification rituals by elite males. The beverage was prepared from roasted leaves and twigs of Ilex vomitoria, a plant popularly known as the yaupon holly. The black drink seems to have been part of a religious or ceremonial system, reaching back perhaps thousands of years. As the black drink was consumed in Figure 1. 16th-century engraving by Jacques le Moyne of special marine shell cups that were often buried by high Timucan Black Drink Ceremony, Florida. Note seated status historic southeastern Indians, it is thought that individuals vomiting, women in right foreground prehistoric shell cups found in similar contexts, brewing black drink, and European observers in left foreground. Copy from Theodor de Bry (Frankfort: Typis particularly those engraved with Southeastern J. Wecheli, 1591). Smithsonian Institution National Ceremonial Complex iconographic symbols, may have Anthropological Archives negative no. 57,569. Tushingham et al. 2011‐2 served a similar function. This is, however, speculation, as we simply have no direct evidence of the medicinal teas that may or may not have been used in these vessels. In this paper we describe our research that is designed to track ancient use of the black drink and other ritual beverages via Gas Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry. This work involves the identification of medicinal tea biomarkers, experimentation with brewing black drink, and residue extraction from pottery and shell specimens. We are specifically interested in understanding the chemistry of these plants, looking at how this chemistry might change through the cooking process, and how we might expect residues with identifiable alkaloid residues to preserve archaeologically. Our greater intent is to establish non‐destructive extraction methods that can be used on prehistoric specimens. HISTORIC NATIVE AMERICAN USE There are ample historic accounts of Native American use of the black drink dating to as early as the 16th century (see Hudson 1979, Merrill 1979 and Fairbanks 1979 for summaries of this material). Perhaps the most famous image of a black drink ceremonial is shown in an engraving from the 1560s by a member of a Florida expedition where explorers recorded observations of local native people (Figure 1). In this illustration we see a chief and his advisors drinking the black drink in shell cups during a meeting. Note the men profusely regurgitating the beverage at their feet, the women preparing the drink in large pots in the lower right, and the European explorers observing the spectacle in the lower left. From the ethnography, it is clear that the black drink was connected to purity, which found its most dramatic expression in those contexts where it was regurgitated. The beverage was consistently restricted to certain individuals, in particular men of a certain age or status. Though used to induce vomiting in some occasions, the black drink was used in other ritual contexts—ballgames, feasting, council meetings, burial ceremonies—and it was also often used simply as an everyday social beverage. In fact, Figure 2. Distribution of black drink use among ethno-historic Native there is no evidence that there is anything Americans (Herb Roe 2008; From Merrill 1979:44) about Ilex vomitoria that actually causes vomiting. For example, it was consumed by many early colonials as a tea popularly known as cassina. It is possible that another emetic plant was added to the tea, or perhaps regurgitation occurred simply because Indians drank copious amounts of the hot fluid during these ceremonies—by some accounts over 6 gallons of the brew! Tushingham et al. 2011‐3 From the ethnographic record it seems that the black drink was used in most places where Ilex vomitoria was available (Figures 2, 3). There is evidence it was traded to interior groups, perhaps along with marine shell cups, and some groups tended patches of the plant in locations where it would not normally grow. PREHISTORIC USE Figure 3. Natural Range of Ilex vomitoria Aiton (Merrill 1979:42) Prehistoric use of Ilex vomitoria and the emergence of the black drink ritual is poorly understood. It is often associated with marine shell cups, especially those found in mortuary contexts. As shell cups or dippers were used by historic Indians as black drink containers or drinking vessels, it is thought that they may have had a similar use in the past. Also, as shell cups were often buried with individuals of a certain stature (Figure 4), their presence in prehistoric mortuary contexts is similarly linked to high status ceremonialism. Some of the best evidence for some sort of drinking ritual, possibly involving the black drink, dates to the Mississippian period. It is most famously associated with shell cups engraved with Southeastern Ceremonial Complex iconographic symbols (Figure 5). Occasionally these cups and associated pottery are found with a black residue on their interior walls. In a 1979 survey of possible archaeological evidence for the black drink Jerald Milanich hypothesized that the origins of the black drink or some sort of drinking ritual date back earlier than the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex—perhaps as early as Hopewell. He based this assertion on the fact that the cups were widely distributed in mortuary and/or ceremonial contexts similar to those observed in the ethnographic record. PLANT BIOLOGY Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is a dioecious shrub or small tree species of the holly family (Aquifoliaceae). This species is native to the coastal plain of the southeastern United States where it is distributed along the Atlantic coast from southern Virginia to central Florida and on the Gulf Coast from central Florida to east Texas. Determining the precise boundaries of this range is confounded by the probable Figure 4. Burial of Timucan warriors in a mound with weapons and shell cups as grave goods. From De Bry, Florida, pl. XIX. Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, dispersal of yaupon by Native American trade to negative no. 57-559. Tushingham et al. 2011‐4 areas beyond its natural distribution (Catesby 1974, Brickell 2000, MacDougal 2003). Such evidence for human dispersal of yaupon makes it difficult to determine whether yaupon’s distribution beyond the coastal plain is of natural or human origin. Within its native range, yaupon grows in coastal scrub, pineland, and hardwood forest habitats (Johnson and Barbour 1990). Yaupon foliage is consumed by numerous taxa of insect herbivores including a specialist holly leaf‐miner (Phytomyza vomitoriae) and both leaves and twigs are browsed by white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). In spring (March‐ April), yaupon produces small white flowers that are insect pollinated (mainly hymenopteran species) and its fruit is a bird‐dispersed drupe that turns red at maturity. Ilex vomitoria is a psychostimulant plant that contains caffeine. Although another holly species, Ilex cassine, produces small quantities of caffeine, yaupon is the only known North American plant species that produces significant quantities of caffeine and is the source of cassina, the stimulating Amerindian beverage (Edwards and Bennett 2005). Two South American congeners produce caffeine, Ilex paraguariensis and I. guayusa. It is thought vomitoria has its origins from the south. Mean foliar, dry‐weight caffeine concentrations of wild‐type yaupon
Recommended publications
  • Approved Plant List 10/04/12
    FLORIDA The best time to plant a tree is 20 years ago, the second best time to plant a tree is today. City of Sunrise Approved Plant List 10/04/12 Appendix A 10/4/12 APPROVED PLANT LIST FOR SINGLE FAMILY HOMES SG xx Slow Growing “xx” = minimum height in Small Mature tree height of less than 20 feet at time of planting feet OH Trees adjacent to overhead power lines Medium Mature tree height of between 21 – 40 feet U Trees within Utility Easements Large Mature tree height greater than 41 N Not acceptable for use as a replacement feet * Native Florida Species Varies Mature tree height depends on variety Mature size information based on Betrock’s Florida Landscape Plants Published 2001 GROUP “A” TREES Common Name Botanical Name Uses Mature Tree Size Avocado Persea Americana L Bahama Strongbark Bourreria orata * U, SG 6 S Bald Cypress Taxodium distichum * L Black Olive Shady Bucida buceras ‘Shady Lady’ L Lady Black Olive Bucida buceras L Brazil Beautyleaf Calophyllum brasiliense L Blolly Guapira discolor* M Bridalveil Tree Caesalpinia granadillo M Bulnesia Bulnesia arboria M Cinnecord Acacia choriophylla * U, SG 6 S Group ‘A’ Plant List for Single Family Homes Common Name Botanical Name Uses Mature Tree Size Citrus: Lemon, Citrus spp. OH S (except orange, Lime ect. Grapefruit) Citrus: Grapefruit Citrus paradisi M Trees Copperpod Peltophorum pterocarpum L Fiddlewood Citharexylum fruticosum * U, SG 8 S Floss Silk Tree Chorisia speciosa L Golden – Shower Cassia fistula L Green Buttonwood Conocarpus erectus * L Gumbo Limbo Bursera simaruba * L
    [Show full text]
  • Yaupon Holly Culture and Pest Management for Tea Production and Ornamental Use1 Matthew A
    ENY-2054 Yaupon Holly Culture and Pest Management for Tea Production and Ornamental Use1 Matthew A. Borden, Mark A. Wilhelm, and Adam G. Dale2 Yaupon holly, Ilex vomitoria Aiton (Figure 1), is an ever- green woody plant native to the southeastern United States. The species is widely used as a landscape ornamental plant because it tolerates a wide range of soil and environmental conditions, is available in various forms, and is well-suited for Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (https://edis.ifas.ufl. edu/topic_ffl) because it requires few inputs and attracts wildlife, especially native birds. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in cultivating the plant for the Figure 1. Yaupon holly, Ilex vomitoria. caffeinated beverages that can be made from its leaves. Credits: Jeff McMillian, hosted by the USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database. Although commonly called yaupon tea, it should be noted Illustration credit: Mary Vaux Walcott, North American Wild Flowers, vol. that the word “tea” properly refers to beverages produced 3 (1925) from the tea plant, Camellia sinensis. Infusions made with all other plants, such as herbs and yaupon holly, are Yaupon holly typically blooms for several weeks between considered tisanes. For commercial growers and homeown- March and May with small white flowers, sometimes tinged ers to effectively grow and maintain yaupon holly for tea with pink. As with all Ilex species, yaupon holly is dioe- production or as an ornamental plant, it is important to cious, meaning individual plants are either male or female. be familiar with its pest susceptibility and management Male flowers are more abundant and produce pollen, while recommendations.
    [Show full text]
  • Creating a Sense of Communityamong the Capital City Cherokees
    CREATING A SENSE OF COMMUNITYAMONG THE CAPITAL CITY CHEROKEES by Pamela Parks Tinker A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Interdisciplinary Studies Committee: ____________________________________ Director ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Program Director ____________________________________ Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date:________________________________ Spring 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Creating a Sense Of Community Among Capital City Cherokees A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Interdisciplinary Studies at George Mason University By Pamela Parks Tinker Bachelor of Science Medical College of Virginia/Virginia Commonwealth University 1975 Director: Meredith H. Lair, Professor Department of History Spring Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, Virginia Copyright 2016 Pamela Parks Tinker All Rights Reserved ii Acknowledgements Thanks to the Capital City Cherokee Community for allowing me to study the formation of the community and for making time for personal interviews. I am grateful for the guidance offered by my Thesis Committee of three professors. Thesis Committee Chair, Professor Maria Dakake, also served as my advisor over a period of years in planning a course of study that truly has been interdisciplinary. It has been a joyful situation to be admitted to a variety of history, religion and spirituality, folklore, ethnographic writing, and research courses under the umbrella of one Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies program. Much of the inspiration for this thesis occurred at George Mason University in Professor Debra Lattanzi Shutika’s Folklore class on “Sense of Place” in which the world of Ethnography opened up for me.
    [Show full text]
  • History and Status of the American Black Bear in Mississippi
    History and status of the American black bear in Mississippi Stephanie L. Simek1,5, Jerrold L. Belant1, Brad W. Young2, Catherine Shropshire3, and Bruce D. Leopold4 1Carnivore Ecology Laboratory, Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Mississippi State University, Box 9690, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA 2Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, 1505 Eastover Drive, Jackson, MS 39211, USA 3Mississippi Wildlife Federation, 517 Cobblestone Court, Suite 2, Madison, MS 39110, USA 4Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Box 9690, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA Abstract: Historically abundant throughout Mississippi, American black bears (Ursus americanus) have declined due to habitat loss and overharvest. By the early 1900s, the bear population was estimated at ,12 individuals, and Mississippi closed black bear hunting in 1932. However, habitat loss continued and by 1980 suitable habitat was estimated at 20% (20,234 km2) of historic levels (101,171 km2) with the decline continuing. Although black bear abundance is currently unknown, a recent increase in occurrence reports and documented reproduction suggests the population may be increasing. There have been 21 reported nuisance complaints since 2006, of which 7 were apiary damage. Additionally, 31 bear mortalities were reported since 1972; 80% were human caused. Government and private organizations have emphasized education on bear ecology and human–bear coexistence, while habitat restoration through land retirement programs (e.g.,
    [Show full text]
  • Archeology of the Funeral Mound, Ocmulgee National Monument, Georgia
    1.2.^5^-3 rK 'rm ' ^ -*m *~ ^-mt\^ -» V-* ^JT T ^T A . ESEARCH SERIES NUMBER THREE Clemson Universii akCHEOLOGY of the FUNERAL MOUND OCMULGEE NATIONAL MONUMENT, GEORGIA TIONAL PARK SERVICE • U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 3ERAL JCATK5N r -v-^tfS i> &, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fred A. Seaton, Secretary National Park Service Conrad L. Wirth, Director Ihis publication is one of a series of research studies devoted to specialized topics which have been explored in con- nection with the various areas in the National Park System. It is printed at the Government Printing Office and may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price $1 (paper cover) ARCHEOLOGY OF THE FUNERAL MOUND OCMULGEE National Monument, Georgia By Charles H. Fairbanks with introduction by Frank M. Settler ARCHEOLOGICAL RESEARCH SERIES NUMBER THREE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE • U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR • WASHINGTON 1956 THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM, of which Ocmulgee National Monument is a unit, is dedi- cated to conserving the scenic, scientific, and his- toric heritage of the United States for the benefit and enjoyment of its people. Foreword Ocmulgee National Monument stands as a memorial to a way of life practiced in the Southeast over a span of 10,000 years, beginning with the Paleo-Indian hunters and ending with the modern Creeks of the 19th century. Here modern exhibits in the monument museum will enable you to view the panorama of aboriginal development, and here you can enter the restoration of an actual earth lodge and stand where forgotten ceremonies of a great tribe were held.
    [Show full text]
  • Holly - Ilex Sp
    Holly - Ilex sp. General Information: Available in both evergreen and deciduous species, holly is grown for its toothed glossy green leaves and its showy berries, which are red in most popular varieties, but can also be a showy yellow. Holly can range from under one foot to over 80, and is found in both temperate and tropical regions. Both male and female plants are needed for fruiting. Family: Aquifoliaceae Lighting: Can tolerate both sun and shade, although semi-shade is preferable in midsummer. Increased light tends to produce dense foliage. Temperature: In general, evergreen varieties are hardy to zone 7, deciduous varieties to zone 5. Most varieties will require some frost protection, and all varieties should be sheltered from strong or cold winds. Watering: Needs a fair amount of water, especially before fruit production. Holly can be badly damaged by draught. Reduce watering in winter. Likes misting, unless it is in full sun. Feeding: Every two weeks during growth, using half strength liquid plant food, or bonsai food. Pruning and wiring: Cut back new shoots to the one or two nodes closest to the trunk. Branches can be very brittle, so shaping is best done by pruning rather than wiring. If wiring must be done, it is best to wire in spring- summer, taking care to protect the bark. Leaf pruning to reduce leaf size is possible. Suitable for all sizes and styles, although the evergreen varieties do not take as well to broom style. Ilex asprella has a tendency towards horzontal growth which must be compensated for; Ilex vomitoria, on the other hand, has a strong inclination to grow upwards.
    [Show full text]
  • Systematics, Climate, and Ecology of Fossil and Extant Nyssa (Nyssaceae, Cornales) and Implications of Nyssa Grayensis Sp
    East Tennessee State University Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University Electronic Theses and Dissertations Student Works 8-2013 Systematics, Climate, and Ecology of Fossil and Extant Nyssa (Nyssaceae, Cornales) and Implications of Nyssa grayensis sp. nov. from the Gray Fossil Site, Northeast Tennessee Nathan R. Noll East Tennessee State University Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.etsu.edu/etd Part of the Biodiversity Commons, Climate Commons, Paleontology Commons, and the Plant Biology Commons Recommended Citation Noll, Nathan R., "Systematics, Climate, and Ecology of Fossil and Extant Nyssa (Nyssaceae, Cornales) and Implications of Nyssa grayensis sp. nov. from the Gray Fossil Site, Northeast Tennessee" (2013). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1204. https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1204 This Thesis - Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Works at Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Systematics, Climate, and Ecology of Fossil and Extant Nyssa (Nyssaceae, Cornales) and Implications of Nyssa grayensis sp. nov. from the Gray Fossil Site, Northeast Tennessee ___________________________ A thesis presented to the faculty of the Department of Biological Sciences East Tennessee State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Biology ___________________________ by Nathan R. Noll August 2013 ___________________________ Dr. Yu-Sheng (Christopher) Liu, Chair Dr. Tim McDowell Dr. Foster Levy Keywords: Nyssa, Endocarp, Gray Fossil Site, Miocene, Pliocene, Karst ABSTRACT Systematics, Climate, and Ecology of Fossil and Extant Nyssa (Nyssaceae, Cornales) and Implications of Nyssa grayensis sp.
    [Show full text]
  • Foster Holly Production Ilex X Attenuata ‘Fosteri’ (Foster Holly) by Mark Halcomb UT Extension Area Nursery Specialist (Revised 5-28-2012)
    Foster Holly Production Ilex x attenuata ‘Fosteri’ (Foster Holly) by Mark Halcomb UT Extension Area Nursery Specialist (Revised 5-28-2012) The secret to growing quality Foster Hollies is two shearings per year, a wide base and full bottom foliage. Full lower foliage is attained with a sufficiently wide spacing to allow sunlight penetration to the bottom foliage and weed control around the plant to prevent weeds from shading out the bottom foliage. Propagation Ilex x attenuata 'Fosteri' resulted from a cross of Ilex cassine x I. opaca. Seed propagation of Foster will yield 50 percent I. opaca. Cutting propagation is preferred. Cuttings are stuck Aug. to Nov. and can be potted in 6-10 weeks generally. A plant no less than 12 to 18” tall is transplanted in the field. Liner Selection Consider planting 1 gallon liners, at least for the first crop, to get a good start. During the first year, also consider buying rooted cuttings and plant them into a liner row or a transplant bed for 1-2 years with irrigation or pot them into #2 containers. Let them grow a larger root system before being spaced out to dig. This frees up some land and helps insure survival, taking a larger plant to the field. One of every 25 or 4 percent should be Foster # 4 males interplanted to increase fruit set if potential customers will be brought to the field. Consider growing a small number of the male #4's for those retailers and landscapers that realize and promote greater fruit set. Also consider growing a few Ilex x attenuata 'Blazer', 'Big John'; Ilex opaca 'Carolina #2' and 'Greenleaf'.
    [Show full text]
  • Ritual Black Drink Consumption at Cahokia
    Ritual Black Drink consumption at Cahokia Patricia L. Crowna,1, Thomas E. Emersonb, Jiyan Guc, W. Jeffrey Hurstd, Timothy R. Pauketate, and Timothy Wardc aDepartment of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131; bIllinois State Archaeological Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820; cKeck Center for Instrumental and Biochemical Comparative Archaeology, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Millsaps College, Jackson, MS 39210; dHershey Technical Center, Hershey, PA 17033; and eDepartment of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801 Edited* by Bruce Smith, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, and approved June 29, 2012 (received for review May 18, 2012) Chemical analyses of organic residues in fragments of pottery 14 subordinate single and multiple mound centers, and many from the large site of Cahokia and surrounding smaller sites in hundreds of small rural farmsteads (4, 6, 7). Illinois reveal theobromine, caffeine, and ursolic acid, biomarkers Cahokia’s rapid growth was generated by considerable immi- for species of Ilex (holly) used to prepare the ritually important gration drawn from regional populations of several adjacent Black Drink. As recorded during the historic period, men consumed states. This suggests that Cahokia was multiethnic and linguisti- Black Drink in portions of the American Southeast for ritual puri- cally diverse. Early models of Cahokian growth postulated a wide fication. This first demonstrated discovery of biomarkers for Ilex trading network as pivotal to that process; however, more recent occurs in beaker vessels dating between A.D. 1050 and 1250 from research has shown that large-scale acquisition and exchanges Cahokia, located far north of the known range of the holly species were focused on resources in the nearby Ozark highlands.
    [Show full text]
  • Native Plants of Accomack and Northampton Plant Accommack and Northampton Natives!
    Native Plants of Accomack and Northampton Plant Accommack and Northampton Natives! For the purposes of this guide, plants native to Virginia’s Eastern Shore - Accomack and Northampton counties - are those that have been part of the local ecology prior to John Smith’s landing and are adapted to the Shore’s local soils and climate conditions, resulting in many benefits to the region, its residents and migratory birds. The Eastern Shore native plants featured in this guide were selected because they are attractive, relatively easy for the home gardener to acquire, easy to maintain, and offer various benefits to wildlife and the environment. This guide to Accomack and Northampton native plants is being provided through the “Plant ES Natives” campaign, initiated by the Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program through its Virginia Seaside Heritage Program, and developed with the assistance of a planning team representing the following partners: Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay Barrier Islands Center Eastern Shore Environmental Education Council Eastern Shore Soil and Water Conservation District Maplewood Gardens The Nature Conservancy University of Virginia Anheuser Busch Coastal Research Center The “Plant ES Natives” campaign Virginia Cooperative Extension logo depicts a branch of Downy Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation - Eastern Shore Regional Office Serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea) Virginia Department of Environmental Quality - Office of Environmental Education and a Scarlet Tanager, a migratory Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries songbird which needs the berries Virginia Master Gardeners and insects provided by this and Virginia Master Naturalists other Eastern Shore native plants to fuel their long journey. The Shore is To learn more visit - www.deq.virginia.gov/coastal/go-native.html.
    [Show full text]
  • The Judicial History of the Cherokee Nation from 1721 to 1835
    This dissertation has been 64—13,325 microfilmed exactly as received DICKSON, John L ois, 1918- THE JUDICIAL HISTORY OF THE CHEROKEE NATION FROM 1721 TO 1835. The University of Oklahoma, Ph.D., 1964 History, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE JUDICIAL HISTORY OF THE CHEROKEE NATION FROM 1721 TO 1835 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY JOHN LOIS DICKSON Norman, Oklahoma 1964 THE JUDICIAL HISTORY OF THE CHEROKEE NATION FROM 1721 TO 1835 APPROVED BY A M ^ rIfaA:. IÀ j ^CV ' “ DISSERTATION (XMHTTEE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Grateful acknowledgement is extended to the follow­ ing persons vdio have helped me both directly and indirectly: Miss Gabrille W. Jones and Mrs. H. H. Keene of the Thomas Gilcrease Institute of American History and Art, Ttilsa, Okla­ homa; Miss Sue Thorton and Mrs. Reba Cox of Northeastern State College, Tahlequah, Oklahoma; Miss Louise Cook, Mrs. Dorothy Williams, Mrs. Relia Looney, and Mrs. Mar on B. At­ kins of the Oklahoma Historical Society; and to Mrs. Alice Timmons of the Phillips Collection as well as the entire staff of the University of Oklahoma Library. Particularly, I would like to thank Mr. Raymond Pillar of Southeastern State College Library for his help in making materials avail­ able to me. I also wish to thank all members of my doctoral com­ mittee at the University of Oklahoma and also President Allen £• Shearer, Dr. James Morrison, and Dr. Don Brown of South­ eastern State College.
    [Show full text]
  • Plant Materials Fact Sheet Planting Native Species for Flower Rich
    Plant Materials Fact Sheet No. 4 F L O Developing Planting Mixtures for R I D Pollinator Habitats A January 2012 each season of the year (Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter). A list of NRCS recommended forbs, legumes, grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees that are adapted to Florida, known to be beneficial to pollinators, their flowering periods, and are commercially available is attached. Mixtures of herbaceous material should be planted at the rate of 40 and 60 live seed per square foot with no more than 25% of the seed mix being made up of a native warm season grass seed. Consult the Plant Materials Fact Sheet – Planting Native Species for An agricultural landscape that includes Pollinator Rich Habitat permanent areas of cover adjacent to (http://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/pub cultivated field, orchards, etc., which are lic/FL/FLPMFS3.pdf ), for information regarding planted to a diverse mixtures of flowering site preparation, planting methods, and stand plants, create the type of flower-rich foraging management for herbaceous planting. habitat necessary for pollinators and other beneficial insects. Field or orchard margins, If shrubs and trees are used in the pollinator road edges, pivot corners, and areas are habitat planting for field borders, a minimum unsuitable for production, such as steep slopes of 4 plants of each species should be planted in or habitat adjacent to wetlands are all areas each planting block with a total of no more that can be planted to such habitat. Even than 24 shrubs or trees total per ½ acre small strips or patches can provide significant planting block.
    [Show full text]