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Climate Change, Biodiversity Conservation, and the Role of Protected Areas: an Australian Perspective Brendan G

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Climate Change, Biodiversity Conservation, and the Role of Protected Areas: an Australian Perspective Brendan G Climate change, biodiversity conservation, and the role of protected areas: An Australian perspective Brendan G. Mackey1, James E.M. Watson2*, Geoffrey Hope3 and Sandy Gilmore1,4 Abstract. The reality of human-forced rapid climate change presents an unprecedented challenge to the conservation of AUTHORS’ ADDRESSES: biodiversity in Australia. In this paper we consider the role of Australia’s current protected area network in mitigating biodiversity 1 The Fenner School of loss across the continent. We do this by first examining the evolutionary history of Australia’s extant fauna and flora and, Environment & Society specifically, the reasons why species have persisted through major changes in climate during repeated glacial cycles, and The Australian National through the massive climatic changes that occurred during the Miocene and Pliocene climate change events. We then review University the current major threats to Australian native species, including inappropriate fire regimes, feral mammalian predators and Canberra, ACT 0200 herbivores, invasive plants, and habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation by land use activities (especially commercial Email: brendan. logging, water impoundment and diversion, agricultural expansion, and the intensification of pastoralism). We argue that these [email protected] current threats are interfering with the natural responses to climate change that native species have relied upon in the past, 2* The Ecology Centre thereby undermining their resilience in the face of current, human-forced climate change. School of Integrative Biology We predict that the current approach to conservation planning based on accumulating small amounts of protected lands across University of the continent, using a set of arbitrary conservation ‘targets’, will not be effective in mitigating the impacts of human-forced climate Queensland change on Australia’s biodiversity. We argue that an Australia-wide conservation strategy is needed that incorporates a larger St Lucia, QLD, 4072 adaptation agenda- one that recognizes the importance of protecting and restoring those natural processes and responses that *Corresponding author have enabled species to persist through past environmental change. The following key elements are a crucial component of an Email: james. effective conservation plan: identifying and protecting important climate refugia (both ecological and evolutionary); conserving jameswatson@gmail. the large-scale migration and connectivity corridors that operate at continent scales (including regional networks of habitat com patches and habitat ‘stepping stones’); maintaining viable populations of all extant species to maximize intra-species genetic 3Department of diversity and thus options for local adaptation; reducing all current threatening processes at the landscape scale across the Archaeology and continent; and protecting and restoring key large scale ecological processes (especially hydro-ecology and ecological fire Natural History regimes). Finally, underpinning climatic adaptation responses must be a thorough understanding of the special role Australia’s &ROOHJHRI$VLD3DFL¿F extensive intact landscapes will play in the future protection of Australia’s native biodiversity. The Australian National University Canberra, ACT 0200 INTRODUCTION Australia’s biodiversity crisis is also evident by the number 4 Current Address: Bush Australia’s landscapes have been evolving for around 60 of native species that have seriously declined in range and Heritage Australia PO Box 329, Flinders million years in isolation from other continents. In this abundance since 1788 (the time of European settlement). Lane, Melbourne, VIC time the continent has drifted from higher latitudes towards Approximately 13% of all Australia’s known vertebrate species 8009 the equator as the global oceans have gradually cooled, DUH QRZ OLVWHG LQ $XVWUDOLD¶V RI¿FLDO QDWLRQDO (QYLURQPHQW resulting in extensive new sub-tropical environments (Nix Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, as either 1982). Unlike much of the higher latitudes in the Northern ‘threatened’ or ‘vulnerable’ (Table 1) and between 1995 and Hemisphere, Australia was only marginally affected by 2005, the number of terrestrial bird and mammals assessed glacial events over the last few million years. A combination as extinct, endangered or vulnerable on this list rose by 41% of relative climatic ‘stability’ in parts (Hopper and Gioia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006). These are numbers 2004) and geographic isolation, during which new habitats for concern but a recent regional analysis paints an even direr have appeared, have contributed to the continent’s high picture. When the conservation status of all Australian terrestrial level of species (and generic) richness and endemism. vertebrate species listed in one of the IUCN threat classes Australia is one of only 17 mega-diverse countries that under (i) state legislation and (ii) non-legislative authoritative collectively support about 70% of the world’s species of assessments (such as national action plans) is tabulated, nearly plant and animals (Mittermeier et al. 1997). While it was 45% of all Australia’s vertebrate species are in some form of settled by humans about 45000 years ago (Kershaw et al. serious decline in one or more parts of their range (Table 1). 2006) it had not experienced agriculture and pastoralism This statistic points to the need for regional declines and until the arrival and rapid spread of European settlement extirpations to be acknowledged. Currently, these “secret over the past 200 years. H[WLQFWLRQV´ RIWHQ IDOO EHORZ WKH FRQVHUYDWLRQ DVVHVVPHQW Because the major threatening processes to biodiversity are radar and are not formally recognized at national and the result of recent change in land use, Australia is one of the international levels of reporting. The potential erosion of few developed countries that remains a leading contributor intra-species genetic diversity from regional losses is of to the current human-induced global mass extinction event conservation concern because, among other things, it may (Wilson 1993; Lovejoy and Hannah 2005). Close to half of UHGXFH WKH DELOLW\ RI $XVWUDOLD¶V IDXQD DQG ÀRUD WR UHVSRQG all mammal extinctions in the last two hundred years have to future challenges. Given current land cover status and occurred in Australia (Johnson 2006), while three bird environmental trends (Australian State of the Environment VSHFLHVIRXUIURJVSHFLHVDQGVSHFLHVRIÀRZHULQJSODQW 2006), Australia’s biodiversity will be affected in the coming have become extinct since European settlement (Australian decades by the same suite of global drivers operating on Bureau of Statistics 2006). other continents including changes in land use, climate, B I O D I V E R S I T Y 9 ( 3 & 4 ) 2 0 0 8 11 Animal class )UHVKZDWHU¿VK Frogs Reptiles %LUGV Mammals The total number of species in each vertebrate DQLPDOFODVVIRUFRQWLQHQWDO$XVWUDOLD 230 214 633 675 378 Species listed under the Commonwealth Environment 3URWHFWLRQDQG%LRGLYHUVLW\&RQVHUYDWLRQ$FW 27 26 45 70 99 bracketed values indicate % of listed species in each (12%) (12%) (7%) (10%) (26%) animal class Number of species given any IUCN threat class (except ‘least concern’) accumulated over all jurisdictions plus 97 92 262 269 214 non-legislative assessments; bracketed values indicate (42%) (43%) (41%) (41%) (57%) % of listed species in each animal class. Table 1. A comparison of the difference in the conservation status of Australian terrestrial vertebrate animal species between (a) the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act and (b) state and territory legislation plus authoritative national assessments. Adapted from Mackey (2006) and unpublished material. In compiling these statistics consideration was given to vagrants, species that naturally have only marginal distributions in a given jurisdiction, and the arbitrariness of some jurisdictional boundaries. atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, invasive species, over 100 million years ago (Barker and Greenslade 1982; and ecosystem dynamics (Sala et al. 2000). Note however, :KLWH ([FHSWLRQV DUH WKH DOSLQH DQG GHVHUW ÀRUDV that while most trends suggest increasing stress for species which both speciated and recruited in the Pliocene with the and ecosystems, positive responses to climate change are also advent of cold or extensive dry climates (Barlow 1986; Hill possible and apparent (Nemani et al. 2003). 1994; Hope 1994). These changes have also involved gradual species loss and range restrictions, particularly for rainforest In order to generate discussion and debate among scientists taxa. For example, the Brassospora group of Nothofagus and and policy makers, we here provide an assessment of what gymnosperms such as Dacridium and Dacrycarpus and their is needed to promote the survival of Australia’s biodiversity associated faunas disappeared from southern Victoria in the given the prospects for the onset of human-forced, rapid mid-Pliocene and their loss is attributed to increased summer FOLPDWH FKDQJH :H ¿UVW UHYLHZ WKH LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ radiation load (Sniderman et al. 2007). natural climate change and biodiversity in Australia and outline reasons why species have persisted through past Evidence from marine sediments and polar ice cores has revealed climate change events. We then provide an account of the the severe climatic oscillations that have occurred over the last current threatening processes that are leading to wide- 500,000 years
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