Introduction

The H"’ Cen, A.D, was the most progressive time in Persian science, culture, art, literature and philosophy; and it too can be held as the glorious period of the world. Some of the great rulers such as Samanides, Khwarezmids, Ma’munids, Bavandies, al-e-Ziar, al-e-Buye and Deyalamides, etc., were governing over the Persian land for a long time, and during their regimes all the scientists, writers, poets, artists and philosophers were encouraged.' Two hundred years after the scholars like Biruni (973-1048 A.D.), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037 A.D.), Ferdowsi (940-1020 A.D.) Khayyam (1048-1122 A.D.), Ghazzali (1058-1111 A.D.), and Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201- 1274 A.D.), were settled in the European Universities such as Paris, Oxford and Cambridge (1800-1828 A.D.). And works of the above mentioned scholars were translated from Persian into Latin, and used by European scholars. Therefore, the historians and orientalists enumerated and illustrated the effects of these scientists and re-published their works, and evaluated them in an appropriate way.^ All significant personalities of this period had lot of researches in different subjects. Among these scholars, this thesis concentrates only on Biruni and his comparative method used for philosophisation, which is significant for research, especially for studying different ancient Indian philosophical traditions and various sects of them. Biruni (973-1048A.D.) can be claimed as one of the most outstanding figure in the history of science, philosophy and comparative religions of the entire worlds. He seems to be the pioneer in various fields of sciences such as mathematic, astrology, physics, pharmacology, mineralogy, etc., and also historiography, anthropology and linguistics. He has contributed various innovative ideas and scientific methods in the history of ideas. In spite of insufficient facilities and shortage o f equipments, he was accurate in his scientific thoughts that depict his modernity. After a passage of time, it appears that his scientific perspective and methods o f research are very close to todays scientific inquires. That’s why it is held that if Biruni would have been well- 1 equipped with the modem tools and instruments, he would have discovered the firmaments and galaxies as he has discovered the American continent before Columbus.^ For understanding his contribution of innovative ideas, it is essential to go through his biography in brief, which is interesting and it may perhaps provide a background to understand his thoughts philosophically.

1. Biography:

Abureyhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad-e-Khawresmi'' appears to be one of the most significant Iranian scholars in the history of world civilization.^ His name in Arabic texts is Abureyhan al-Biruni al-Khwarezmi. Among Persians*" he is well-known as Abureyhan Biruni,^ and European researchers usually call him in-short Biruni.* The nickname of Biruni was Ustadh al-Raees'* and Ustadh-al-Imam,“’ which indicates the exalted scientific position of Biruni in the Iranian govemment-organization. He was political counselor in the kingdom of Ma’munids about seven years.'' After that Biruni became a special astronomer in the court of Mahmud Ghaznavids, and was forced to be an intimate companion for Mahmud in his military expeditions.'" Biruni was bom (973 A.D.) in Kath'^ (presently the city of Kath belongs to Uzbekistan) and this city because of Bimni is called Birun.

2. Educational Development:

The profound knowledge of Biruni depicts that he has learned many sciences in his childhood. He spent his youth in company with the great scholars such as Abu-Nasr-e-Iraq (970-1036 A.D.),'^ Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi (960-1000 A.D.) and 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim (9““ Cen.A.D.) in Kharazm. It is due the impact and influence of them, it seems, he has achieved lot of skills in different areas of sciences like jurisprudence, geography, mathematics, astronomy and pharmacology.'*^ It is said that 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, one of the teacher of Biruni, was well-known for his belief as a ‘Karmaty’.'’ At that time ‘Karmatians’ were considered as one of the extremist sections of ‘Ismailids’ and ‘Shiites’.'* Later on, as the historical evidences suggests, ‘Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, was killed by the order of Mahmud, because of his being heretic. In this case, Yaqut,'®

2 Iranian historian, narrates, “When Mahmud dominated Kharazm, Biruni and his master in theology ‘Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim were arrested. First, Mahmud killed 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, due to his being Karmaty and apostate. Afterwards, he was going to kill Biruni too,^“ but companions of Mahmud made him aware for his profound knowledge in astronomy.^' So they prevented Mahmud from killing Biruni.^’

3. Migration from Khwarazm and Travel to Khorasan, Rey, Tabarestan and Gorgan:

In 985 A.D. Ma'mon Ibn Mohammad, the king of Gorganaj, attacked Kath and killed 'Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Ahmad Iraq, the last king of Kharazmids ale-Iraq, and also supporter of Biruni."^ Due to this,

Biruni was required to leave Khwarazm immediately. But, unfortunately, he could not take results of his research with himself.''* Further, he was forced to travel to Khorasan and Rey, though he was not successful in those places. As a result, he had to travel to Gorgan and Tabarestan. He stayed in Gorgan for ten years and had a great success in Gorgan and Tabarestan. Biruni came back to Kharazm in 1000 A.D., after hearing that Amir Abul-Abbas Ma'mon Ibn Ma’mon Khwarazmid is interested in scientific activities, and is in search of scholars. Ma'mon had a clever minister, called Abul Husain Ahmad Ibn Mohammad al-Soheyli. And in order of his minister (Soheyli), the court of Ma’mon was full of scholars such as Avicenna, Abu Sahl-e-Masihi, Abul kheyre-e-Khammar and Biruni. Afterwards, Biruni developed his skills and promoted himself to political adviser of the king, and then became more famous than the others.^^ It is mentioned that Biruni in his political book To be cautious towards the Turk (al-TahzTr Men Gebal-e-Turk) had predicted

the attack of Mahmud Gaznavids. Unfortunately, this significant book of Biruni, which was an evidence of his insightful understanding of strategic and political rela tio n s,is not available completely today. Although, Biruni took part in political matters, he never liked these activities. For, he believed that politics separated him from his favourite researches. Nevertheless, some of his discoveries especially related to astronomical instruments belonged to this time. Muslim historians believe that Mahmud was not having good relationship with Biruni on the one hand and hence he always was deciding to kill Biruni. On the other hand, Mahmud had superstitious beliefs, and was interested in astrology and hence he was in need of vicinity of Biruni. Mahmud knew that Biruni was a professional astronomer.^* Besides this, for finding out the auspicious or inauspicious time for his military expeditions,^'* Mahmud was in need of the profound astronomical knowledge of Biruni. This opportunity provided scope to Biruni to become step-by-step special astronomer of Mahmud and accompany him in all his expeditions.^"

4. Travels to India:

Acquaintance of Biruni with science and culture of India started as soon as he and the other scholars immigrated from Khawarezm to the court of Mahmud to Ghazna (1017A.D,). Of course, this expedition was very irresistible for Biruni, but in fact brought in good results. One of the most outstanding results of this migration was his travel to India with Mahmud.^' After going to India, Biruni, for learning Indian sciences, began to learn Sanskrit very seriously and then he travelled to Punjab and Sindh. Besides, he settled down for sometimes in Peshawar, Multan and Lahore.^^ Then after, Biruni found that for understanding better Sanskrit references, he had to get help of the Indian scholars. ” Biruni’s close relationship with Indian scholars

caused him to get a lot of information about Indian sciences. But, it seems that Biruni found Indian scholars through those regions, were in the authority of Muslims, and probably some of them were among the prisoners of the war.^‘* For, in fact, at the time of Biruni, the instruction and teaching centers of India were at the disposal of the two towns of Kashmir and Benares. And both of these centers of learning were not accessible for foreigners such as Biruni.” Biruni in this case narrated that Muslims did not conquer Kashmir, nor entered in to it any extent. Kashmir was closed to intercourse with all strangers except a few Jews. And the result of all strict efforts of Biruni, for acquaintance with Indian scholars, was the famous book of Biruni, entitled the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind ” (about 1030A.D.). This book contains of 700 pages in connection with Indian sciences, cultures, anthropology and philosophy.^'*

5. His Works:

Biruni translated some books from Arabic into Sanskrit, and also from Sanskrit to Arabic. He operated as connecting link between ancient culture of India and Iran. He played a major role in introducing India to the world in that era. One of the contemporary Persian critics says, “People like Biruni are very rare”.'*'' Another says, “Among the Iranian scholars there are very few people, who studied references from their original sources and have mastered several languages simultaneously. One o f them was Biruni, who knew Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac and Greek languages very well. ■*' In addition to these languages he had acquaintance with Soghdian (an Eastern Iranian language) and Pahlavi (an ancient Iranian language)”.'*^ Biruni used original Greek sources directly, and collected information about life-styles, customs, beliefs, rituals, ceremonies and philosophies of different nations from their original sources. In spite of scientific masters like Avicenna and Ibn Rushd (Averroes 1126-1198 A.D.), who used only the old and imperfect Arabic versions, which were translated from Greek philosophy and they never tried to learn these languages to know authentically from original sources.'*^ In addition, Biruni because of having mastery in different languages, probably had conversation with different religious scholars in their own mother tongues.‘”Biruni after learning Sanskrit began to study profound Indian history, sociology, anthropology, religion and philosophy of India. For he knew perfectly well that the previous scholars had depicted prejudice'*’ in their works towards Indian people, and most o f them were narrow-minded. As in the introduction of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, he rejected all the prejudiced statements of previous scholars about Indian people, on the ground that they are second-handed sources and baseless. 5 One of the great significant peculiarities of Biruni’s life was his studious and indefatigable character in his research. Historians inform us that he never stopped his research, except only for two days, viz ‘Eve-Nauroz’ and ‘Mehrgan’,“^ which were regarded as two traditional important ‘Eves’ by Iranians. Even, Yaqut tells us “When Biruni got old and was on the deathbed, he asked scientific questions to his friends who come to see him.’”'’* Biruni, while writing his essays and books had a especial style. He never used additional statements for expressing the technical terms. His writings in different fields of sciences were comprehensible and explicit not only for experts but for all. Biruni in answering to one of his student’s question about his method of writing says, “My reader should try strictly to understand my purpose. Naturally, somebody will be successful, who strives hard and loves science. So for people who are not in this category, it makes no difference to get the concept of my purpose or not.”^'^ Biruni liked his works as much as his children, since he worked hard for composing them.^“ His works like his contemporary scientist Avicenna were multifarious, containing variety of subjects.^' But Avicenna wrote most of his books basically for teaching the ordinary people, where as Biruni wrote for scholars. At the beginning of the 7“' century, Biruni was well-known for his extensive compilations. But then, most of Biruni’s works were abolished. Yaqut said, “Biruni’s works in astronomy, philosophy and many other subjects were enumerable, and I have seen the compact list of Biruni’s books in sixty pages”. ” The researchers have mentioned^^ some important reasons about why his works have been abolished. They hold that some of his subjects were as much complicated and specialized as they need to be simplified in the next editions. Consequently, the previous versions changed to new ones. For instance, Bimni apparently had written some books and essays^'* about mathematics and science of astronomy. But after composing the two important and comprehensive reference works, namely Quanon Mas'udi and al-Tafhim, readers did not need to refer to his previous books and essays. Biruni's works are more than 185,''’ which consist of long and summary-abstract writings about different subjects. Forty of them are manuscripts, and available in the world libraries.’^’ Thirty of these manuscripts have been published.^* Twenty five of them have been translated into different European and Persian languages. Biruni in addition to Patanjala Yoga-Sutras, Saihkhya-Sutras of Kapila, Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, Athar al-Baqia (Chronology of Ancient Nations) and al-Tafhim, has written about twenty books on India. He composed a number of tales and legends also, mostly derived from the ancient lores of Iran and India.“

6. Biruni as an Etymologist:

Although Biruni was the first etymologist of his time, he has not been known as an etymologist hitherto. Biruni when he was fifty years old*' learned Sanskrit, with fifty alphabetical letters, He suffered many difficulties, as he writes in Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, “Of course learning of Sanskrit was very difficult for me, but with hard work I gained the complete proficiency over Sanskrit language”.^ He made remarkable innovation in Sanskrit language. He selected philosophical equivalents from Sanskrit into Arabic language. These words are given in the appendix.

7. The People Who Influenced on Biruni in Writing of

Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind:

It is necessary to mention that there were others, who were interested in indology before Biruni. And indeed, they have done authentic researches about Indian religion. The first one of them, was well-known Yahya Ibn Khalid Barmecid*’^ (709-805 A.D.). Barmecides dynasty*’^ ruled over Balkh. They settled the temple of ‘Nobahar-e-Balkh’ “ in Iran. The ancestor of them was abbey of that temple.^ Yahya Ibn Khalid Barmecid sent someone to India to bring Indian medicines^’and also investigating about Indian religion.'’* His Messenger, which is unknown, wrote a book about Indian religions. Afterwards, his book became an authentic reference for later researches. And indeed, all those who wanted to write about Indian religions, refer to his book."" The second person, who was open-minded to all religions, was Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri (9'''Cen. A.D.) . Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri was a Persian philosopher, mathematician, natural scientist, historian of religion and astronomer. According to traditional sources,™ he was the first figure in the Muslim world to be associated with philosophy after the advent of Islam.’’ He in his book, which is unknown, has noted about Indian religions. His book is one of the authoritative references that Biruni followed proudly. Biruni somewhere appreciates him and confesses that his realizations of the subject are without any kind of bias. Furthermore, he was very accurate and faithful in his writing.’* Biruni says that there were ten scholars before or contemporaries to him, who had written religious books about different Indian cults and beliefs, but none of them could satisfy. For they did not use any original Indian sources in their works. These scholars were; 1. Abu Ma'shar, (787-886 A.D.), 2. Ibn al- Nadim, (Died: 995 or 998 A.D.), 3. Al-Muqaddasi (940-991 A.D.), 4. Ali al-

Masudi (896-956 A.D.), 5. Al-ShahrastanT (1086-1153 A.D.), 6. Ibn Khordadbeh (820-912 A.D.), 7. Mohammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (828-923

A.D.), 8. Solayman al-Tajlr (9“' century), 9. Nuh al-TifiTsT (9“' Cen. A.D.) and

10. Ya’qub Ibn Tariq, (Died: 796 A.D.).

8. Introducing of Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind {Indica):

The Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind (about 1030 A.D.) is the product of 13 years (1008-1021) hard work and studious efforts of Biruni. Due to vast discussions, variety of subjects and reliable methods of research, it is acknowledged as a unique reference work by Iranians to understand India of that time. Sachau, while emphasising on the importance of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind wrote, “The author, has nothing in common with the Muhammadan Ghazi (warior), who wanted either to convert the Hindus, or else to kill them. His book scarcely reminds the reader of the continuous war between Islam and India. Consequently, the reader supposes that Biruni settled down in the magic-island of quiet. But in fact, his impartial researches were in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundering temples.”’■* Although, the later Islamic followers of Biruni imitated his great work, no one could follow his method. And except few unknown historians, others could not present accurate and perfect information about philosophy and religion of the Indian people.^^ Those people were; Abu-Alma'li Mohammad Ibn Obeydollah, the author of the book Bayan al-Adydn. He followed and used Biruni’s great works to introduce the Indian beliefs. The next person was Ghazi Rokn al-Din Samarqand. He, with the assistance of an Indian Brahmin, called Bhoja translated the book Amrta- Kiinda from Sanskrit into Persian and Arabic languages. Further, the Arabic translation of this book was further translated and corrected by Dr. Yosef Hosein in French language.^'’ Once more, during the time of Akbar, some books were written about philosophy and Indian religion.’^Among those books Serre-Akbar or Serre al-Asrar is one of the most important of them. It was written by Dara Shikoh in Sanskrit and translated by Dr. Jalali Naini in Persian.^^ Even though none of them are comparable with Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind in Indology. Biruni used about 3000 Sanskrit and Indian vernacular words and expressions in different subjects of the eighty chapters. The content of most chapters of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind consists o f three parts. In the first part, Biruni puts forth the questions. In the second part, he brings out the doctrines of the Vedic traditions, giving quotations from Sanskrit books.*' In the third part, Biruni compares and evaluates their subjects with the views o f the ancient Greek philosophers. Besides, he sometimes adds statements of Iranian and Muslim theologians. At the end, he propounds the similarities and dissimilarities between them. Finally, whenever it is necessary, Biruni justifies and presents his own philosophical views about them.” The Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind is merely a collection of religious and philosophical subjects. The various parts of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind consist of mythological descriptions,natural sciences, laws and commands, astronomy, mathematics, etc.“ In fact, Biruni, without help of any assistant, has done research and written about all those subjects solely.“ In other words, the perfect knowledge of Biruni of Sanskrit language and his mastery on human-behavior, psychology, information about philosophy and religions of Indian people, is the best characteristic depicted in Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind. Besides, Biruni proves that considerations of the Indian and the Muslim are completely different, especially in the field of religion, language, customs and beliefs. Therefore, Biruni evaluates the Indian people for their own characteristic/ peculiarities only."^ For this reason, Sachau believes that the work of Biruni is unique piece of work in the Muslim literature. And indeed, it is considered as an earnest attempt to study Indian world of thought. For, it is not proceeding from the intention of attacking and criticising Indian believes, even when the opponent’s views are declared to be dissimilar and inadmissible.*"* Biruni it seems had respect for Indian philosophical and religious books, and has cited a lot of selected parts of them in Ketab Tahqiq Malel- Hind. Sometimes he even compared them with the Quran'^ Verses.

9. Biruni and His Philosophical Approach:

Biruni was professional in all philosophical subjects, though he is known as a polymath, especially in mathematics and astronomy. For, his method of research was based on experience, induction and empiricism. Even though, Biruni never attended to peculiarity of the core areas of philosophical subjects, his critical views were generally focused on the style and method of the great philosophers such as Avicenna and Aristotle. As it is said, he did not accept the logical Aristotelian method for discovery of world’s realities.®” One of the fundamental characteristic of Biruni’s thought is trying to perceive and comment on reality with philosophical ideas as far as possible. He published works on various fields of natural science, optics, mechanics, mineralogy and chemistry.'^' For this reason, may be the

10 historians of philosophy do not consider him as a philosopher, and only called him scientist.^' During the time of Biruni, philosophers followed Plato and especially Aristotle. As Farabious told'^’ Plato and Aristotle were the most important leaders of philosophy. Shahrestani also added^^* that all the Islamic philosophers, who were Iranians, obeyed Aristotle. Biruni, was the only Iranian scholar, who did not follow Aristotle, nevertheless acquitted and balanced the magnificent position of Aristotle. He informed the real situation of Aristotle for the other Iranian philosophers.''’

10. The then Intellectual Climate:

Now it is the time to find out the status of Biruni, amongst the other philosophers of his time. The hostility of his contemporaries with Biruni is revealed to us. So, we comprehend that why the Iranian followers of Aristotle do not call him philosopher? And the main objective of us is to prove the real position/status of Biruni in philosophy. As it was mentioned before, Biruni was well acquainted with all the philosophical schools of his period, but, he never followed any specific kind of philosophy or school of ideas. In other words, Biruni is an “Unknown philosopher”. In fact, however, he is known as an open-minded philosopher. He considered all the ideas of his time, nevertheless, he never attached himself to any of them. Furthermore, he is the first person, who is considered as a founder of the “Liberty of opinion”'** in philosophy and also religion. We should not forget that his scientific views are not contrasted with faith and religious affairs. Even though, there is contradiction between philosophical views and religious dogmatism.’’ Therefore the most important philosophical principles of this “Unknown philosopher” Biruni, which can be considered by others are: (1) Moderating all kinds of opposing ideas. For, all ideas and opinions are respectable in the direction of development. B] He does not blindly accept the traditions of his predecessors of the former ages. He wants to understand them first and then to criticize them. He wants to sift the wheat from the chaff This means that he cannot reject the 11 possibility of a matter on the prima-facie value of it unless he finds the reason for its falsification. (2) He is independent in his thoughts about religion and philosophy. (3) Biruni entertains and regards all kinds of ideas and opinions. In spite of this, he qualifies them as just persuasions, which supported by scientific causal ground and certainty. (4) There are some remarkable sentences of political philosophy o f Biruni in Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind. For example, he admires the mildness of the law of the Gospel: ‘T o offer to him, who has beaten your cheek the other cheek, also. To bless your enemy and to pray for him.” ” He says that upon my life, this is a noble philosophy; but the people of this world are not all philosophers. Most of them are ignorant and erring, who cannot be kept on the straight road, save by the sword and the whip. And, indeed, ever since Constantine the Victorious became a Christian, both sword and whip have been employed ever. For without them rule over people would be impossible.

11. Why Biruni in Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind Does Not Refer to the Buddhism:

By domination of Islam, the traces of the predominant religion of Buddhism were completely demolished by the first Muslim conquerors. Therefore, in the first half of the ll*" century, all traces of Buddhism in Central Asia, Khorasan, Afghanistan and North Western India totally have been disappeared by the military expeditions of Islamic rulers. It is informed that during the time of Biruni, Buddhism had been disappeared in region of Khorasan, and just some traces of it had been left between Khorasan and India. Even, so long before Biruni, the different towns of Sindh were dominated by first Muslim conquerors, and they forcefully, converted Buddhists to Islam religion.'°‘As a result, when Biruni came to Indian along with Mahmud, he naturally failed to figure out Buddhism. And that’s why Sachau wrote that India as far as known to Biruni, was Brahmanic and not Buddhistic. It is unbelievable fact that a man of the inquisitive mind of Biruni, knew scarcely anything about Buddhism. On the other hand, he had 12 no means for procuring information on the subject. His notes on Buddhism are very scanty. And, indeed, Biruni derived his information from the book of Abu Abbas Eranshahri.'"^ In fact, as Sachau has written, Abu Abbas Eranshari also has copied the book of Zurkan, who is entirely unknown.'® Although, the information of Biruni on Buddhism is not of a very high standard, the other sources on Buddhism, literary or oral, do not seem to have been at the command of Biruni.If Biruni had the same opportunity for traveling to India, as a Chinese Buddhist monk Hiouen-Tsang (602-664 A.D.), he would have easily collected plenty of information on Buddhism. Considering the meagemess of his notes on this subject, we believe that he has never found a Buddhistic book. Or he has never known a Buddhist, as he has written: “From whom I might have learned their theories?” His Brahmana Pandits probably were aware of Buddhism perfectly, but they did not prefer to tell him.'"^

12. The First Publication of Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind:

For the first time the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind was published by the learned German scholar Dr. Edward C. Sachau (in two volumes) in London in 1887. This book was pubUshed and renewed in the following year. The English version of this book was translated and pressed again by him in London in 1910-1914. The Arabic'®* translation of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind was published in Leipsic in 1925. After that in different places of India, the English version of the same book was published many a times.The later English version of the book was published in 2007 in India again, and my thesis is based on this latest version. On this background of the life and the then concept of his writings lets us turn to philosophical inquiry which we desire to conduct in this research. It has three important points, viz. the motif, the method and the resume, to know this we precede now. L_The Motif of the Study and its Perspective: Biruni, in Iran, is known as one of the famous scientist and historian, and approximately all available works have been translated from Arabic to Persian and English. Among all his works, the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind is considered very popular book. 13 Since, it depicts attempts of Biruni to introduce Indian philosophy, science (especially mathematics and astronomy), religion, culture, civilization and linguistics to the entire academic world. But even after studying the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, one essential question arises; how is it possible to hold that one who comments Indian philosophy and compares it with Greek Philosophy and Islamic Philosophy (in Iran), in details, has never been regarded as an outstanding philosopher? The answer is clear, i.e. Biruni’s philosophical method does not lead to decisive and systematic results, to prove him as a philosopher. Of course, this answer is to deal with some kind of ambiguity and/or lack of adequate proof to determine that he is a great philosopher. And that is the reason why modem philosophers have started mentioning him as a philosopher, but no one has tried seriously to give reasons to call him as a philosopher and prove their claims. Apparently this answer even also seems to be convincing. For Biruni never advocated any philosophical argument on his own independently, rather he just compares all the then current philosophical approaches together. And at present all Intemet-sites and available material; unanimously mention that Biruni is a philosopher without presenting any logical reason. All these contradictory facts made me to review all available works of Biruni in Arabic, Persian and English. And I have found that Birun is the first Iranian philosopher who in spite of his contemporaries has his own views for getting knowledge that was completely different from the Greeks. In fact, Biruni for explaining his philosophical perspective he prepared a special synthetic model, which was very-well designed to compare philosophical views of all the then nations. This unique and original model prepares a mutual philosophical perspective of Indians and non-Indians based on relevant shareable factors of all philosophical thoughts, without any personal motive and prejudiced descriptions. 2. The Method of the Study: This philosophical inquiry into the writings of Biruni is primarily a text-based study. The foundations of the present research are completely based on all published primary sources of Bimni.

14

V. But while explaining philosophical views of Biruni, I was encountered with three serious problems: (A) Apparently the philosophical views of Biruni are put forward in the first seven chapters of the Ketab Tahqiq Male-Hind. But in fact, to understand profound philosophical thoughts of Biruni; all books, even his scientific works should be reviewed with philosophical accuracy and clarity. Then it will be possible to recognise his philosophical patterns of thinking one-by-one. (B) In the secondary references, the philosophical thoughts of Biruni are argued very rarely by his interpreters. And even on the intemet-sites, there is some information to deal with philosophical views of Biruni, but, unfortunately, most of them are not credible and authentic. So, to express philosophical perspective of Biruni, wherever there was a need, I attempted to design a proper model exactly based on Biruni’s thoughts. And probably this is for the first time Biruni’s thinking is philosophically significant is attempted to be proved. 3. The Resume (Chapter Schemed: The chapter scheme of this present thesis consists of: Chapter 1: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Epistemology Chapter 2: AI-Binini’s Views on Indian Metaphysics Chapter 3: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Culture Chapter 4: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Linguistics Chapter 5: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Historiography Chapter 6: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Philosophy of Science

Chapter 1: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Epistemology:

In the first chapter, Biruni’s views in regard with Indian epistemology are discussed. In this chapter there are four sections: (1~) Section I: General Inquiry into Epistemology, (2) Section II: Biruni: Pioneer of the Western Epistemology, (3^ Section HI: The History of Scientific Method in the Renaissance Background, (4) Section IV: The Appearance of Renaissance in the East and the West.

15 In epistemology, the philosophical views of Biruni are important from two points: (A) Biruni to obtain knowledge has followed six sources of knowledge: (1) Sense-experience (Pratyaksa), (2) Authority (Sabda), (3) Reason (Anumana), (4) Revelation, (5) Intuition, (6) Faith. It seems that Biruni in sense-experience; Authority and Reason have some similarity to Indian method of knowledge and acquiring truth, but not exactly the same. And in the other sources of knowledge, Biruni is similar to Western methods of knowledge. (B) Biruni in epistemology followed: (1) Truth and Falsity, (2) Justification, (3) Skepticism, (4) Certainty, (5) Empiricism, (6) Rationalism, and later on the Western philosophers of renaissance period, perhaps, established their philosophical foundations, based on theories of Biruni. Biruni uses empirical approach along with the rational approach in his philosophical views. And that’s why Biruni in the West for his tireless efforts and accurate researches is very famous. Again its necessary to say that Bimni’s philosophical views on rationalism, empiricism and skepticism are seem to be somewhat close to Indian philosophical approaches, but these three important factors have been more highlighted in epistemological views of Biruni. And it seems that, these Indian traditions along with Greek philosophical thoughts helped Biruni to systematise his unique epistemological views. And later on, Western philosophers of renaissance time were influenced by Biruni.

Chapter 2; Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Metaphysics:

In the second chapter we analyse Biruni’s view on Indian metaphysics. In this chapter there are four sections: (1) Section I: General Inquiry about Inquiry, (2) Section II: On Belief of the Hindus on God (Isvara), (3) Section III: Concept of the Soul {Atman/Purusa/Jlva),

(4) Section IV: Concept of the World (Jagat), Biruni is a first non-Indian, who has designed a special model, for understanding Indian metaphysics. But this synthetic-comparative model of 16 understanding Indian philosophical thought is neither highlighted in the original Arabic text of the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, nor the English translation of it by Sachau. Biruni according to three important points of the Indian metaphysics such as; (i) Concept of God ilsvara), (ii) Concept of the World (Jagat), and (iii) Concept of the Soul (Atman/Jlva/Purusa) along with authentic Hindus literature like the Vedas, the Gita, the Patanjali’s Yoga- Sutras, the Samkhya-Sulras of Kapila, the Visnu-Purana and the Visnu-

Dharma, Biruni organised his metaphysical perspective, in the first seven chapters o f the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind. In each chapter of that book, Biruni, first, analyses the similarities and then dissimilarities of the various Indian philosophical traditions towards metaphysical subjects in detail. Then, he compares these (metaphysical) perspectives with different metaphysical views of the non-Indians, such as the ancient Greeks, the ancient Persians, the Semitic religions and Sufis.

Chapter 3: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Culture:

In this chapter we attempt to synthesize Biruni’s views on Indian Philosophical traditions, viz. Indian ways of thinking and living. Hence, here we consider ethics, religion. Yoga, culture and civilization together in the five sections respectively. Since at present culture can be applied to a vast area such as ethics, religion. Yoga, art and architecture, literature and etc. Since except Indian Civilization, in the case o f other cultures, we find that they often confiise and misunderstand ‘culture’ and include it in even ‘civilization’, and also all the other aspects too. Hence, we also have organized them in that manner, though Biruni clearly makes the distinction between culture and civilization taking clues fi-om Indian philosophers. On ethics, Biruni has one book which is known as the Ketab al- Jamahir fi Ma’rifat al-Jawahir (i.e. the book on precious stones). The Ethical perspective of Biruni is based on three significant aspects: (1) Human Nature, (2) Community or society in which one lives, and (3) Community leaders (kings)/ governors are the role-models of the society. On religion, Biruni was living in an orthodox Muslims communication. And they thought that the Hindus worshiped ‘Idol’. For the 17 Muslim authors because of their personal motives have not stated the facts about the Vedic religions. In consequence, the orthodox Muslims never found the significant similarities between the teaching of the Islam and the Hindus. Biruni is mentioned as the originator of the new discipline known as anthropology, and still today his unique theories have been preserved due to their accuracy in the modem anthropology. Biruni’s approaches in the field of anthropology are based on the comparison of the Vedic traditions, customs and cultures with that of the other nations, especially with the orthodox Muslims in Iran. On Yoga, Biruni is the first Iranian-Muslim, who has translated this text from Sanskrit to Arabic for those who were interested in achieving spiritual training. Then, other Iranian-Muslim such as Avicenna and Iranian mystics, under the influence of Biruni’s Patanjali’s Yoga-Sutras were becoming familiar with the prominent contents of the Yoga-Sutras. Afterwards, the learned European researchers like J. W. Hauer, Lui Masinion, S. Pines, T. Gelblum and Helmut Ritter based on Biruni’s Yoga- Sutras by Patanjali were intimated with the original Sanskrit text. On culture, In spite of diversity of cultures in India such as: family structure and marriage, modes of greetings, festivals, animals, cuisine, clothing, dance, music, virtual arts, Biruni has chosen just Indian festivals. For Biruni in his works was advocated/followed of comparative method, and the meaning of the festival were common between Iran and India On civilization, perspective of Biruni is most often based on the verses of Qur’an. For example, ‘God has created human beings- innately social creature.” Biruni propounds by developing civilization people need to have more complex social net-wok. Therefore, people for better services in their communications begin to provide the commercial transactions. Then, Biruni refers to the three important criteria for judging the growth and development of a civilization. They are:

Modes of Counting and Variety in Measurement.

18 3. The Modes of Writing/Scripts and Different Kinds of Alphabet..

Chapter 4: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Linguistics:

Views of Biruni on Indian Hnguistics are argued in this chapter. Biruni long before modem European linguist, formulated theories of linguistics, and also because of his mastering over many languages he was enabled to analyse languages very carefully. Biruni attempted to formulate the theories of linguistics based on both the philosophical ideas and the pure scientific observations about the structure o f language. Theories o f Biruni on Indian linguistics are propounded in three sections: (1) Section I: Language, (2) Section II: Philosophy of Language, (3) Section III: Linguistics.

Chapter 5: Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Historiography:

In this chapter there are three significant points which are dealing with three separate scopes of inquiry: (1) Section I: History,

L Historiography. Biruni is known as the Muslim-Persian historiographer and chronologist. Context of the historical writings among the Muslims go back to the 1'*' century. Although, many famous Islamic historians were living before Biruni, but the meaning of historiography was completely different with views of Biruni towards the historiography. They preferred to write about subjects such as the history of the prophets and kings, and later on applied to the other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. The concept of history until the 10“’ century most often means only political and military history. But in fact Biruni renovates the structure of the historical work basically. As a result, the works of latter historians were under influence of Biruni’s methodology. Biruni’s framework on his historical works contains cultures, religions, customs and useful historical information.

19 Chapter 6: AI-Biruni’s Views on Indian Philosophy of Science:

In this chapter there are two sections which are dealing with the two aspects of Biruni’s thinking: (llSection I: Indian Sciences, (2^ Section II: Philosophy of Sciences. The ‘Abbasid’ historical period (S"^. 13‘" Cen. A.D.) is considered as the ‘Islamic Golden-Age’ of Iran. And in this long period, Iranian scholars were acquainted with Indian philosophy and science. Hence a lot of Indian works were translated from Sanskrit into Arabic. In consequence, Biruni who was living in this important era was completely familiar with the vast domain of Indian science and philosophy. Based on classification of Biruni the most important Indian sciences are: (1) Astronomy, (2)

Chemistry, (3) Medicine, (4) Alchemy, (5) Linguistics, (6) Anthropology,

(7) Geography.

Also, in his time most of the Muslims were advocated/ followed of Greek philosopher like Aristotle and Plato. Therefore, Biruni like the other Muslims was very well acquainted with Greek philosophy and science. In consequence, this profound knowledge helped Biruni to systematize his own unique approaches in the field of philosophy and science. Biruni used method of synthesis of empirical approach as well as rational approach in his philosophy. And, in fact, Biruni is the first Iranian philosopher, who systematizes philosophy of science much earlier than Francis Bacon in the Renaissance period. Biruni is a well-known polymath in Iran and in the West. The scientific works of Biruni can be categorized into three different subjects as follows; I. On Mathematics and Astronomy, 2. On Pharmacology, and 3. On Mineralogy.

Conclusion:

Biruni is a philosopher, in philosophical domain of inquiry he has dealt with and not only reflected/responded to the thus prevalent problems

20 philosophically, but also his own views/thoughts/ ideas are put forth by him. It has proofs and evidences in his works which support and justify his thoughts. So, it means that he has inquired into Indian thoughts and action performed in life with philosophical perspective o f his own. It depicts his mode of philosophisation and originality in philosophical methods of inquiry. Hence he is a philosopher worth the name, which no one has proved and we here proved it with evidences, which are his unique contributions.

Notes and References:

' Biography and Works ofBiruni; Safa.Z; Amirkabir Pub.; Iran; 1655.P.484.

■ Rahnama-ye- Ketab Magazine (Book Directory)', Reza.F; Essay of Biruni’s Scientific

Figure; No.17; 1650; P.485.

^ Future Magazine; Vameqi.l; Essay of Writing ofBiruni in Persian Language; No. I;

Tehran; 1640; P. 483.

* Khwarism was called Chorasmia in ancient time. Sachau. E; Al-Biruni’s India, preface; P

.xii.

^Biography o f Biruni; Al-Shabbi.A; Amirkabir Pub.; Iran; 1655; Pp.23-25. Biography and Works ofBiruni; Safa.Z; P. 14.

^Al-Beruni’s India; Sachau. E; Rupa Pub, New Delhi; 2007. P.xii.

“ Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-Ill); Khorramshahi.B; Mohebbi Pub.; Tehran; 1985. P.573.

^ h e meaning of “Ustadh” is “Master”.

“Imam” usually was used for a person, who had a kind of leadership in the science and

theology.

" Al-Beruni’s India; Sachau. E; p.xii.

The Biography and Works o f Biruni; Safa.Z; P. 13.

Khwarazm in past was divided into two parts. First, “Kath” that was capital city of

Khwarazm, and birthplace of Biruni, where its ruler was “Khwarazmids Ale-Iraq”.

Second, Organj or Gorganaj. Abureyhan Biruni, Thinker and Liberal; Karamati.Y,

Amirkabir Pub.; Tehran; 2007; P.26 and The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate; Le

Strange.G; Cultural and Scientific Publication; Tehran;1645; Pp. 475- 485.

'■* Abureyhan Biruni, Thinker and Liberal; Karamati.Y; Amirkabir Pub.; Tehran; 2007;

P.21.

History of Literature in Iran (Vol. -1); Safa.Z; Fendos Pub.; Tehran; 2006; P.337.

Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-Ill); Khorramshahi.B; P.574.

The founder of Karmatians was Hamdan-e-Quarmat. They ruled as opponent against

Abbasids for three centuries (from 9-12 Cen. A.D.). The Caliphs of Abbasids were

frightened permanently, since they were reforming the social laws and looking justice 21 based upon equal social rights and positions. Ismaitids in History (Vol.-XIII); Lewis.B;

Bareyee, A (tr.).; Mola Pub.; Iran; 2002; P. 149. Karmatians were one of the radical sects

of Ismailids, although from the principle point of views were a subdivision of Ismailids,

but being so radical, caused them to separate from Ismailids tenets. Ismailids in History

(Vol.-XIII); Lewis.b; P.166. Ismailids plundered Mecca and kept the Hajer-al-Asvad

(black stone) for a long time with themselves. Fundamental Beliefs of Ismailid Sects; Lewis. B; Visman Pub.; New York; 1993; P.122.

'* The Shia, or the Shiites, represents the second largest domination of Islam. Adherents of

Shia Islam are called Shias or the Shi'a as a collective or Shi'i individually. Shi'a is the

short form of the historic phrase Shi'atu AH meaning "followers”, "faction" or "party" of

Muhammad’s son-in-law and cousin Ali, whom the Shia believe to be Muhammad’s

successor in the Caliphate. Twelver Shia {Ithna'ashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shia

Islam, and the term Shia Muslim is often taken to refer to Twelvers by default. Shia

Muslims constitute 25-30% of the world's Muslim population and 40% of the Middle

East’s entire population. Http://WWW.Wikipedia: Shia\ last modified on 17 November 2014; at 18;41.

Mo'jam At-Odaba\ Yaqut. H; Beyroot Pub.; Beyroot; 1993; P.I86.

™ /b id

■' Originally king and his chancellor, “Ahmad Ibn Hassan Meimandi” could not have

special favor to a man whom they knew to have been their political antagonist for years.

A l-B eruni’s India', Sachau. E; P. xiii

-- Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-Ill); Khorramshahi.B; (Vol.-Ill); P.574.

Abureyhan Biruni; Azkaee. P; New design Pub.; Tehran; 1997; P.18.

-‘‘Encyclopedia of Shiism (VoI.-lII); Khorramshahi.B; Pp. 575-574.

^ Biography and Works of Biruni; Safa.Z; Pp.35 -36.

Abureyhan Biruni, Thinker and Liberal', Karamati.Y, P. 16.

” Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-Ill); Khorramshahi.B; P.574.

In fact Biruni hated astrology, and was interested in science of astronomy.

-'^Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-Ill); Khorramshahi.B; P.574.

™ Ibid; P.574.

^'Ancient Philosophy o f India, Adapted from Ketab Malel-Hind', Danaseresht, A; Amirkabir

Pub.; Iran; 1990; P.6.

Aspects of Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations; Mujtabae.F; Iranian Institute of Philosophy;

Tehran; 2007; P.28.

” Biography and Works o f Biruni', Safa.Z; P. 124.

” Al-Beruni's India; Sachau. E; P.230.

^^Encyclopedia of Dehkhoda (Vol.-I); Dehkhoda. A; Iranian Institute of Philosophy;

Tehran; 2007; P.39.

22 Al-Benini's India; Sachau. E; P.230.

” Biography and Works o f Biruni\ Safa.Z; P. 124.

Ibid; P. 63.

Ibid\ P. 124. Ibid: P.63.

^'Ibid; P.61.

^'Encyclopedia of Shiism (Vol.-HI); Khorramshahi.B; P. 396.

''^Dictionary of Islamic Education (Vol.-1); Sajjadil J; Mola Pub.; Iran;1655; P.30.

Future Magazine; Vameqi.I; Essay of Writing ofBiruni in Persian Language (V ol.-1); P.

483.

He believed that prejudice causes eyes to be blind and ears to be deaf and also causes

human to be settled in some position that wisdom never satisfied it. Abureyhan Biruni,

Thinker and Liberal', Karamati.Y, P.91.

Al-Beruni's India; Sachau. E; P.xxv and Aspects of Hindu-MusUm Cultural Relations',

Mujtabae.F; P.48.

^'UNESCO's Payam Magazine; BabaJan. Q; Essay ofBiruni', No.59; 1656; P.8.

^"Encyclopedia of Dehkhoda (Vol.-l); Dehkhoda; P. 350.

Biography and Works o f Biruni', Safa.Z; Pp.6I-63. ™ Islamic Encyclopedia (Vol.- XIII); Islamic Encyclopedia Publication; Iran; 2002; P. 397.

Biography and Works ofBiruni', Safa.Z; P.38.

^-Ibid', Pp.6I-63.

”/W,- P.68.

Biography and Works o f Biruni', Safa.Z; P.68.

” Biruni wrote this book at request of an Iranian woman, named Reyhane, and after that he

translated it into Arabic for all those scholars who need to use it at that time. Al-Tafhim is

a useful textbook that has been written in mathematical science and astronomy. Whereas

the beginner also could acquire many benefits of that book. Al-Tafhim was a very famous

at the Biruni time. Biography and Works of Biruni', Safa.Z; P.98 and History of Literature

in Iran (Vol.-V); Safa.Z; P. 165. In Persian text of the al-Tafhim , there are a few usages

of Arabic words. And, indeed, those Arabic words which have been used in Persian texts

were very common and current at that time through the Persian dialect. Biruni did his best

to use the equivalent for the Arabic expressions in pure Farsi. He has adapted some parts

of the expressions from Sanskrit and Indian languages. History of Literature in Iran

(Vol.-I); Safa.Z; P.630.

^ Mosahab's Encyclopedia is the first sounse which narrates that Biruni's works are 130

titles; P.35.

” Ibid

Ib id

23 Arhar-al-Baqia is the first book of Biruni, which was written when he was only about

thirty. Art and people Magazine; Azkaee.P; Essay of Biruni from the Viewpoint of

Anthropology, No.l35; 1656; P.176.

Al-Beruni's India; Sachau. E; P.xxix.

The Ancient Philosophy of India, Adapted from Ketab Malel-Hind\ Danaseresht. A; P.6.

Ibid

Henry Kern believes that the Barmecid word is a kind of distortion of the Sanskrit word

of Paramaka, i.e. chief. Barmecides; Bouvat.L; Maykadih. A. (tr.).; Scientific and

Cultural Publications Company; Iran; 1965; P.30.

Dynasty of Barmecides converted to Islam after ruling of Ommayyades in Iran.

Barmecides', Bouvat.L; P.35.

This famous and big temple that in Sanskrit language is called; Nava-Vihara or Nava-

Sangharama has been ruined by Muslims. After renovation, it became Zoroastrians fire

temple. Iranian respected this temple and many pilgrims came to this place. Besides, the

kings from Iran, India and China honored it a lot. Hiouen-Tshangs also visited this

temple. Some historians related that this temple in the previous time had been Moon

temple and belonged to Sabeyen. Barmecides', Bouvat.L; P.35 and History of Iran in the

First Century: Spuler. B; Flatory.J. (tr.).; Amirkabir Pub.; Tehran; 1997; P.397-400 and

Islamic Encyclopedia (Vol.-XIII) ; P.600 and Indian Religions and Philosophical Sects

(Vol.-I); Shaygan.D; Amirkabir Pub.; Tehran; 1652; P. 126.

^Barmecides; Bouvat.L; P.30.

Yaghma Magazine; Retter.H; Essay of Biruni and Patanjali; Tehran; 1656; No.7; P.6.

“ Yaghma Magazine; Retter.H; Essay of Biruni and Patanjali; Tehran; 1656; No.7; P.6

^‘>Ibid.

™ History of Philosophy in Iran and the Islamic World; Halabi. A; Asatir Pub.; Tehran;

1968; P. 136. ” Ibid.

History of Philosophy in Iran and the Islamic World; Halabi. A; Asatir Pub.; Tehran;

1968; P. 136.

Aspects o f Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations; Mujtabai.F,- Pp.25-24.

^’'Al-Beruni's India; Sachau. E; P.xxvi.

Memorial of Biruni, Kuroyanaki .T; Essay of Biruni and India Investigation; The Center

of Studies and Coordination; Tehran; 1974; P.63.

Aspects of Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations; Mujtabai.F; P.63.

History of Persian Literature (Vol.-V); Safa.Z; Ferdos; Pub.; Tehran; 2006. P.I545.

™ This book in Iran is known as Upanisads (in two volumes) and it is tran.slation of fifty

Upanisads. After that, it was translated into French (1801) and German languages (1882).

24 Hisron- o f Persian Literature (Vol.-V); Safa.Z; Ferdos Pub.; Tehran; 2006. Pp. 1545 and

1766.

'' History of Persian Literature (Vol.-V); Safa.Z; P. 1768.

Memorial of Biruni, Kuroyanaki .T; Essay of Biruni the Pioneer of Indology in History;

P.310.

“ Biography and Works of Biruni', Safa.Z; P.29; A nd A l-Be ru n i’s India-, Sachau. E; P.xxvii.

Ibid; P.49.

“ Memorial of Biruni, Kuroyanaki .T; Essay of Biruni the Pioneer of Indology in History;

P. 130.

For example Briuni about “Mount Meru” says, “Some describe this mountain as rising

above the surface of the earth to an excessive height. It is called Meru, because it depends

alone upon the influence of its head that sun and moon become visible. According to

some, Meru consists of gold, according to others it consists of jewels.” Al-Beruni's India;

Sachau. E; Pp.234 and 235.

"^Ghohar Magazine', Safa, Z; Essay of Two Works of Ustadh Biruni', Tehran; No.l; 1756;

P.49.

Aspects of Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations', Mujtabai.F; Pp.24-25.

M em orial o f Biruni, Mojtabai.F; Essay o f Biruni and Science o f the Religion; P. 132.

'‘"Al-Beruni's India', Sachau. E; P.666.

Memorial of Biruni, Mojtabai.F,’ Essay of Biruni and Science o f the Religion; P. 133.

His correspondences with Avicenna (treatise of al-Asale va al-Ajoba) shows that he

had never neglected the philosophical subjects.

Al-Beruni's India', Sachau. E; P.xxvii.

History of Philosophy in Iran and Islamic World', Halabi. A; P.136.

” Abureyhan-e- Biruni Thinker and Liberal', Karamati. Y; P.70 and Pp. 118-119.

Ibid', P. 118.

Ibid', P. 119.

* UNESCO's Message Magazine', Nasr. H; Essay of Biruni an Independent Philosopher

Who Tehrrin; No.59; 1656; P.60.

” Abureyhan-e- Biruni Thinker and Liberal', Karamati. Y; P.70.

M em orial o f Biruni; Mojtabai.F; Essay of Biruni and Science of the Religion; P.82.

Al-Beruni's India; Sachau.E; P. xxiii.

'^Ibid.

"" A History of Sufism in India (Vol.-I),- Rizvi. A; Mo’tamedi ,M (tr.).; The Center of

Academic Publishing Press; Tehran; 1990 ;P.41.

Al-Beruni's India; Sachau.E; Pp.xlvi,xlvii.

Ibid.

Ibid; P.670.

25 lbid\ Pp.xivi, xlvii.

In 1958 the Arabic text of Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind was compared with the copy of the

National Library of Paris (the collection of Charle Shcfer) and published in Hydrabad in

Dacan, which evidently is preferred to the Sachau. Sanskrit Words in Malel-Hind\ Jalali

Naini.R, and .Shukla, N.S; P.9.

Ibid.

26