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Introduction Introduction The H"’ Cen, A.D, was the most progressive time in Persian science, culture, art, literature and philosophy; and it too can be held as the glorious period of the world. Some of the great rulers such as Samanides, Khwarezmids, Ma’munids, Bavandies, al-e-Ziar, al-e-Buye and Deyalamides, etc., were governing over the Persian land for a long time, and during their regimes all the scientists, writers, poets, artists and philosophers were encouraged.' Two hundred years after the scholars like Biruni (973-1048 A.D.), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037 A.D.), Ferdowsi (940-1020 A.D.) Khayyam (1048-1122 A.D.), Ghazzali (1058-1111 A.D.), and Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201- 1274 A.D.), were settled in the European Universities such as Paris, Oxford and Cambridge (1800-1828 A.D.). And works of the above mentioned scholars were translated from Persian into Latin, and used by European scholars. Therefore, the historians and orientalists enumerated and illustrated the effects of these scientists and re-published their works, and evaluated them in an appropriate way.^ All significant personalities of this period had lot of researches in different subjects. Among these scholars, this thesis concentrates only on Biruni and his comparative method used for philosophisation, which is significant for research, especially for studying different ancient Indian philosophical traditions and various sects of them. Biruni (973-1048A.D.) can be claimed as one of the most outstanding figure in the history of science, philosophy and comparative religions of the entire worlds. He seems to be the pioneer in various fields of sciences such as mathematic, astrology, physics, pharmacology, mineralogy, etc., and also historiography, anthropology and linguistics. He has contributed various innovative ideas and scientific methods in the history of ideas. In spite of insufficient facilities and shortage o f equipments, he was accurate in his scientific thoughts that depict his modernity. After a passage of time, it appears that his scientific perspective and methods o f research are very close to todays scientific inquires. That’s why it is held that if Biruni would have been well- 1 equipped with the modem tools and instruments, he would have discovered the firmaments and galaxies as he has discovered the American continent before Columbus.^ For understanding his contribution of innovative ideas, it is essential to go through his biography in brief, which is interesting and it may perhaps provide a background to understand his thoughts philosophically. 1. Biography: Abureyhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad-e-Khawresmi'' appears to be one of the most significant Iranian scholars in the history of world civilization.^ His name in Arabic texts is Abureyhan al-Biruni al-Khwarezmi. Among Persians*" he is well-known as Abureyhan Biruni,^ and European researchers usually call him in-short Biruni.* The nickname of Biruni was Ustadh al-Raees'* and Ustadh-al-Imam,“’ which indicates the exalted scientific position of Biruni in the Iranian govemment-organization. He was political counselor in the kingdom of Ma’munids about seven years.'' After that Biruni became a special astronomer in the court of Mahmud Ghaznavids, and was forced to be an intimate companion for Mahmud in his military expeditions.'" Biruni was bom (973 A.D.) in Kath'^ (presently the city of Kath belongs to Uzbekistan) and this city because of Bimni is called Birun. 2. Educational Development: The profound knowledge of Biruni depicts that he has learned many sciences in his childhood. He spent his youth in company with the great scholars such as Abu-Nasr-e-Iraq (970-1036 A.D.),'^ Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi (960-1000 A.D.) and 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim (9““ Cen.A.D.) in Kharazm. It is due the impact and influence of them, it seems, he has achieved lot of skills in different areas of sciences like jurisprudence, geography, mathematics, astronomy and pharmacology.'*^ It is said that 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, one of the teacher of Biruni, was well-known for his belief as a ‘Karmaty’.'’ At that time ‘Karmatians’ were considered as one of the extremist sections of ‘Ismailids’ and ‘Shiites’.'* Later on, as the historical evidences suggests, ‘Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, was killed by the order of Mahmud, because of his being heretic. In this case, Yaqut,'® 2 Iranian historian, narrates, “When Mahmud dominated Kharazm, Biruni and his master in theology ‘Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim were arrested. First, Mahmud killed 'Abd al-Samad-e-Hakim, due to his being Karmaty and apostate. Afterwards, he was going to kill Biruni too,^“ but companions of Mahmud made him aware for his profound knowledge in astronomy.^' So they prevented Mahmud from killing Biruni.^’ 3. Migration from Khwarazm and Travel to Khorasan, Rey, Tabarestan and Gorgan: In 985 A.D. Ma'mon Ibn Mohammad, the king of Gorganaj, attacked Kath and killed 'Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Ahmad Iraq, the last king of Kharazmids ale-Iraq, and also supporter of Biruni."^ Due to this, Biruni was required to leave Khwarazm immediately. But, unfortunately, he could not take results of his research with himself.''* Further, he was forced to travel to Khorasan and Rey, though he was not successful in those places. As a result, he had to travel to Gorgan and Tabarestan. He stayed in Gorgan for ten years and had a great success in Gorgan and Tabarestan. Biruni came back to Kharazm in 1000 A.D., after hearing that Amir Abul-Abbas Ma'mon Ibn Ma’mon Khwarazmid is interested in scientific activities, and is in search of scholars. Ma'mon had a clever minister, called Abul Husain Ahmad Ibn Mohammad al-Soheyli. And in order of his minister (Soheyli), the court of Ma’mon was full of scholars such as Avicenna, Abu Sahl-e-Masihi, Abul kheyre-e-Khammar and Biruni. Afterwards, Biruni developed his skills and promoted himself to political adviser of the king, and then became more famous than the others.^^ It is mentioned that Biruni in his political book To be cautious towards the Turk (al-TahzTr Men Gebal-e-Turk) had predicted the attack of Mahmud Gaznavids. Unfortunately, this significant book of Biruni, which was an evidence of his insightful understanding of strategic and political rela tio n s,is not available completely today. Although, Biruni took part in political matters, he never liked these activities. For, he believed that politics separated him from his favourite researches. Nevertheless, some of his discoveries especially related to astronomical instruments belonged to this time. Muslim historians believe that Mahmud was not having good relationship with Biruni on the one hand and hence he always was deciding to kill Biruni. On the other hand, Mahmud had superstitious beliefs, and was interested in astrology and hence he was in need of vicinity of Biruni. Mahmud knew that Biruni was a professional astronomer.^* Besides this, for finding out the auspicious or inauspicious time for his military expeditions,^'* Mahmud was in need of the profound astronomical knowledge of Biruni. This opportunity provided scope to Biruni to become step-by-step special astronomer of Mahmud and accompany him in all his expeditions.^" 4. Travels to India: Acquaintance of Biruni with science and culture of India started as soon as he and the other scholars immigrated from Khawarezm to the court of Mahmud to Ghazna (1017A.D,). Of course, this expedition was very irresistible for Biruni, but in fact brought in good results. One of the most outstanding results of this migration was his travel to India with Mahmud.^' After going to India, Biruni, for learning Indian sciences, began to learn Sanskrit very seriously and then he travelled to Punjab and Sindh. Besides, he settled down for sometimes in Peshawar, Multan and Lahore.^^ Then after, Biruni found that for understanding better Sanskrit references, he had to get help of the Indian scholars. ” Biruni’s close relationship with Indian scholars caused him to get a lot of information about Indian sciences. But, it seems that Biruni found Indian scholars through those regions, were in the authority of Muslims, and probably some of them were among the prisoners of the war.^‘* For, in fact, at the time of Biruni, the instruction and teaching centers of India were at the disposal of the two towns of Kashmir and Benares. And both of these centers of learning were not accessible for foreigners such as Biruni.” Biruni in this case narrated that Muslims did not conquer Kashmir, nor entered in to it any extent. Kashmir was closed to intercourse with all strangers except a few Jews. And the result of all strict efforts of Biruni, for acquaintance with Indian scholars, was the famous book of Biruni, entitled the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind ” (about 1030A.D.). This book contains of 700 pages in connection with Indian sciences, cultures, anthropology and philosophy.^'* 5. His Works: Biruni translated some books from Arabic into Sanskrit, and also from Sanskrit to Arabic. He operated as connecting link between ancient culture of India and Iran. He played a major role in introducing India to the world in that era. One of the contemporary Persian critics says, “People like Biruni are very rare”.'*'' Another says, “Among the Iranian scholars there are very few people, who studied references from their original sources and have mastered several languages simultaneously. One o f them was Biruni, who knew Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac and Greek languages very well. ■*' In addition to these languages he had acquaintance with Soghdian (an Eastern Iranian language) and Pahlavi (an ancient Iranian language)”.'*^ Biruni used original Greek sources directly, and collected information about life-styles, customs, beliefs, rituals, ceremonies and philosophies of different nations from their original sources.
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