Stm–Sjm 2015

STM–SJM 2015

SVENSK TIDS KRIFT FÖR MUSIKFORSKNING SWEDISH JOURNAL OF MUSIC RESEARCH

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STM–SJM Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning

Swedish Journal of Music Research 2015

Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning vol. 95–2013 1

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STM–SJM Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning vol. 97

Swedish Journal of Music Research Vol. 2 2015

Svenska samfundet för musikforskning SWEDISH SOCIET Y FOR MUSICOLOGY

Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning vol. 95–2013 3

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Redaktion / Editors Huvudredaktör / Editor-in-chief: Jacob Derkert Redaktör /Editor: Erik Wallrup Redaktionsråd / Advisory board: Alf Björnberg, Johannes Brusila, Bengt Edlund, Karin Eriksson, Johan Fornäs, Erling E. Guldbrandsen, Erkki Huovinen, Jeffrey Kallberg, Annemette Kirkegaard, Lars Lilliestam, Signe Rotter, Øivind Varkøy

Adresser / Addresses STM-SJM, c/o Jacob Derkert, Institutionen för kultur och estetik, Stockholms Universitet, SE-106 91 Stockholm [email protected] Recensionsexemplar av musiklitteratur skickas till / Review copies of music literature may be sent to STM–SJM, c/o Jacob Derkert, Institutionen för kultur och estetik, Stockholms universitet, SE-106 91 Stockholm

Hemsida / Website: musikforskning.se/stm-sjm/

STM–SJM 2015 är producerad med bidrag från Vetenskapsrådet / STM–SJM 2015 has received ﬁnancial support from The Swedish Research Council.

Graphic design: Anders Bodebeck Page layout: Jacob Derkert Cover picture: Från den stora musikfesten i Stockholm 31 maj-1 juni. Första aftonens konsert å Kungl. Teatern. Fru Jungstedt föredrar Ludvig Normans hymn ”Rosa rorans bonitatem”. Originalteckning för Idun av Hj. Eneroth. (Idun 1906) [Reproduktion: Stadsmuseet i Stockholm]; Aftonbladet 1855. [Reproduktion: Kungliga biblioteket] Printing: exakta

ISSN: 2002-021X

STM-SJM publiceras löpande i elektronisk form. Se musikforskning.se/stm-sjm/ för uppdaterad information och författarvägledning.

STM-SJM is published continuously. Please view musikforskning.se/stm-sjm/ for updated information and author guidelines.

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Jacob Derkert Editorial i

Ulrik Volgsten Between critic and public: Listening to the musical 1 work in Stockholm during the long 19th century

Eva Georgii-Hemming Music listening and matters of equality in music 27 & Victor Kvarnhall education

Carola Finkel The revised versions of Kurt Atterberg’s symphonies 45

Cecilia Ferm The music classroom as a local place and a public 61 Thorgersen space: Democratic education towards music as a language of us all

Recensioner/Reviews 75

In memoriam

Jan Ling 99

Gunnar Larsson 101

Anna Lena Holm 102

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Editorial

Welcome to the second printed issue of the Swedish Journal of Music Research/STM–SJM, equivalent to the 97th volume of Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning. STM–SJM is a peer-reviewed journal for music research in various disciplines. Musicology, Music Education Research, and Artistic Research in Music are the three core areas, and research concerning music carried on in other disciplines within the Humanities and the Social Sciences, like History, Ethnology, Sociology, or Media and Communication Studies, are clearly within its scope. STM–SJM is published both in electronic (Open Access, continuous publication) and paper format. Its aim and ambition is to be not just a prime platform for the publication of music research executed in Sweden, but an important platform for researchers in the other Nordic countries, as well as a strong alternative for the publication of research on music and musical phenomena related to the Nordic countries, irrespective of provenience.

About this issue The second issue of STM–SJM includes peer reviewed articles, reviews, and obituaries. ‘Between critic and public: Listening to the musical work in Stockholm during the long 19th century’ is an article by Professor Ulrik Volgsten. (At the time of electronic publication (June 23, 2015), Volgsten was Associate Professor in Musicology at the School of Music, Theatre and Art, Örebro University.) Through a systematic, selective study of the daily press criticism in Stockholm in the 19th century, the author qualifies the picture of 19th-century listeners as in general apprehending music as autonomous musical works. ‘Music listening and matters of equality in music education’ is an article jointly written by Professor Eva Georgii-Hemming, School of Music, Theatre and Art, Örebro Univer- sity, and Ph.D. Victor Kvarnhall. Taking its point of departure in the notion of inclusion in an educational context, as well as a certain idea of how music and societal construct is related, it recognizes the excluding effect on some students of the current use of certain varieties of popular music in public school music education – in, e.g., the Nordic countries. Against this background, the article enters an extensive discussion of how educators could use classroom practice in music listening for furthering equality and inclusion. ’The revised versions of Kurt Atterberg’s symphonies’ documents the research done by Ph.D. Carola Finkel, lecturer at the Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Frank- furt, concerning the different versions of three of Atterberg’s symphonies. The author relates the history and the details of the different versions, and sets the stage for more considerate choices in the performance of these works.

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In ‘The music classroom as a local place and a public space: Democratic education towards music as a language of us all’, Cecilia Ferm Thorgersen, Professor in Music Edu- cation at Luleå University of Technology, investigates the implications of the philosopher Hannah Arendt’s thoughts on democracy, equality and freedom for the realization of the Swedish curriculum for compulsory schools (Lgr 11). In other words, Arendt is suggested as a guide for music educators to interpret the steering documents of the music education. *** STM–SJM has received funding from the Swedish Research Council for production and dis- tribution of the volume 2015.

Stockholm 31 January 2016 Jacob Derkert Editor-in-chief

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Between critic and public

Listening to the musical work in Stockholm during the long 19th century

Ulrik Volgsten ‘The audience, yes - who is it and where can it be found?’ With these words Albert Ru- benson, composer and music critic in Stockholm, draws attention to a much neglected part of 19th century music life in Sweden. Writing for the periodical Ny tidning för musik in the summer of 1857, Rubenson paints a rather dull picture. Except for the friends of friends of the concert arranger, the audience is limited to ‘a few young idlers, one or other real friend of music … and half a dozen critics, who believe themselves be better off as critics if they have heard the music beforehand’ (Rubenson, 1857, p. 218).1 One might think the writer is promoting a naïve first-time experience of music, but reading further the text rather suggests the impact on Rubenson by Eduard Hanslick’s treatise Vom Musikalisch-Schönen, which had been published just a few years earlier. However Rubenson’s main issue was not primarily to educate the listener, but to elevate the status and quality of the Swedish composers, above the embarrassing level of the dilettante.2 The chief task of the critic, therefore, was to aid the composer and mark a distinction between the amateur and the professional (see Reese Willén, 2014). Nevertheless, without the reports of the professional critic, so Rubenson seems to say, the audience is lost to ignorance and lewd enjoyment in its encounter with the music.

1 All translations by the author. Citations from primary sources in original language are collercted on pp. 24- 26. 2 Rubenson was well acquainted with what was going on in the cultural centres of continental Europe. He studied in Leipzig with Niels Gade and Moritz Hauptmann and promoted the romantic symphony-aesthetic of his teachers upon his return to Stockholm. Although eager to incorporate Swedish folk-music material into his compositions, he did not abandon his formalist ideals. In an earlier article Rubenson had spelled these out: ‘The artist has a definite standpoint, based on studies and on the striving along a definite path to a definite goal; the dilettante lacks such a goal. For the artist the sensuous is of subordinate importance; the spirit of the music counts for all. By the dilettante contrariwise; he enjoys all that simply sounds, shouts constantly for melody … . The artist understands and appreciates music, whereby is understood instrumental music, as such; the musical action is for him enough. … Dilettantish is called that within the creative arts which is theoretically and technically inapt and unskilled … .’ (Rubenson, 1855, p. 26f.; see also Volgsten, 2014).

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A perhaps more elaborated concern with the audience can be seen in an article in Stockholms musik-tidning, written by Rubenson’s colleague Per Conrad Boman. Boman wisely compliments the Stockholm audience for applauding Gluck’s Armide despite a poor performance, whereas Bellini’s La straniera had left the audience indifferent despite a strong input by the world-famous soprano Jenny Lind. Boman takes this as a sign of the audience’s appreciation of the music ‘itself’, though he warns against what he sees as a deplorable tendency to the opposite, namely a praising of the performance, the sensuous spectacle and the performer, at the cost of the musical work (Lind’s contribution was, after all, applauded, see Boman, 1843). Boman’s article was published in 1843, and though his references are to operatic rather than instrumental works, he seems to share with Rubenson an interest in the musical work ‘itself’, as distinct from its performance (however it should be noted that Hanslick’s treatise wasn’t published until 1854, which is eleven years after Boman’s article). It is therefore of particular interest to see that these two writers also connect the issue of the work with that of the audience. Even so, the listener was not an entirely new topic in mid-century Sweden. Complaints on the sensationalism of the listeners were aired in a missive to the (then fifteen-year old) Royal Swedish Academy of Music already in 1786 (see Jonsson, 1993, p. 400f.). And in 1821 the journal Läsning i musikaliska ämnen had published a Swedish translation of Friedrich Rochlitz’ article on the differences in judgement about musical artworks (Verschiedenheit der Urtheile über Werke der Tonkunst). Rochlitz’ article, originally published in Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung in 1799, takes for granted the customary distinction between Kenner and Liebhaber, and recasts it into four new categories: the vain listener, the one who listens with understanding only, the one who listens with his ear rather than with his brain, and finally the listener who listens with his entire soul (diejenigen, welche mit ganzer Seele hören).3 Rochlitz’ imported article notwithstanding, it takes almost half a century for the listener to become an issue in Sweden.4 And when the listener eventually becomes one, it is in its collective sense, as an audience, a mass to be cultivated,5 rather than as a plurality

3 Rochlitz’ distinctions are early precursors to Theodor Adorno’s Hörtypen, among which only the ‘expert listener’ is capable of understanding the negative dialectics by which music’s artistic ‘truth’ is articulated (see Adorno, 1962, pp. 12-31). 4 The distinction between Kenner and Liebhaber was established in Swedish language already by the end of the 18th century, marking the class-distinction between the bourgeois professional and the aristocratic amateur, rather than between the academically trained and untrained. Rubenson argues that even among the profes- sionals a distinction should be drawn between the artist and the dilettante (see Rubenson, 1857). 5 Preceded by Abraham Mankell’s historical concerts in 1834 and 1835 (modelled on Fétis’ Concerts historiques in Paris a couple of years earlier), the composer, pianist and conductor Laura Netzel started charity concerts in the 1880s, announced as ‘Folk-concerts’, which by 1905 had turned into ‘worker’s concerts’, all with educational aims. Similar concerts were arranged from 1880 onwards by Anton Nyström at the Stockholm Work- ers’ Institute, and from 1897 by Karl Valentin at the Folk-concert Association. Their shared aim was part of a

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of individual listeners, Kenners or Liebhabers. Does this mean that the Swedish audience was less educated than its continental counterparts? Maybe even a bit backward? In one sense it was undoubtedly less educated, since the main body of knowledge that constituted the content of education, or Bildung, during the 19th century was of German origin and arrived in Sweden with a delay. However, accusations of being backward was more or less common gunfire from Bildung-promoters such as Rubenson and Boman, and served as much to mark the latter off as superior voices in the local debate (a tactic used against composers too, as we shall see).6 In other words, the differences between Sweden and central Europe when it comes to the listening audience may not have been as overwhelming as they might seem at first glance. Perhaps the Swedish case may even add some light on less advanced portions of the continental audiences, which have hith- erto gained proportionally little interest in the writing of Western music history. Questions about the level of musical education among the audience - and, more specifically, whether this listening involved any awareness of a musical work ‘itself’ (and whatever that may have involved) - can be addressed in some more detail by relating to a claim by Lydia Goehr. Writing about the European situation in general, Goehr states that ‘[m]usicians began to think about music as involving the creation, performance, and reception not just of music per se, but of works as such’ already ‘[a]t the end of the eighteenth century’ (Goehr, 1992, p. v). As she continues, Goehr extends the claim to cover not only musicians, but also ‘persons who thought, spoke about, or produced music’ (ibid. p. 113) - even ‘audiences began to learn how to listen not just to music but to each musical work for its own sake’ (ibid. p. 237). However, Goehr warns that ‘[i]t took many years after the initial building of concert halls before audiences learned how to be quiet and how to listen, assuming that they (generally speaking) ever learned at all’ (ibid. p. 237).7 Goehr’s latter remark - whether audiences in general ever learned to be quiet and listen to musical works ‘as such’ - warrants a redirection of focus, from the educated elite listener to the average concertgoer, and by extension, from the learned centres of continental Europe, to its peripheral (and supposedly more ignorant) north. Nevertheless, to the extent that a ‘reception … of works as such’ can be traceable among lay audi-

nation-wide ambition to increase the Bildung of the people, in Ellen Key’s words, to foster ‘the development of the sense of beauty’ (Quoted in Öhrström, 1997, p. 62). 6 In Gustav Schilling’s Encyklopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften, published between 1835 and 1838, Sweden is pointed out (along with Hungary, Poland, Russia, Ireland, Scotland, Denmark and Spain) as a country lacking cultivated music (Gramit, 2002, p. 56). 7 In a footnote Goehr mentions that although the Gewandhaus in Leipzig was exclusively devoted to orchestral performances already in 1781, half a century later, by 1844, ‘there were still only four concert halls functioning independently of operatic and dramatic establishments’ (1992, p. 236 n. 70). Where the three other halls were located is not mentioned. The Konserthus in Stockholm opened as late as in 1926.

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ences, it is quite unlikely that such a reception comprised all facets of what Goehr calls the ‘new aesthetic’, that is ‘doctrines of a more or less romantic, formalist and idealist inclination’ (ibid. p. 153). Perhaps most obviously, it is unlikely that average audiences in 19th-century Europe listened to formal technicalities to any considerable extent, although many listeners at the beginning of the century were potentially capable of doing so, trained as amateur singers and players as they were (some noblemen and -women also had training in composition).8 In his book Listening in Paris James Johnson tells us that ‘by the late 1820s descriptions of operatic and instrumental music were pointedly excluding the extramusical’ and that according to the critic François-Joseph Fétis ‘people [now] spoke only of orchestral forms, modulations, stretti, and the like’ (quoted in John- son, 1995, p. 216). However, reading the passage to which Johnson refers (in the journal Révue Musicale) reveals that Fétis writes about authors of journals, not amateur listeners (Fétis, 1828, p. 413f.).9 More telling in this case, one can assume, is Hanslick’s report in the Neue Freie Presse of the Vienna première performance of Brahms’ First symphony on December 17, 1876. The bulk of the review is programmatic, ‘extramusical’, leaving the few technical details to the very end (which are limited to the mentioning of ‘three elements … for which Brahms has a conspicuous predilection: syncopation, suspension, and simultaneous employment of contrasting rhythms and time-signatures’, see Hanslick, 1886, p. 169).10 That said, the question I want to ask is how the lay listener made sense of the music heard. More specifically the question is if, and if so by which terms, the Stockholm audience of the 19th century listened to musical works. Whereas Goehr describes a view according to which individual musical works ‘as such’ exist more or less as Platonic entities,11 this need not be the only way by which more or less autonomous musical

8 According to Leon Botstein the practically oriented ‘literacy’ that characterized (parts of) the audiences of the earlier decades of the century waned as the century progressed, and was to a large extent substituted by a more ‘passive’ and verbally oriented ‘literate’ way of listening. Musical knowledge was increasingly being verbalized and as such turned into building blocks in one’s personal Bildung. Knowledge and social status was marked by words, rather than by amateurish partaking in the performance. However, the change in listening described by Botstein concerned Kenners, rather than average listeners (Botstein, 1992, p. 135; see also Pet- tersson, 2004). Concerning Kenners, in Sweden the nobleman Fredrik Samuel Silverstolpe not only wrote a 120-page analysis of Joseph Martin Kraus’ opera Aeneas i Carthago, he also composed music, as did Crown prince Oscar, who also participated in the completion of the opera Ryno after the death of its composer Edu- ard Brendler in 1831. Well before that, Beethoven had offered the Crown prince training in composition, an offer declined, however (see Holmqvist, 2011, p. 727f.; on Silverstolpe’s analysis, see Tegen, 1993). 9 The multifarious ways by which some intellectual listeners may have made sense of their listening experiences is summarized by Johnson in more plausible terms: ‘Some understood their oceanic experiences in religious terms, echoing the humanistic language of any number of utopians, from neo-Catholic, to Saint- Simonian, to socialist’ (Johnson, 1995, p. 277). 10 That Hanslick’s critical agenda did not coincide with that of Vom Musikalisch-Schönen has been shown in detail by Dana Gooley (2011). 11 Goehr describes a work concept according to which musical works are ‘objectified expressions of composers that prior to compositional activity [does] not exist … structurally integrated wholes … symbolically

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works were conceived, an assumption that leaves considerable room for interpretation to the historian (explicit ontologies and metaphysics of works are conspicuous by their ab- sence in daily criticism). An enormous problem, then, is how to tell what people listened for in the past when, as is the case here, no questionnaires were carried out (or even dreamed of) and no reports exist. My attempt at a solution, which for matters of space can be no more than a sketch, will be to look at what was written about in daily music criticism. With a number of representative samples from four different years, I hope to draw an - although far from exhaustive - at least plausible picture of how listening may have been made sense of, and whether any change in listening took place (is it possible to detect any impact from Boman’s and Rubenson’s mid-century campaigns?).12 I will proceed in six steps. I start by presenting a methodological approach. The following four sections examine music criticism in the Stockholm press from the years 1835, -55, -85 and 1905. In the sixth section I summarize my findings.

The listening public and the daily press My first step will be a narrowing-in of the concept of a listening audience. As a more or less cultivated mass of individuals I will regard this audience as a public. And as such I regard this public as partially constituted by what can be considered its mutual counterpart: the public criticism of the mass media. In this I follow the lead of Kristina Widesedt’s analysis of music criticism in the Swedish daily press from 1780 to 1995 (as distinct from the scholarly journals more commonly investigated by musicologists and music historians).13 With reference to Jürgen Habermas, Widestedt states that ‘the audience, or the public, is constituted and held together through a criticism that mediates values that most can avow, while the public criticism would be power- and meaningless without anchoring in the audience/public’ (Widestedt, 2001, p. 38). At the same time Widestedt stresses (this time with reference to Theodor Adorno) that criticism isn’t just, indeed couldn’t just be a simple ‘incarnation of a self sufficient and indifferent “public opinion” ’ (ibid.); criticism is also a cultivator of public taste. Contrary to claims such that during the 19th century the listening audience goes through a self-disciplining process, aimed mainly at the control of extrovert bodily be- haviour (ibid. p. 12ff, Widestedt refers to Johnson, 1995), Widestedt’s main thesis is that

represented by composers in scores … Once created … existing after their creators have died, and whether or not they are performed or listened to at any given time’, existing ‘over and above [their] performances and score[s]’ (Goehr, 1992, pp. 2, 106). For a critical view, see Volgsten (2012a). 12 The daily papers are, in 1835, Aftonbladet and Dagligt Allehanda; in 1855, Aftonbladet and Svenska tidningen; in 1885 and 1905, Aftonbladet, Nya Dagligt Allehanda, Dagens Nyheter and Svenska Dagbladet. 13 As Dana Gooley (2011, p. 300) puts it, ‘The specialized music periodicals tended to operate at a level too high for the ‘average’ reader’.

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‘music criticism, through description and evaluation, can formulate a hidden regulatory framework for concert-goers and news-readers, … in other words, exert power over the audience’ (ibid. p. 15). There are two important differences between Widestedt’s approach and mine. Where- as Widestedt’s main (Foucauldian) issue is the dichotomous relation between rationality and emotions, the first controlling the latter through the construction of music as an object of knowledge (ibid. pp.16, 93f.), my concern is rather what kind (or different kinds) of knowledge-object it is that the daily music criticism in Stockholm promotes at different points of time during the 19th century. Is music understood primarily as an activity or is it regarded as an enduring object (i.e. work) of which the performance is but a means of communication? Moreover, accepting the Habermasian argument as my premise - as much as Widestedt’s cautious remark that ‘the signs of disciplining can only be inter- preted intentionally, that is as a (bi-)intention of the criticism’, and not as a confirmation that ‘any disciplining of the audience actually did come about’ (ibid. p. 36, cf. Goehr’s similar remark above). I will regard the knowledge-object articulated in music criticism (that conceptual formation by which the listener makes sense of the musical sounds) as of a kind that can be taken to correspond sufficiently to what the public audience may have heard.14 Another way of putting the central question thereby becomes: what is it that the music criticism of the Stockholm daily press tells the city’s audience to listen to? To enable comparisons with her findings (and thereby ‘thicken’ my own descriptions), I will use much of the same sources as does Widestedt, though my choice of samples and quotes differ. This amounts to an examination of the daily press criticism in Stockholm during the years 1835, 1885 and 1905. Whereas Widestedt also surveys 1780, 1955 and 1995, I restrict the period of samples to what can be considered as parts of the ‘long’ 19th century (cf. Dahlhaus, 1989, p. 1f.). On the other hand I add the year 1855, a year when Rubenson was busy campaigning for new ideals in the scholarly press. I also double the number of dailies examined in the years 1885 and 1905, from Widestedt’s two to four (although only three are explicitly quoted for the last year). As an illustrative historical foil, some words should also be said about the debate in Stockholms Posten during Eastertime 1780 (not commented on by Widestedt, but cf. Leux-Henschen, 1958), between the director of the Royal Opera Count Barnekow and court composer Joseph Martin Kraus. Barnekow initiates the debate when accusing Kraus’ colleague and friend Francesco Uttini of a ‘Crimen musicalis’ in the latter’s adaption of a performance of Pergolesi’s Stabat Mater to available vocal and instrumental means. Like painters ‘Ticiani, Raphael, Correge, Carrache, van Dyck’, Barnekow says, Per-

14 On the role of verbal language in the shaping of aural categories, see Volgsten (2012b).

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golesi is a ‘genie createur’, and ‘to improve Pergolesi is an impossibility: to respectfully imitate him a great difficulty: the latter praiseworthy, the former inexcusable’ (Anon., 1780a). Kraus intrepidly responds to the nobleman, that ‘[h]ad it always been a rather inexcusable wrong to modify others’ compositions, then surely Geminiani had not dared change those by Corelli composed Solos for Violin and Bass to Concerts for 7 parts … . These Concerts, which under the name of Corelli-Geminiani Concerti Grossi are rather well known, have withal in all times been considered as Masterpieces, without Corelli’s musical reputation thereby having been to any degree aggrieved, or that favour him de- nied, to be regarded equal with Geminiani and Pergolesi, as Auctor Classicus in Music’ (Anon., 1780b). The debate, which continues for several weeks, comes to read like a duel between the mighty Aristocrat and the clever Freeman, a verbal duel eventually ending to the latter’s advantage (a month later the paper tells about Barnekow having received ‘gracious dismissal’ from his duty as director of the Royal Opera) (Anon., 1780c). Of relevance for the present context is that the debate displays a typically 18th-century view of composer and work. In contrast to the modern ethics of Werktreue that Goehr brings to the fore (Goehr, 1992, 243ff.), Barnekow’s unease concerns a piece of perfection, rather than a work of originality, a written composition corresponding impeccably to the rules of genre, rather than an abstract work expressing the unique character of its composer. And the composer is (at his best) an auctor classicus, a pre-romantic genie createur (a concept not yet severed from mimetic exactions), rather than a true romantic genius.15 Neither Kraus nor Uttini is of any contradictory view in this regard. Neither is Barnekow’s unease to any considerable extent tied up with the musical experience of the audience, as is none of the published articles in Stockholms Posten this year.

1835 - the work as aesthetic activity In 1780, there was no sign of interest in the listener in the Stockholm press.16 Criticism and listening public were not yet separately defined. At this incunabular moment, music criticism was rather a mixture of voices and opinions tending towards a common point of view, or consensus (public concert life still being in its infancy). Half a century later the contours of the new media genre appear more clearly. By 1835 critic and audience have

15 Rather than being influenced by Young or Kant, Barnekow’s French jargon is indebted to Diderot - and as Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz says with reference to Diderot’s view on creativity: ‘the Enlightenment accepted no mysteries’ (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249; see also Schmidt, 1985; Volgsten 2013, pp. 19ff., 37ff.). 16 It should be noted that the journals investigated by for instance Mary Sue Morrow, run by publishing firms as they often were, commented on published scores, rather than on public performances, as did the daily press investigated here (see Morrow, 1997; see also Gooley, 2011).

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evolved into two distinct and clearly defined actors on the Stockholm arena of criticism, and in addition a third party is articulated: the musician (singer, player, composer). From a historian’s perspective the remainder of the 19th century, until 1905, can be seen as a power struggle in and by which the critic and the audience are the major antagonists, each seeking support in the musicians’ third party, each dominating the other to some extent at different points in time (Widestedt, 2001, p. 49ff.).17 Criticism, as exemplified in Widestedt’s study, is thus a means by which a listening mass of persons constitutes itself as a public audience (a means of self-constitution articulated differently at different points in time). Given this circumstance it is no big surprise that a significant topic of the daily criticism in the Stockholm papers is music as a common cultural phenomenon, a source of Bildung and shaping of the listener’s moral character. Widestedt relates this to journalism’s obvious interest in the public event, in contrast to music as object of aesthetic discourse. Nevertheless, music as aesthetic object is important too during the entire century. So much so that music as aesthetic object and music as social event make up for two contrasting principal themes of musical criticism in Widestedt’s analysis, themes by which the actors of the critical discourse relate. To this Widestedt adds another two distinct themes, the individual (the critic’s) and the collective (the audience’s) experiences of the music. Of the latter two, collective experience turns out to be the major theme of the century as a whole, outdoing even those of music as social event and music as aesthetic object (ibid. pp. 45ff., 91). However, if we look at the particular years observed things turn out differently. Of interest for our present concern is that Widestedt points out music as aesthetic object as the major theme in 1835. It is said to dominate the reports in sharp competition with that of the public experience, leaving the two remaining themes (social event and individual experience) far behind. Now, Widestedt makes it clear that her statistics does not differentiate between criticism of performances and of compositions. This means that ‘music as aesthetic object’ is a category too blunt for answering if, and if so by which terms, the Stockholm audience listened to musical works. Besides opera being a main subject (dominating with vocal solo recitals over instrumental solo and orchestral concerts), reading the dailies Aftonbladet and Dagligt Allehanda reveals that even the distinction between performance of the work and the work as composition is not wholly accurate. Although musical compositions are often (but not always) mentioned by name,

17 This is a figurative power struggle played out in the press over a long period of time (and as such only observable from the historian’s meta-perspective), by which each figurative actor serves the long-term interests of the corresponding ‘real’ party they represent. As such the power struggle was hardly apparent to the individual persons that made up the audiences and groups of critics at specific periods of time, which means it does not affect the plausibility of the method (i.e. taking daily criticism as a sign of what the audiences heard).

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this does not mean they are spoken about as reified objects, ‘as such’ or ‘in themselves’. So how, then, is music conceived of as aesthetic object by the Stockholm dailies in 1835? As aesthetic object, music is mostly described in either of two ways: either as the compositional activity of the composer, or (which happens more frequently) as the execution by the performers. In other words, the work of music is regarded primarily as an activity carried out by the composer and (subsequently) by the performer. In this it is more similar to the standard view held by Kraus in 1780, than to the new approach propagated by Rubenson in the 1850s. The ‘work’ is still very much something you do. In other words it is not a question of describing either the work or the performance; the work is rather made sense of in relation to how it was composed and/or to the way it is performed. As such technical or formal descriptions of the music, to the extent that they occur, are usually interspersed as brief references in reviews of the performer’s execution and/or the composer’s compositional activity. An example of the work being an activity carried out by the performer is a review of a performance at the Royal Opera of Carl Maria von Weber’s Der Freischütz - the work objectifyingly spoken of as ‘an old friend and favourite’ - wherein the focus is on a new cast of opera singers’ respective contributions. For instance, in the role as Agatha, the reader is told, Mrs Engbom’s ‘strong and sonorous voice was heard to much delight, and to the extent that not all parts were given perfectly, however the eminently beautiful aria by the balcony could, in particular, not fail to win much acclaim’ (Anon., 1835a). Another example similarly focusing on the work-as-performance is the review of a program by foreign clarinet virtuoso Wagner (not presented by forename), containing Weber’s clarinet concerto, preceded by the ouverture to Iphigenie, and followed by compositions by Wagner’s own hand. According to the critic, the ouverture was not, especially the first part thereof, executed with the power and verve , for which our orchestra otherwise so often has given excellent evidence. … The number that was performed with most style and effect seemed to us to be Mr W:s own composition: a potpourri on several themes from famous operas. .However, his performance seemed to us not to any higher extent distinguished by spirit or virtuosity in general, and in the country that is familiar with [Bernhard] Crusell [the foreign virtuoso] does not attune the listener so much to his advantage. (Anon., 1835b) As we see, the musical works are spoken of in terms of the way they were executed, by the orchestra and by the soloist. Indeed, this way of speaking about music is so common and familiar, even today, that it may seem odd to point it out as such. In contrast to hearing music in terms of its performance, the 1835 criticism also displays how music can be heard in terms the composer’s compositional activity. In a review of a performance of the Danish composer Friedrich Kuhlau’s comic opera The Triplet Brothers From Damascus, it is said about the composer that

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one has found it before, [Kuhlau] does not disregard the timpanist; this time outranking Auber himself in clatter and pounding. (Anon., 1835c) A more positive account of Kuhlau’s work is given in the rival paper, telling the reader that [t]he masterly ouverture to the Elverhøj opened the concert; it gains each time it is reheard. A stormy instrumentation has seldom been put to such flawless use with so much reason.Kuhlau had a great deal of similarity with Weber, without being his imitator, and the ouvertures to El- verhøj and Lulu can, according to our conviction, fully measure up with those of Der Freischütz and Oberon. Should they in some compositional detail be their second, they would in others, e.g. completeness and execution, outrank at least the latter. (Anon., 1835d) In the latter quote, mentioning the works by name and the use of the pronoun ‘it’ has an objectifying effect, though the main way of describing the music is as a compositional craft or activity. As an example of the much less common way of describing the musical work in objectifying technical terms is the review of a staging of Gluck’s Armide, which informs the reader that this masterwork, … although not so rich in varied melodies as certain newer composers’, must nevertheless charm the true connoisseur by its gorgeous harmonies, the truthfulness of its paintings, and the colossal in the actual tone masses. No effort seems to be saved, on the part of the Directorate, in order that the whole should give an impressive effect. (anon., 1835e) But still, after mentioning some general aspects of the composition, the focus is redi- rected towards the execution of the music, ‘the whole’, albeit this time curiously ex- plained in terms of its administrative (‘Directorate’) conditions. Whereas many of the articles on music in 1835 are but short notices, sometimes mentioning no more than the name of the performer and sometimes also of the work performed, the review of Adolf Fredrik Lindblad’s opera Frondörerna on May 19 is an impressive exception in its sheer size. The daily paper Aftonbladet devotes almost an entire page to the première performance at the Royal Opera (a major event about which the competing newspaper Dagligt Allehanda remains curiously silent).18 Of this space about two thirds are spent on summarizing the plot. The remainder is divided into a review of the performance and a summary judgement about the composer. The latter, wherein one can discern a few comments about the music, begins with lofty statements about some unspecified advantages of the genius composers Mozart and Beethoven, and only after this name-dropping detour does the critic announce his judgement upon Lindblad and his opera:

18 In its supplement Aftontidningen, Dagligt Allehanda allocated extensive space for music reviews, however it was never devoted to a singular event, like Aftonbladet’s review of Frondörerna.

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… the bizarre is not entirely tantamount to the ingenious, and a beauty, which must be calcu- lated by numbers, is irrefutably none. … [T]he whole [is] therefore constituted such that one must hear it three, four times to get a grip on it. We have not hereby wanted to deny that the author possesses genius, all this affectation [sic.] notwithstanding, and enough so to be able, with all his conceptions of fine art, to write something truly beautiful. May he count the art for less artificial and [so too] his next work, since we hope this is just a beginning… . (Anon., 1835f) In these comments on Lindblad as a composer the tone is similar to those on Kuhlau and Weber. What we read are the verdicts of superior judges in trials of taste and compositional craftsmanship, verdicts that in hindsight read more like eager self-legitimations than informative criticisms (an observation in accord with Widestedt’s analysis and with a significance that I will say more about in the following). All in all, the kinds of event mainly covered by the Stockholm daily papers in 1835 are opera performances and vocal solo recitals. Instrumental orchestra performances are relatively rare. This should be seen in relation to Widestedt’s remark that only ten percent of the music performed in London, Paris and Vienna during the first part of the century was devoted to the classicial style (Widestedt, 2001, p. 111).19 The comment that ‘Beethoven’s Sinfonia Eroica, clever as all the works by this master, and which was given in two sections, with other numbers in between, was rather coldly received’, should therefore not be a surprise, nor the comment by the same critic that the Eroica ‘is not as splendid, as many other of Beethoven’s masterworks’ (Anon., 1835g). To the extent that music was written about - and by extension also heard - as an aesthetic object in Stockholm in 1835, it was hardly at all in terms of works existing autonomously ‘as such’ or ‘in themselves’.20 Rather than in reifying formal or technical terms, music is conceived of as an aesthetic object in general and superficial terms concerning the compositional activity of the composer, and even more commonly in terms of how well the music was executed by the performers. Moreover, when details are referred

19 Widestedt refers to William Weber’s observation that ‘the German classical style led by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert [i]n its early form during the late eighteenth century … had commanded considerable popularity, but with the wartime lapse in concert life it lost most of its public and was slow to regain popularity. By 1830 it was still little known in Paris, had a weak base in Vienna, and enjoyed a small though prestigious public in London. During the next two decades it began its rise to become the central component of the concert repertoire, but did not accomplish that well after mid-century’ (Weber, 1975, p. 19). 20 This goes also for those occurrences when the critic speaks about the execution of the music as a ‘representation’, for instance the performances of the latest opera in Paris, Le Cheval de bronze by Auber (Anon., 1835h). That the use of the term ‘representation’ does not carry any philosophical weight - that the performance is not a materialization, a ‘making present’, of an idealistic work existing immaterially ‘in itself’ - should be clear by the fact that the term occurs already in 1780 in a reference to a performance of Gluck’s Armide and Piccini’s Roland (Anon., 1780d) At this early time in history the concept was not yet invented. Moreover, in 1835, the phrase ‘representation’ is used about a performance by an ‘Alp singer’ yodelling and playing a hammered dulcimer (Anon., 1835i) - hardly a paradigm example of a work ‘as such’ along Goehr’s criteria.

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to as observable characteristics of the composer’s activity (that is, the way the music is composed), the primary function seems to be an elevation of the status of the critic in relation to the public, by showing off the critic as the composer’s equal in terms of technical skill, and even as superior in matters of taste. That this simultaneously implies a targeting of the listener’s attention to these same details seems to be an unintended side effect, rather than a conscious intention. Is there any difference in these matters if we look forward, to the years 1855 and -85, and into the 20th-century, to 1905?

1855 - the work as exclusive masterpiece vs. the simplicity of song Perhaps the most striking difference in comparison with those of 1835 is that the musical reviews of 1855’s daily press are markedly longer. 1855 (a year not covered by Widestedt) is a year witnessing Rubenson and colleagues battling out their ideas in the journal Ny tidning för musik (cf. n. 2), and as such motivates special attention. The expert journal is frequently referred to and advertised in the major daily Aftonbladet. On occasion an entire review can be reprinted (as in Aftonbladet on august 8).21 On the other hand the journal is hardly mentioned at all in the rival Svenska tidningen. Of the years surveyed, 1855 is remarkable for the striking difference in attitudes towards music between the two papers, a difference that the coverage of the professional journal indicates. The focus on the work as performance is still there in both dailies, whereas in Aftonbladet the work as compositional activity gives way, however sparingly, to descriptions indicating a view of musical works as abstract objects existing independently of their composers and performances. For instance, in the extensive review of the première performance of Hermann Berens’ opera Violetta, after recounting the plot at length, and after the usual disapproval of certain aspects of Berens’ composing, certain other aspects receive positive comment - but then in terms of the work ‘itself’, whereby the composer is only indirectly credited (Anon., 1855a). A similar case is the review of the première of Lindblad’s Second symphony. The same Lindblad that composed the opera Frondörerna in 1835 had already made his debute as a symphonist a few years earlier, with a composition that gained critical acclaim by Schumann upon its performance in Leipzig under Mendelsohn (Hedwall, 1983, 105f.). Lindblad’s Second symphony, requested by court conductor Jacopo Foroni, nevertheless

21 In a couple of announcements the journal promises ‘critical analyses of new musical works, especially products from the national press’ (Anon., 1855g). However, one should be aware that the expression ‘musical work’ (musikverk) at this time still denotes printed collections of music (cf. von Loesch, 1998 for 17th-century German sources of this terminology). The main music critic in Aftonbladet in 1855 was Wilhelm Bauck, who was also the chief editor of Ny tidning för musik, which might explain the frequent advertisements (Bauck was also the author of the reprinted article).

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received lukewarm response. In a first anonymous review the symphony - appearing on a program along with Beethoven’s Ninth symphony, interspersed by a vocal section with excerpts from Spohr’s Faust, Rossini’s Stabat Mater and Mozart’s Titus - is mentioned very briefly, commenting on some wanting details, although concluding that ‘the total effect has unity, as the composition is seamless’ (Anon., 1855b). In a second review a week later (by the signature ‘–s.’), the composition gets a lengthier assessment in positive terms, whereby the symphony’s movements are accounted for separately as existing more or less autonomously (i.e. without reference to the compositional activity of the composer, nor the performance), although in extramusical rather than formalist terms (Anon., 1855c). The article, like the previous, ends with a lengthy tribute to Beethoven and his Ninth symphony. Notable for this year’s reviews is that unreserved appraisal is exclusively saved for deceased masters. Not only is ‘father Bach … one of the most original geniuses that ever visited our world’ (Anon., 1855d), and Mozart’s Jupiter symphony a ‘splendour painting, in richness, wholeness, and consummate beauty commensurable only to itself’ (Anon., 1855e), these masters are canonized and frequently held up as contrastive quality markers against contemporary and local wannabes (cf. Pettersson, 2004). The evalua- tive jargon used in these cases is not the technical vocabulary used to pick out flaws in anyone’s compositional technique, but a blend of programmatic allusions and aesthetic terminology - including catchwords such as unity, organism, originality. The consecration of Austro-German classical masters is repeated in Svenska Tidningen, albeit in different aesthetic terms. In an unsigned article at the beginning of the year (with the title ‘Letter from Paris’), complaints are levelled against what is taken to be a ‘stagnation’ and ‘regression’ in the ‘world of the tone poem’. The ideal music has given way to an ‘ignoble material art’ of which the ‘surface charms’ lacks corresponding ‘in- ward power’. The contemporary ‘talents and petit-genies’ lack the gift of the true ‘classics’, which is the power to unite ‘the limbs’ of the artwork into a ‘living body’ wherein the ‘separate beautiful parts sanctify each other’ (Anon., 1855f). The key to this programmatic declaration is the word ‘tone poem’, which should be understood not as referring to Liszt’s novelties and its likes (cf. the reference to the ‘classics’), but rather to the plain and simple expression of the national soul, or Volksgeist, through song. Together with the mentioning of Shakespeare, the article rather indicates a debt to Johann Gottfried Herder. This is also what one gathers in the ensuing reviews, all published under the heading ‘Letters on art’ and signed A. M. (the initials of composer and critic Abraham Mankell). A case in point is the verdict that

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[t]he most beautiful numbers in Violetta are indisputably those, wherein Mr Berens succeeds in elevating his musical setting to the simplicity of song, yes sometime he even manages to reach up closely to the melody of the folk. (Mankell, 1855a) Lindblad’s symphony is likewise laudable because its singable themes marks a ‘return to music’s lost peace’ (Mankell, 1855b). In a review of a musical soirée, the best piece on the program is the simple folk melody Du gamla du friska (which was later turned into the Swedish national anthem), of which it is said that ‘the Scandinavian north owns its original melody [urmelodi]’ (Mankell, 1855c). And as yardstick for ‘the true song’ is held up no one less than Jenny Lind (Mankell, 1855d). The expression of the national soul, or Volksgeist, through song is mandatory also when the composition is an instrumental work such as Beethoven’s Seventh symphony (Mankell 1855e), and does not unreservedly welcome the formal complexities of a Bach fugue, where ‘reason outweighs the heart’ (Mankell, 1855f). Given the Herderian ethos of Mankell’s criticism - which was widespread in Sweden during the 19th century (and which in Mankell’s case also had a pronounced Moravian tinge, see Volgsten, 2013; cf. also Gramit, 2002, pp. 41ff.) - any objectifying tendencies of the vocabulary must be weighted against the inclusive and all-encompassing practice of collective singing. Musi- cal beauty is not judged at a contemplative distance to a musical object, but experienced as sympathetic devotion (andakt) and attunement with one’s fellow men. Thus … these simple, picturesque melodies, which delight the deepest interiors of man, this music, which anyone understands, these telling motives, on whose rich grounds the great tone poets built their temples. (Mankell, 1855g) 1855 is thus a year remarkable for both the generous space allotted to music criticism, and to the diversity of aesthetic stances articulated in the daily press. Since Widestedt does not survey this year, any journalistic explanations for this diversity must be left aside. What it means for the notion of a listening public I will get back to in the concluding section. However, the state of criticism would not remain unchanged.

1885 - the work lost in the social event In 1885 the role of the daily press critic is reduced to a reporter of public spectacle wherein performer and audience constitute the main focus of interest. Musical works are seldom mentioned and the judgement of the critic is of marginal importance. Music as aesthetic object has given way to music as social event and collective experience (in a rare report of an instrumental performance the reader is told about Beethoven’s Kreuzer sonata, that it is so well known it needs no further mention, see Anon., 1885a). Widestedt explains the change as a result of the press now having become a mass me- dium, aiming for a wider audience than the actual concertgoers (Widestedt, 2001, pp.

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66, 115f.). Striking are the recurring reports of star singer Kristina Nilsson’s many performances abroad and at home. What she sings is of lesser importance. Instead it is the massive acclaim of her audiences that are reported to the reader. In addition there is an abundance of items mentioning international music events, in Paris, London, Berlin and elsewhere. Given that symphonic concerts are becoming more common than in earlier years, it is noteworthy that they are so scarcely reported. An Easter Sunday concert for full house, with Franz Berwald’s ouverture to Estrella de Soria and Beethoven’s Ninth symphony on the program, gets but a small notice (Anon., 1885b). One particular event stands out this year, covered in extensive articles by all the major newspapers in the capital city. This is the memorial concert for the recently deceased composer and court conductor Ludvig Norman. The concert is devoted entirely to Norman’s oeuvre, with a première performance of his Third symphony in D-minor as the obvious highlight (at least from a retro- spective point of view). Characteristic of the criticism in this year, however, is the review in Dagens Nyheter, which says nothing about the work ‘as such’, and only mentions the conductor’s contribution to the performance (Anon., 1885c). Aftonbladet’s critic claims, with a similar disinterest, that he does not like ‘post-classicist’ symphonies, although ad- mitting the symphony is ‘doubtless’ Norman’s best piece (Anon., 1885d). More genuinely positive seem the reviews in Nya Dagligt Allehanda and Svenska Dagbladet. The former acknowledges the composer’s ‘warm inspiration and powerful creativity’ (words scarcely used by Swedish critics for their fellow countrymen composers), while the latter assigns to the music ‘a modest and pure simplicity’ (Anon., 1885e,f). In particular the G-minor allegretto seems to have attracted the critic, as well as the audience: ‘an enchanting piece, swinging in a light rhythmic dance, a true Nordic composition, with something transparent, slightly bewitching [trollskt] in motive and mood’ (Anon., 1885f). References to individual musical works, such as in the reviews of the Norman memorial concert (most notably in that of Svenska Dagbladet), are exceptional in 1885. The main focus of criticism - and this goes for all four dailies this year, whereby accounts of individual critics’ aesthetic stances (as in 1855) become superfluous - is on the everyday circumstances of star performers and on the audiences’ experiences of the events.22

1905 - the work as tone-painting and extra-musical experience When we enter into the 20th century things have changed radically. Widestedt speaks about ‘the revenge of the independent critic’ (Widestedt, 2001, p. 77). The critic, no

22 Which is all the more remarkable since by 1885 Stockholm had already gotten its first full-time professional music critic, Adolf Lindgren, who was also a respected music historian and theorist (see Volgsten, 2012a, p. 161ff.).

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longer anonymous, has become an unquestionable expert who judges high from low, not only when it comes to specific works and performances (as in 1835), or in confirming the superiority of the classics (as in 1855), but also in establishing what kinds of music be considered art and what are to be dismissed as lowly and popular. The space devoted to music criticism has also increased considerably. Lengthy critical reviews are now the norm. A national self-confidence can also be noted. Works by Swedish composers are reviewed, and whereas brief items in 1835 considered foreign affairs, in 1885 this had changed to a focus on the fame of Swedish artists. By contrast the international attention in 1905 is given to Swedish composers. An example is the report of Helena Munk- tell’s concert at the Salle Pleyel in Paris, according to which her Sonat för violin och piano ‘was received with thunderous applause’ (Anon., 1905a). Curious as it may seem (though with a possible reason, which I will get to), the comments on the compositional activity of the composer and on the performance of the musician now rarely involve formal or technical details, as they occasionally did in 1835. A review of a performance of Berwald’s Piano trio in D-minor, pairing the two thematic subcategories (composition and performance) side by side, is a good example. The composition - dedicated to Swedish engineer John Ericsson (inventor of steam engines, propellers and the first submarine) - ’wherein the ingenious composer so successfully characterizes the powerful and conceptive in this Swedish giant’, benefitted from the performance of the piano part ‘executed pre-eminently and sensitively by Mr Wilh[elm] Stenhammar, while the violin- and violincello-parts were equally handled by Mssrs Aulin and Claeson’ (Anon., 1905b). When the composers’ compositional activities are tied to technical detail, it is almost exclusively in negative critiques of their work. For instance when the Organ-symphony by Otto Olsson is said to be … one of the most pretentious and patience-testing works of music this writer has been ex- posed to in a very long time. For a full fifty minutes the composer treats his - victims, I guess one must say, with the cheapest improvisational material without idea, without shape, without mood, interspersed only with the commonest sounds and a brutally tasteless alternation between a crashing fff and a fluting ppp. The form can in itself not be called symphonic, since this requires real thematic groundmotives [sic] and thematic groupings; the composer’s way of writing is so confused and unplastic that not even in a movement called ‘fugue’ could this writer find those traits that are distinctive for this form:subject, answer, development and interludes, not to mention such features as stretti and thematic variations. (Peterson-Berger, 1905a) As in 1835, the reference to technical detail seems largely to serve the critic’s own needs, rather than those of the composer or the audience. But this does not mean the public was not capable of hearing what the critic commented upon. More interesting than references to composition and performance as activities is therefore the way new

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compositions by contemporary composers are positively reviewed, a way of describing noticeable already in 1855 but absent in 1885. In positive reviews the reference to the composer’s activity is more or less gone (for reasons I will shortly suggest), leaving the public with a description that eventually seems to grapple with the work ‘as such’ and ‘in itself’. A case in point is the review of Hugo Alfvén’s Second symphony in D major and the symphonic poem En skärgårdssägen (A legend of the skerries) by the same composer, the latter in première performance. … an artwork by rank is this symphony, in the content of its thoughts, the solidness of its form and broad lines, the intensifying moods, from the moderato movement’s idyllic delight and through the andante’s rising gravity and the bitter ridicule of the scherzo, up to the dramatic finale, which wrestles with the impending death itself and audaciously fugues its choral motive. The evening’s new symphonic poem ‘En skärgårdssägen’, which likewise received a fine execution, indicates by its name a sufficiently indefinite program to enable the tone images by themselves to act in a purely musical direction. It is an imaginative tone-piece with fine and saturated colours, where both haze over wide horizons and approaching storms are sensed, a rather forceful pathos developing out of a melancholy-drenched idyll, with preserved motivic unity in the seemingly free movement of the whole. (Anon., 1905c)

In sum, what we can see at the beginning of the 20th century is a way of writing about music whereby the activities of the composers and performers are increasingly being separated from the work, the music ‘itself’. Two things should be noted, though. First, in negative reviews, the composition is still tied to its composer in performative terms. Mu- sic is the outcome of a (substandard) compositional activity. Talk about the musical work in composer-free terms, as it were, seems rather to be a way for the critic in a small city like Stockholm to talk positively about novel works by contemporary ‘colleagues’ without having to indulge in personal flattery (which would inexorably reduce the critic to the composer’s second on the musical arena). To the extent that this seems to be a social fact of the matter (an hypothesis in need of further support, no doubt), the second point to be noted concerns the music ‘as such’ and ‘in itself’. Although the review above of Alfvén’s Second symphony and of his symphonic poem does not involve the composer and is not set in terms of a compositional activity, it is far from a formalist account of the work. To the contrary, it is a fairly programmatic description (not unlike what we have seen in Hanslick’s review of Brahms three decades earlier). In this it is representative for much of the daily music criticism in the Stockholm papers in 1905. This does not mean that everyone would have agreed with Alfvén’s rival colleague, the composer, critic, and music philosopher Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, who in a review the same year claimed that ‘all good music, yes, all music we seek instinctively to

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enjoy as program music’ (Peterson-Berger, 1905b).23 But it would be equally if not more wrong to say the opposite, that the main view was anything like a Hanslickean (formalist) constraint of music to tonally moving forms. Given the assumptions about the re- ciprocal relationship between criticism and listening, we may therefore assume that the Stockholm audience, when listening to Alfvén’s En skärgårdssägen, heard something - a sounding object rather than an activity - largely corresponding to Peterson-Berger’s description: a ‘tone-painting of waves lapping and sun glittering over wide waters’, a work containing ‘a lot of noteworthy and brilliantly crafted details’ (Peterson-Berger, 1905c).24 And as with Alfvén’s piece, so similarly with other works of music.

Concluding remarks Before summing up this exposé of listening and criticism in Stockholm during the long 19th century, let me return to the question raised earlier, whether the diversity of aesthetic standpoints articulated in the daily press during 1855 has any consequences for the notion of a listening public. Wouldn’t a diversity of stances in the press imply a corresponding diversity of listening publics? In a discussion of how ‘music created a public’ in London between the 17th and the 19th centuries, literary historian Harold Love stresses ‘the [simultaneous] existence of a considerable number of discrete publics and the fact that these publics were usually also members of other publics’ (Love, 2004). In many ways the Swedish case resembles the British as described by Love (given the usual delay of some decades, cf. above).25 My concern is not so much the historical background uncovered by Love as the possible existence of a number of intersecting musical publics in Stockholm during the period investigated.26 I have already mentioned the existence of Kenners and Liebhabers and the possible subsets of these categories along Rochlitz’ lines. But whereas these early 19th-century categories pertain mainly to those actively engaging in playing and singing, the daily press addresses - indeed must be able to address - also the non-playing and non-singing lay listener (especially when the press increasingly turns towards a mass audience at the end of the century).27 This means that the public audience discussed

23 Peterson-Berger developed an aesthetics of ‘self-communication’ (personlighetsmeddelelse) according to which the moral and spiritual qualities of a person may be mediated through music’s melodic (non-formal) qualities, through the associations and cultural connotations the sounds evoke in the listener (see Volgsten 2009; 2013). 24 However, there may be a sarcastic tinge of irony in Peterson-Berger’s description not shared by the wider audience (cf. Volgsten 2009; 2013). 25 In Sweden public concerts were initiated in 1731 by the composer and court conductor Johan Helmich Ro- man at the House of Nobility in Stockholm, upon Roman’s return from London and a stay in George Frideric Handel’s orchestra (see Bengtsson, 1982, p. xii). 26 Cf. n. 5 for an indication that this may indeed be the case (see also Tegen, 1955). 27 A further source informing the musical experiences of the average concertgoer is the printed program note,

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here - which I have variously described as lay listener and average concertgoer - might not have been as homogenous as my methodological treatment may indicate. Still none of the aesthetic stances that can be identified in the press accords with any formalist Platonic work concept (some brand of Aristotelianism would be a safer bet across the board, cf. Volgsten, 2012a). What we can assume is that the public audience in 19th-century Stockholm generally listened for nice melodies, well performed by beautiful voices, vocal and instrumental. To the extent that the audience wanted formal organization of complex works, it was hardly an aesthetic end in itself, but a means for highlighting beautiful melodies. And whereas the Stockholm audience in 1835 most likely conceived of the music heard as an activity executed by a performer or a composer (or both), by 1905 music was heard much more as an aesthetic object ‘as such’ - corresponding to a change in criticism, for which I have suggested a social reason (i.e. an objectifying rhetoric functioning as a means to commend musical compositions without making use of personal flattery) in addition to changes in theory and aesthetics. But we must not understand this as a radical shift from one extreme point of view (hearing music exclusively as an activity) to its diametrical opposite (hearing music exclusively as object). It is rather a shift of emphasis, whereby an objectifying vocabulary is used less in 1835 and more in 1905. When music was written about independently from its performance or its composer, towards the end of the century, it was mainly in programmatic and ‘extramusical’ terms, not in the formalist terms that would help the audience to individuate works that exist independently of ever being ‘performed or listened to at any given time’ (Goehr, op cit. p. 2, see also n. 11). Of course, this does not rule out the possibility that an abstract work concept along Goehr’s lines prevailed among listeners already in 1835, but it gives no indication that, if so, it was of any importance for what was heard, either at that time or in 1905 (and as such it is questionable). Re- maining to be answered is why, in 1885, music as aesthetic object gives way to music as social event and collective experience, especially since in 1855 music seems to have been up for considerable debate and multiple aesthetic perspectives: was it just a matter of the daily press becoming mass media (as Widestedt implies), or are there factors of a musico-aesthetic kind to be found?

appearing from 1893 at the Vienna Philharmonic’s concerts (see Botstein, 1992, p. 140f.). The precursor of the Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra, the Stockholms konsertförening, added biographical notes to its printed programs sporadically from the inception in 1902, and work comments regularly in their printed programs from 1916 (as such the program note is beyond the scope of the present article). The first occurrence of a program note seems to have been that accompanying the première performance of Berlioz’ Symphonie fantastique in Paris 1830 (see Goehr, 1992, p. 240).

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And what about Rubenson and Boman? Were they no more than adventitious ripples on the crest of the historical tide, leaving no traces at all in the life of music? Reading the fifty-two weekly issues of Ny tidning för musik from 1855 shows that Rubenson was a radical writer in his promotion of romantic aesthetic ideals (Boman less so).28 Wilhelm Bauck, who was the chief editor of the journal as well as main critic in Aftonbladet can be said to have held a middle ground between Rubenson and his allies (among which one can count composers J. A. Josephson, Norman and to some extent Berwald) on the one hand, and Mankell of Svenska tidningen on the other (see Volgsten, 2013). Bauck shared a formalist bent with the former, but like Mankell he despised the new music of the Leipzig romantics (‘the symphonic genre in Germany is but an experimental field’, Anon., 1855b). Nevertheless, when Rubenson, in 1859, writes that [i]nstrumental music is comprehended by different listeners in two distinct ways. Some appreciate mostly or exclusively music’s only true content, the beautiful tonal forms: others more the feelings that music is considered to produce. … But music can only be grasped and judged as music. It does not have its original model in nature, and the musical art work’s material, content, form and purpose is nothing else than tones, tone forms, tonal beauty (Rubenson, 1859)

he is not only imposing an exaggerated disparity between listeners; he is articulat- ing radical thoughts, bordering on the extreme, in line with Hanslick’s famous tract

28 Theoretically advanced articles only appeared occasionally in the journals. In 1835 the only scholarly journal is the monthly Tidning för teater och musik. As the title ‘Journal for theatre and music’ indicates, it is not exclusively dedicated to music, having opera as its main focus. However the technical level of the articles is quite the same as in the daily press. If there is a difference it is in the amount of space allotted to each review, which for obvious reasons is larger in the monthly periodical than in the daily paper. But the published material does not require any more advanced knowledge on the part of the reader. Thus Tidning för teater och musik of 1835 does not promote, presuppose or indicate any different kind of listening than that of the dailies. Svensk musiktidning, the major music journal in 1885 (the other journals being Det musikaliska Sverige and Musikbladet, both explicitly addressing a lay audience, the latter likewise focusing on music ‘for home use’), hardly affords any more space to music reviews than does the daily press of the same year. Reviews of concerts and performances, almost exclusively vocal, are published as brief items. However, the journal differs from its 1835 precursor by containing several articles of a more scholarly kind. For instance, in its second issue Beethoven’s Ninth symphony is taken up to discussion. Described in programmatic terms, with the only technical formulation being a statement that ‘the recitative by the instrumental basses … almost transcends the bounds for the absolute music’, the article nevertheless underpins a work-focussed listening. In a more advanced article in its fifth issue, Richard Wagner’s draft for a revision of the same symphony (Beethoven’s ninth) is referred with notational illustrations. The most demanding reading of the year is a series of articles on ‘The science of music’, wherein names like Otakar Hostinsky and Hugo Riemann are mentioned (issue 15). However, the memorial concert for Norman, with its première performance of Norman’s Third symphony, is mentioned as briefly as in the daily press (issue 19). Whereas the music criticism in the daily press gets more advanced and extensive in 1905, the same cannot be said about Svensk musiktidning, which is the major music periodical also this year. The lengthy articles are mostly biographies, whereas concert reviews are as brief as ever. The one exception is not a review, but a long article on music aesthetics titled Om musiken som uttrycksmedel. Ett litet bidrag till tonkonstens estetik (On music as expressive means. A small contribution to the aesthetics of music), in which the ideas of G. W. F. Hegel, Theodor Vischer and the Swedish aesthetician Samuel Grubbe are discussed (issues 17-19). For a less specific discussion of the mid- century journals, see Heintz (2003); for a comprehensive view covering the whole century, see Davidsson (1986). 20 Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning vol. 97-2015

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from 1854. In his home country Rubenson was ahead of his time, but he did not cause any dramatic paradigm shift (to the extent it occurred, the change came slowly and gradually),29 just as Hanslick’s theoretical pamphlet did not affect his daily criticism in any revolutionary way (cf. Grimes, 2013, p. 1ff.).30 For the majority of the Stockholm audience listening remained a more or less ‘extramusical’ experience, and so it remained in the 20th century, when an abstract formalist work-concept was promoted by new le- gal and commercial standards (see Volgsten, 2012a; 2013). Whether, and to what extent, Stockholm differed to any considerable extent from other cities on the European conti- nent remains very much an unanswered question. Should it turn out to be an anomaly in this case, this would call for further explanation.

References Anon., 1780a. [untitled review] Stockholms Posten, April 11. Anon., 1780b. [untitled review] Stockholms Posten, May 10. Anon., 1780c. [untitled review] Stockholms Posten, June 28. Anon., 1780d. [untitled review] Stockholms Posten, Novmber 8. Anon., 1835a. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, April 2. Anon., 1835b. [untitled review] Dagligt Allehanda/Aftontidningen, March 27. Anon., 1835c. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, April 15. Anon., 1835d. [untitled review] Dagligt Allehanda/Aftontidningen, March 13. Anon., 1835e. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, December 12. Anon., 1835f. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, May 13. Anon., 1835g. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, November 30. Anon., 1835h. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, April 18. Anon., 1835i. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, July 10. Anon., 1855a. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, January 13. Anon., 1855b. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, May 9. Anon., 1855c. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, May 16. Anon., 1855d. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, October 29. Anon., 1855e. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, January 22. Anon., 1855f. [untitled review] Svenska tidningen, January 12. Anon., 1855g. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, December 12, 18. Anon., 1885a. [untitled review] Svenska Dagbladet, April 28. Anon., 1885b. [untitled review] Nya Dagligt Allehanda, April 7. Anon., 1885c. [untitled review] Dagens Nyheter, November 16. Anon., 1885d. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, November 16. Anon., 1885e. [untitled review] Nya Dagligt Allehanda, November 16. Anon., 1885f. [untitled review] Svenska Dagbladet, November 16.

29 Late in his life, Rubenson reviewed music in Svenska Dagbladet (see Andersson, 1960, p. 210f.). 30 To the extent that one can speak of a paradigm change in musical aesthetics, as does Morrow, this does not automatically imply a revolutionary change of listening among the audiences. Quite the contrary: hearing music from within the older paradigm of rhetoric likely continued side-by-side with newer ways long into the 19th century, even when the music in question was a wordless symphony (cf. Morrow, 1997, p. 12ff.). One can thus question statements such as Mark Evan Bonds’ that E. T. A. Hoffmann ‘created a paradigm’ for the perception of music, one which came about as a ‘revolution in listening’ (see Bonds, 2006, pp. 9, 28).

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Anon., 1905a. [untitled review] Aftonbladet, January 31. Anon., 1905b. [untitled review] Dagens Nyheter, January 17. Anon., 1905c. [untitled review] Svenska Dagbladet, April 1. Adorno, Theodor, 1962. Typen musikalischen Verhaltens. Einleitung in die Musiksoziologie: zwölf theoretische Vorlesungen. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Andersson, Ivar, 1960. Svenska Dagbladets Historia D. 2. Litteratur, konst, teater och musik i SvD 1897- 1940. Stockholm: Svenska Dagbladet. Bengtsson, Ingmar, 1982. Johan Helmich Roman. Life. The Symphony in Sweden, Part 1, (ed. Barry S. Book & Barbara B. Heyman). New York & London: Garland. Boman, Per Conrad, 1843. Publikens Smak. Stockholms Musiktidning, 4. Bonds, Mark Evan, 2006. Music as Thought. Listening to the Symphony in the Age of Beethoven, Princeton and Oxford. Botstein, Leon, 1992. Listening through Reading: Musical Literacy and the Concert Audience. 19th Century Music 16:2. Davidsson, Åke, 1986. Swedish Music Periodicals of the 19th Century. Fontes Artis Musicae 3. Fétis, François Joseph, 1828. Sur la philosophie et sur la poétique de la musique. Revue Musicale 3. Dahlhaus, Carl, 1989. Nineteenth-Century Music, (trans. J. Bradford Robinson). Berkeley: University of California Press. Goehr, Lydia, 1992. The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works. An Essay on the Philosophy of Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gooley, Dana, 2011. Hanslick and the Institution of Criticism, Journal of Musicology, 28:3. Gramit, David, 2002. Cultivating Music. The Aspirations, Interests, and Limits of German Musical Culture, 1770-1848. Berkeley: University of California Press. Grimes, Nicole, 2013. Introduction. Rethinking Hanslick. Music, Formalism, and Expression, (ed. Nicole Grimes, Siobhán Donovan & Wolfgang Marx). Rochester: University of Rochester Press. Hanslick, Eduard, 1886. Brahms’ erste Symphonie. Concerte, Componisten und Virtuosen der letzten fünfzehn Jahre: 1870-1885: Kritiken, 2 Aufl. Berlin. Hedwall, Lennart, 1983. Den svenska symfonin. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell. Heintz, Veslemöy, 2003. Music Life in Stockholm in the 1950ies as reflected in the journal Ny tidning för musik. Musik in allen Dingen. Festchrift für Günther Weiss zum 70. Geburtstag, (ed. Gernot Gruber). Tutzing: Schneider. Holmquist, Åke, 2011. Beethoven. Biografin. Stockholm: Bonnier. Johnson, James H. 1995. Listening in Paris: A Cultural History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Jonsson, Leif , 1993. Mellan konsert och salong. Musiken I Sverige bd. II. Frihetstid och Gustaviansk tid 1720-1810 (ed. Leif Johnson & Anna Ivarsdotter). Stockholm: Fischer. Leux-Henschen, Irmgard, 1958. Den anonyma musikestetiska debatten i Stockholms Posten 1779- 1780. Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning. von Loesch, Heinz, 1998. ‘Musica’ und ‘opus musicum’. Zur frühgeschichte des musikalischen Werkbegriffs. Musikwissenschaft zwischen Kunst, Ästhetik und Experiment, (ed. Reinhard Kopiez, Barbara Barthelmes, Heiner Gembris). Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann. Love, Harold, 2004. How Music Created a Public. Criticism 46:2. Mankell, Abraham, 1855a. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, January 13. Mankell, Abraham, 1855b. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, May 16. Mankell, Abraham, 1855c. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, April 14. Mankell, Abraham, 1855d. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, December 2. Mankell, Abraham, 1855e. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, April 6. Mankell, Abraham, 1855f. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, March 22. Mankell, Abraham, 1855g. Bref öfver konst. Svenska tidningen, February 19. Morrow, Mary Sue, 1997. German Music Criticism in the late Eighteenth Century: Aesthetic Issues in Instrumental Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peterson-Berger, Wilhelm, 1905a. [untitled review] Dagens Nyheter, November 17. Peterson-Berger, Wilhelm, 1905b. [untitled review] Dagens Nyheter, April 10.

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Peterson-Berger, Wilhelm, 1905c. [untitled review] Dagens Nyheter, April 1. Pettersson, Tobias, 2004. De bildade männens Beethoven: musikhistorisk kunskap och social formering: Sverige mellan 1850 och 1940. Göteborg: Göteborgs universitet. Reese Willén, Anne, 2014. I huvudstaden, musiklivets härd. Den strukturella omvandlingen av Stockholms offentliga konstmusikliv ca 1840-1890. Uppsala: Uppsala universitet. Rubenson, Albert, 1855. Replik. Ny Tidning för Musik 4. Rubenson, Albert, 1857. Tankar om våra Concertförhållanden. Ny Tidning för Musik 4. Rubenson, Albert, 1859. Den inhemska tonkonsten och dilettantismen. Tidning för Theater och Musik 4. Schmidt, Jochen, 1985. Die Geschichte des Genie-Gedankens in der deutschen Litteratur, Philosophie und Politik, 1750-1945. Band 1. Von der Aufklärung bis zum Idealismus. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Tatarkiewicz, Wladyslaw, 1980. Creativity: History of the Concept. A History of Six Ideas. An Essay in Aesthetics. Warsaw: Polish academy of sciences. Tegen, Martin, 1955. Musiklivet i Stockholm 1890-1910 : Musical life in Stockholm 1890-1910. Stockholm: Stockholms kommunalförvaltning. Tegen, Martin, 1993. Fredrik Silverstolpe’s Review of J. M. Kraus’s Aeneas i Cartago. Gustav III and the Swedish Stage. Opera, Theatre, and Other Foibles (ed. Bertil van Boer). Lewistown/Queenston/ Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press. Volgsten, Ulrik, 2009. Peterson-Berger och Nietzsche, eller Peterson-Berger och Herder? Bidrag till den svenska upphovsrättens estetiska idéhistoria. Swedish Journal of Musicology 12. Volgsten, Ulrik, 2012a. Musiken, medierna och lagarna: musikverkets idéhistoria och etablerandet av en idealistisk upphovsrätt. Stockholm: Gidlunds förlag. Volgsten, Ulrik, 2012b. The Roots of Music: Emotional Expression, Dialogue and Affect Attunement in the Psychogenesis of Music. Musicae Scientiae 16:2. Volgsten, Ulrik, 2013. Från snille till geni. Den svenska kompositörsrollens omvandlingar från Kraus till Måndagsgruppen och dess betydelse för synen på musik. Stockholm: Gidlunds förlag. Volgsten, Ulrik, 2014. Albert Rubenson. Liv, kritik, musik/Life, Criticism, Music. Levande musikarv/ Swedish Musical Heritage. Stockholm: Kungl. Musikaliska Akademien. http://levandemusikarv.se/ tonsattare/rubenson-albert/ Weber, William, 1975. Music and the middle class: the social structure of concert life in London, Paris and Vienna (between 1830 and 1848). London: Croom Helm. Widestedt, Kristina, 2001. Ett tongivande förnuft: musikkritik I dagspress under två sekler. Stockholm: Stockholms universitet. Öhrström, Eva, 1997. Stockholms Arbetareinstituts folkkonserter och deras betydelse för konsertlivet. Musiken, folket och bildningen – glimtar ur folkbildningens historia (ed. Eva Öhrström). Linköping: Mimer.

Abstract It is widely assumed that the perception of the musical work changed radically around the beginning of the 19th century. Not only aestheticians and music theorists, but alleg- edly also listeners too, started to listen to music as if the sounds heard were the aural signs of autonomous musical works. Works became heard as structurally unified wholes represented by composers in scores - the works, once created, were assumed to exist like Platonic entities after their creators had died, irrespectively of whether they were performed or listened to at any given time. This picture of 19th century listening can be questioned on many grounds. Here it is done by studying the music criticism of the

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daily press in Stockholm during the years 1835, -55, -85, and 1905. Although Stockholm can be considered peripheral on both geographical and cultural grounds, as such it may nevertheless give a reasonable idea of what the lay listener of the average European audience may have heard. To this end, it is argued, examination of the daily criticism may be a more plausible source of information than the scholarly journals more commonly examined by musicologists and music historians. Should the Stockholm case turn out to be an anomaly among the cities of Europe (a question not answered here), this in itself would call for an explanation. Here the no less challenging question is limited to asking if, and if so by which terms, the Stockholm audience of the 19th century listened to musical works?

The Author Ulrik Volgsten is associate professor in Musicology at Örebro University. His research is concerned with musical communication in different media. In addition to the conceptual history of Western music (composer, work, listener) and musical aesthetics, an important focus of research has been the fields of cognitive science and the psychology of music. Volgsten is presently involved in the ethnographic project Music Identity and Multicul- ture, wherein the identity functions of music for participants in ethnic-based associations in Sweden are examined. Email: [email protected]

Citations in original language p. 1 Publiken ja ––– hvem är den och var finns den? Dessa inskränka sig till några unga dagdrifvare, en och annan verklig musikvän … samt ett halft dussin recen- senter, hvilka tro sig recensera musiken bättre om de hört på den. (Rubenson, 1857, p. 218) footnote 2 Konstnären har en bestämd ståndpunkt, grundad på studier och på sträfvandet på en bestämd väg till ett be- stämt mål; dilettanten saknar en sådan. För konstnären har det sinnliga elementet en underordnad betydelse; andan i musikstycket är det viktigaste. Hos dilettanten tvertom; han njuter af allt som endast klingar, ropar beständigt på melodi … . Konstnären förstår och njuter af musik, hvarmed här närmast förstås instrumental musik, som sådan; den musikaliska handlingen är för honom nog. … Dilettantisk kallas inom den skapande konsten det teoretiskt och tekniskt oskickliga … . (Rubenson, 1855, p. 26f.) p. 6f. At förbättra Pergolese, är en omöjlighet: at wärdigt imitera honom en stor swårighet: det senare berömwärdt, det förra oförlåteligt. (Anon., 1780a) p. 7 Om det alltid warit et så ganska oförlåtligt fel, at ändra andras compositioner, hade säkerligen icke Geminiani wågat ändra de af Corelli satta Solos för Violin och Bass, till Concerter för 7 partier, ehuru han nästan öfver alt måst sätta til hela långa meningarne. Dessa Concerter, som under namn af Corelli-Geminiani Concerti Grossi äro ganska kände, hafva därjämte i alla tider ansedts som Mästerstycken, utan att Corellis Musikaliska reputation därmedelst i det ringaste blifvidt lederad, eller den förmån honom frånkänd, at lika med Geminiani och Pergolese anses som Auctor Classicus i Musiquen. (Anon., 1780b) nådigt afsked (Anon., 1780c) p. 9 hennes starka och klangfulla röst hördes med mycket nöje, och om icke alla partierna gåfvos fullkomligt, så kunde dock i synnerhet den utmärkt vackra arian vid balkongen icke undgå att vinna mycket bifall. (Anon., 1835a)

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Ouvertyren utfördes icke, serdeles första delen deraf, med den kraft och verve, hvarpå vår Orchester eljest ofta gifvit så utmärkta bevis. … Det med mesta stil och effect utförda numret syntes oss Herr W:s egen composition: ett potpourri på åtskilliga themer ur kända operor. Hans föredrag syntes oss dock icke i högre grad ut- märkt hvarken af själ eller virtuositet i allmänhet, och i det land som är vandt vid Crusell [kan W] icke stämma åhöraren så mycket till hans fördel. (Anon., 1835b) p. 10 man har funnit det förut, [Kuhlau] försmår icke pukslagaren; denna gång öfverträffade han I slammer och dun- kande sjefaste Auber. (Anon., 1835c) Den herrliga ouvertyren till Elverhöjen öppnade konserten; den vinner för hvarje gång man återhör den. En stormig instrumentering har sällan med så mycket förstånd och så verkligen tadelfritt blifvit använd. Kuhlau hade mycken likhet med Weber, utan att vara hans imitatör, och ouvertyrerne till Elverhöjen och Lulu kunna, efter vår öfvertygelse, fullt mäta sig med Friskytten och Oberons. Skulle de i vissa compositionsdetaljer stå efter dem, torde de I andra, t. ex. helgjutenhet och genomföring, öfverträffa åtminstone den senare. (Anon., 1835d) detta mästerverk, som, om än icke så rikt på växlande melodier som vissa nyare kompositörers, likväl måste för- tjusa den sanna konstvännen genom dess herrliga harmonier, sanningen af dess målningar, och det kolossala I sjelfva tonmassorna. Ingen omsorg tycktes vara sparad å Direktionens sida, för att det hela skulle gifva en imponerande effekt. (Anon., 1835e) p. 11 … det bisarra är alldeles icke liktydigt med det genialiska, och en skönhet, som skall räknas ut med siffror, är ovedersägligen ingen”. “det hela [är] derför så beskaffadt, att man måste höra det tre, fyra gånger för att få någon reda på det. Att författaren oaktadt all denna affektation, eger geni, och tillräckligt för att med andra begrepp om skön konst, kunna skrifva något verkligen skönt, hafva vi icke härmed velat förneka. Må han anse konsten för mindre konstig och hans nästa arbete, ty vi hoppas att detta endast är en början… (Anon. 1835f) Beethovens Sinfonia Eroica, snillrik som alla arbeten af denna mästare, och hvilken gafs i tvänne afdelningar med andra numror emellan, emottogs tämligen kallt. Den är också icke så utmärkt, som flere andra af Beethovens mästerverk. (Anon., 1835g) p. 13 totaleffekten har enhet, emedan kompositionen är helgjuten (Anon., 1855b) fader Bach … ett bland de mest originella snillen som någonsin gästat vår jord (Anon., 1855d) prakttafla, i rikedom, helgjutenhet, och fulländad skönhet endast jemförlig med sig sjelf (Anon., 1855 e) p. 14 De skönaste numren i ’Violetta’ äro ovedersägligen de, i hvilka hr Berens lyckas höja sin tonsättning till visans enkelhet: ja, någon gång uphinner han mycket nära folkets ton. (Mankell, 1855a) …dessa enkla, bildsköna melodier, hvilka fröjda menniskans djupaste inre, denna musik, hvilken alla förstå, dessa mycket sägande motiv, på hvilkas rika grundval de store tondiktarne bygde sina tempel… (Mankell, 1855g) p. 15 varm inspiration och mäktig skaparekraft (Anon., 1885e) en flärdfri och ren enkelhet (Anon., 1885f) en förtjusande bit, gungande i en lätt rytmisk dans, en äkta nordisk komposition, med någonting genomskinligt, litet trollsk i motivet och stämningen. (ibid.) p. 16 mottogs med stormande bifall. (Anon., 1905a) hvari den genialiske tonsättaren så lyckligt karaktäriserar det kraftiga och tankedigra hos denne svenske stor- man. (Anon., 1905b) Pianostämman utfördes öfverlägset och känsligt af hr Wilh. Stenhammar, under det att violin- och violincell- stämmorna jämbördigt sköttes af hrr Aulin och Claeson (ibid.) … ett af de mest pretentiösa och tålamodspröfvande musikverk undertecknad på länge blifvit utsatt för. I fulla femtio minuter undfägnar kompositören sin – offer måste man väl säga, med det billigaste improvisations- gods utan idé, utan gestalt, utan stämning, endast med de allmännaste valklanger emellanåt och en brutalt smaklös växling mellan brakande fff och flöjtande ppp. Formen kan i och för sig ej kallas symfonisk, då detta förutsätter verkliga tematiska grundmotiv och tematisk gruppering; kompositörens skrifsätt är så virrigt och oplastiskt att icke ens i en sats som kallade sig ’fuga’ kunde anmälaren återfinna de för denna form utmär- kande kännetecknen: subjekt, svar, genomföringar och mellanspel, för att nu ej tala om sådana finesser som trångföringar och förändringar af temat. (Peterson-Berger, 1905a) p. 17 ett konstverk af rang är denna symfoni, genom tankarnas halt, formernas gedigenhet och breda linier, stäm- ningarnas stegring från moderato-satsens idylliska välbehag och igenom andantets allvarslyftning samt scherzots bittra löje fram till den dramatiska finalen, som brottas med själfva den hotande döden och dristigt

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fungerar dennas koralmotiv. Aftonens nya symfoniska dikt ’En skärgårdssägen’, som äfvenledes fick ett fint utförande, anger genom sitt namn ett tillräckligt obestämt program för att låta tonbilderna själfva verka i rent musikalisk riktning. Det är ett fantasirikt tonstycke med fina och mättade färger, där både soldis kring vida horisonter och stormars anlopp förnimmas, ett ganska kraftigt patos utvecklar sig ur vemodsblandad idyll, med bibehållande af motivisk enhet i det helas skenbart fria gång. (Anon., 1905c) p. 20 Instrumentalmusik uppfattas af olika åhörare på tvenne olika sätt. Några fästa sig företrädesvis eller uteslutande vid musikens enda verkliga innehåll, de sköna tonformerna; andra mer vid de känslor som musiken anses framställa. … Men musik kan blott fattas och bedömas som musik. Den eger icke någon förebild i naturen, och det musikaliska konstverkets material, innehåll, form och ändamål är blott toner, tonformer, tonskönhet. (Rubenson, 1859)

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Music listening and matters of equality in music education

Eva Georgii–Hemming, Victor Kvarnhall

Music education does not take place in a cultural vacuum, isolated from society and the conditions and norms present there (Woodford, 2005). Music played in music education contexts is a part of the students’ music and culture socialisation, and has therefore consequences for inclusion as well as exclusion. In other words, the repertoire in the classroom is important for challenging as well as preserving various societal constructs, for example relating to gender, ethnicity, age and socio-economic categories. Awareness and considerations regarding these complex issues is important for promoting equality in schools and society. In this article, we discuss musical conventions and connotations. In order to conduct a succinct discussion on equality in music education which teachers as well as researchers can relate to, we use two adjacent pedagogical strategies to exemplify our argument. The strategies, based on music listening, can be used in music education striving for inclusion and equality. There are other ways of exploring the issue, but we limit the scope to how listening, combined with teacher guidance, can be developed to a point where students can make adequate verbalisations of the sounding music. Such a teaching method aims to unravel preconceived notions of music as well as exceed them. This has implications for a democratic agenda and a shift towards a critical orientation in music education. The ambition is that students should be able to embrace music, which through its conventions and connotations may be perceived as ‘foreign’. We focus on the ways in which students can take in music on equal terms, and not avoid the music based on certain perceptions about for example girls/boys. We don’t mean that all students will always have positive experiences from all music – that would be impossible. However, we argue that music education in schools can have an important task in getting students to understand different forms of music and treat them with respect. This idea is related to more general aspects of democracy and equality as well as issues of integration. Beginning with a brief overview of recent research on music education and definitions of inclusion – in the context of popular music and informal practices, the article then outlines the theoretical dimensions of the research. It moves on to introduce music-cul-

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tural socialisation before discussing the key issue music listening and how listening practises can be developed in order to improve equality and inclusion. Finally, the conclusion gives a brief summary. The critical perspectives we develop in this article, through the use of concrete examples, also create a foundation for further music education research. Until now, these perspectives based on music listening and its potentials for equality in music education have been lacking within the international research community.

Inclusion, equality and popular music in education The issue of inclusion/exclusion in society and in school has for a long time been one of the most debated, yet at the same time one of the most complex (Biesta, 2007; Weis, McCarthy and Dimitriadis, 2006). The issue can be located on several different levels, in that it refers to the societal institutions as well as the societal structures regarding conditions for men and women, native and foreign-born, rich and poor, and young and old. Whilst the question of what equality looks like has been contested (McLaughlin, 2002; Richardson and Monro, 2013) most agree that it concerns awareness of respect for different groups and cultures. In educational contexts, the expression ‘inclusion’ can be said to express striving towards organising an educational system where everyone has opportunities to actively participate (Wright, 2010, pp. 263–281). It is fundamental for music education that rests on a democratic foundation to consist of equality, in terms of ways of working and relationships as well as when it comes to knowledge content and repertoire. In music education research in the 21st century, matters relating to inclusion and equality have mainly focused on how to make the most of student experiences from varied musical contexts. The analyses have often been limited to how informal and formal contexts may meet (Finney and Philpott, 2010; Green, 2008; Väkevä, 2010). The studies have mainly been carried out in countries where music education is often dominated by a Western canon and where the teacher is perceived as an authority in the learning process of students (cf. Allsup and Westerlund, 2012; Benedict, 2009). In these studies, popular music and related ways of working have been highlighted as a successful way towards inclusion. Yet, at the same time critical discussions have emerged. Researchers have also highlighted the fact that multicultural pespectives as well as anti-racist femi- nist perspectives have been overlooked (Clements, 2008; Georgii-Hemming and Westvall, 2010a; Hess, 2014; Karlsen and Westerlund, 2010). These are important because they may reinforce certain aspects of social justice and subverting hegemonic practices. There is a critical debate in the Nordic countries where popular music has gained considerable educational recognition over the past decades. The debate, now spreading to Anglophone countries, questions to what extent music education based on (some) popu-

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lar music actually mirrors the experiences and the musical cultures of the students, and it also highlights the fact that popular music is not automatically equal or inclusive for everybody (Davis and Blair, 2011; Georgii-Hemming and Westvall, 2010a, 2010b; Hess, 2014; Sernhede, 2006; cf. Green, 2008). Centring popular music does not necessarily eliminate power dynamics. Firstly, the emphasis on popular music can instead provide a limited education, lacking in range of genres and, consequently, the exclusion of musical experiences and expressions. Second- ly, the debate highlights gender issues that follow from the dominance of music-making in pop band-like ensembles (Bergman, 2009), and thirdly how activities like improvisation, composing and listening have been given a relatively lesser role in music education (Lindgren and Ericsson, 2011; Georgii-Hemming and Westvall, 2010b). This relates to considerations of the democratic task of schools. To develop tolerance and understanding between geographic, ethnic, social and musical groups, education must facilitate meet- ings between people of different background, gender and who have different interests (Georgii-Hemming and Westvall, 2010b). All in all, these have reference to issues of social inclusion as it may undermine integration or social inclusion agendas. We do not oppose the fact that current music education research shows a greater need to include the experiences of the students and to develop a broader perspective of music use, knowledge and learning (Feichas, 2010; Green, 2008; Karlsen, 2011, 2009; Väkevä, 2010). Our stance is that a variety of dimensions of the student’s experiences should be involved in school and that music education should be a meaningful and important experience. We also realise that there is a relationship between current music educational matters (and thus the need for change) and educational traditions in different countries. However, in order to achieve a democratic music education that strives for inclusion and equality, more substantial development is needed in regards to musical conventions and connotations, and how teachers can consciously work with them.

Current perspectives The arguments in this article evolve from the idea that people develop knowledge and understanding through acquiring and interpreting already existing perceptions in society (Bernstein, 1983; Berger and Luckmann, 1966; Shapiro and Sica, 1984). We, as individuals, are born into a certain context which is important for our thoughts, ideas and notions, but also for what we learn and how (Bowman, 2012). This means that our experiences, interpretations and out learning are to some extent collectively influenced (Georgii-Hemming, 2007). Our everyday understanding and interpretations are taken for granted and are seldom reflected upon.

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However, this does not mean that we need to simply accept ‘taken-for-granted’ assumptions about music choices. The school is one place where our experiences, perceptions and arguments can be tested and challenged through meeting others and their experiences and viewpoints. Our starting point and central argument can thus be described as a hermeneutic educational perspective (Fairfield, 2010; Gustavsson, 2009; Schuback Sá Cavalcante and Ruin, 2006) in that we look at how students’ perceptions about musical practices are formed in a culturally specific context – as a dialogue between the individual and the collective and between text and context. This in contrast to approaches which either asserts the text (Adorno, 2003; Benzer, 2011) or the context (DeNora, 2000; Finnegan, 1998). Within music research, there are re-occurring questions about the relationship between text and context. Music researchers are concerned with whether the meaning of music is intrinsic in the musical structures - in what could be heard or seen in music scores - or extrinsic, created by the listener (Reimer, 2003; Small, 1998; Varkøy, 2010). It is true that music is not a one-way communication from a ‘sender’ to a ‘receiver’. One single song can have different meanings – for different listeners as well as for the same person, depending on the context. This is why previous music sociological research have often focused on how musical meanings are constructed through discourse, of us ‘thinking and speaking about it, interpreting it’ (Lilliestam, 2009, p. 144; see also Martin, 1995; Finnegan, 1989; DeNora, 2000; 2003; Clayton, Herbert and Middleton, 2003). But what is often forgotten is that people’s interpretations and understandings of music are already shaped by associations from media, from conversations in the workplace or from social media (Brown and Volgsten, 2006; Ganetz, 2005; Green, 1997). Through musical experiences, we place ourselves (or are placed) in certain social positions (Hes- mondhalgh, 2008; 2013). Music is, in other words, an arena for the construction and negotiation of identities, cultural meaning and power. Undeniably, music as a subject has many potential functions and music teachers choose activities, ways of working and repertoire based on their perception of the purpose of music education. We, the authors of this article, are both teachers in music teacher education and when we meet students or practising music teachers they often speak of the importance of the social dimensions within the subject. They describe how the subject of music can help to develop an ability to co-operate, strengthen students’ self esteem and provide a sense of community. They also commonly mentioned the emotional aspects of music (de Boise, 2014a; Juslin and Sloboda, 2010) or its ‘creative potential’ (Burnard, 2012). Occasionally, the importance of sharing a cultural heritage and students having the opportunity to work with different forms of knowledge is being highlighted (Georgii-Hemming, 2013). Other arguments state that music education can

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fulfil a recreational need or stimulate an interest in music that can come to fruition later in life. Thus, there are many solutions, but we relatively seldom hear anything about the fact that music education can contribute to an increase in knowledge and understanding of unfamiliar music and therefore a diverse response of cultural practices. As a result, this could be one method for working with issues of social equality in music education. Such an approach can take different forms. It could be a matter of critically exploring musical conditions among different groups (e.g. according to gender, ethnicity and socio- economic groups) as a part of studying relationships between music, society and culture (Campbell and Andersson, 2010; Regelski and Gates, 2010; Wright, 2010). It could also be a matter of listening to and reflecting on perspectives, musical preference and quality (Gracyk, 2007; MacDonald, Hargreaves and Miell, 2002; Small, 1998). As mentioned in the introduction, this text is focused on how listening practises can be developed in order to contribute to an awareness among students of preconceived notions of music, through describing the sounding music rather than students’ ‘taken- for-granted’ assumptions. Even though it is reasonable and many times important to connect such ways of working to issues like cultural recognition (Taylor 1994), cultural awareness (Campbell, 2002; Davis, 2005; Shehan, 1988), cultural identification (Söder- man, 2011), aesthetic listening (Reese, 1983) or music appreciation (Levinson, 2009), these issues are not the focus of our text. In other words: the opportunities in working consciously with music listening, that we wish to highlight, do not involve gaining an increased insight into the people ‘behind’ the music, nor developing a cultivated musical preference (see Burke, 2008). The role of the teacher is therefore to facilitate discussion about the music with a conscious focus on social equality.

Music-cultural socialisation To be socialised into a culture means acquiring norms and values, without being particularly aware of this process (Macionis, 2010). These thought patterns are linked to our perceptions of other individuals and groups and relate to who have been given influence and power. A critical view of, and insight into, music-cultural socialisation is therefore important for music teachers because the interests of some social groups may not be equally represented. The aim of education is presumably to encourage a diverse range of cultures. We argue that one way of working with such questions is to use music listening because, as highlighted above, music can encourage a range of different cultural practices.

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In an educational system founded on democracy, music education based on equality is fundamental. Such an education should make the most of students’ own experiences, yet at the same time, meeting the ‘unknown’ – to be confronted with different perspectives and horizons of thought – is crucial in order to challenge our ‘taken-for-granted’ assumptions and promote social equality (Gadamer, 1960; Gustavsson, 2009). Music and music teaching have, as mentioned, to do with a dialogue between experiences, between the individual and the collective, between past, present and future (Kearney, 1996; Ricoeur, 1993). Music articulates understanding of individuality and group, of time and place, and integrates experiences and themes in a variety of contexts. Music is at the same time individual, social and cultural. In this context, encountering something new in school means having opportunities to embrace music associated with groups other than the one you identify with due to socialisation into a particular cultural habitus. It involves understanding why you value music in a certain way, or why you prefer certain music practices to others (Georgii- Hemming, 2013). As we get to know ‘the other things’ or ‘the others’, our awareness of the well known also increases (Georgii-Hemming, 2007). When people listen to music, they seldom hear the sound only. Listeners will associate (in a more or less conscious way) to personal memories, particular places or musical and social conventions present in society. It could be cultural perceptions – connotations – of how a particular music is linked to certain (groups of) people, e.g. women, men, or homosexuals (Green, 1988; 1997). It could also be certain musical conventions that are associated to a certain genre: key change, a particular ‘sound’ or typical suspended or added tone chords. These connotations and conventions can influence how the music is perceived, which in turn can turn people ‘deaf’ for music that is seen as foreign. When tastes ‘have to be justified, they are asserted purely negatively, by the refusal of other tastes’, as expressed by Bourdieu (1984, p. 57; see also de Boise, 2014b). Increasing competency to embrace such music does not involve learning to ‘like’. It is rather about being able to connect with various music styles, performers or listeners with a sense of respect. One of the necessary conditions is that the students experience what Lucy Green calls ‘inherent musical meaning’ (Green, 1988; 1997). We experience this kind of meaning when we listen to music styles and music traditions that we are familiar with. Different musical elements (in a style or a tradition) imply other musical elements (Koopman and Davies, 2001) and we carry with us such implications as a part of our listening practices, regardless of us being aware of them or not. One may, for example, expect a key change in the chorus of a Eurovision Song Contest entry, as well as one may expect a so called ‘break’ in Western pop songs, where the character changes. It is not possible, of course,

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to predict exactly how a song of a certain genre will sound, but one could talk about likeliness. In order to discover and experience such regularities, one needs a level of familiarity with the musical conventions of the musical genre/tradition. In other words, one needs a ‘hearing aid’ that counteracts ‘deafness’ towards certain types of music. The music teacher has the opportunity to become that ‘hearing aid’. There may be variations in terms of how and why teachers work with music listening in music education (Elliott, 2014). For the purpose of this text, we have focused on methods that involve adequate descriptions of the sounding music (e.g. soundscape, tempo, rhythm, instruments), and discussions about the contributing, musical, factors that can make music being perceived as un/interesting, novel or predictive. We argue that this can contribute to students overcoming taken-for-granted perceptions, and therefore has both an important function in the shaping of an equal music education as well as linking to broader issues of social inclusion.

Music listening It is certainly no exaggeration to argue that music listening is a central, ubiquitous activity for many (young) people today. New technology has made it possible to listen to music wherever and (almost) whenever. People listen to music at home, at work, at the gym or while travelling. Music accompanies sporting events, shopping, parties and ceremonial events (Bull, 2000; 2005; Lilliestam, 2009; Sloboda and O’Neill, 2001). Hearing and listening to recorded music are probably the most common ways of experiencing music today in Western societies. When we speak of music listening, we may have to make some distinctions. Of course, we acknowledge that music can engage, form thoughts and emotions, and make us for- get time and space (Varkøy, 2010). However, the relationship between the characteristics of the music and emotional responses is a matter for the subject of music psychology (Gabrielsson, 2008) and philosophy of music (Kivy, 2002), and thus something we do not intend to explore further into at this point. This text is about perceiving music, in the sense of understanding the musical material – for example shape, expression, ‘sound’, instrumentation, and so on. But the text is also, and above all, about perceptions about music. We therefore want to focus on music listening within the music classroom (primarily upper and upper secondary school, year 7–12) with a particular emphasis on musical form and musical associations.

What happens when we listen to music? Leaving aside physiological processes, what actually happens when people listen to music? Listening to music is different than when people listen to other kinds of sounds.

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Sounds from nature, industries or cities can of course be perceived as beautiful, annoy- ing, pleasant or stressful – just like musical sounds, but they differ in important ways (Bull, 2000). Musical sounds are created with the intention of them being heard as music and are therefore organised in a way that makes it possible for people to recognise these sounds as music (Frith, 1996; Wright, 1975; Green, 1988; 1997). It is, however, not possible for every individual to understand (even if a listener does not appreciate) every piece of music. It is often difficult for Western music listeners to fully understand and appreciate music made outside of Europe and the English-speaking countries, perhaps in particular Western Europe (Clayton, Herbert and Middleton, 2003). But also certain musical genres or musical characteristics can be hard to understand for the ‘common’ Western ear – such as for example music with mixed or complex meters (Middleton, 1999).

Music and associations This means that people’s capacity to understand and appreciate music is limited, and that boundaries are created through musical socialisation (Martin, 1995). We find the music that surrounds us during our childhood and throughout our lives familiar; different musical rules and conventions are being acquired and form a kind of musical knowledge. Even though this knowledge can seldom be expressed verbally, it is often subtle and so- phisticated: ‘[p]eople who know nothing of formal music theory can instantly identify a “wrong” note’ (Martin, 1995, p. 9). People’s understanding of music is therefore neither natural nor intuitive, but rather a product of being brought up and living in particular cultural contexts, where particular musical conventions dominate. People, however, do not only hear tones, harmonies, ‘sound’, rhythms or meter when they listen to music as noted previously. Music is also associated with something ‘outside’ of the music: phenomena, social groups, nations, historical periods, personal memories, and so on (Green, 1988; 1997; Wright, 1975; Martin, 1995, chap. 2). Such associations can sometimes become so stark in a society that they, as with musical rules, become conventions (Green, 1997, p. 7). They thus become connotations, which can then have a powerful impact on how people perceive certain music, something that is often exploited by those making music for advertisement (among others). Heavy rock music can, for example, be used in adverts marketing their products to (young) men, because such music carries connotations of masculinity (Järviluoma, Moisala and Vilkko, 2003, pp. 84–107, cf. Cook, 2010, chap. 1). Several studies illustrate that this is an essential part of everyday music listening – Lil- liestam’s (2001) study of college students in Gothenburg, for example, found evidence of such judgments. Participants, largely ethnic Swedish, listened to a number of different music excerpts, from various genres, and then discussed the music. Re-occurring epi-

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thets were for example ‘nigger music’, ‘girl’s music’, ‘children’s music’, ‘gay music’, ‘typically Swedish music’. The reasons they made these judgements was to distance themselves from certain music, and thereby certain groups, associated with it. This highlights the fact that such connotations are actually a part of how the music is perceived, being valued and being understood. In addition, it also means that the connotations, like other connotations, are collectively shared and as such shaped through musical socialisation. Therefore, such processes constitute yet another kind of musical knowledge in a society. We argue that, above all, such connotations could make people ‘deaf’ to some music (cf. Green, 1988), since it is associated to a certain social group, a life style, particular places, political ideas and other things (Green, 2005). In many ways, these connotations make individuals unable or unwilling to approach certain types of music (Bergman, 2009). Starting from the point of discussing social connotations (e.g. ‘black music’), rather than musical properties can, therefore, undermine equality agendas and actually have an adverse effect. We would like to stress the importance of music education where the influences of these connotations are being considered, given that they can often swamp the musical pieces so that the actual experiences and the judgments of the music piece become reduced to an afterthought. This is what happened in the example below: Is this the type of music to which you can go out and dance? (Discussion leader) Yes, you could if you are [whispers] a nigger. (Lilliestam, 2001, p. 71) The comment is about Fugees’ song ‘FU-GEE-LA’. The boy making this comment (and he was not alone in talking in this way) can in other words not see himself engaging in Fu- gees’ music since it is tied to groups in society that he cannot or does not want to identify with. This kind of stand is mainly based on a perception of cultural differences and in particular the idea of crossing cultural boundaries as difficult or impossible. The sounding music in this example becomes so closely connected to a ‘black culture’ that it is impossible to separate the music from the people who have created it and their context. We argue that developing students’ ability to separate music from such connotations is important for those who want to focus e.g. social equality agendas in music education.

Music listening in the classroom When music teacher colleagues or teacher training students talk about students having ‘musical experiences’ in the classroom, they tend to focus on playing, singing and creating music (Georgii-Hemming and Westvall, 2010b). So what place and what function does music listening have in music education in school settings? What place and what function might it have? When we highlight listening, talking about and discussing music,

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it should not be understood as more important than other activities. It is, however, one way – like many others – toward musical experience. In regards to listening as a part of music education, ‘active’ or ‘attentive listening’ is sometimes mentioned (cf. Lilliestam, 2013; Madsen and Geringer, 2001; Rinsema, 2013). In order to stimulate active listening (Ericsson and Lindgren, 2010, p.186), the teacher gives tasks designed to be completed while listening. We argue that tasks like identifying tempo, instrument, form or to follow music via some kind of score, can fill several functions. On a general level, they can contribute to catching the attention of the students. There is an obvious place in music education for learning musical terminology and musical constructs, as it is included in the aims of many curricula (Consortium of Na- tional Arts Education Associations, 1994; Lgr11, p. 100; National curriculum in England: music programmes of study 2013). We argue that these types of tasks can also be used in working with matters of equality. We would like to add a particular type of discussion to listening tasks that focuses on verbalising how we perceive music as form or expression, which connects listeners own perceptions with that of other people – namely argumentation and critical analysis.

Music listening and the critical task of the teacher It is possible (and vital) to communicate and discuss music, its values and our perceptions, in music educational settings without the music being defined entirely by cultural connotations or stereotypes. To critically analyse music means that students should weigh pro’s and con’s with different points of views in a way that is open towards other, maybe opposite, views (Rolle and Wallbaum, 2011). The relationship between ‘values’, ‘points of view’ and ‘opinions’ should in this context not be understood as students arguing their personal preference. Instead, we see argumentation (and analysis) of what it is about music – soundscape, tempo, form, melody – that can shape students’ perceptions of it as interesting, uninteresting, innovative or predictable. According to this perspective, music education can create possibilities for a musical practice supported by critical argumentation in addition to performances (Georgii- Hemming and Westvall, 2010a). When the musical argumentation develops, students can become understanding towards different perceptions of music. They get opportunities to leave culture-bound perspectives behind, and discover new ways of hearing music. Put simply, it may mean that listeners can overcome pre-judged ideas about certain music as ‘old man’s music’, ‘girls’ music’ or ‘boring’. It will thus become possible to accept as well as listen to other people’s preferred music, even though it may not be to the taste of

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the individual. This can also be a way of discussing cultural difference in other areas or subjects. In order for students to be able to engage in this kind of argumentation, they need to be guided by a teacher. The competency to be able to make informed arguments – about the music listened to, but also about choices made in relation to private musical practices or ‘musicking’ (Small, 1998) in the classroom – can be developed: this is what we would like to call ‘the critical task of the teacher’. Without providing definitive answers we would still like to try and clarify what we mean by this. We would like to emphasize again that this type of approach focuses on actually changing students’ perceptions, in this case in relation to music. The teacher’s role, as we understand it, is to focus chiefly on so-called externally-driven musical perceptions, but also on understanding unfamiliar music through a musical lens. For example, it can be common to describe unfamiliar music as uneventful, boring, unstructured and chaotic, but these perceptions are often founded more on the lack of knowledge on part of the listener, rather than on the sounding music itself (cf. Green, 2005, p. 10). The critical teacher must deal with these kinds of situations in the classroom through making students familiar with different kinds of music and through verbalising the sounding music. The teacher must therefore be aware of issues around structural inequalities and diversity as well as have a well-informed understanding of music. The boy in the previous quote who did not feel motivated to listen nor dance to the music of Fugees implies that it is only suitable to do so if you are a ‘nigger’. There is an aversion founded on an idea about the (inherent) blackness in the music – and that there are no other aspects of the music beyond its associations. In order to counteract the reproduction of such ideas it is imperative to focus the classroom discussion on the musical object. Our suggestions for teaching strategies thus have two key aims: (i) that students should be able to embrace music where the musical conventions are perceived as unfamiliar/foreign; and (ii) that they should be able to embrace music where the connotations are perceived as unfamiliar/foreign. This does not necessarily include a complex operation. In regards to (i), this may for example entail repeated listening to music that students perceive as uneventful, boring, chaotic or disorganised. The teacher could then function as someone who can guide students through the listening process. The guidance could take several forms, for example by talking about the music, and through illustrat- ing different musical characteristics on an instrument, or with help of sequencer-soft- ware such as Fruity Loops. It could involve identifying a returning and varying melodic theme, to grasp instrumentation, or understanding musical structure. Such relatively simple identifications are a step closer to familiarity with a musical object. Another step

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is to be able to relate to musical conventions and stylistic moves in order to experience the typical versus the unexpected in a tune or a piece of music (Green, 2005), something that requires other skills among teachers. In regards to (ii), which is the phenomenon that we wish to chiefly highlight, the same method as in (i) will be of use here too; the difference lies in the aims. Whereas (i) focuses on students realising that pieces that sound disorganised and uneventful are actually highly organised and eventful, (ii) relates to realising that music appreciation is not inherently tied to the perceptions we harbour. One of the reasons for people remaining unfamiliar with a lot of music is the fact that externally-driven perceptions are so strong that they do not incentivise actual engagement. The lack of engagement means that experiences of inter-musical meaning are ruled out (Green, 1997, p. 249; 2005). Thus, the strategy we refer to encourages teachers to take up the problem from a different angle. By learning to hear the internal organisation of music, it can be regarded as more detached from such connotations. One way of doing this is by considering the choice of music used for listening and discussions in the class room. For example choosing Siouxie and the Banshees instead of Sex Pistols as an example of punk/new wave, or Missy Elliott instead of Public Enemy as an example of rap/hip hop. Focusing the discussion on the structure of music, the typical and atypical within a genre, can result in externally-driven connotations (in this case gender) being counteracted. This is a prerequisite for students being able to experience the inter-musical meaning and consequently realise that connotations (in this example particularly ‘female’ music) are not harboured in the sounding music. Again, the teacher must be familiar with music conventions and connotations as well as the impact of social inequalities and judgements about music. This familiarity also creates opportunities for rational argumentation about music. The aim, from our perspective, is to learn how to talk about and discuss music, as well as test these reasons in order to move beyond our culturally imprinted associations. We can draw a parallel with religious studies where one can try arguments for and against the existence of God, without the purpose of students starting, or ceasing, to believe in God. Equally, the purpose of argumentation in music education is not that all students should be taught to like a certain genre. Rather, the purpose is to test arguments for the most reasonable way to understand or describe music and also to embrace other peoples’ arguments through a constructive dialogue. To reiterate, this has implications for music education as well as broadening cultural awareness in other respects.

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Conclusions People’s interpretations and understanding of music are imprinted by associations that reoccur in media, through conversations at work or in social media (Frith 1996; Hes- mondhalgh, 2008; 2013; Volgsten, 2006). Our understanding is coloured by time and place, it is collectively shared, which also means that we load music with meanings based on aspects such as gender, class or ethnicity. From our perspective, one important, but overlooked, purpose of listening in music educational contexts is that students can develop skills that help them to move beyond musical unfamiliarity and externally-driven musical connotations. These skills, which can be developed, could be to understand different musical conventions and not distance themselves from music because its externally-driven connotations. To acquire conventions and viewpoints is precisely what happens when we are socialised into a music- culture. Music education has an important role to play in these socialisation processes. Music education and music educators must be clearly aware of and consider equality issues. Consciously working with musical conventions and connotations, well-thought- out choices of musical repertoire, educational activities and methods are therefore important. But, to discuss relations between music and gender, class or ethnicity directly can be problematic. These questions are complex and require certain skills and insights of the teacher. In addition, music and musical perceptions often connect to students’ identities, emotional experiences, personal values and so forth. Working with the pedagogical strategies introduced in this article, on the other hand, do not have to be difficult. The focus of this article has been on the sounding music and music educators most likely have the music theoretical knowledge required to discuss this. Nevertheless, we have demonstrated how such pedagogies, founded on an awareness of the underlying problems, also have the potential to promote equality in school and society. Moreover, further music research as well as informed discussions on music; musical practices and music education in relation to different forms of equality issues - class; social, cultural and musical exclusion/inclusion; ethnic diversity; gender and many more - are needed and urgent. It is our hope that this article will contribute to the development of both.

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Abstract Peoples’ interpretations and understanding of music are imprinted by associations that reoccur in media, through conversations at work or in social media. Our understanding is coloured by time and place, which also means that we load music with meanings based on aspects such as gender, class or ethnicity. Music education is a part of the students’ music and culture socialisation and the repertoire in the classroom is therefore important for challenging as well as preserving various societal constructs. In order to achieve a democratic music education that strives for inclusion and equality, a substantial reali- sation is needed in regards to musical conventions and connotations. In this article we address these questions, but also how teachers can consciously work with them. We give some examples based on music listening. Until now, these critical perspectives based on music listening and its potentials for equality in music education have been lacking within the international research community.

Keywords democratic music education; gender; equality; sociology of music education; philosophy of music education

Authors Eva Georgii-Hemming is Professor at the School of Music, Theatre and Art, Örebro Uni- versity, Sweden. She is the main editor to the anthology Professional Knowledge in Music Teacher Education (Ashgate 2013) and has contributed to international anthologies such as Learning, Teaching and Musical identity (Indiana UP 2011). She has published articles in journals such as British Journal of Music Education, Research Studies in Music Educa- tion, Music Education Research and Nordic Research in Music Education. Her research interests have led to frequent presentations and keynotes at international conferences in Europe and the United States. Victor Kvarnhall received his Ph.D. in Musicology from Örebro University in the fall of 2015. The thesis is a study on boys and the reproduction of male dominance and gender segregation within popular music life. Especially, it offers a critical realist explanation of why boys adapt certain reproductive approaches to popular music/making.

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The revised versions of Kurt Atterberg’s Symphonies

Carola Finkel

Introduction In the first half of the 20th century Kurt Atterberg (1887–1974) was one of the most popular and influential persons in the musical life of Sweden. Between 1909 and 1956 he composed nine symphonies. With the exception of Symphonies Nos 6, 8 and 9 Atterberg made subsequent changes to every symphony. He modified some pieces slightly after the first performances but sometimes also changed his compositions fundamentally many years after they were written. This article has its focus on Symphonies Nos 4, 5 and 7, because they were revised and published by Atterberg after they had been published already. 1 Both the original and the final versions are available today. While nowadays works of nearly all composers are generally played in their last au- thorised version, this tends to be ignored or seems to be unknown in the case of Atter- berg’s symphonies, as recordings and performances show. For this reason, the article on the one hand presents some new material which helps to reconstruct the history of the revisions of Symphony No. 4 and No. 5. On the other hand, it shows the main differences between the original and the final versions of all three symphonies. This also allows an insight into the composer’s working methods. Some of Atterberg’s changes are already mentioned in literature,2 but the article complements and specifies certain aspects concerning the three symphonies.

Symphony No. 4 G minor Op. 14 Sinfonia piccola Kurt Atterberg composed his fourth symphony in 1918 in only two months, which is by far the shortest genesis amongst his symphonies. The reason for that was a competition with Natanael Berg. They agreed to a wager that each one of them has to write a sprightly piece for orchestra that should be no longer than 20 minutes.3 Atterberg’s

1 All modifications in the other symphonies were made before they were published 2 Concerning the fourth symphony only the revisions of the scherzo movement are discussed (Hedwall, 1983, p. 252; Jacobsson, 1985, p. 204). The revision of the fifth symphony is briefly mentioned only in Jacobsson 1985 p. 205. The revisions of the seventh symphony are mentioned in literature, but not discussed, concerning content and consequences (e.g. Connor, 1977, p. 152). 3 Berg’s result of the wager was his Symphony No. 4 Pezzo sinfonico. But because it was two minutes too long, he had to pay a fine of 20 SEK. (Hedwall, 1983, p. 261)

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fourth symphony was published by F.E.C. Leuckart in Leipzig and since 1967 Breitkopf & Härtel has the publishing rights for this score. In opposition to his other symphonies (except Symphony No. 8), Atterberg’s Sinfonia piccola has a small orchestration. It has the traditional four-movement structure of sonata form, slow movement, scherzo and final rondo. The symphony is based exclusively on Swedish folk tunes and it is one of his most popular works. Though the composer ‘had never been completely satisfied with the piece, because the scherzo had just been a little short snippet’ (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 255)4 The destruction of Leuckart’s5 publishing house during an air raid on 4th December 19436 was the ultimate reason why Atterberg took up working on the symphony again: ‘I had received a message from Leipzig, that my whole printed work had attracted bombs, so that amongst others my Sinfonia Piccola undertook an ascension’ (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 255).7 So he decided to write a new score. But it took until his summer holidays in 1945, before he had enough time for it. One of the revisions made on that occasion was the insertion of a development section in the short scherzo (see below). The revision of Sinfonia piccola was finished on 9th September 1945.8 Atterberg wrote in his memoirs that he had probably composed the development section already in spring 1945 (Atter- berg vol. 6, p. 255), but here he confused the year. A still existing sketch of the development shows the date ‘1944’,9 so it seems that he worked on it after he heard the news from his publisher.10 But he laid the Scherzo aside, because from March until December 1944 he was occupied with his eighth symphony.11 The new version of the fourth symphony was published in 1947 by the Swedish Music Information Center (SMIC) in Stock- holm. It seems that the orchestral material of Leuckart’s original version survived some- where, as the conductor Otto Schubert rented it for two concerts in Bad Homburg and

4 ‘[…] hade aldrig varit riktig [sic] nöjd med stycket, ty scherzot hade bara blivit en liten kort snutt […].’ Trans- lation of the Swedish and German quotations by the author. 5 In Finkel, 2013, p. 165f. the author confused them with Breitkopf & Härtel. They also had their headquarters in Leipzig and were destroyed at the same day. 6 Note from the publisher to the author on 8th January 2014. In his memoirs Atterberg misdated the destruction to December 1944 (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 254). 7 ‘Jag hade fått meddelande från Leipzig om att mina samlade tryckte verk hade lockat bomber till sig, så att bl.a. min Sinfonia Piccola företagit en himmelsfärd […].’ 8 Date on the last page of the published score, which is a facsimile of the autograph. 9 Atterberg, Kurt: Scherzo from Sinfonia piccola (Revised version), sketches (No signature). Musik- och teaterbiblioteket Stockholm, Statens Musikverk. 10 It is not known when Atterberg received the message from Leuckart. Strangely the whole correspondence with his publishers does not exist in the composer’s extensive collection of letters (about 10 000 letters in- Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk). 11 The score was written between 14th May and 19th December 1944 (dates in the published autograph), but in March Atterberg already made preliminary studies for his eighth symphony (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 211).

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Oberursel in November 1947. When Atterberg received knowledge of this, he wrote to a friend: ‘I will send him a new, i.e. a lengthened scherzo for this symphony, from which I plan a new edition, because the old was destroyed in Leipzig.’12 As mentioned above the most significant editing in the score was the extension of the scherzo movement.13 In the original version it has 78 bars and a duration of about 80 seconds. The scherzo theme, a polska from Södermanland (200 svenska folkdanser no. 136), is followed immediately by the theme of the trio, a polska from Västmanland (200 svenska folkdanser, no. 187), before the nearly unchanged recapitulation of the scherzo theme is attached. In the version of 1945 Atterberg added a development and also an untouched recapitulation of the trio, which extends the scherzo movement to 182 bars. The development is based on motifs of the scherzo theme.

Bar Part of the movement Remark 5 Scherzo (polska, ternary lied form) 27 Trio (polska, ternary lied form) 51 Development Not included in the original version 131 Recapitulation Trio Not included in the original version 155 Recapitulation Scherzo

Table 1: Sinfonia piccola, structure of the Scherzo (revised version 1945).

Traditionally the development is expected to be part of the scherzo section. In the case of Sinfonia piccola this would be difficult without destroying the folk dance which is used as the scherzo theme. Instead Atterberg added the development after the trio. But as a result the development appears a bit exerted and cramped because it is more like a separate block than being well integrated. Perhaps this was the reason why Atterberg’s friend Fritz Tutenberg was not satisfied with the new scherzo. After listening to Otto Schubert’s concert, Tutenberg wrote to the composer: ‘But the scherzo is still much too short. It appears as if half of the material was lost during the journey from Stockholm to Homburg.’14

12 ‘Jag skall skicka honom ett nytt d.v.s. förlängt scherzo till denna symfoni, av vilken jag planerar en ny upplaga, emedan den gamla blivit förstörd i Leipzig.’ Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Fritz Tutenberg, 31st Au- gust 1947. 13 See also Jacobsson, 1985, p. 204. 14 ‘Men scherzot är alltid ännu alltför kort. Det verkar, som om hälvten [sic] av materialet gick förlorad vid re- san från Stockholm till Homburg.’ Letter from Fritz Tutenberg to Kurt Atterberg, 22nd November 1947.

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What is nearly unknown is that beside the scherzo the composer changed other parts of the symphony as well. In his memoirs Atterberg gave more information about this: ‘Furthermore the new score is relatively unchanged. I have added a few low notes of the harp in the slow movement, at some places, which are “calling for harp”. And at the end of the finale, I have deleted a few bars, which were difficult from aspects of playing together.’ (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 255‑256)15 These are the bars 322 to 325 in the finale of the original score, where clarinet and bassoon immediately imitate the end of the preceding flute phrase. It is regrettable that these bars were removed because they added a hu- morous ending to the symphony. However the composer did not mention further changes: concerning the orchestration, he marked many instruments with ad libitum, including the newly added harp. The revised instrumentation is as follows:

2 Fl. (also Picc.) 2 Ob. (2nd ad lib.) 2 Cl. 2 Bn. – 4 Hn. (3rd & 4th ad lib.) 2 Tpt. 2 Tbn. (1st ad lib.) 1 T. (ad lib.) – 1 Timp. 0 Dms. – 1 Hp. (ad lib.) – Strings

A similar ad libitum orchestration can be found in his eighth symphony from 1944 which is also based on Swedish folk music. Atterberg’s folk tune symphonies were quite popular. It can be assumed that with the ad libitum versions the composer would like to encourage the orchestras of Sveriges orkesterförenings riksförbund (SOR)16 to play these pieces. Possibly Atterberg did not write the ad libitum remarks in the score at the time he revised his symphony in 1944–45, but rather added them when the score was published in 1947.17 An indication for that is a concert on 22nd October 1946, when the composer conducted his Sinfonia piccola at the 20th anniversary of Skellefteå Orkesterförening18 – a member of the SOR (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 307). It is to be supposed that he used his new orchestral material on this occasion, although it was not published at that time, and thereby had in mind the small size of the Skellefteå orchestra. Furthermore Atterberg also changed the articulation and the instrumentation in some passages of the symphony. For example, in the first movement he omitted the articulation signs for the first violin and viola at the principal theme (bb. 3‑10) and added slurs

15 ‘För övrigt är det nya partituret tämligen oförändrat. Jag har lagt till ett par bastoner i harpan i den lång- samma satsen, några par ställen, som “ropar efter harpa”. Och i slutet på finalen har jag kapat ett par takter, som var besvärliga ur samspelssynpunkt.’ In her dissertation about the symphonies the author regrettably could only consider the scherzo. 16 SOR, founded in 1928, was an organisation of orchestras where amateurs played together with professional musicians. Many Swedish composers adapted and facilitated their compositions for amateur orchestras during that time. 17 The score’s facsimile shows that a different pen was used for the ad libitum marks. 18 Renamed in Skellefteå Symfoniorkester in 2010.

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at the tuba part in bb. 30‑33. While in the same movement, the motif in b. 15 was originally played by the horn, it is played by tuba and bassoon in the revised version. In the second theme the part of the first violin is now completely played in unison with the flute (bb. 65‑68). Concerning the above mentioned concert in Bad Homburg it is important, that Atter- berg did not send Otto Schubert the whole score of the revised symphony, but only the scherzo. In a letter to Schubert, he wrote: ‘I will use this opportunity to send you a slightly modified scherzo to my Sinfonia Piccola, with the request to play this instead of the printed one.’19 Atterberg also published the scherzo separately, presumably because it was for him the most important modification of the symphony. Thus there are two options to perform it: in the revised version as a whole or in the version of 1918 with the scherzo of 1945. While no recordings exist of the complete new version, there is one historical recording of the mixed version available.20 All other recordings regrettably use the first version of the symphony.21 In opposition to the original version, the new score was published by SMIC. Leuckart returned the publishing rights of the old score to Atterberg on 31st December 1966. Why he gave the publishing rights immediately to Breitkopf & Härtel,22 although he had already published the revised score in 1947, remains unclear. Doubtlessly this causes the difficulties to obtain the right score today.23

Symphony No. 5 D minor Op. 20 Sinfonia funebre While the fourth symphony had the shortest creation period, composing the fifth symphony took the longest period: Atterberg began the symphony in 1917 and finished it

19 ‘Ich werde diese Gelegenheit benutzen um Ihnen ein etwas verändertes Scherzo zu meiner Sinfonia Piccola zu senden, mit der Bitte dasselbe anstatt des gedruckten zu spielen.’ Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Otto Schu- bert, 2nd September 1947. 20 Radioorkestern, cond. Sten Frykberg. Radio recording from 21st June 1956 (Archive of Sveriges Radio, Signa- ture M A 56/2166). The new added development and recapitulation of the trio can be heard between 00’47’’ and 2’15’’. It is interesting that Frykberg later made two records, where he instead used the original score from 1918 (see next footnote). 21 Recordings of the first version can be recognized in the scherzo, where in b. 51 instead of a development the polska of the trio is followed immediately by the recapitulation of the scherzo (compare Table 1), for example in the newest recording: Göteborgs Symfoniorkester, cond. Neeme Järvi. Year of recording 2012 (Chandos CHS A 5116), third movement at 0’54’’. Another indication for the use of the original version is the little wind solo at the end of the final movement (bb. 322‑325). In Järvi’s recording it can be heard at 5’13’’. That also applies to the following recordings: Radio-Sinfonie-Orchester Frankfurt, cond. Ari Rasilainen. Year of recording 1998 (cpo 999 639‑2). Norrköpings Symfoniorkester, cond. Sten Frykberg. Year of recording 1976 (Sterling CDS 1010‑2). Sveriges Radios symfoniorkester, cond. Sten Frykberg. Radio recording from 20th October 1970 (Archive of Sveriges Radio, Signature 5451‑70/1432). 22 Date on the last page of the published score (facsimile of the autograph). 23 Notes from Leuckart and Breitkopf & Härtel to the author on 2nd and 8th January 2014.

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on 22nd July 1922.24 The original score was published by F.E.C. Leuckart, but since 1967, it is under the copyright of Breitkopf & Härtel.25 Like his Sinfonia piccola the composer also revised his Sinfonia funebre and it was likewise published in 1947 by SMIC.26 Maybe there is also a connection to the destruction of his publishing house – Atterberg wrote in a letter, that five of his symphonies were destroyed during the war.27 In his ‘Minnesan- teckningar’ he did not mention a revision of the fifth symphony. But in a letter to Na- tanael Broman from 27th October 1946 the composer wrote, that he just proofread ‘the new orchestral material with the changes made in it’.28 The reason for his proofreading was a concert on 14th December 1946 in Göteborg with Sixten Eckerberg conducting, which was also due to be broadcasted. Atterberg asked the orchestra to send him the score as well as the trumpet, trombone, tuba, percussion and piano parts, because he wanted to correct and change them.29 Compared to the fourth symphony, the amendments are less significant and mainly concern the orchestration. The instrumentation of the fifth symphony requires three clarinets and three oboes, but according to the revised version ‘[t]he work can be played with only 2 oboes and 2 clarinets’.30 However, it is not clear which of the parts can be omitted. When Atterberg wrote ad libitum instrumentations, it is not self-evident that the lowest part can be omitted.31 It has to be considered, that the third oboe moreover has to play heckelphone,32 which has an important role especially in the slow movement. The score also requires a piano in the orchestra, which is, according to the score, to be placed behind the orchestra. In the revised version Atterberg specified in his foreword: ‘The piano ought to be placed among the wood winds and the brass winds, if possible out of sight of the public’ which is due to the specific use of the piano: In Atterberg’s symphonies the piano mainly doubles the wind parts to give them more contours. In Sinfonia funebre the piano is also used to produce a percussive sound. Noticeable in the fifth symphony is the intensive use of brass instruments and percussion. Here the composer modified his score. These revisions are related only to the final movement. The first change occurs in b. 625, where the percussion has to play a se-

24 The revised symphony and the separate scherzo are indeed registered in the catalogue of the Deutsche Na- tionalbibliothek for Breitkopf & Härtel, but during the author’s research, their department for hire material only found the 1918 version. 25 The published score is a facsimile of Atterberg’s autograph. 26 Like the original version it is a facsimile of the composer’s manuscript. 27 Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Sven Kruckenberg (Konserthuset Göteborg), 8th September 1970. 28 ‘[…] det nya symfonimaterialet med däri gjorda ändringar’. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Natanael Broman, 27th October 1947. 29 Letter from Kurt Atterberg to the librarian of the Göteborgs Orkesterförening, 21st November 1946. 30 Foreword of the revised score. It is written in German, English and French, but not in Swedish. 31 In the 8th symphony trombones 1 and 2 are ad lib., in the 4th symphony (version 1945) trombone 1 is ad lib. 32 In case the heckelphone is not available, Atterberg divides up its part on cor anglais and bassoon.

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quence of four notes. In the 1922 version, the notes are played successively by triangle, timbre,33 which has to be struck with a steel bar, cymbal, which has to be struck with a triangle bar and bass drum. In the revised version the composer changed the sequence into triangle, cymbal which has to be struck with triangle bar, clash cymbals and bass drum. In the original version some passages of the third trombone and the tuba can be ad libitum tacet, while in the revised version the composer deleted these passages completely.34 The largest modification concerns the musical climax towards the end of the movement (b. 857ff.). In the new score the remarks ‘Largamente’ and ‘so stark wie möglich’ were deleted for the whole orchestra. The score examples from the first four bars show the further differences between Atterberg’s two versions.

Example 1: Sinfonia funebre (version 1922), 3rd movement, bb. 857–860.

33 Fixed bell which is normally struck with a hammer. 34 This concerns the bars 718 to 752 and the bars 831 to 856.

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Example 2: Sinfonia funebre (version 1946), 3rd movement, bb. 857–860.

In the original version trumpets and trombones play the fanfare motif on b flat in unison, while in the version of 1946, the low brass has additional chords,35 which results in a fuller sound. The pedal point on c, in the principal trumpet, makes the sound at the same time more dissonant. Atterberg also changed the dynamics and added accents to the fanfare motif. The percussion parts are completely rewritten. In the version of 1922 the composer uses continuous tremolo of the snare drum and, like in b. 625, demands timbre. In the revised version, the snare drum emphasizes the fanfare rhythm together with the new added timpani. The timbre is replaced by a tam-tam, which appears only in this passage. On the one hand due to the snare drum and the timpani the fanfare motif now obtains more contour. On the other hand, the use of the timbre in the original version caused an interesting and striking sound. As with Sinfonia piccola, the revised version of Atterberg’s Sinfonia funebre seems to be nearly unknown and so the out-dated score from Breitkopf & Härtel is still in use.36

35 The lower brass is doubling the wood winds and horns. 36 An exception is the radio recording by Sixten Eckerberg and Göteborgs Symfoniker from 4th May 1960 (Ar- chive of Sveriges Radio, Signature MO 60/293). As mentioned above they already performed the revised ver-

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An exception is the new CD of Neeme Järvi, which used the revised score.37 Other recordings which are currently available did not consider the composer’s last version. Ari Rasilainen used the version of 192238 and Stig Westerberg made his own version by mix- ing Atterberg’s two scores: While the musical climax of the third movement (b. 857ff., Example 2) can be heard in the revised version, the passages before (bb. 830–856) are played in the version of 1922, which is indicated by the use of the tuba, which was deleted during the revision (see footnote 34).39 Here again the question arises why the composer transferred the publishing rights of the old version to Breitkopf & Härtel in 1967, although he had published his revised score in the meantime in Sweden.

Symphony No. 7 Op. 45 Sinfonia romantica Atterberg composed his seventh symphony in 1941–42. To a large extent it is based on his opera Fanal (1929–32). Here his revisions are quite radical: At first he composed a symphony in three movements. During or after working on the final rondo Atterberg decided to write a fourth movement. But after the premiere the conductor Hermann Abendroth thought that this movement was too long.40 In addition Atterberg had the impression that it was ‘partly too long, partly far too heavy […] even though there were a lot of effective parts in it’ (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 158).41 Hence he deleted it and returned to the earlier version in three movements. 42 He also removed the ‘Slummerarian’ in the first movement (see below). The exact date for this revision cannot be reconstructed but it must have been between 8th February 1946 and end of 1962.43 Since then the symphony is performed and recorded in three movements,44 but it seems quite unknown, that there are – according to the composer – altogether three

sion in December 1946. 37 Göteborgs Symfoniorkester, cond. Neeme Järvi. Year of recording 2014 (Chandos CHS A 5154). 38 Radio-Sinfonie-Orchester Frankfurt, cond. Ari Rasilainen. Year of recording 2000 (cpo 999 565-2). One reference for the use of the original score is the climax of the third movement. It can be heard in the version which is shown in example 1 (at 11’34’’, compare with the revised version in Westerberg’s recording at 11’29’’). Another example in Rasilainen’s recording is the use of percussion in b. 625. It can be heard in the original succession triangle–timbre–cymbal–bass drum instead of the new version with triangle–cymbal– clash cymbals–bass drum (at 5’55’’). 39 Stockholms Filharmoniska Orkester, cond. Stig Westerberg. Year of recording 1992 (Musica Sveciae MSCD 620). The tuba part of the original score can be heard from 10’59’’ until 11’29’’. Here Westerberg changes to the revised score as shown in example 2. 40 Letter from Hermann Abendroth to Kurt Atterberg, 18th February 1943. 41 ‘[…] dels för lång, dels alltför svårgestaltad […], trots att det fanns en hel del verkningsfula [sic] delar i den.’ 42 The fourth movement was found separately at Breitkopf & Härtel. A complete score in four movements, which is part of Atterberg’s inheritance, exists at Musik- och teaterbiblioteket Stockholm, Statens Musikverk. 43 For a discussion about the chronology of the revision see: Finkel 2013, pp. 275‑276. 44 Unfortunately there are no historical recordings of the four movement version available in the radio archives of Sweden and Germany.

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options in which it can be played. The first and familiar one is the version in three movements. The second one is a version in four movements, but with another finale: Atter- berg’s Vittorioso Op. 58, which is based on the deleted fourth movement and on the also deleted Nocturne No. 4 (‘Strid i gryningen – Frihetssång’) from Fanal.45 Both final movements in these pieces [the seventh symphony and Four nocturnes] worried me. […] But the deleted parts contained so much of my best music that I would like to do something with it. According to the examples amongst others, of Beethoven and Reger, I had decided to create a new short piece from the parts of the deleted final movements. But it was a difficult compositional task.46

According to Atterberg the work ‘can be used as final movement – if wished – both for my 7th symphony and for my three nocturnes from “Fanal”’.47 (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 158) He confirmed that some pages later: ‘If a conductor would be so delighted by this symphony in three movements, my opus 58 “Vittorioso” […] can serve as a fourth movement. But I think that the version in three movements is the best.’48 (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 163) Before discussing the use of the Vittorioso as new fourth movement of Sinfonia romantica, the structure of both finales shall be outlined shortly:49� The deleted fourth movement has the structure of a sonata form with a slow introduction and three themes. There is a traditional development in the middle of the movement, but motivic thematic work can also be found in exposition and recapitulation. The finale is connected to the other movements by reminiscences of some themes and motifs. The Vittorioso has a free form in four parts which consists of three themes and a tranquillo section. The themes are mainly repeated and aligned. The first half (first and second theme) of the piece cor- responds with the first part of the deleted Nocturne No. 4. The second half (tranquillo, third theme) is identical with the slow introduction, exposition of the first theme and the coda of Sinfonia romantica’s former fourth movement. Should the Vittorioso be played as fourth movement of the symphony? According to the author this is problematic for two reasons. Firstly the symphony was drafted in

45 There are no existing historical or recent recordings of the Vittorioso, both as separate piece and as part of the revised 7th symphony. 46 ’Die beiden Finale in diesen Werken haben mir aber Kummer gemacht. [...] Aber die gestrichnen [sic] Teilen [siç] enthielt so viel von meiner besten Musik , dass ich gerne etwas davon machen möchte. Nach dem Beispiel von u.a. Beethoven und Reger habde [sic] ich mich entschlossen aus Teilen von den gestrichenen [sic] Finalen ein neues, kurzes Werk zu schaffen. Es wurde aber eine schwierige kompositorische Arbeit.’.Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Rolf Agop, 7th January 1963. Agop conducted ‘the premiere of the new work Vitto- rioso on 25th May 1963. 47 ‘[…] kan användas som avsluting – om så önskas – på såväl min 7. symfoni, som på mina Tre nocturner ur “Fanal”.’ Underlining from Atterberg. 48 ‘Om någon Kapellmästare skulle bli så hänförd av denna tresatsiga symfoni, så kan mitt opus 58 “Vittorioso” […] tjäna som en fjärde sats. Men jag tror, att den tresatsiga versionen är bäst.’ Both quotations also in Jacobsson, 1985, p. 211. 49 For more detailed analyses of both movements see Finkel, 2013, pp. 293–300.

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three movements originally. So the third movement, a vivid rondo, has a very strong ‘Finalwirkung’. As a result, it is quite difficult for both later added fourth movements to exceed the rondo.50� Secondly it depends on the structure of the Vittorioso. As a result of its aligned structure the piece has no symphonic character but feels more like a potpourri. Using it as final movement would give the symphony a huge imbalance. So it would be better to perform the Vittorioso Op. 58 as it was written – as an independent piece. Finally there is a third option for the seventh symphony. As mentioned above the composer deleted not only the finale but also the middle part of the first movement, in which he cited the complete ‘Slummerarian’ from his opera Fanal. Surprisingly he wrote that the first movement of Sinfonia romantica can be performed separately.�51 In that case the deleted aria cannot be omitted: ‘it has to be played only when this movement “Dram- matico” is performed separately’.52� (Atterberg vol. 6, p. 160) In this context it is interesting that Atterberg’s friend Joen Lagerberg reported that in the beginning the composer had only the intention to write an orchestra piece in one movement, which should con- tain the ‘Slummerarian’ and should be written in sonata form. (Jacobsson 1985 p. 210) Using the ‘Slummerarian’ caused an uncommon structure of the first movement’s sonata form: The centre of the movement is not the development but the aria. A second development is added after the recapitulation in order to create a symmetrical form. The focus on the ‘Slummerarian’ might be the reason why both development sections are comparatively short.

Bar Part of the movement Remark 1 Introduction 14 Exposition 123 First development 198 Material of the introduction Deleted in the revised version. To be played if the movement is performed separately 212 ‘Slummerarian’ 278 Material of the introduction 318 Recapitulation 439 Second development 492 Coda

Table 2: Sinfonia romantica, structure of the first movement.

50 A similar problem occurs in Atterberg’s Symphony No. 2, which originally had two movements. The composer added a third movement some months after the premiere. 51 Recordings of the first movement as separate piece, including the aria, do not exist. The author also did not find any references to performances of this version. 52 ‘[…] det får endast spelas, om denna sats, ›Drammatico‹ framföres ensam för sig.’

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The symphony’s movements are interconnected by the appearance of several themes and motifs throughout the movements. For Atterberg the ‘Slummerarian’ in the beginning was the most important part and the origin of the first movement. So it is remarkable that there are no references to the aria in the following movements. It is also not a subject of motivic and thematic work in the first movement. Therefore, it feels like an episode or even foreign part which disturbs the symphonic character of the movement. For that reason, Atterberg’s decision to delete the ‘Slummerarian’ from the symphony is comprehensible. If the first movement would be performed independently as a kind of symphonic fantasy, using the aria as contrasting slow middle section of the piece however would be adequate.

Conclusion As shown in the article there are several versions for Atterberg’s Symphonies No. 4, No. 5 and No. 7. The range of the modifications varies greatly. In the fifth symphony the revisions mainly concern the instrumentation, especially the use of brass instruments and percussion in the final movement. In the fourth movement Atterberg also revised the instrumentation in some passages. The main – and for the composer the most important – revision was the extension of the scherzo movement. But in the author’s opinion the new added development is not well integrated. One reason for that seems to be the use of folk songs as themes. The revision of the seventh symphony is the most radical, because Atterberg i. a. deleted the complete fourth movement. According to the author that was the appropriate decision, because at first the work was written in three movements. Adding a fourth movement caused an imbalance in the symphony. While this revision is commonly accepted, the revised versions of Symphonies Nos 5 and especially 4 tend to be ignored or seem to be unknown. The fact that Atterberg gave the publishing rights of the original versions to Breitkopf & Härtel, although he had published the revised scores in the meantime at SMIC, doubtlessly causes difficulties. Finally it does not make it easier that there are several performing options concerning the fourth and the seventh symphony (see Table 3). The fact that all revisions were published by the composer and his comments on them, unmistakably shows that they were important to him. Performing an original version to show the differences to the final version of a piece is of course legitimate. But in general, practical aspects and personal preferences of a conductor or concert manager should not play an essential role in choosing a version. In the opinion of the author the final will of the composer – in this case Atterberg – should be respected. To achieve that, a critical edition of his symphonies would be helpful and enriching.

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Symphony No. 4 G minor Op. 14 Sinfonia Piccola Original version 1918 Revised version 1944/45 (published 1947) Performing options: all movements in revised version movements 1, 2 and 4 in original version, scherzo in revised version

Symphony No. 5 D minor Op. 20 Sinfonia funebre Original version 1922 Revised version 1946 (published 1947)

Symphony No. 7 Op. 45 Sinfonia romantica Original version 1941/42 Revised versions between 1946 and 1962 Performing options: revised version (three movements) revised version with Vittorioso Op. 58 as fourth movement first movement in original version performed as separate piece

Table 3: Revisions and performing options of Symphonies Nos 4, 5 and 7.

References

Literature Atterberg, Kurt, 1963/64. Minnesanteckningar vol. 6. [manuscript] Atterberg archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Connor, Herbert, 1977. Svensk musik 2. Från Midsommarvaka till Aniara. Stockholm: Bonnier. Finkel, Carola, 2013. 'Ich selbst bin ein unverbesserlicher Romantiker': Die Sinfonien Kurt Atterbergs. Marburg: Tectum. Hedwall, Lennart, 1983. Den svenska symfonin. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell. Jacobsson, Stig, 1985. Kurt Atterberg. Borås: Norma.

Music scores 200 svenska folkdanser, arrangerade för piano. Abraham Lundquist Stockholm (Abr. L. 1519). Atterberg, Kurt. Sinfonie Nr. 4 g-Moll op. 14 Sinfonia piccola (Original version). Breitkopf & Härtel Wiesbaden, Leipzig, Paris (Reprint of F.E.C. Leuckart’s score F.E.C.L. 806). Atterberg, Kurt. Sinfonia piccola, Symfoni IV byggd på svenska folkmotiv op. 14 (Revised version). SMIC Stockholm (ID number 16719). Atterberg, Kurt. Scherzo from Sinfonia piccola, Symfoni IV byggd på svenska folkmotiv op. 14 (Revised version). SMIC Stockholm (ID number 12568). Atterberg, Kurt. Scherzo from Sinfonia piccola (Revised version), sketches. Musik- och teaterbiblioteket Stockholm, Statens Musikverk (No signature).

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Atterberg, Kurt. Sinfonie Nr. 5 d-Moll op. 20 Sinfonia funebre (Original version). Breitkopf & Härtel Wiesbaden, Leipzig, Paris (Reprint of F.E.C. Leuckart’s score F.E.C.L. 8230). Atterberg, Kurt. Sinfonia funebre Nr. V (Revised version). SMIC Stockholm (ID number 12573). Atterberg, Kurt. Symphonie VII op. 45 Sinfonia romantica. SMIC Stockholm (ID number 12575). Atterberg, Kurt. Vittorioso op. 58. SMIC Stockholm (ID number 12578). Atterberg, Kurt. Nocturne No. 4 from Fanal op. 35bis. Orchestral material. SMIC Stockholm (ID number 12558)53

Letters Letter from Hermann Abendroth to Kurt Atterberg, 18th February 1943. Signature ATT 586, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to the librarian of the Göteborgs Orkesterförening, 21st November 1946. Signature ATT 314, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Fritz Tutenberg, 31st August 1947. Signature ATP 6012, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Otto Schubert, 2nd September 1947. Signature ATT 427, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Natanael Broman, 27th October 1947. Signature ATP 3999, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Rolf Agop, 7th January 1963. Signature ATP 38, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Kurt Atterberg to Sven Kruckenberg (Konserthuset Göteborg), 8th September 1970. Signature ATT 336, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk. Letter from Fritz Tutenberg to Kurt Atterberg, 22nd November 1947. Signature ATP 6022, Atterberg Archive at Musik- och teaterarkiv Gäddviken, Statens Musikverk.

Abstract Kurt Atterberg made subsequent changes to six of his nine symphonies ranging from small retouches to fundamental modifications. The focus of the article is on the Sympho- nies Nos 4, 5 and 7, which were revised by the composer years after they were published. Since these revisions seem to be still relatively unknown, performances and recordings often utilise out-dated material. The article reconstructs the history of these works and shows the main differences between the original and the revised versions. Surprisingly there are also different performing options concerning the fourth and the seventh symphony.

Key words Kurt Atterberg, Sinfonia piccola, Sinfonia funebre, Sinfonia romantica, 20th century symphony, Swedish composer, revision, editing

53 ID number of Tre Nocturner. There are four nocturnes in the catalogue (ID number ACB25), but the deleted fourth nocturne was found in the box of the Tre Nocturner, but only in the form of orchestral parts.

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The author Carola Finkel studied music and geography in Frankfurt am Main and defended her doc- toral thesis about Kurt Atterberg’s symphonies in 2013. She is lecturer at the Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Frankfurt (Frankfurt University of Music and Perform- ing Arts) and research fellow at the local Palestrina Research Institute. She received a scholarship for Jan./Feb. 2015 at the Casa di Goethe in Rome to research the relation of Scandinavian composers to Rome. Her main research interests are Nordic music in the 19th and 20th century, baroque dance and the history of brass instruments.

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Försättsblad och innehållsf 2015. (kopia).indd 6 2016-04-13 20:03 The music classroom as a local place and a public space

The music classroom as a local place and a public space

Democratic education towards music as a language of us all

Cecilia Ferm Thorgersen I find it hard to speak emotional Cos these things are the things that Can’t be said And when it’s struck it strikes The memory from our heads Once I wrote two plays To be immortal for a night And despite the unknown hours Something happens When the light turns out the lights Then we fade and yawn To music that’s the language of us all Cat Empire

1. Introduction Many young people need and use artistic expressions to communicate their feelings, experiences, and ideas. There are many examples of expressions that would never have been used if the only available form of expression had been words. To handle different forms of expressions in order to understand the world and make change is a human right (FN Article 19, The Riksdag Administration 1991, p. 1469). But even if this is something that can be agreed upon, several questions have to be posed. Regardless of form, who do actually get the possibility to express themselves? What is democracy? What does it mean to ‘own’ and handle a form of expression to be able to change things? What constitutes the process of embodying a form of language? How could school activities be organized in order to encourage such development in the spirit of democracy? How do factors such as political directives and regulations influence the process? How can schools be viewed as arenas for artistic expressions and impressions? The new curriculum for Swedish primary and lower secondary schools, Lgr11, sheds light on democratic values, equality and uniqueness in relation to varied forms of expres-

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sion. For example, there are several formulations in it that underline the right of pupils to become themselves, to express themselves, to respect other pupils’ opinions, to gain knowledge of different kinds and that teaching should be in accordance with democratic principles. In addition, the directions from the Government say that all pupils should be given the chance to develop as listeners, composers of music and musicians. All pupils should also show basic knowledge in relation to the standards or knowledge requirements in all areas mentioned in the syllabuses. When we look closer upon such formulations in the regulatory documents and connect them to the theme of democracy, some questions appear regarding the organization of school activities in ways that offer music as a form of artistic expression to all pupils in order to make them ready to participate and express themselves in a democratic society. One way of answering these questions is to investigate and use a philosophy as a guideline. Hannah Arendt’s The Human Condition, in which she deals with democracy and common sense,1 provides a philosophy that takes the place and rights of human beings in a democratic society into account and offers a possible view of the school as an arena for growth towards such a society. She underlines the relation between communication, individual, and common growth, as well as meaning-making, as a basis for a democratic society. Men in the plural, that is men in so far as they live and move and act in this world, can experience meaningfulness only because they can talk with and make sense to each other and themselves. (Arendt, 1958, p. 4) In later works she emphasizes that such communication is for all, that all voices have the right to be heard and that plurality is a precondition for individual and common growth. She also underlines that art is a tuning language that lets the ‘invisible’ (the unknown) appear in the ‘visible’ (the conceptualized) (Arendt, 1969, p. 728) and offers possibilities for different perspectives and meaning-making in relation to an audience (Arendt, 1981). Arts activities engage the senses and contribute to collective memories and history. Eventually, according to Arendt (1958), the arena for communication, where human beings become clear to others and themselves, has to be seen as a public space. In this paper, I will offer a view on democracy where the philosophical basis for music in school activities implies that the music classroom should be seen as a local place and a public space.

1 Arendt’s political definition of common sense is developed in her writings in discussions of both Aristotle’s and Kant’s ideas about judgement and sensus communis. In her later works, Arendt defines common sense as an expanded consciousness towards a universal inter-subjectivity by which individual judgements are guided (Holm, 2002).

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2. Political directives and regulations relevant for democracy In the following, the expressions that relate to democracy in the Swedish curriculum for primary and lower secondary schools, as well as the syllabus for the subject music, which has been in use since the fall of 2011 (National Agency for Education, 2011), will be presented in general terms. It should be kept in mind that the directives not only imply that the school should impart knowledge about fundamental democratic values. Democratic forms of working are also to be used in practice and prepare pupils for active participation in society.

Respect for the intrinsic value of each person – inviolability, solidarity, equality In the general part of the curriculum, it is stressed that education should impart and establish respect for human rights and the fundamental democratic values on which society is based. It is also said that everyone working in the school and the pupils should encourage respect for the intrinsic value of each person. The inviolability of human life, individual freedom and integrity, as well as the equal value of all people should guide activities in school. Furthermore, discrimination, and degrading treatment of individuals or groups should be actively resisted. Pupils should be able to consciously determine and express ethical standpoints based on knowledge of human rights and basic democratic values and personal experiences. Finally, concern for the well-being and development of each individual should permeate all school activities (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 9).

Responsibility to counteract traditional gender patterns It is clear in the regulatory documents that equality between the sexes should visibly and consciously be taken into account in the schools, and that traditional gender patterns should be counteracted. Teachers should be aware of the way in which girls and boys are treated and assessed, since the demands and expectations that are placed on them contribute to their perception of gender differences. Thus, teachers should provide scope for pupils to explore and develop their abilities and their interests independently of their gender (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 10).

Discovery and use of own individual uniqueness in society According to Lgr11, the task of the school is to encourage all pupils to discover their own uniqueness as individuals and thereby make them able to participate in society by giving their best in exercising their freedom responsibly. Teaching in the schools should stimulate each pupil towards self-development and personal growth. It should focus not only on intellectual but also practical, sensual, and aesthetic aspects of reality. In partner-

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ship with the parents, the school should promote an all-round personal development of pupils into active, creative, competent, and responsible individuals and citizens (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 9–11).

Non-discrimination – use of background and experiences No one should be subjected to discrimination on the grounds of gender, ethnicity, reli- gion or other belief system, transgender identity or its expression, sexual orientation, age or functional impairment, or be subjected to other degrading treatment in Swedish schools. Teaching should be adapted to each pupil’s circumstances and needs. Further- more, it should promote the pupils’ future learning and acquisition of knowledge on the basis of their backgrounds, earlier experience, language and knowledge. The internation- alization of Swedish society and increasing cross-border mobility place high demands on the ability of people to live with and appreciate diverse values. A secure identity is provided by awareness of one’s own cultural origins, sharing a common cultural heritage, and the ability to understand the value of others. The school is seen as a social and cultural meeting place with both the opportunity and the responsibility to strengthen in- tercultural ability among everyone who works there. Pupils’ experiences of music should be challenged and deepened through such cultural meeting places. In this way, teaching should contribute to pupils acquiring knowledge about and understanding of different musical cultures, both their own and those of others (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 9 & 95).

Encouragement of different ideas and their expressions Lgr11 also says that schools should be open to different ideas and encourage their expression. They should emphasize the importance of forming personal standpoints and provide opportunities for doing this. They should stimulate the creativity, curiosity, and self-confidence of its pupils, as well as the desire to explore their own ideas, solve problems, and provide scope to exercise their ability to create and use different means of expression (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 10 & 16).

Incorporation of different forms of knowledge and expressions According to Lgr11, acting, rhythm, dance, music, art, writing, and design should be part of the school’s activities. Pupils should be encouraged to try out and develop different modes of expression and experience feelings and moods, be able to use and understand many different forms of expression, such as language, art, music, drama, and dance, and also to develop an awareness of the range of culture existing in society. Schools should impart the more unvarying forms of knowledge that constitute the common frame of

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reference needed by everyone. Shared experiences and the social and cultural world that makes up the school provide scope as well as the preconditions for learning and development, where different forms of knowledge constitute a meaningful whole. Pupils should be able to use knowledge from science, technology, the social sciences, human sciences, and aesthetics for further studies and life. The teaching should give them opportunities to develop sensitivity to music, making it possible for them to create, work on and share music in different forms (National Agency for Education, 2011, pp. 12, 95). According to the current syllabuses in music included in the curriculum, teaching in music should es- sentially give pupils the opportunity to develop their ability to:

• play and sing in different musical forms and genres, • create music as well as represent (form) and communicate their own musical thinking and ideas, and • analyse and discuss musical expressions in different social, cultural and historical contexts (National Agency for Education, 2011, p. 95).

To be able to reach these goals, pupils are expected to treat and incorporate the following dimensions of music: Playing and creating music, Musical tools, and Musical functions and contexts. Furthermore, the directions from the Government say that all pupils should be given the possibility to develop towards all the goals and meet all dimensions of music mentioned in the curriculum. All pupils should show basic knowledge in relation to the standards or knowledge requirements of all areas mentioned in the syllabuses. The message of the directives and regulations regarding democratic issues puts some demands on music educational activities in schools. To work in line with these ideals in music education might demand some kind of guideline. In the following Hannah Arendt’s thoughts on democracy are presented, e.g. the importance of being able to make one’s voice heard, based on her reasoning about vita activa and vita contemplativa, common sense and the public sphere. These thoughts are explored as a basis for democratic school music activities.

3. A view of democracy from Hannah Arendt’s perspective Hannah Arendt tried to understand exile, statelessness, Jewishness, refugees, black people, the freedom of thinkers, and her own being in the world through the philosophy of phenomenology. For her ‘back to the things themselves’ meant to view the existence of human beings among others through ’story telling’ and the political definition of ‘common sense’ (sensus communis) (Arendt, 1971; Benhabib, 1990). In her phenomenological research, Hannah wanted to support human plurality and interaction. In addition, she tried to understand the preconditions of human beings for sharing a common world

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and what exists between human beings in the world … which is neither you nor me but something to which we both belong’ (in Moran, 2000, p. 288). A crucial starting point in Arendt’s thinking is the balance between vita activa (the action life), consisting of work, production and action, and vita contemplativa (the philosophical thinking life), consisting of different ways of thinking considered in terms of thinking, willing, and judging. Arendt seeks to see and make connections between the two possibilities. She thinks that vita activa takes place in the world into which we are born, through speech and action, where participants and audience depend on each other. She writes about political life, constituted by human action, both existential (connected to being) and aesthetical (connected to imagination, experience, and artistic forms of expressions), where human beings become real and true. In this social context, human experience becomes meaningful when we talk with and make sense to each other and ourselves. In such interactive activities, different forms of languages are needed to try out, modify, and create ideas and insights. But to reach common sense, human beings also need to step back, Arendt says, and think, imagine, value, and reflect, which are activities that constitute vita contemplativa (Arendt, 1958, 1971). Before going deeper into common sense and the local room where human beings depend on each other, vita activa and vita contemplativa will be presented a bit more thoroughly.

Vita activa As mentioned briefly above, vita activa consists of: Labour (animal laborans), which focuses on human beings survival activities; Work (homo faber), which contents creation of necessary things that can give profit and can provide safety but which is also mandatory and not in harmony with nature, and; Action (the political life), where human beings are seen as political beings. Acts at this level do not have any goals beside themselves; they concern economics, politics, and art, contributing to something lasting, and this level of activity is also called the good life (Arendt, 1958, Varkøy, 2015). Political life is characterized by equality and pluralism. According to Arendt (1958, p. 189) human beings are born into political life and do not need any other qualifica- tions to participate in the good life. Together people create political and economical institutions in society, which in turn become carriers of history. In The Human Condition, Arendt underlines that norms are created in cooperation between active human beings, an activity in which language functions as a pre-condition. In the political life human beings meet as equals in a public space, where they speak and act, and freely express their opinions. Through human actions in public, things get ‘real’, and through conversations and actions with each other, the Who (as distinguished from the What) appears in relation to a common and meaningful world – where people are related as well as sepa-

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rate. To speak with Arendt: human beings are new in the world and bring newness to the world – but only by acting and speaking. [A]ction has the closest connection with the human condition of natality; the new beginning inherent in birth can make itself felt in the world only because the newcomer possesses the capacity of beginning something anew, that is, of acting. (Arendt, 1958, p. 9) According to Arendt (1958) equality concerns people’s mutual recognition and respect for each other’s rights, not only each other’s existence. In being with others in the common, given world, individual existence becomes possible. Another important issue that constitutes Action, in Arendt’s view, is that human beings want to live forever, and actions within the political life, which could be political, economical or artistic, survive human beings: immortality is an impetus. But vita contemplativa is needed as well; in the meeting between vita contemplativa and vita activa, common sense becomes possible (Holm, 2002), something that I will come back to.

Vita contemplativa In ‘Thinking and Moral Considerations’ (1971), Arendt says that thinking is about dealing with objects that are absent and hence removed from direct sense perception. Thereby, an object of thought is always a re-presentation of something or somebody that is absent, just present in the form of an image. Thinking is equally dangerous to all creeds and, by itself, does not bring forth any new creed. However, non-thinking, which seems so recommendable a state for political and moral affairs, also has its dangers. By shielding people against the dangers of examination, it teaches them to hold fast to whatever the prescribed rules of conduct may be at a given time in a given society (Arendt, 1971, p. 436).

Arendt underlines that philosophers, who primarily deal with thinking, have not only separated themselves from political propaganda, rhetorical speech, and expressions of opinion, but also from the communalism that she describes as man’s most human condition. Furthermore, she says that when philosophers turn away from most of the perisha- ble world of illusions to enter the world of eternal truths, they withdraw into themselves (1971). In addition, Arendt states that freedom resides in natality, and the responsibility to respond to the appearance of something or someone new is what she calls thinking. This kind of thinking cannot be acquired in conventional ways; it is not a capacity for re- flexive problem-solving, or a skill or a strategy: rather it is a search for meaning (Arendt, 1958). Therefore, although it inspires the highest worldly productivity of homo faber, thinking is by no means his prerogative; it begins to assert itself as his source of inspiration only where he or she overreaches herself, as it were, and begins to produce useless things, objects that are unrelated to material or intellectual wants, to the physical needs of human beings no less than to his

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thirst for knowledge. Cognition, on the other hand, like fabrication itself, is a process with a beginning and an end, whose usefulness can be tested and which, if it produces no results, has failed (Arendt, 1958, p. 171).

In this sense, Arendt underlines, thinking is something that exists within every person and is not a function of intelligence, and by that, once again, it stands in contrast to cognition or knowledge as construction (Arendt, 1971). Thinking is no prerogative of the few but an ever-present possibility for everyone.

Common sense – the meeting between vita activa and vita contemplativa Common sense is something human beings strive towards – in other words inter-subjective va- lidity. If we just step back and watch the world from the outside, we loose the common sphere, the common sense, therefore we need to combine action and reflection (Holm, 2002). Human beings need to take into account different backgrounds and experiences to find common sense. Otherwise individuals can be excluded from traditions, loose their power of initiative and feel rootless. If human beings loose common sense they cannot value the shared world. Common sense also includes several senses in interplay in experiencing of the world. Contact with other people’s sense-connected common sense is needed, which in turn presupposes curiosity and respect, an ability to imagine and dedicated partaking in creative processes, where we also go into each other’s worlds of imagination (Holm, 2002). Hence, an important starting point is the right to be allowed to make oneself heard. Holistic being in this setting is a way of being where vita activa and vita contemplativa are balanced, which in turn can be seen as a prerequisite for holistic learning, where ‘everyone’ has the possibility to experience and embody forms of expression and are able to handle the world. Arendt (1958) underlines the weight of diversity in common activities, which can be seen as a view of democracy. Just as language is seen as a prerequisite for equality, music should be understood as a language or a form of expression. Plurality has also to be seen as a crucial point of departure, but the challenge is to really include everyone, which might not always be taken in consideration in the organization of teaching.

Democracy and education According to Arendt (1958), freedom has nothing to do with making choices; rather, it has to do with the possibility of creating something that did not exist before, neither as thing or image, nor as knowledge. Instead, freedom is seen as the possibility of the impossible, the possibility of withdrawing from others and thereby recognizing the social and historical chain of our thinking and acting (Arendt, 1958).

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Hence, in education it becomes important to raise children’s awareness of the social positions through which they are related to the world and to one another. After all, the possibility of bringing about new relations and new realities begins with the realization and recognition of the reality of this necessarily relational position. For human beings to realize and recognize this fact, they need others who question their needs and thoughts. So, the challenge for education is to create a space in which children can encounter other people and where they can start the quest to find out what such an encounter means (Arendt, 1961). It could be a space where the collective search for an answer to the question ‘What happens to me, why does it happen, and what do I have to do with it?’ can start (Vansieleghem, 2005). The answer to such questions is not a matter of getting to know oneself better or of building one’s identity but of looking at life as if one had not seen it before and of changing it. It is about looking for an answer to something that has been confusing and where human beings together with others, try to respond. ‘And just because we do not know what has happened to us, we need the other, for it is only in speaking and acting that we can express ourselves to others’ (Vansieleghem, 2005, p. 29). Arendt (1958) stresses that newcomers are constantly being born and are continually in the process of being introduced to one another and to the world. The relation to the other has to be seen as a kind of obligation to answer the call of the other. It is the appearance to the other that gives a measure of value and meaning and that transcends the endless chain of ends and means generated by the utilitarianism of homo faber. Hence, it is the experience of the presence of the other that matters. This experience has nothing to do with making judgements or presenting arguments, but solely with expo- sure to the other.

Only through this constant mutual release from what they do, can men remain free agents, only by constant willingness to change their minds and start again can they be trusted with so great a power as that to begin something new. (Arendt, 1958, p. 240)

This view of democracy requires that human beings have the courage to give up the position they hold and to engage in an uncomfortable position that is not theirs. This act of ‘disposition’ is freedom, which cannot exist without the other. The impossibility of re- lying on and trusting oneself totally is the price that has to be paid for freedom (Arendt, 1958). It is in this way that democracy has to be understood based on Arendt’s thoughts, as the possibility of transforming the self, of putting the self in question.

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4. The music classroom – a local place and a public space From Hannah Arendt’s point of view, individual backgrounds and experiences make extensions of the local room, such as a school setting, possible. Here the weight of action, reflection, and common sense becomes crucial (cf. Kanellopoulos, 2007). To be visible and make one’s voice heard as well as to express ideas constitutes crucial dimensions of the extension of the room. Arendt stresses that people have to review critically and see through other people’s eyes to be able to create their own meaning. Consequently, diversity constitutes a prerequisite for the individual; the social interaction creates unique human beings. At the same time the public sphere, for example school areas, are created by unique individuals who, in collaboration, can create new chains of actions and thereby widen the sphere to become something new (Larsson, 2002). Depending on the human beings that interact within a common place, the common space creates a specific base for specific individuals and personalities to develop. Diversities such as class, gender, geography, economy, and musical belonging are present and could be taken into account and viewed as possibilities for conversations, contradictions, exchanges, imagination and new learning, with unknown results (Larsson, 2002). An important starting point here is the right to make oneself heard, as mentioned earlier. If different ways of identifying oneself, different perspectives, and different groups are considered as important in a social context, and if they are encouraged and respected, then different rooms can function as spaces for listening. Arendt says that to have great poets, there must be great audiences, too, and furthermore, she claims that what is true of poets is true of all human beings: ‘Nothing and nobody exists in this world whose very being does not presuppose a spectator’ (Arendt, 1971, p. 19). Arendt also stresses that the coming together of a plurality of persons, not based on what people are, but on who they are, is what makes changes in lived reality possible. Instead of being excluded within an educational setting, individuals are offered holistic musical learning, where ‘everyone’ has the possibility to experience and embody music and become able to handle the world. The question is to what degree schools allow the multiplicity of ‘youthful’ (musical) voices to be truly heard. Questions such as who are expected to make their voices heard, who are seen as possible participants, and who have access to the specific areas frame and underscore the aspects of democracy, according to Arendt. Democratic spaces must allow everyone to present her or his story, to share the story and in one way or another define herself, and in the end to reject taken for granted knowledge. In order for this to happen spontaneity must be nurtured, and opportunities should be facilitated where music can be used as a language or a form of expression in the sharing of experience in public spaces.

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5. Music as a common language So, how could music in school be organized based on an Arendtian understanding of democracy in harmony with the described political directives and regulations? When it comes to the Respect for the intrinsic value of each person – inviolability, solidarity, equality and the Responsibility to counteract traditional gender patterns, seeing schools as local places and common spaces where every pupil has the right to be heard independent of her or his background and prerequisites, and where plurality is regarded as a starting point for individual and common growth. In the common musical space, individuals become clear to themselves and others by expressing themselves and get feedback, which implicate the Encouragement of different ideas and their expressions as well as the Interest and curiosity for the other as a starting-point for education in music and for a cultural future life. To make this happen, music has to be incorporated as a form of expression of knowledge among all pupils. In other words, if a plurality of persons comes together, not based upon what they are, but who they are, changes in the lived world though active participation in musical activities could be possible. This kind of music teaching and learning demands a balance between vita activa and vita contemplativa; action and reflection through one’s own musical expressions and experiences become crucial (cf. Pio & Varkøy 2014). Hence, the pre-conditions for holistic musical learning where everyone has the possibility to experience and express music and handle the world can be expressed as:

• All pupils should be able to present and share their story. • All pupils should be able to define themselves in relation to others. • All pupils should be able to relate to knowledge that is taken for granted. • Spontaneity has to be encouraged. • Possibilities for using music as a form of expression and sharing experiences in public spaces must be created by teachers.

Still, as music education philosophers and teaching practitioners we have to put the following questions to our selves:

• How do we make pupils understand that all voices are expected to be heard? • How do we convince all pupils that they are seen as possible participants? • How do we make the local place a public space accessible for all?

As mentioned above, Arendt stresses that art lets the invisible appear in the visible. Art creates memory and history and demands an audience. Thinking concerns the abstract, non-present and invisible. To make such thoughts visible and present for others, and thereby making it possible to react to them, music could be used. As I have said many

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times now, to be visible and to be heard is an important democratic issue. Performances created through activity engage the senses in interplay, among listeners as well as performers. Therefore, pupils in schools have to be given the possibility to incorporate and use music as a form of expression, to become able to handle the world musically. This could happen if individual backgrounds and experiences are taken into account of and if extensions of the local room, such as the music classroom, are made possible. Here the weight of musical action, reflection, and common sense become crucial. My investigation of Arendt’s thoughts concerning democracy could be regarded as a functional guideline when it comes to the encouragement of music educators to interpret the steering documents and with this as a basis organize music teaching in a way that offers music as a language for all.

References Arendt, Hannah, 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Arendt, Hannah, 1981. Life of the Mind. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Arendt, Hannah, 1971. Thinking and Moral considerations: A lecture. Social Research, 38 (3), pp. 7–37. Arendt, Hanna 1969. Denktagebuch, vol. 2. Munich: Piper. Arendt, Hannah, 1961. Between Past and Future: Eight Exercises in Political Thought. New York: Penguin Books. Benhabib, Seyla, 1990. Hannah Arendt and the Redemptive Power of Narrative. Social Research, 57 (1), pp. 167–196. UN Article 19. [The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 19] Available at: p. 8 (Accessed 1 December 2015). Holm, Ulla, 2002. Common sense – att utgå ifrån eller sträva mot? Ord & Bild 2–3, pp. 38–51. Kanellopoulos, Panos, 2007. Musical Improvisation as Action: An Arendtian Perspective. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 6 (3), (Accessed 1 December 2015). Larsson, Berit, 2002. Betydelsen av att komma till tals. Ord & Bild, 2-3, pp. 65-71. Moran, Dermot, 2000. Introduction to Phenomenology. New York: Routledge. National Agency for Education, 2011. Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre 2011. Syllabus for Music, pp. 95–104. Available at: (Accessed 1 December 2015). Pio, Frederik & Varkøy, Øivind 2014. Musical experience as existential experience. Philosophy of Music Education Review, in press. The Riksdag Administration 1991. Yttrandefrihetsgrundlag (1991:1469). Reprint SFS 2011:508. Available at: (Accessed 1 December 2015). Vansieleghem, Nancy, 2005. Philosophy for Children as the Wind of Thinking. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39 (1), pp. 19–35. Varkøy, Øivind, 2015. The Intrinsic Value of Musical Experience. A Rethinking: Why and How? Frederik Pio & Øivind Varkøy (eds.): Philosophy of Music Education Challenged: Heideggerian Inspirations. Dortrecht: Springer 2015.

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Abstract Many young people need and use artistic expressions to communicate their feelings, experiences and ideas. To use, as well as experience, different art forms is a human right. But even if this is something that can be agreed upon, we have to ask several questions. The aim of this paper is to describe the place of democracy in the current Swedish curriculum for compulsory schools (Lgr11, National Agency for Education 2011) and to investigate how Hannah Arendt’s thoughts about democracy can be used as a guideline for organizing music education in Swedish schools in line with the curriculum. What challenges and priorities can music educators gain from Hannah Arendt’s writings in this respect? Arendt underlines that human beings become clear to themselves and to others through interaction in social life. To do so they need different forms of languages to try out, modify, and create ideas and insights. Questions that have to be elaborated upon when using Arendt’s view of democracy are for example: Who is expected to raise their voices and be heard? Who is seen as a possible participant? Who has access to specific artistic areas?

The Author Cecilia Ferm Thorgersen, Ph.D., is a Full Professor in Music Education at Luleå University of Technology Sweden, where she graduated in 2004 on a thesis about teaching and learning interaction in music classrooms. Her research focuses on music teacher education quality, communication and assessment in the music classroom, special needs in music education and the philosophy of music education. She has presented her work internationally at several conferences and in well-known journals.

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Andersson, Bengt (red.): Oss tonsättare emellan: Brevväxling 1913-1929 mellan Knut Håkanson och Josef Eriksson. Göteborg: Altfiol i väst, 2015. 348 s., CD. ISBN 978-91-63792-56-4. I Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning 2012 recenserade jag Bengt Anderssons utgåva av Knut Håkansons artiklar och recensioner i Göteborgs handels- och sjöfartstidning 1928-29, och nu har denne entusiastiske förkämpe för Håkansons musik sammanställt en bok med utdrag ur densammes brevväxling med Uppsalatonsättaren Josef Eriksson, uppskattad särskilt för sin fina och personliga romansproduktion. Det är en närmast unik brevskörd, inte bara genom sin kvantitet utan framför allt genom den inblick den ger i två tonsättartemperaments både konstnärliga och personliga värld. Brevsamlingen finns i Uppsala universitetsbibliotek, dit Eriksson skänkt den, och Andersson har haft samman- lagt 850 brev att välja bland, 545 från Håkanson och 305 från Eriksson. De båda tonsättarna hör i dag tyvärr inte till våra mer kända och ofta framförda, och i min förra anmälan gjorde jag därför en kort presentation av Håkanson. Om Josef Eriks- son (1872-1957) kan nu sägas att han kom från ett lärarhem i Söderfors men relativt sent kunde flytta hemifrån och börja ägna sig åt musik. I Uppsala tog han organist- och kyrkosångarexamen 1900 resp. 1901 och därefter musiklärarexamen vid konservato- riet 1906. Samtidigt studerade han komposition privat för Ruben Liljefors och Henning Mankell och piano för Lennart Lundberg. Eriksson stannade sedan i Uppsala, där han verkade som musiklärare vid folk- och småskollärarseminarierna, musikanmälare i tidningen Upsala och i olika omgångar som organist. Han levde av allt att döma i små och ofta betryckta omständigheter, och ett genomgående tema i hans brev är svårigheterna att få kompositionerna förlagda och få förläggarna att betala; han tvangs ofta att själv stå för sina utgåvor. Detta gäller ibland också Håkanson, men han som var fabrikörs- son med sitt på det torra kunde till en början hjälpa Josef Eriksson ekonomiskt, och när denne gick miste om ett tonsättarstipendium 1914 ordnade Håkanson tillsammans med en god vän ett årligt ”anti-akademiskt” stipendium till honom. När de svåra åren efter första världskriget tunnade ut den Håkansonska förmögenheten, blev dock läget även för honom allt svårare. För att dryga ut inkomsterna gjorde de båda på var sitt håll tappra försök att anordna konserter, i första hand turnéer med sångare, men oftast gav sådana initiativ inget netto. Varje framförande av de egna styckena noteras annars med påtaglig tillfredsställelse, och när John Forsell sätter upp ett par av Erikssons sånger på sina pro-

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gram, blir det en stor händelse. När Håkanson under 1920-talet blir dirigent för Borås orkesterförening, löser det åtminstone en del av hans pengabekymmer, och här kan han också lansera vännens stycken. Överhuvud propagerar de ivrigt på var sitt håll för den andres verk, och exempelvis kan Håkanson under sin recensenttid i GHT få in en sång av Eriksson i tidningens påsknummer 1928. Brevväxlingen inleddes av Håkanson som sände ett tack för noter han fått från Eriksson genom en god vän. Då, 1913, var Håkanson 26 år gammal och avslutade just sina studier vid Uppsala universitet och tog även han lektioner hos Ruben Liljefors. Åldersskillnaden på 15 år spelar en viss roll i de första breven, men snart blir de båda allt förtroligare och alltmer förbehållslösa och utbyter tankar om det mesta från högtflyg- ande konstnärliga frågor till de mest triviala vardagligheter. De börjar också regelbundet sända varandra sina nya kompositioner för påseende och kritik, och de tar oftast varan- dras synpunkter ad notam. När det gäller instrumentala verk tycker sig Eriksson ibland ha hantverkstekniska problem, och han skickar bland annat flera versioner av sin stora pianosonat i G-dur för bedömning. När han arbetar med sin stråksvit Bukolika, får Håkanson länge efterlysa en finalsats som aldrig kommer, och till slut bestämmer sig Eriksson för att låta den marschartade inledningssatsen tjänstgöra också som final, en i och för sig inte helt tokig idé. Håkanson som behärskar instrumentation betydligt bättre än Eriksson hjälper dessutom denne när sånger eller andra verk behöver orkesterdräkt. Bengt Andersson kan sannerligen inte ha haft lätt att välja i den omfångsrika brevhö- gen. Han drar sig inte för att exponera både jordnära ting och mycket personliga utsagor, men det är tydligt att han har fäst sig särskilt vid brev som direkt handlar om de bådas egen musik. Han har därmed kunnat ge en viss bakgrund till många enskilda stycken och deras inspirationskällor. Åtskilligt sägs också om deras musikaliska smak, särskilt när andra tonsättares nyheter kommer på tal, och i allmänhet tycks de vara ganska eniga om vilken musik som – för dem – är viktig och betydande. Josef Eriksson berättar dessutom om sin närvaro, när tonsättarföreningen bildas 1918 och gör en snabbkarakteristik av kollegerna. Om P.-B. tycker de båda inte, och Håkanson är rädd för repressalier, när han i en artikel i den danska musiktidskriften Musik 1920 om Erikssons Karlfeldt-sånger skrivit: ”hvilken välgörande kontrast till Peterson-Bergers ”folkliga” varietékostymering af samme diktargestalt!”. Men när P.-B. ger konsert i Uppsala och Josef Eriksson med fru blir bjud- na på den efterföljande supén, blir denne förvånad över hur ”intressant, slagfärdig, fint bildad och oerhört beläst” det giftiga DN-märket är: ”P.-B. är en fullkomligt olika typ mot t.ex. Stenhammar. Stenhammar verkar ju i högsta grad tillgjord, överlägsen, talar som ett orakel o.s.v. P.-B. är som en vanlig människa, utan några upphöjda eller tillgjorda later.”

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Det är ändå uppenbart att Andersson haft sitt Håkanson-intresse som utgångspunkt, ty citaten ur hans brev är påtagligt fylligare än ur Erikssons och det beror inte bara på att många av den sistnämndes förkommit. Bilden av Håkanson får successivt en allt tydligare skärpa, och man får flera nycklar till hans stilförändring från efterromantik till ny saklighet i den folkmusikpräglade och kontrapunktiskt inriktade produktionen från 1920-talet. Den ibland alltför lojalt vänliga tonen växer till dramatik, när han sedan berättar om sina olycksöden, förlusten av den gracilt vackra hustrun Omon till den plötsliga rivalen Ture Rangström och njurlidandet som till slut inte går att hejda; ett par av de gripande breven från de sista dagarna på sjukhuset publicerade Eriksson i sin minnesartikel över vännen i Folke Törnbloms antologi Musikmänniskor 1943. Kontrasten är minst sagt stor mellan Håkansons tidigare uppskattande ord om kollegan Rangström, vars enda egentliga svaghet är att han alltid vill sitta uppe så länge på kvällarna, och ilskan över hans och hustruns svek. Utgivaren har onekligen haft en grannlaga uppgift, som han i det stora hela skött med heder – det är en positiv värdering om jag upprepar min synpunkt från förra boken att hans kommentarer gärna hade fått vara ännu fylligare än de är. Men det måste an- märkas att Andersson inte uppmärksammat att brevväxlingen tidigare använts av Ola Nordenfors i hans avhandling Känslans kontrapunkt 1992, där han också ger ett inträn- gande porträtt av romanstonsättaren Eriksson och belyser den romansdebatt som denne 1921 deltog i; Andersson har endast stannat för Håkansons reaktioner på Erikssons inlägg. Nordenfors bok finns inte med i den korta litteraturförteckningen och inte heller Erikssons nämnda minnesartikel om Håkanson eller William Seymers (med många motsvarande brevutdrag) i samma antologi. Smått förvånande är förresten att Andersson ibland inte har valt de citat som där förekommer hos Eriksson, då de ju är prov på vad denne uppfattat som viktigt i kollegans brev. Genom sina urvalskriterier har Andersson fäst sig vid andra uppgifter än de Nordenfors tagit fasta på, och detta har medfört att läsaren i ett par fall kan få en fullständigare bild av originaltexterna genom att kombinera Anderssons och Nordenfors citat! Utgåvan hade nog också vunnit på att några av vännernas artiklar hade fått vara med, särskilt den nämnda Håkanson-texten i danska Musik men också hans två senare Josef Eriksson-artiklar i Ares och Vår Sång och även Erikssons 50-årshyllning till Ruben Lilje- fors i Musikern 1921, den som börjar: ”Finns det något jäkligare än att vara född till ton- sättare i Sverige?”. Men åtminstone Håkanson-artiklarna har måhända Bengt Andersson sparat till en kommande bok? Den CD som medföljer boken och även finns separat utgiven ger en välkommen och sympatisk presentation av de två vännernas musik från de brevaktuella åren, och där samsas sånger av de båda, stråkkvartettstyckena Bukolika och Ad tenebras av Josef

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Eriksson samt Elegi och Romans i folkton för violin och piano av Knut Håkanson. Medver- kande är barytonsångaren Gabriel Suovanen, pianisten Solveig Wikman, den göteborgska Klarakvartetten och Göteborgsoperans konsertmästare Dieter Schöning. Lennart Hedwall

Bohlin, Folke: Upptakter i den svenska vokalmusikens historia. Göteborg: Ejeby, 2014. 277 s., notex., ill. ISBN 978-91-88316-63-9. Folke Bohlins nya bok innehåller hans personliga reminiscenser samt både utgivna och outgivna vetenskapliga artiklar, vilka han även har kommenterat och kompletterat. Sam- lingen belyser utmärkt Bohlins (f. 1931) mångfacetterade verksamhet. Den började år 1950 i Uppsala med studier i musikvetenskap och har fortsatt i 65 år, sedan 1970 i Lund. År 1986 blev Bohlin den första professorn i musikvetenskap vid Lunds universitet. Som forskare har han riktat sitt huvudintresse åt den liturgiska musikens historia i Sverige. Dessutom har han också verkat på andra områden rörande vokalmusik. Bohlin växte upp i Härnösandsbiskopens musikälskande familj (här kan man finna ett undantag från Boh- lins annars noggranna detaljrikedom: sången “Säg, minnes du psalmen” är komponerad av Oskar Merikanto, inte av Ilmari Hannikainen) och har varit djupt inblandad i körverk- samhet. I samlingens första artiklar beskriver han på sitt välkända sätt början för sin egen verksamhet. I dem kommer även svenska körsångens märkvärdiga personligheter fram: Eric Ericson, Dan-Olof Stenlund, kompositören Sven-Eric Bäck (vars körmotetter Bohlin analyserar i slutet av samlingen), liksom välkända körerna Orphei Drängar och Uppsala Akademiska Kammarkör. Den medeltida liturgiska musikens frågor har ofta blivit behandlade i Bohlins arbete, även om han främst har prioriterat utvecklingen i Sverige efter reformationen. I en hittills opublicerad artikel (1985) uppträder han som “en andre opponent” till Ingmar Milvedens avhandling Zu den liturgischen “Hystorie” (Uppsala, 1972). Bohlin har gjort sig bekant med ett antal studier och källor gällande 1300-talets biskop i Skara Brynolf och “hystorior” relaterade till denne. Han hänvisar i sin senare kommentar också till samlingen Liber Schole Virginis utgiven av Anders Piltz, i vilken Bohlin också medverkat. Bohlin uppmärksammar kritiskt många detaljer och menar slutligen, till skillnad från Milveden, att “det måste fortfarande bedömas som fullt möjligt att Brynolftraditionen hade sin rot i ett verkligt förhållande, det vill säga att Brynolf Algotsson faktiskt skrivit de fyra hys- toriorna”. Folke Bohlin har intill sista åren kallat forskare till koralseminarier i Lunds universitet. Exempel därifrån är hans egna inlägg vid dessa seminarier, av vilka tre trycks i den recenserade volymen (1990/2011/2014). Den gamla frågan om medeltida församlingssång i svenska kyrkor har inspirerat honom att betrakta närmare några dokument som gäller

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sången “Det helge kors vår herre bär”. Tidigare har man tänkt att denna troligen medeltida sång i den danska psalmboken av Thomissøn (1569) var en långfredagssång. Bohlin lägger märke till nämnandet av ordet “memoria” bl. a. beslut från Arboga år 1412 och analyserar en svårläst handskriven sångtext på ett blad i en finsk kyrklig bok från år 1549. Dessa har lett Bohlin till att betrakta sången som “en efterreformatorisk bear- betning av en senmedeltida folklig sång som sjungits under prästerlig procession efter mässans slut”. Bohlin håller det mycket troligt att denna sång har sjungits av lekfolket. Däremot tror han att inte att skottverserna på folkspråk till de viktigaste sekvenserna har sjungits på detta sätt. I tre artiklar som tidigare utgivits på olika håll behandlar Bohlin reformationens första skede i Sverige. Han betonar inverkan av psalmböcker från lågtyska områden, särskilt psalmboken av Joachim Slüter (1531) som även torde ha förmedlat liturgisk praxis från Nürnberg till Danmark och vidare till Sverige. Han lägger märke till några handskrifter som härrör från Västerås stift och som möjligen erbjuder belägg för svenskspråkig gudstjänstsång där redan år 1535, alltså tidigare än de välkända handskrifterna från Hög och Bjuråker, vilka är daterade till 1540-talets början. Särskilt betonar Bohlin översät- tningar och musikalisk adaption i två sånger: O Lamm Gottes unschuldig, som är en para- fras av Nicolaus Decius (Rostock) på ett medeltida Agnus Dei, och Martin Luthers Credo- psalm Wir glauben all an einen Gott. Han lägger märke till att den förra källan torde vara det tidigaste belägget för sångens bruk i Östersjöområdet. För den senare erbjuder Bohlin några hänvisningar till sångens behandling i annan forskning. Han nämner melodin bl. a. i Johan Lindells utgåvor från 1780-talets Åbo. I den ursprungliga texten nämner Bohlin kort de finländska handskrifter som innehåller melodin under tiden c:a 1540 till c:a 1640. Här kan tilläggas att vid sidan av senare finländska handskrifter från 1600-talets början återfinns melodin redan i handskriften från St. Mårtens år 1596 (Gummerus-samlingen i Åbo landsarkiv, 163r–v: http://www.narc.fi:8080/VakkaWWW). En viktig del i Folke Bohlins verksamhet har varit forskning rörande svenska koralmelodier. Till skillnad från danska psalmböcker trycktes i det svenska riket endast några få koralmelodier intill den stora koralpsalmboken 1697. Nu utger Bohlin på nytt bidraget Sveriges äldsta koralsamling, där han beskriver sitt handskriftsfynd i Gamla Uppsalas kyrkoarkiv. Artikeln är ursprungligen skriven år 1967, då Bohlin också utgav ett faksimil av handskriften. Samlingen av Olaus Erici innehåller 77 melodier, härstammar från åren kring 1600 och följer psalmernas ordning under 1500-talets andra hälft. Samlingen är den äldsta bevarade större melodikällan till dessa koraler i Sverige. Den finländska Loimijoki-handskriften kan dock härstamma från samma tid, om inte rent av tidigare. Denna följer inte ordningen i svenska psalmböcker men innehåller samma melodier, samt åtskilliga andra. Koralernas märkvärdiga ordning följer tyska melodisamlingar av

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Burkhard Waldis (1553) och Valentin Babst (senast 1562). Samlingen finns publicerad online, i anslutning till tre senare finländska samlingar: Gamla psalmmelodier från Fin- land (http://www2.siba.fi/virtuaalikatedraali/vanhatvirret/index_s.html). Bohlins senare intresse förde honom till ett projektförslag (1974) om en svensk koralregistrant, d.v.s. en utförlig samling av svenska koralmelodier ur talrika källor. Förslaget finns nu tryckt på nytt med en kommentar där han konstaterar att projektet (som fortsatt under en lång tid) år 2014 införlivades i Arkivcentrum Syd i Lund. Bohlin hoppas att registranten i framtiden ska publiceras även på nätet – skulle det då även vara möjligt att utvidga den till att täcka hela Nordens koralhandskrifter? Folke Bohlin är en av de få svenska musikforskare som haft stort intresse för musiklivet i de östra delarna av det forna svenska kungariket. Vid sidan av finsk liturgisk musik har han sysslat även med “den första svenska operan”: Johan Valentin Meders (1649– 1719) Commoedie oder Sing-Spiel “Die beständige Argenia” som utfördes i Tallinn (då Reval) år 1680. Bohlin fortsätter nu det tidigare arbetet av svenska, tyska och estniska forskare kring detta verk. Han betraktar i ett bidrag i volymen de politiskt komplicerade problemen kring operan som ett möjligt skäl för Meder att lämna Tallinn år 1683. Förutom de nämnda bidragen finns i artikelsamlingen intressanta bidrag till de svenska studentkörernas historia. Anmälaren hoppas av hjärtat att Folke Bohlin ska bevara sitt livliga intresse för musikens mångfald och länge ännu fortsätta sin verksamhet. Erkki Tuppurainen

Hansson Stenhammar, Marie-Louise: En avestetiserad skol- och lärandekultur: En studie om lärprocessers estetiska dimensioner. Diss. Högskolan för scen och musik, Göteborgs universitet, 2015 (ArtMonitor, LII). 230 s. ISBN 978-91-98171-28-0. Den 27. Mars 2015 disputerte Marie-Louise Hansson Stenhammar ved Göteborgs Uni- versitet. Syftet med studien var ”att beskriva och analysera lärprocessers meningsska- pande innehåll i relation till begreppet estetiska lärprocesser” (s. 10). Forskningsinteres- sen var rettet mot eleveres og læreres interaksjonsprosesser, samt hvordan elever bear- beider aktiviteter til meningsskapende handlinger i undervisningen. Studien hadde tre forskningsspørsmål: ”(a) Hur beskriver lärarna lärprocessen och hur uppfattar eleverna den?; (b) Hur framträder lärprocessen i verksamheten?; (c) På vilket sätt kan lärande relateras till begreppen estetiska lärprocesser och konstens metoder?” (s. 11). For å besvare forskningsspørsmålene og oppfylle syftet etablerer hun en forståelsesgrund med teori om estetikk og lärande, kombinert med et socialkonstruktionistiskt kunnskapssyn og et sosiokulturelt perspektiv på lärande.

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Metodologisk anvender Hansson Stenhammar en etnografisk influert ansats med fokus på observasjon av leksjoner i skolens samtlige fag, med unntak av idrett og helse. Interaksjonsprosessene mellom lærere og elever dokumenteres i feltnotater, situasjons- bundne samtaler og kompletterende intervjuer, individuelle med lærerne og gruppein- tervjuer med elevene. Studien er designet som en case study, med Robert K. Yin som sentral metodologisk teoretiker. Utvalget består av 4 lærere og 27 elever i en musikk- lasse i årskull 5 på en F-9 skole med særskilt estetisk profil. Det empiriske arbeidet ble innledet med en forstudie som bidro til å trekke målstyring som kontekstuelt vilkår inn i hovedstudien på en sterkere måte enn opprinnelig planlagt. I resultatpresentasjonen beskriver hun, for uten målstyring som vilkår for læreprosessenes innhold, lærernes idealbilder av læreprosessen og forbilder for kunskapsdannelse fra mul- timedial dialog, og i tillegg elevenes selvvurdering. Sammenfatningsvis fant Hansson Stenhammar at det fantes motsetninger mellom lærernes idealbilder av læreprosessenes innhold og den faktiske virksomheten, og mellom lærernes og elevenes respektive beskrivelser. For elevene framsto læreprosessene mer som reproduksjoner av automatiserte kunnskaper enn som dynamiske prosesser. Dette førte til en videre diskusjon hos Hansson Stenhammar om hvordan lærernes idealbilder av læreprosessenes innhold i sin tur forholder seg til studiens forståelse av estetiske lære- prosesser og kunstens metoder. Studiens resultat tolkes utifrån två huvudområden: Den rådende lärkulturen och lär- processers innehåll. Dette presenteres relatert til hvert enkelt forskningsspørsmål, før hun sammenfatter det hele i en avsluttende diskusjon. I tillegg til å diskutere kunstens metoder i relasjon til studiens resultat og tidligere forskning, diskuterer hun her også den kontekstuelle språkbrukens betydning for hvordan lærere og elever i interaksjon konstru- erer sine oppfatninger om lærende og kunnskap. Jeg vil peke på 7 momenter i resultatpresentasjonen og den avsluttende diskusjonen der Hansson Stenhammar i særlig grad bidrar til kunnskapen på forskningsfeltet. Det gjør hun ved å peke på tydelige trekk i sitt eget materiale som viser • at kunstens metoder ikke synes nærværende i de estetiske fagenes læreprosesser, • at begrepene ’skapande’, ’kreativitet’, ’fantasi’ og ’undersökande’ får en annen betydning i en konvensjonell skolekontekst enn i en rent kunstnerisk undervisningsmiljø, • at det finnes ingen generelle belegg for at arbeidet i estetiske fag automatisk gir bedre læring i andre fag, • at til og med den skapende delen i ulike skapende prosjekt framstilles av lærerne som en oppgave som skal utføres etter en viss forutbestemt framgangsmåte, noe som er i tråd med C. Ericsson och M. Lindgrens resultat (Musikklassrummet i blickfånget: Vard-

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agskultur, identitet, styrning och kunskapsbildning, Högskolan i Halmstad: Sektionen för lärarutbildning, 2010), • at det synes å eksistere en uuttalt forestilling om at de såkalte estetisk-praktiske fagenes læreprosesser utvikler kreativitet, • at om det estetiske aspektet skal kunne utgjøre en del av læreprosessene i alle fag, kreves det bevisste, didaktiske valg av hver enkelt lærer, og, • at det er vanskelig å definitivt avklare om og hvordan begrepene ‘konstnärligt’ og ‘estetiskt’, samt ’estetiska lärprocesser’ og ’konstens metoder’ kan anvendes i relasjon til spesifikke eller generelle læreprosesser.

Til tross for disse svært viktige bidragene, kan det likevel reises enkelte spørsmål til grunnlaget for de resultatene som presenteres, eller med andre ord, til sider ved det teoretiske og metodologiske fundamentet for studien. Teoretisk definerer hun forskningsobjektet sitt som ”[…] lärprocessers estetiska dimensioner i form av konstens metoder […]” (s. 79). Imidlertid savnes en nærmere diskusjon om forholdet mellom estetiska dimensioner og konstens metoder. Spørsmålet er om de estetiske dimensjonene knyttes så tett til konstens metoder at det reduserer estetikk til teori om kunst og derved de såkalte estetiske fagene i skolen til utelukken- de kunstneriske fag. Et annet problem gjelder spørsmålet om hva som er kunstens metode. Her anvender Hansson Stenhammar en definisjon med karakteristika som kritiskt tänkande, kreativitet, problemlösning, reflektion, analys, kommunikation, kreativitet och fantasi, undersöka, experimentera, använda olika förståelser av det som studeras, genom det okända se nya betydelser av det redan kända. Alle disse karakteristika, også sammenstilt, kan imidlertid anvendes om metode i svært mange sammenhenger og kan neppe sies å være spesielle for kunst. Et tredje problem er at det savnes primærlittera- tur om estetikk og en diskusjon av estetikkbegrepet som sådant. Studiens sosiokulturelle perspektiv på lærende kunne ha vært utnyttet bedre i resul- tatdiskusjonen. Svarene på forskningsspørsmålene reflekterer i mindre grad enn ønsket, teoriens muligheter for å perspektivere empirien. Dette gjelder særlig aspekter av kol- lektivt lærende. Metodologisk betegnes studien som en ”fallstudie”, eller en case study. I den sammen- hengen savnes en begrunnelse for hvorfor et slikt design ble valgt. Studien blir heller ikke posisjonert i forhold til de ulike formene for casestudier som beskrives i den metodologiske teorien på området. I tillegg beskrives verken den observasjons- eller intervjuguiden som ble anvendt. I en kvalitativ studie der resultatene ikke er generaliserbare, står eller faller mye av troverdigheten med transparens og systematikk i det forskningsmetodiske opplegget. Om disse kategoriene hadde vært bedre ivaretatt, kunne resultatene i studien ha blitt tillagt enda større vekt.

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Til tross for slike innvendinger mot deler av arbeidet, bidrar Hansson Stenhammars studie til å reise spørsmål og påpeke utfordringer i både vitenskapelige og hverdags- språklige forståelser av estetiske læreprosesser i skolens ulike fag. Disse spørsmålene og utfordringene bør dras inn debatten om skolen og få betydning for den videre utviklingen av hvordan de estetiske fagene så vel som de øvrige fagene i skolen forstås og videreut- vikles. Geir Johansen

Hedås, Kim: Linjer: Musikens rörelser – komposition i förändring. Diss. Högskolan för scen och musik, Göteborgs universitet 2013 (ArtMonitor XL). 336 ss., ill., DVD. ISBN 978-91-979993-6-6. En av de första saker man slås av när man börjar titta i Kim Hedås avhandling Linjer: Musikens rörelser - komposition i förändring är omfattningen. Sexton kompositioner och en bok på drygt 300 sidor ger en mastig upplevelse och även om den är helt i linje med övriga avhandlingar som producerats de senaste åren bör man kanske ändå fundera över hur stor en konstnärlig doktorsavhandling egentligen bör vara. En DVD med dokumen- tationen av de konstnärliga verken är föredömligt producerad och gjord för läsning i en webbläsare snarare än en DVD-spelare, och även om inga digitala format har särskilt lång livslängd så lär det öppna HTML-formatet överleva det slutna DVD-formatet. Trots omfattningen gör den klara strukturen att materialet blir överskådligt även om texten erbjuder en del motstånd. Det finns ingen direkt information om hur de olika linjer som avhandlingen är organiserad i har tillkommit. Som jag uppfattar det så har de vuxit fram ur forskningsprocessen och, så att säga, använts som ett raster för att gruppera musiken, delvis i efterhand – även om jag är säker på att något av de senare verken har tillkommit genom rastret snarare än tvärtom. I slutet av första kapitlet hittar vi två, för kanske all forskning, helt centrala ställningstaganden: “Det är omöjligt att förbli anonym” och “Jag behöver gå in som mig själv”. (Nu håller säkert inte alla med om att det subjek- tiva förhållningssättet är en förutsättning för all forskning men i artikeln ”Beyond valid- ity: Claiming the legacy of the artist-researcher” i STM 2013, ss. 1–17, diskuterar jag och Stefan Östersjö just detta.) Forskningsfrågan beskrivs som: “Hur kan förändringarna, som relationer mellan det som är musik och det som inte är musik ger upphov till, skapa möj- ligheter för komposition?” Min omedelbara fundering är hur det ens är möjligt att avgöra vad som otvetydigt är musik och vad som inte är det, men den diskussionen återkommer vi till längre fram. Metoden, som vi också ska återkomma till, beskrivs helt kort som “En reflexiv rörelse mellan undersökningens olika delar.” Jag kan vara fundersam kring denna metod. Just reflexion är ett ord som ständigt återkommer i diskussionen om den konstnärliga forskningens metoder. Då ett av syftena

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med forskningsmetoden är att skapa nya gränsytor till det som ska beforskas skulle jag först vilja se hur reflexion som forskningsmetod i så fall skiljer sig från reflexion i konstnärligt skapande, eller, i det tillfälle den konstnärliga metoden också är forskningsmetoden, på vilket sätt bidrar metoden till att synliggöra det som tidigare varit dolt? Julia Kristevas begrepp intertextualitet är en uppenbar referens när temat är relationer mellan olika iterationer av konstnärligt arbete och det lyfts fram som en immanent del av arbetet tillsammans med dialog, hypertextualitet, intermedialitet och ekfras. Ekfras kanske framstår som det mest användbara begreppet och det som närmast harmonierar med avhandlingens tematik, men det förekommer tyvärr bara i början, bl.a. i ett citat ur boken Intermedialitet: Ord, bild och ton i samspel (red. Hans Lund, Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2002) och i samma citat igen på sidan s. 260. Det är synd för Hedås går här miste om en chans att ställa sin konstnärliga praktik mot en teoribildning med stor relevans, individu- alitet och potential. Kapitlet om stycket Raivadiado och dess olika andra inkarnationer beskriver ett av de mest hänförande styckena musik i avhandlingen. Det härstammar egentligen ur ett annat verk, musik till en teateruppsättning av Dödsdansen 2007, och genom att vara samtidigt idiomatiskt och naturligt – naturligt i betydelsen att dess utveckling är organisk och okonstlad – pressar det gränserna för det hörbara och öppnar för ett lyssnande på flera olika plan. Men här kan man också skönja svagheten i avhandlingens tydliga struktur, en svaghet som i och för sig många konstnärliga forskningsprojekt delar: strukturen i pres- entationen gör inte alltid rättvisa åt komplexiteten i innehållet. I strävan efter en enkel och välstrukturerad ingång riskerar man att för formens skull förenkla det komplexa utan att det därför blir mer lättförståeligt. Raivadiado skulle lätt kunna passa in under vilken som helst av de fem linjerna, så varför begränsa det till bara en? Vad man vinner i struktur riskerar man förlora i innehåll. Första delen avslutas med en reflektion om processer och förändringar. Det är första gången vi möter Henri Bergson, som känns som en viktig referens för Linjer. Flera av avhandlingens teman är centrala i hans arbete och det är i detta kapitel som jag först förstår hur annorlunda denna text är, hur jag blir tvungen att ge upp att reduktionistiskt försöka analysera utsagorna, utan istället placera mig i tex- tens flöde. ”Att börja att tala är att gå in i diskursens riskabla ordning” skriver Cecilia Rosengren i Conway: Naturfilosofi och kvinnliga tänkare i barockens tidevarv (Göteborg: Glänta, 2009) som Hedås citerar i kapitel 7. Att föra in kontinentalfilosofin i ett arbete som strä- var efter att studera relationerna mellan det som är musik och det som inte är det, gör mig fundersam och en smula förvirrad. Vad är det i forskningsfrågan jag inte förstår? Utifrån vad jag läst och hört fram till nu, hade det inte varit mer framkomligt att söka dekonstruera den binära relation mellan musiken och det som inte är musiken snarare

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än att söka definiera den? Om jag läser in lite mellan raderna: är författarens konstnär- liga praktik en diskurs (i Foucaults mening) vars utveckling beror på mötet med det som inte är del av den diskursen från början? Men var passar då Deleuzes begrepp blivande som anförs på nästa sida i avhandlingen in i bilden? Deleuzes metod för att komma runt dikotomier som människa och natur (och kanske musik och icke-musik), är att hänvisa till blivande som ett tillstånd som gör att distinktionen mellan det enas slut och det andras början blir omöjlig att göra. Jag funderar över om inte forskningsfrågan snarare ligger närmare följande fråga: Hur och under vilka förutsättningar blandar sig livet/världen/naturen i det som vi definierar som musik? Utifrån den ursprungliga frågan, vad kan jag berätta om möjligheterna som skapats för Kim Hedås? Tveklöst har de många konstnärliga samarbetena skapat just möjligheter för komponerandet men från avhandlingen får vi inte veta mycket om det, annat än i resultatet. Vi vet att det påverkar men inte hur. Det får mig att tänka att forsknings- frågan i detta fall faktiskt egentligen inte är frågan utan metoden. Kim använder mötet med det andra, med komponerandets ontologiska motsats, som en metod att förstå hur processerna kan utvecklas och hur hon kan driva sitt eget arbete vidare, i ett försök att optimera sina egna konstnärliga processer. Att se frågan som metod löser delvis också ett annat problem, nämligen att avhandlingen inte positionerar sig gentemot andra konstnärliga arbeten som rör just relationen mellan det som är “musik och det som inte är musik”. Att diskutera vad som är musik och vad som inte är det i en post-Cage-era utan att beröra sextiotalets experiment på området gör det onödigt svårt att förstå vad som är Kim Hedås avsikt, men om detta istället är metoden snarare än frågan blir inte just den bakgrundsanalysen lika påträngande viktig. Kim Hedås avhandling är ett gediget arbete. Det är en avhandling som placerar sig i den tradition som Göteborgs universitet har etablerat för konstnärlig forskning i den nya konstnärliga examensordningen. Språket är vackert, nästan poetiskt, och reflekterande. Svaren är formulerade som möjligheter, där ibland många sådana ges. Frågeställningarna, till en början en smula vaga och inte omedelbart närvarande genom hela arbetet, flyter ibland ut till utkanten för att sedan återvända och uppträda mitt i centrum igen. Här finns således många öppningar för fortsatt forskning. Arbetet kräver sin lyssnare och ju närmare man kommer det, desto tydligare blir det, men tydligheten uppenbarar sig när- mast på ett musikaliskt plan snarare än ett strukturellt. Avhandlingen ger oss på så sätt ett ganska radikalt bud på individuell, intermedial, konstnärlig kunskapsutveckling och jag vågar påstå att konstnärlig forskning i musik i Sverige ligger bra till. Henrik Frisk

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Ingram, Catherine och Russel, Ian (red.): Taking Part in Music: Case Studies in Ethnomusicology. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 2013. 351 s., ill. ISBN 978-1-85752-001-9. Att musika spelar roll – så skulle antologin Taking Part in Music kortfattat kunna sam- manfattas och redan i antologins titel signaleras de två huvudsakliga ansatserna i samlingen: ”deltagande musikande” och betoningen på ett antal fallstudier. Totalt utgörs antologin av tjugo artiklar och redaktörernas inledning. Artiklarna är tematiserade i fyra underavdelningar: ”Musical Issues”, ”Sociality and Relationships”, ”Place and Space” och ”Musical Participation in the Swedish Context”. Ursprunget till artiklarna är European Seminar in Ethnomusicology:s (ESEM:s) tjugosjunde konferens som hölls vid Elphinstone Institute, University of Aberdeen, Skottland, i september 2011. En basal utgångspunkt för antologin är att det är viktigt att utforska olika former av deltagande i musikaktiviteter. Redaktörerna inleder med att understryka att deltagande i musik spelar en stor roll i många kulturer. Bara det gör området i sig viktigt att utforska. Men, understryker de vidare, deltagande i musikaliska aktiviteter kan också uppfylla många andra viktiga funktioner: ”it can educate, spiritually enlighten, advance social connections, demonstrate and validate particular social affiliations, unite diverse individuals in particular contexts of time and space, help develop courage or political willpower, and promote physical and mental wellbeing” (s. 1). I linje med denna breda ansats, har jag här valt att i ett svenskspråkigt sammanhang tala om detta som deltagande musikande. I centrum för samtliga studier i antologin, om än på väldigt olika sätt, står fallstudier av deltagande musikande. Flera av författarna använder sig av Thomas Turinos Music as Social Life: The Politics of Participation (2008) som teoretisk utgångspunkt, och anknyt- ningen till Turinos begrepp ”participatory performance” respektive ”presentational performance” är naturligtvis relevant i studier av det här slaget. Här bidrar detta dessutom till ett gemensamt teoretiskt ramverk för flera av bidragen som i sin tur skapar en röd tråd mellan dem trots deras sinsemellan stundtals stora olikheter. Med detta sagt, kan emellertid också konstateras att en del av fallstudierna aldrig riktigt lyckas lyfta sig över den egna horisonten och blicka utåt. I dessa fall hade jag gärna sett att en del av de ibland ganska långa och redovisande redogörelser för respektive fält kunde kortas ner till förmån för ett starkare teoretiskt förankrat resonemang kop- plat till den empiri som presenteras. Detta gäller exempelvis Gillian Frenchs ”Follow the band: the role and function of community brass bands in the Scottish Borders common ridings”. Hennes tyngdpunkt ligger i stora delar på en historisk redogörelse som gärna kunde kortats ner till förmån för ett mer utvecklat resonemang runt olika aspekter av

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brassbandens funktion i de två samhällena, liknande den som nu enbart berörs i den avrundande sammanfattningen. En spännande aspekt av deltagande som också framträder i antologin, och som också kortfattat nämns av redaktörerna, är deltagande som forskningsmetod. I flera av fallstudierna utgörs forskarens eget deltagande i den musikkultur som undersöks en central del i hur hen fått tillgång till det fält som studerats. Gränsen mellan deltagande musikande som ett studieobjekt i sig och forskarens deltagande musikande som forskningsmetod hänger därmed i vissa av studierna väldigt nära samman. De flesta av författarna balanserar väl i deras redogörelser av det som de studerat och deras eget deltagande, även om jag hade önskat att fler hade haft det tydliga resonemang runt detta som återfinns i Pamela Cotters bidrag ”Foreigners in the session: an examination of participation and authenticity at the Costello´s Irish music session”. Eftersom den här recensionen skrivs för just den här tidskriften, vill jag särskilt säga några ord om den svenska avdelningen i antologin. Den har fått en form som nästan påminner om en antologi i antologin, med en egen inledning samförfattad av samtliga bidragsgivare och därefter bidrag av, i tur och ordning: Dan Lundberg, Susanne Holst, Marika Nordström, Alf Arvidsson och Ingrid Åkesson. Dessa ingick alla i forskningspro- grammet ”Musikskapandets villkor: Mellan kulturpolitik, ekonomi och estetik” (2010– 2013) och det är delresultat från deras delar i programmet som presenteras här. Liksom antologin i stort, har också de svenska bidragen uppfattat deltagande musikande som ett vittomfattande forskningsområde. Det svenska projektets vinkling att studera detta utifrån musikskapandets villkor öppnar upp för ingångar som inte alltför ofta återfinns inom den svenska och skandinaviska musiketnologiska forskningen, även om den tangeras inom annan musikforskning. De svenska bidragen har också jämfört med antologin i stort, en något större bredd rörande val av studieobjekt, som exempelvis i Alf Arvidsson artikel ”Some characteristics of contemporary art music composition in Sweden”. Jag är enig med de svenska bidragsgivarna att de villkor som omgärdar musikskapande också påverkar deltagande musikande på olika sätt. Jag är också enig i att musiketnologiska perspektiv kan och bör anläggas även på andra genrer än det som återfinns på den västerländska folk- och världsmusikscenen och på ”de andras” musikkulturer. I båda dessa avseenden berikar de svenska bidragen antologin i stort. Men i några fall, exempelvis rörande Dan Lundbergs i övrigt intressanta artikel ”Describing your music to the Arts Council: Interacting with a grant system”, hade jag ändå önskat ett förtydligande av hur de svenska bidragen relaterar till deltagande musikande, om inte annat för att framhäva vikten av att också se till de villkor som omgärdar musikande vid studier av just deltagande musikande.

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Genom att antologins fjärde del inte tematiseras på motsvarande sätt som de övriga tre delarna (exempelvis temat ”Place and Space”), riskerar också de stora släktskap som finns i några av de svenska artiklarna med övriga teman att komma i skymundan. Detta gäller framför allt Ingrid Åkessons artikel ”Participatory and multidirectional music-making: Small-scale singing events as creators of counter-aesthetic?”, som till innehåll och utformning hade platsat lika bra i något av de andra temana som i den svenska delen, bland annat med tanke på hennes anknytning till Thomas Turinos begreppsapparat och val av vilket musikaliskt fält som studeras. Avslutningsvis måste jag erkänna att jag inte är helt säker på vad mitt samman- fattande omdöme om Taking part in Music är. Att läsa en antologi från pärm till pärm, som den som är satt att recensera den behöver göra, erbjuder en läsupplevelse där de enskilda artiklarna träder tillbaka till förmån för en större helhet. I det här fallet bygger den helheten på antologins betoning av deltagande musikande och dess tematiska underavdelningar kombinerat med några – kanske tillfälliga – röda trådar såsom Turinos begreppsapparat. Det medför att enskilda fallstudier som i sig själva kanske inte ”ger” så mycket, bidrar till en bredare kartläggning av möjliga aspekter på deltagande musikande. På så sätt lyckas antologin illustrera att helheten i vissa fall faktiskt är större än delarna. Det är antologins styrka. Det gör också att störst behållning av antologin nog fås om den läses i sin helhet. Frågan är kanske i hur hög utsträckning detta sker. Karin Larsson Eriksson

Johansson, Linus: Taking it as a Man? Music, Youth, and Gender, Outside and Within Mainstream Media Cultures. Diss., Inst. för musikvetenskap, Uppsala universitet, 2015. 348 s., notex. Under 2000-talet har musikartister i ökande omfattning börjat använda sig av digitala medier för att sprida och marknadsföra sin musik, samt för att upprätta kontakt med sina fans. Internet är det centrala mediet för spridning och marknadsföring av musik idag, även om musikbruk också involverar andra medier, i till exempel konserter och andra liveupplevelser, eller hemmalyssnande i ljudanläggningar. Internets betydelse är också giltigt över genregränser, både för mainstream, klassisk musik och för avantgardet. I Li- nus Johanssons avhandling som lades fram mars 2015 undersöks artisten Le Bombe och rockgruppen Sahara Hotnights utifrån deras musik och dess spridning online, främst på hemsidor. Det är två ganska olika musikprojekt som författaren gett sig på att analysera i två fallstudier, men de har också gemensamma nämnare: båda materialen öppnar för

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analyser av genus, medier och ideologi. Medan Sahara Hotnights var kända för en stor publik vid millennieskiftet är Le Bombe ett mer okänt artistskap. Varken Le Bombe eller Sahara Hotnights är verksamma som artister idag vilket ger fördelen att författaren kan titta tillbaka på hela deras karriärer och se förändringar, utveckling likväl som mönster och konstanter. Det är ett stort empiriskt och teoretiskt arbete som avhandlingen grundas på, ett arbete som sträckt sig över en längre tid, har en teoretisk spännvidd, ett stort material och som använder sig av flera metoder. I sin forskning analyserar Johansson tematiker som medier/teknik, genus/maskulinitet och ideologi/diskurs utifrån de två aktuella fallstudierna. Delvis beror nog omfattningen av arbetet på att avhandlingsarbetet också har pågått under en lång tid, en del av materialet är från 2001, men mångfalden av teoretiska perspektiv, forskningsfält och begrepp kan också tänkas vara en konsekvens av ämnet: det finns många perspektiv som kan användas för att belysa frågor om musik på internet, medier, genus och teknik. Författaren har valt att ta med så många teorier och resonemang han får plats med och avhandlingen präglas av eklektiska och originella förhållningssätt till samtida humanistisk forskning och teori. Ett av avhandlingens mer konkreta bidrag till musikforskningen är en insiktsfull diskussion om begreppet mainstream utifrån tidigare forskning. Författaren definierar mainstream i musik som lättillgängligt, återkommande i offentligheten och bärare av konsensusinriktade budskap efter en diskussion om hur begreppet ofta töms på mening. Han menar även att mainstream-kultur är sådan kultur som är ständigt närvarande i samtidens medier och som präglas av intertextualitet. I förhållande till Sahara Hot- nights framgångar blir begreppet särskilt intressant, som unga kvinnor och rockmusiker med rykte om sig att vara ett utmärkt liveband var de en mainstreamens paradox. En framgångsrik sådan, kanske just därför att deras artistskap och musik re-positionerade samtida rockmusik under en tidsperiod där kommodifiering av feministiska budskap var vanlig. Mainstream är med andra ord också potentiellt musik som utmanar konsensus lagom mycket, både politiskt och estetiskt. Le Bombes artistskap analyseras istället som ett uttryck för avantgarde och motstånd mot konsensus. Fallstudierna i avhandlingen är ett välkommet bidrag till samtida svensk musikforskning där artistskap idag sällan analyseras så här noga. Linus Johansson genomför både välgrundade musikanalyser och förmår kombinera dessa med diskussioner om låttexter, mediering via hemsidor samt genom att kontextualisera sina analyser. Taking it as a man? är en avhandling med ett antal ambitioner. Många teoretiska fält diskuteras, många syften och frågor ställs upp och samtidigt som framställningen och mångfalden gör arbetet originellt ligger också avhandlingens svaghet i spretigheten och förmedlingen av mångfalden. De teoretiska diskussionerna håller ibland inte ihop och

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strukturen på texten är framtung och svårgenomtränglig. Till exempel utger sig förfat- taren för att täcka in (bland annat) marxistisk ideologiteori, feministisk teori, forskning om teknik och medier, hermeneutik, diskursteori och hegemoni, ungdomsforskning, samt maskulinitetsforskning. Det är svårt att ge en rättvisande bild av så olika och omfattande forskningsfält i en och samma avhandling, att kombinera dem på ett produktivt sätt och dessutom lyckas få användning för dem alla i själva analyserna. Det lyckas heller inte författaren med. Arbetets vetenskapliga stringens skulle tjänat på ett tydligare ställningstagande: för vissa teoretiska perspektiv framför andra, för ett tydligt syfte och sammanhängande presentation av arbetets slutsatser. Men säkert skulle då en del av charmen och originaliteten i avhandlingen ha gått förlorad. Ann Werner

Marschner, Bo: At studere musikvidenskab: En stafet. BoD – Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 2015. 201 s., ill. ISBN 978-87-7145-480- 2. Bo Marschner har verkat som lärare och professor i musikvetenskap vid Århus universitet mellan 1973 och 2008. Huvudtiteln till den nya boken At studere musikvidenskab kunde förleda läsaren att tro att det handlade om en introduktion för nya studenter i ämnet. Men undertiteln ”en stafet” antyder något annat. På titelbladet ges ytterligare en kryp- tisk precisering, den fullständiga titeln är: At studere musikvidenskab (1964-2014): En stafet. Man kan rimligen gissa att det handlar om en balansräkning med utgångspunkt i författarens egen femtioåriga närvaro i disciplinen från 1964 fram till bokens färdigstäl- lande. Ordet ”stafet” kan då tolkas som att Marschner ser sig som representant för en viss generation musikvetare som är på väg att definitivt lämna över till de efterkom- mande. Nog med preludierande. Boken utgör en betraktelse över musikvetenskapens situation, med fokus på Danmark men med en historisk bakgrundsteckning i vilken Österrike, Tyskland och i viss mån USA spelar huvudroller, och direkta jämförelser mellan Danmark och andra nordiska länder, främst Sverige. Ur ett svenskt perspektiv är det första kapitlet intressant, eftersom det fäster på pränt och bekräftar den ungefärliga bild man har haft av skillnaderna mellan dansk och svensk musikvetenskaplig utbildning: främst att den danska grundutbildningen i musikvetenskap är mycket nära kopplad till musiklärarutbildning, medan den svenska är en autonom musikvetarutbildning. Om detta ur ett svenskt perspektiv kan tolkas som fördel Danmark, med en självklar arbetsmarknadsanknytning och ett säkrare rekryteringsunderlag, for- mulerar Marschner (s. 19) vissa betänkligheter för Danmarks vidkommande: Sverige har liksom Tyskland haft ett fokus på de musikvetenskapliga kärnämnena (”de utprægede musikvidenskabelige emnefelter”) medan Danmark har haft ett stort inslag av praktiskt

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musicerande (arrangemang, ensemble- och körledning, sång och piano) i utbildningen. Marschner (s. 20) ger bilden av sig själv som företrädare för en minoritetsriktning i den danska utbildningen, som uppfattar det obligatoriska och formella inslaget av praktiskt musicerande i utbildningen som något som är till förfång för utvecklingen av en musikvetaridentitet och som i förlängningen av detta även får praktiska konsekvenser. När de praktiska konsekvenserna av den danska ordningen skall konkretiseras visar det sig dock att Marschner inte är uppdaterad: Han inleder (s. 21) med att nämna att antalet forskarstuderande i musikvetenskap i Danmark är väsentligt mindre än i Sverige, och vill då tydligen förklara detta med bristen på intresserade kandidater, d.v.s. bristen på studenter med utpräglad musikvetaridentitet. Men sedan 1998 års forskarutbildningsre- form har möjligheterna till rekrytering av doktorander i musikvetenskap (liksom i många andra utbildningsämnen) successivt strypts i Sverige och är nu nere på ungefär den nivå Marschner nämner för Danmark. Ovanpå detta har det för Sverige nya kravet på en fyra- till femårig grundutbildning, med examina i två steg, för att uppnå behörighet till utbildning på forskarnivå (som gäller med full kraft från i år), i kombination med markerade svårigheter att rekrytera studenter till magister/master-utbildningarna i musikvetenskap, resulterat i något som liknar Marschners bild av Danmark, med endast ett fåtal studenter med svensk musikvetenskaplig grundexamen (magister/master) som söker sig till utbildning på forskarnivå i musikvetenskap – att detta kan kompenseras av att det tillkommer studenter med andra bakgrunder är en annan sak. I ett förord daterat 2011 skriver Marschner ”Hvad jeg har tænkt att lægge frem, og som jeg ser som min slutopgørelse med faget, må væl for dagens konkret involverede parter lyde som en røst fra graven” (s. 6). Utan att skriva under på att Marschners position skulle vara helt överspelad idag, är det nog riktigt att beteckna den som markerat konservativ och i vissa avseenden reaktionär (d.v.s. som en strävan att vrida klockan tillbaka). I kapitlet ”Forudsætninger for studiet” (s. 56ff) anges fyra villkor som en person som överväger att studera musikvetenskap måste vara beredd att uppfylla: 1) att vara intresserad av västerländsk klassisk musik; 2) att man kan läsa noter; 3) att man är inställd på att lära sig behärska en formaliserad musikterminologi; 4) att man utöver engelska behärskar tyska och beroende på inriktning även franska och/eller italienska. Detta ligger helt i linje med hur jag uppfattade musikvetenskapen när jag började läsa, det ligger samtidigt oerhört långt från hur jag förstår att merparten av hur våra nybör- jarstudenter vid Stockholms universitet ser sina prioriteringar. Den arkaiska bilden av musikvetarstudenten har ett förväntat korrelat i redogörelsen för musikvetenskapens historia. Med undantag för Fétis och en handfull danskar handlar det om en rent tyskspråkig angelägenhet (de nämnda danskarna har dessutom delvis haft tyska publikationer som tunga element i sina karriärer), medan den engelskspråkiga

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litteraturen uppträder först som exempel på förfall: Rosens The Classical Style (1971) får illustrera hur en mer imprecis användning av ett begrepp som stil, mer eller mindre som en återgång till musikvetenskapens barndom (Adler), åter breder ut sig. Och den obligatoriska referensen till Kermans Contemplating Music/Musicology (1985) ses som start- punkten för “New” och “Critical Musicology”, vilka avhandlas på en sida, utan namns nämnande och utan substantiell karaktäristik. Det tyskorienterade och traditionella perspektivet bekräftas av den vikt som läggs vid Guido Adlers uppdelning i historisk och systematisk musikvetenskap som utgångspunkt för en diskussion (s. 61 ff.), medan den amerikanska disciplinära uppdelningen i “Musi- cology”, “Ethnomusicology” och “Music Theory” reduceras till en analytisk distinktion som Kerman introducerar (”Kerman ... /foretager/ ... en udparcellering av musikvidenska- ben i tre hovedkategorier”) i Contemplating Music/Musicology (!)(s. 86 f). Om första hälften av boken har översiktskaraktär vänder det därefter, i och med att det främst handlar om vad författaren förefaller uppfatta som kritiska frågor för dagens musikvetenskap. I tre kapitel behandlas vad som schematiskt kan betecknas som 1) de aktuella förutsättningarna för musikhistoria; 2) kunskapsteori med avseende på musikvetenskap; 3) musikanalysens ontologi och epistemologi. Även i denna del är det ett lite äldre, ofta tyskdominerat, perspektiv som domin- erar. Referenserna i musikhistoriekapitlet är J.G. Droysen och Carl Dahlhaus, och uppfattningen att konstverk har en central ställning i musikhistorieforskning och genom sin estetiska karaktär skiljer ut denna från andra former av historieforskning är identisk med Dahlhaus. Liksom tidigare i boken är diskussionen av äldre litteratur mer utförlig och mer djupgående, medan nyare litteratur tenderar att snabbt avfärdas. Efter att ha spelat ut ett citat från en dansk vetenskapshistoriker, Helge Kragh, daterat 2003, mot en stånd- punkt hos Droysen, skriver Marschner: ”Den (givetvis pointerede) skepsis som her [hos Kragh] er udtrykt kan dog med lethed fejes af bordet som et rent logisk paradoks. Så derfor: tilbage til Droysen.” (s. 93) Och den kulturhistoriska tendensen i aktuell musikhistorieforskning, vars ursprung kan dateras tillbaka till 1980-talet och kanske främst rep- resenteras av amerikanska forskare som Jane Fulcher och Jann Pasler är helt osynlig. På samma vis ger betoningen av hermeneutik som den ideala inriktningen för hu- manvetenskaplig teori och praktik (med positivism och semiotik som alternativ nämnda inom parentes) en daterad prägel åt kapitlet om kunskapsteori (att Ingmar Bengtssons Musikvetenskap från 1973 nämns här är helt på sin plats) – men den ligger i linje med betoningen av konstverkets roll i föregående kapitel. Denna betoning stämmer förstås också för åtminstone delar av “New Musicology” (med semiotik som ett möjligt alternativ eller en komplettering), men det diskuteras inte av författaren, och därmed naturligtvis inte heller kritiken mot “New Musicology” hos t.ex. Stephen Miles eller Bruce Horner från

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slutet av 1990-talet, som å ena sidan innebär att blicken riktas mot förutsättningarna för och begränsningarna hos hermeneutisk (och semiotisk) tolkning, å andra sidan att ett verkcentrerat tolkningsperspektiv hos musikvetenskap sätts ifråga. Det längsta kapitlet ägnas musikanalys och det är också följdriktigt den del av boken i vilken resonemangen ges mest fördjupning. Det är också det kapitel som är friast i förhållande till det tyska språkområdet, dels genom att Sten Dahlstedts två avhandlingar om svensk musikvetenskap är återkommande referenser, dels genom en längre kritisk diskussion av Finn Egeland Hansens bok Layers of Musical Meaning (2006). Givet att Marschner ser hermeneutik som central för humanioraforskning och att Hansen ägnar ett kapitel i sin bok åt att söka visa hermeneutikens icke-vetenskaplighet, liktydig med dess musikanalytiska irrelevans, är det förståeligt att Hansens veten- skapssyn hamnar i fokus. Givet Hansens initiala påstående (Hansen, 2006, s. 1) att ”A theory, in casu a musicological theory, is useful only to the extent that it can be veri- fied or at least rendered probable – and certainly not falsifiable” är det också föga förvånande att frågor om verifiering och falsifiering behandlas ganska utförligt. I min recension av Hansens bok i Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning 2007 var jag främst ute efter att identifiera vad jag fann vara problem med referenser till tidigare forskning och problem med begreppstolkning/begreppsförståelse. Marschner noterar understucket problem med Hansens tolkning av falsifierbarhetskravet (n. 104 s. 131), men hans intresse är att med Layers of Musical Meaning som exempel teckna bilden av en scientistisk inställning till musikanalys och musikteori. Och med denna (negativa) bild på plats ställer han sitt eget alternativ i kontrasterande relief. Att detta alternativ bottnar i hermeneutik och att det samtidigt är formalistiskt i en mening vars innebörd är ungefär lika undflyende som Hanslicks framgår med viss emfas, även om inget av orden dyker upp i en bekräftande roll. Tyvärr saknas en diskussion av vilken roll analys skulle spela i musikvetenskap, den tidigare kvasi-identifikationen av musikvetenskap och musikhistorieforskning ersätts i analyskapitlet av en understucket esteticerande inställning som i mycket liknar den typ- iske amerikanske musikteoretikerns. Denna anmälan har blivit lång, disparat och kritisk. Trots allt sympatiserar jag i mycket med Marschner. Det gäller den självklara roll som kunskap om historien bör spela för interventioner i nuet, det gäller uppfattningen att musikvetare borde kunna fler språk än det egna modersmålet och engelska, med tyska som normalval för en breddning, det gäller ståndpunkten att musikvetenskap bör betraktas som en vetenskaplig disciplin med en egen agenda och att inte allt för nära lieras med praktisk musikutbildning. Det be- stående problemet med boken är att Marschners bild av de samtida tendenserna i musikforskningen har många luckor vilket ger den en mer nostalgisk prägel än den kunde och

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borde ha haft. Den kan bli ett element i en diskussion men fungerar inte så bra som en introduktion, vilket skiljer den från t.ex. Kermans, i just förmågan att på en gång introducera och polemisera, mönstergilla exempel. Jacob Derkert

Reese Willén, Anne: I huvudstaden, musiklivets härd: Den strukturella omvandlingen av Stockholms offentliga musikliv ca. 1840–1890. Diss., Inst. för musikvetenskap, Uppsala universitet, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Studia Musicologogica Upsaliensia, Nova series 24, 2014. ISBN 978-91-55488-64-2. I perioden 1840–90 gikk musikklivet i Stockholm fra å være del av en representativ kultur tilknyttet hoff og kirke til å bli en sentral del av en borgerlig offentlig kultur. Et mål med Willéns avhandling er å vise at selv om Sverige samfunnsmessig og kulturelt var nært forbundet med Europa, fantes det i Stockholm spesielle forutsetninger som preget utviklingen. Avhandlingen har seks kapitler og noen tillegg. Kapittel én redegjør for den sentrale problemstillingen, som er å beskrive strukturendringene i musikklivet med hovedvekt på den kunstmusikalske sfæren. Målet er å forstå de underliggende prosessene som førte til endringene. Hvorledes skjedde de og hvorfor? Områdene som løftes frem tilsvarer kapit- telinndelingen: publikasjonsmarkedet, konsertlivet, musikkutøverne og publikum. De to første betraktes som offentlige uttrykk og arenaer, de to siste som deres forutsetninger. Et sentralt teoretisk utgangspunkt er Jürgen Habermas’ studie Borgerlig offentlighet (1962), som først og fremst gir grunnlag for utforsking av endringer på samfunnsnivå. Foruten drøfting av begreper som “borgerlighet” og “offentlighet” løftes også begrepene “musikalsk idealisme”, “institusjon”, “institusjonalisering”, “profesjon” og “profesjonalisering” frem som viktige analytiske kategorier. Eric Hobsbawms analyser av samfunn og politikk, særlig Kapitalens tidsalder (1975) er et annet utgangspunkt, og flere sentrale studier av endringer i europeisk musikkliv på 1800-tallet. Willén setter dermed sin analyse inn i en større europeisk kontekst. Men hun bygger også på arbeider om svenske musikkforhold på 1800-tallet og særlig på studier om Stockholms musikkliv, pluss litteratur om pressehistorie, institusjonalisering og profesjonalisering. I kapittel to drøftes dags- og musikkpressens betydning. Offentlig diskusjon av musikk økte i årene 1840–90, og særlig tysk musikkpresse ble modell da musikkjour- nalistikken ble etablert i Stockholm. Willén viser musikkens plass både i dagspressen og den spesialiserte musikkpressen og mener disse både ble viktige arenaer i det offentlige musikklivet og basis for grunnleggende strukturendringer. Musikkpressen blomstret sær- lig i 1850-årene, da flere fremstående musikkskribenter deltok i den offentlige debatten, også i diskusjon om selve kritikken. Debatten dreide seg bl.a. om behov for profesjonelle

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kritikere fordi publikums musikalske dannelse var for dårlig. Kritikeryret endret seg og ble på 1870-tallet i større grad et hovedyrke enn et deltidsyrke, og pressen ble også preget av økende kommersialisering på bekostning av kritikk og debatt. Til grunn for musikkpressens sterke vektlegging av den klassiske autonome kunstmusikken, som ble ansett å ha høyest estetisk verdi, lå motsetningen mellom “det kunstneriske” (det profesjonelle) og “det dilettantiske”. Enkelte skribenter argumenterte også for en ny strukturering av musikklivet og et mer moderne og profesjonelt konsertliv. Willén viser for øvrig hvorledes visse musikkskribenter senere fikk svært sentrale strat- egiske posisjoner i musikklivet. Kapittel tre handler om arenaer og forutsetninger for den offentlige musikken, endring av gamle institusjoner og institusjonaliseringen av konserter. Kungliga Teatern og Hov- kapellet er sentrale. KT var lenge den eneste institusjonen med profesjonelle sangere og fullt symfoniorkester og byens viktigste konsertlokale. Men samtidig hindret det frem- veksten av orkesterkonserter, fordi skuespill og opera la premisser for annen aktivitet, også ute i byen. Teatret ble imidlertid utleid til enkeltmusikere og tilpasset seg dermed et nytt marked. Kirken ble en viktig konsertarena, og det oppsto nye koblet til offentlig underholdning som viser økende skille mellom kunstmusikk og underholdningsmusikk. Fra 1878 ble Kungliga Musikaliska Akademiens konsertsal et viktig lokale. Willén gjør også rede for repertoar og programsammensetning og viser at utvalgte kanoniserte komponister og virtuos musikk dominerte. Kapittel fire handler om musikkutøverne og forholdet mellom profesjonelle og am- atører. Samvirket mellom disse preget musikklivet, men profesjonaliseringen økte likevel sterkt. Arbeidsmarkedet ekspanderte, nye spesialiserte musikkyrker kom til, og gamle endret seg, noe Willén bl.a. viser med forholdene ved KT. Musikere utdannet i utlandet ga viktige impulser til Stockholm, og fra 1856 ble KMA statlig konservatorium etter europeisk modell med utdanningstilbud til nye musikergrupper. Økende spesialisering til tross: flere av de mest fremstående musikerne var fremdeles svært allsidige skikkelser i musikklivet. Willén tar her opp igjen dilettantismediskusjonen omkring 1850, nå fra utøverper- spektiv. Begrepet synes å ha blitt anvendt nøytralt på amatører og kritisk i forhold til musikalsk kvalitet. Hun kobler dilettantisme til estetisk idealisme og til diskusjonen om mangelfull musikalsk dannelse. Dilettantiske komponister skrev dårlig musikk, og dilettantiske musikere var dårlige utøvere. I kapittel fem om publikum, musikkmiljøene og den musikalske dannelsen viser Willén at den offentlige musikkens marked utgjorde en liten, men velstående borgerlig elite, som de offentlige utøverne var avhengig av. Hun støtter seg på Dahlhaus i sin vurdering av at det borgerlige musikklivet endret forholdet mellom komponister og publikum, og at

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tilpasningen til det borgerlige markedet var særlig tydelig innen enkelte sjangre. Analyse av publikums sammensetning og billettpriser viser differensiering for ulike konserter sosialt og økonomisk, også med hensyn til lokaler og repertoar. Korkonserter med amatører var billigere og hadde trolig et sosialt blandet publikum fordi mange fant sted i kirker. Konserter ved de to viktigste teatrene hadde ulike priser og trolig publikum fra flere sosiale klasser. Analyse av abonnement tyder på økende “borgerliggjøring” av publikum henimot århundreskiftet. Noen betraktet billigere konserter med lettere program som skadelig for den høyverdige kunstmusikken, ifølge Willén et tegn på at de ble ansett som alvorlige konkurrenter. Enkeltmusikere var ofte prisgitt tilfeldigheter om publikumsoppslutning, fordi de var avhengig av personlige kontakter. Dette kan ha bidratt til den offentlige diskusjonen i 1850-årene om “et ordnet konsertvesen”. Det viktigste hindret for institusjonell organi- sering var likevel KTs kontroll over Hovkapellet. Willén viser at regelmessige symfoniske konserter ikke var mulig uten et orkester med hovedfunksjon som konsertgiver. I kapittel seks sammenfattes de viktigste bidragene til strukturendringene i musikklivet. De fleste var betinget av samfunnsmekanismer, men enkeltpersoner spilte også sentrale roller. Markedsøkonomien la premisser for kunsten. Habermas’ teori om borgerlig offentlighet fremheves for å forklare og forstå utviklingen. Borgerskapets behov for underholdning, dannelse og sosiale møteplasser skulle tilfredsstilles. Etterspørse- len etter “musikalske varer” påvirket strukturene. Presse, offentlige konserter, utøvere og publikum var de viktigste agentene. Det handlet om de øvre samfunnslagenes musikkliv og et nytt dannelsesideal basert på en estetisk høyverdig kunst, noe som institusjon- aliserte en ny estetisk lyttemåte. Dette idealet ble også dyrket av sentrale musikere, for hvem dilettantisme var den musikalske dannelsens største fiende og et hinder for et godt offentlig konsertliv. Nye behov og estetiske idealer endret musikerutdanningen. Arbeidsmarkedet ble utvi- det og konsertarenaene flere, på tross av KT:s dominans. Teatret hindret også utviklingen av repertoaret fordi musikerne ofte hadde svært begrenset prøvetid. Først på 1870-tallet ga teatret regelmessige symfonikonserter, men de fleste konserter ble gitt av enkelten- treprenører, og konkurranse om publikum påvirket repertoaret negativt. Markedsøkon- omien medførte etablering av musikkhandlere, forlag og en spesialisert musikkpresse. Kritikkens funksjon ble viktig, og pressen gjorde det enklere å formidle impulser fra utlandet. Avslutningsvis knytter Willén an til spørsmålet om institusjonalisering som analytisk kategori. Begrepet benyttes gjennom hele avhandlingen, på to måter: én materiell og organisatorisk, og én i form av institusjonalisering som sosial konstruksjon. Det fantes imidlertid ikke én, institusjonaliseringsprosess, men flere.

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Det er prisverdig at forfatteren har undersøkt et felt og en periode som ikke er blitt behandlet tidligere i samme bredde: det offentlige musikklivet i Sveriges hovedstad i andre halvdel av 1800-tallet. Willén bygger på viktige arbeider av andre forskere, men har utforsket et omfattende empirisk materiale i tillegg. Avhandlingen er også basert på teoretisk litteratur som i hovedsak er hentet fra generelt kulturhistoriske eller samfunns- vitenskapelige områder. Dette er nødvendig i og med avhandlingens sterke samfunnsmes- sige perspektiv. Avhandlingen er velskrevet og har en klar og ryddig disposisjon med fokus på aktørene i musikklivet: presse, institusjoner og konsertarenaer, musikere og publikum. Willén prøver å besvare de grunnleggende problemstillingene ut fra perspektivene aktørene representerer. Disse var til dels nært forbundet med hverandre og fører til visse gjentagelser, som likevel kan forsvares når fenomener analyseres fra ulike synsvinkler. Avhandlingen gir for en stor del svar på innledningens “hvordan” og “hvorfor”. Når ikke hele perioden 1840–90 dekkes like grundig på alle områder, skyldes det til dels skjevheter i kildematerialet, som det er redegjort for. Begrensninger i kildematerialet, kildekritiske problemstillinger og metodologiske avveininger er også tilstrekkelig begrunnet. En del omtale av tidligere forskning er imidlertid litt vel refererende. Forfatterens egne kritiske vurderinger mangler ofte, og de trekkes i begrenset grad inn i den sammenfat- tende analysen. Særlig savnes en mer kritisk holdning til Habermas’ sentrale studie og en grundigere begrunnelse av hvorfor akkurat den anses som avhandlingens mest egnede teoretiske utgangspunkt. Dette er særlig relevant fordi Habermas’ teori i senere årtier har høstet adskillig kritikk. I analysen av musikklivet savner jeg også en sammenligning med Leif Jonssons Of- fentlig musik i Uppsala 1747–1854 (1998), som ikke omtales i det hele tatt. Perioden er tross alt delvis overlappende. Heller ikke Anders Carlssons studie av det borgerlige musikklivet i Göteborg i den nesten helt parallelle perioden trekkes inn i vurderingen av de stockholmske forholdene. Mange endringer vises gjennom spredte eksempler. Jeg kunne på visse felt ha ønsket mer vekt på kontinuitet og endring i lys av dette, f.eks. konsertprogrammenes innhold og sammensetning. En mer utførlig analyse av begreper som “dilettant” og “dilettantisme” og grundigere forankring av disse i forskningslitteraturen ville også ha styrket fremstill- ingen, ikke minst fordi de er svært sentrale i deler av avhandlingen og gjennomgikk flere betydningsendringer i perioden. Innvendinger til tross: Willéns avhandling representerer et verdifullt tilskudd, ikke bare til svensk musikkhistorie på 1800-tallet, men også til europeisk. Forholdene i Stockholm var spesielle grunnet lokale forutsetninger. Avhandlingen viser hvorledes aktørene – in-

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stitusjoner og enkeltpersoner – forsøkte å virke til beste for musikklivets utvikling – noen ganger i egen interesse, men ofte til fellesskapet beste. Randi M. Selvik

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In memoriam

Jan Ling (1934-2013) in memoriam Den senaste av de tre stora i svensk musikforskning – Jan Ling – avled i oktober 2013 vid 79 års ålder. Till de två tidigare räknar jag Carl-Allan Moberg, Jans lärare och ständige idol samt Ingemar Bengtsson. Jan var liksom sina två föregångare en ämnesförnyare och genuin inspiratör för många efterföljare. Vi är många studenter och forskare som startat våra karriärer vid Jans seminarier vid institutionen i Göteborg, där han var lektor från 1971 och professor 1977-92. Därefter var han rektor för Göteborgs universitet fram till 1997. Jan Ling började sin bana med pianostudier för Greta Eriksson vid Kungl. Musikhögskolan 1955-58 och hans intresse för pianot och pianomusiken följde honom genom hela livet. En av hans sista böcker, från 2011, handlade om pianisten och kompositören Frans Liszts roll i det europeiska musiklivet. Redan 1964 kom hans första bok Svensk folkmusik, ett ämne som många i första hand förknippar med Jans engagerade verksamhet och kritiska publikationer. Jans relation till folkmusiken speglade hans vanligtvis dualistiska förhållningssätt till sina forskningsobjekt. Han gjorde intervjuer med spelmän som vi fortfarande kan hitta i SVT:s öppna arkiv. Han hade en närhet till människorna och jag fick själv uppleva hans burleska sätt att introducera oss studenter i folkmusikens miljöer. I avhandlingen om nyckelharpan från 1967 förenade han olika discipliner till ett monumentalverk. Den påkostade bok som trycktes blev en bibel för många nyfrälsta entusiaster som började bygga egna instrument. I bl.a. Folkmusikboken (1980) granskade Ling föreställningar om folkmusik sedan 1200-talet. Speciellt kritisk var han mot den konservativa och Sverigetrogna ideologi som präglade 1800- och början av 1900-talen; en riktning som var motståndare till industrialismens masskultur och folkrörelsernas musik. Jan hade ju också ett hjärta i arbetarnas och arbetarrörelsens kultur. Trots kritiken av bl.a. Ungdomsringen blev Jan dyrkad av den breda folkmusikrörelse, som växte fram mot slutet av 1900-talet. Han hyllade dock denna modernare rörelse eftersom den byggde mer på dokumentation och förnyelse än på nationalism. Vetenskaplig förnyelse skapade Jan genom att föra in musiksociologiska synsätt och att samtidigt bygga samarbeten med olika musikmiljöer i en rad forskningsprojekt. Göteborg, Halmstad, Stenungssund och framför allt Skaraborg blev föremål för ivriga

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studenters undersökningar. På västkusten växte därigenom den s.k. Göteborgsskolan fram med en bred förankring i olika musikgenrer och lokala utövare. Forskning ägnades åt all den musik som fanns i människors vardag. Det handlade inte bara om sociologiska data, i stället dominerade fältstudier med antropologisk metod. Raden av uppsatser och avhandlingar kom att handla om t.ex. gatumusikanter, frikyrkomiljöer, kommunala musikskolor, borgerliga salonger och schlagermusik. Detta innebar en brytning med den historiskt och verkanalytiskt inriktade traditionella musikforskningen. Jan Ling etablerade en öppen och fruktbar arbetsmiljö vid institutionen i Göteborg. Utbyte och samarbete mellan kollegor och det omgivande samhället var självklara vapen mot en protektionistisk kammarforskning. Inom ramen för Jans generösa handledning kunde väldigt olika forskartyper frodas. Jans framgångar kan också tillskrivas hans förmåga att samarbeta med sina fiender. Jan Ling var förankrad i europeisk och rysk teoribildning inom musiksociologi: Boris Asafiev, Hans Eisler, Kurt Blaukopf, Doris och Erich Stockmann, Ernst Emsheimer och Tibor Kneif. Till detta kommer samarbetet med flera nordiska kollegor. Däremot var han kritisk mot Theodor W. Adorno men vi studenter uppmanades att kritiskt granska hans och andras klassiska texter. Jan Ling själv byggde inga teoretiska monument; i stället hade han en pragmatisk syn på forskningens kedja av hypoteser och evidens. I sin undervisning och i sina texter gav han aldrig mer än allmänna beskrivningar av relationen mellan musik och samhälle. Ändå var hans slutsatser härledda från musikens förankring i den materiella basen. Vid musikhögskolorna i Sverige infördes ämnet “musik och samhälle” som en konsekvens av Jans förnyade perspektiv. Efter en intensiv period med arbete i en sociologisk inriktning betonade Jan Ling alltmer betydelsen av historia. Två stora volymer om Europas musikhistoria, som kom ut 1983 och 1989, speglar hans samhällssyn. Jan inleder med tydliga beskrivningar av samhällsklassernas villkor och har detta som utgångspunkt för sitt sätt att nalkas ämnet. I följe av hans intresse för instrument hittar man fylliga framställningar av musikens praktik, och inte minst är den första boken rik på musikexempel som gjorts spelbara genom noggranna instruktioner. Jan Ling gjorde senare flera resor i Europa för att fördjupa kontakten med den borgerliga musiken, bl.a. genom att följa i fotspåren efter pionjären Charles Burney, som på 1700-talet skrev en tidig musikhistoria om Europa. 2004 kom Jans bok som fyller ut Burneys krönika med detaljrika ögonblicksbilder från den tid då musik som lyssnandets konst formuleras i ett europeiskt projekt. Jan Ling arbetade med pedagogik i olika former. Via Utbildningsradion publicerade han nya material, vid SÄMUS (Särskild Ämnesutbildning i Musik) i Göteborg utvecklade han nya idéer för en reformerad musiklärarutbildning utifrån konceptet Musik, Människa och Samhälle. Vid Musikvetenskapliga institutionen inrättade han den konstnärligt kreativa

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forskarutbildningen, som var startskottet för den akademiska konstnärliga forskningen i Sverige. Han var samtidigt en aktiv skribent i 70-talets debattböcker och fullgjorde alltså ambitiöst universitetets tredje uppgift. Som pensionär fortsatte Jan Ling regelbundet tillsammans med sin vän och kollega Sven-Eric Liedman ge föreläsningar. Jan Ling hade en förmåga att efter en snabb blick på publiken improvisera fram det föredrag som stämde bäst i stunden. I fördjupad form blev materialet underlag för hans sista böcker, bl.a. Musiken som tidsspegel: tolv essäer om musiken kring sekelskiftet 1900 (2013). Lings betydande nyskapande av svensk musikforskning har varit avgörande för ämnet i Sverige och Norden. Jag kan konstatera att vi kanske saknar direkta musiksociologiska efterföljare i dag. Ämnet har i gengäld breddats och Jan Ling har otvetydigt inspirerat många att studera samtidens musikliv med de metoder och perspektiv som göteborgsskolan etablerade. Folkmusikforskare, pianist eller musiksociolog? Jan Lings verksamhet och skrivande var präglat av olika roller och motsägelsefulla attityder. Hans ambivalenta syn på folkmusiken följde honom genom alla år. Den musikaliska starten på pianopallen dök ständigt upp i form av önskan att få spela mer. Mot slutet av sin forskningsbana var inte ‘klassmusiken’ längre det stora forskningsobjektet. I stället inriktade han sig på att lyfta fram konstmusiken från slutet av 1800-talet och början av 1900-talet. Liszts och Chopins dueller i Paris salonger hamnade i fokus. Han var på väg att skriva om Sjostakovitj och jag undrar om han inte då behövt koppla tillbaka till sin tidiga samhällsanalys. Stig-Magnus Thorsén

Gunnar Larsson (1926-2014) in memoriam Den 6 januari 2014 avled förre musikmuseichefen Gunnar Larsson, Stockholm, i en ålder av 88 år. Gunnar Larsson föddes den 8 september 1926 i Stockholm och var en framstående forskare och administratör. Han studerade för professor Carl-Allan Moberg vid Uppsala universitet och avlade filosofie licentiatexamen 1961 med avhandlingen Studier i Rigas musikhistoria under polska tiden (1582-1621). Baltisk musikhistoria förblev fortsatt ett intresse, som bl.a. manifesterade sig i en artikel om Eduard Tubins pianosonat i akademiens utgåva av dennes pianomusik (1986). Larsson forskade även om svensk musik, särskilt från 1500- och 1600-talen, redovisat i en rad uppsatser. Bland Gunnar Larssons många uppdrag kan nämnas sekretare i föreningen Fylkingen för ny musik 1953-58, musikkonsulent inom ABF 1958-63, lärare vid institutionen för musikvetemskap vid Uppsala universitet 1963-66 och på Birkagårdens folkhögskola

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1960-65. Han utnämndes till ständig sekreterare vid Kungl. Musikaliska akademien 1964. Under Larssons tid som chef för Musikmuseet 1973-81 skedde flytten till gamla Kronobageriet. Han kom åter till akademien som firskningssekretare 1982-1990. Han hade ledande funktioner i bl.a. Comité International des musées et collections d’instruments de musique från 1974, som vice ordförande i Baltiska institutets styrelse från 1974, som styrelseledamot i Nordiska samfundet för campanologi, som ledamot av Stockholms kulturnämnd, styrelsemedlem i Stockholms kommunala musikskolor och i Stockholms konserthusstiftelse. Jag har haft glädjen att samverka med Gunnar Larsson i en lång rad år och i flera sammanhang, främst vid Kungl. musikaliska akademien. En varm vänskap innebar att vi efter vår pensionering träffades flitigt. I mina små fickdagböcker från åren 1997 till 2012 noteras omkring 150 möten med Gunnar Larsson, vid olika tillfällen och på olika platser. Gunnar Larsson var en storslagen musikforskare och en sant levande människa. Hans Åstrand, professor

Anna Lena Holm (1941-2014) in memoriam Kungliga musikaliska akademiens och Statens musiksamlingars raritetsbibliotekarie Anna Lena Holm gick ur tiden 14 januari 2014. Holm var född i Gävle, men familjen flyttade under hennes barndom till Stockholm. Redan som elev vid Adolf Fredriks skolas körklasser grundlades ett intensivt och outsläckligt musikintresse, vilket ledde till att hon efter studentexamen sökte sig till Uppsala universitet för studier i humaniora, med musikvetenskap under professor Ingmar Bengtssons ledning som huvudämne. Efter sin fil.kand.-examen engagerades Anna Lena Holm som assistent inom den svenska sektionen av projektet Répertoire international des sources musicales (RISM) – ett mycket omfattande internationellt forsknings - och katalogiseringsprojekt, vilket syftar till identifiering, katalogisering och vetenskaplig beskrivning av musikkällor i tryck och handskrift före c.1800. Projektet har kallats ett av de största sammanhängande humanistiska forskningsprojekten någonsin. Bland initiativtagarna fanns den framstående svenska musikbibliografen docent Cari Johanson, som även blev Holms mentor på området. Den svenska sektionens del av arbetet var förlagd till Musikaliska akademiens bibliotek (numera en del av Statens musikverk), vilket också kom att förbli Anna Lena Holms arbetsplats fram till pensionen: först inom det av Knut och Alice Wallenbergs fond finansierade RISM-projektet, sedan som Cari Johansons efterträdare som Förste bibliotekarie på handskrifts- och raritetsavdelningen. Hon anlitades därtill ofta av olika arkiv, bibliotek och muséer i landet för att bedöma, leda och själv utföra katalogiseringen av deras samlingar.

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De musikskatter som Anna Lena Holm under fyrtio års tid (fram till pension 2007) kom att förvalta, vårda och utforska hör till de större samlingarna av äldre musik i norra Europa och världen över huvud taget. De innehåller bl.a. autografer från många av de största tonsättarna, specialsamlingar från 1700-talets holländska musiktryck samt huvudparten av de bevarade musikalier från vilka den svenska musikhistorien kan tecknas, från medeltiden till vår egen tid. Holms breda kunskaper på alla berörda musikhistoriska områden, hennes kännedom om varje vrå av samlingarna och av för övriga forskare okända aspekter på individuella källors tillkomsthistoria, var till lika stora delar ett resultat av hennes skarpsinne som av hennes flit och nyfikenhet under den vetenskapliga bearbetningen av samlingarna. Därtill kom hennes receptivitet för traderad kunskap – kunskaper och erfarenheter som inte kan inhämtas från publicerad forskning eller uppnås genom egna analyser av materialet, utan som man fick lära sig av Anna Lena personligen. Det torde inte ha publicerats många avhandlingar eller böcker rörande svensk musikhistoria som inte i förordet tackar för Anna Lena Holms generösa understöd i källfrågor. En central del av Anna Lena Holms verksamhet var under många år genomgången av Johan Helmich Romans musik. Av “den svenska musikens fader” fanns då – och finns fortfarande – ytterst få verk tillgängliga i notutgåvor. Med sin viktiga avhandling hade Ingmar Bengtsson genomgripande klarlagt Romans instrumentala produktion. Hans planer var att efter pensioneringen publicera ett motsvarande verk om Romans vokalmusik, något som han dessvärre inte hann med före sin alltför tidiga bortgång. För slutförandet av arbetet med den volymen var Holm självskriven. Från början var utgåvan tänkt mera som en renskrift av Bengtssons manusutkast. Men Holm gjorde själv en minutiös genomgång av hela källmaterialet och den tungt vägande volymen är i allt väsentligt hennes verk. Så kom Anna Lena Holm att ägna all sin verksamma tid åt vårt musikarv – att lyfta fram och tillgängliggöra den musikens rikedom, som legat svåråtkomlig och ofta okänd i skilda arkiv och samlingar. Man skulle önska att hon fått uppleva det projekt som Kungl. Musikaliska akademien nu driver: “Levande musikarv”. Det var ju dit hon så helhjärtat och verkningsfullt strävade – att göra det möjligt att åter låta källorna klinga. Veslemöy Heintz, Anna Ivarsdotter och Mattias Lundberg

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SVENSK TIDSKRIFT FÖR MUSIKFORSKNING SWEDISH JOURNAL OF MUSIC RESEARCH

Ulrik Volgsten Between critic and public: Listening to the musical work in Stockholm during the long 19th century

Eva Georgii-Hemming Music listening and matters of equality in music & Victor Kvarnhall education

Carola Finkel The revised versions of Kurt Atterberg's symphonies

Cecilia Ferm The music classroom as a local place and a public Thorgersen space: Democratic education towards music as a language of us all

Recensioner/Reviews

In memoriam

ISSN 2002-021X

STM 2015 omslag_VARIANT_sv.indd 3 2016-04-27 14:22