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Deposited in DRO: 09 June 2009 Version of attached le: Published Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Jaques, S. D. and Dobney, K. and Van Neer, W. (2003) 'Diet, economy and status : evidence from the animal bones.', in Excavations at Tell Brak vol 4 : exploring an Upper Mesopotamian Regional Centre, 1994-1996. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research / British School of Archaeology, pp. 417-430. McDonald Institute monographs. (4). Further information on publisher's website: http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/publications/mcd-books/mcd-booksbydate2003

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Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk Chapter 12

Diet, Economy and Status: Evidence from the Animal Bones

Keith Dabney, Deborah Jaques & Wim Van Neer

Excavations at Tell Beak during 1994 to 1996 pro­ tebrate assemblage recovered from Tell Brak. duced a small but significant collection of vertebrate In this paper, and the accompanying tables and remains. These were recovered both by hand collec­ figures, phase numbers correlate with cultural peri­ tion and through the implementation of a s}'stematic ods and trenches as follows: sampling and recovery programme using both dry­ and wet-sieving techniques. The vast size of the Ph~ Cullur;ll pt'riod Trr:nch mound of Tell Beak,. and the inevitably limited physi­ I Early Uruk H56 II Middle Uruk H51 cal scope of archaeological investigations, brings into III Ninevite 5 H52,. H54, HF, HL question just how representative any of the exca­ IV Later third millennium HS3, H54, HS5 vated material really is of the changing aspects of V Early second millennium HN daily life and economy in the past. This concern is further compounded by the often small size of the Methods recovered assemblages. In terms of identifiable frag­ ments, the numbers ofbones recovered and recorded The vast majority of the hand-collected and dry­ from the three seasons at Tell Beak. were relatively sieved material was identified and recorded on-sile small: less than 1500 fragments from dry sieving and during the field seasons, using a small portable com­ less than 1000 from wet sieving. Once these quanti· parative collection. Those remains which could not ties are divided between the different excavated be confidently assigned to species, in addition to all trenches, and the broad range of phases present in the vertebrate fragments sorted from the wet-sieved each trench, individual assemblage size falls well residues, were exported to laboratories in Britain below 500 fragments (see Table 12.1). As a result, and Belgium where more detailed identification and much care, and indeed scepticism, must be employed analysis was undertaken. The mammal and avian when attempting to draw statistically valid and remains were identified using the comparative col­ meaningful interpretations from such small data­ lection of the Environmental ArchaeOlogy Unit, sets. Nevertheless, with these caveats in mind, some University of York, whilst the fish remains were com­ interesting observations can be made about the ver- pared to the extensive collection housed at the Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium. T;lble 12.1. Numbt, 0/ id~lllifillbl~frllgm~nls rtrordnl from hllnd­ co"~cltd lind dry-sWvt flSMmblllgN by tu'nch lind by phll~. Due to the short time available for the record­ ing of the hand-eollected and dry·sieved material II III IV V Toul during the field season, a limited suite of elements HF 3 3 was recorded for the most common species: sheep/ HFI 21 HF2 "6 6 goat, pig. cattle, gazelle and equid_ For these taxa. HL 18 18 the skeletal elements that ,..'ere included in the final HN 317 317 recording protocol were selected on the basis of their H51 371 371 archaeological visibility and usefulness, namely ease H52 183 183 H53 ,.7 267 of identification to species, representation of differ· H54 39 40 79 ent parts of the skeleton, and the availability of use­ H55 12 12 ful biometrical and age-at-death data. The protocol H56 48 48 for recording is available upon request from the au­ Tol;ll 48 371 270 37' 317 1385 thors.

417 Chapter 12

In the case of less common taxa such as wild It is clear from Table 12.2 that the most com­ mammals and birds, although few in number, all mon species recovered from the site are not surpris­ identifiable fragments were recorded where possi­ ingly the bones of domesticated mammals, primarily ble. As a result of this inherent bias in the data set, sheep and goat, followed by domestic pig and cattle. any comparative statistical analysis between species Although the majority of wild taxa, both birds and is restricted to the most common taxa mentioned mammals, arc present in much lower frequencies, above. the remains ofgazelle are more numerous than those of even equid and cattle. The major mammal species Figure 12.1 shows the frequency of the main mammals by phase, based upon the number of iden­ Frequency oftaxa lifiable specimens ( ISP). As can be clearly seen, the The total assemblage was recovered from deposits importance of remains of sheep and goat is highest which, in tenns of ceramicall)'-based and calibrated throughout all phases. In phase 11, however, their radiocarbon dating. span man)' centuries from late remains represent >90 per cent of all species recov­ fifth to earl)' second millennia Be. Once the verte­ ered (but of a tolal of only 371 identifiable frag­ brate assemblage is classified in terms ofchronologi­ ments), whilst in phases III-V, their proportion is cal date, dear differences are apparent between the reduced to between 50 per cent and 40 per cent. The relative frequencies of the most common mamma­ remains of larger domestic bovids never rise above lian taxa. 10 per cent for all periods (their highest frequency being in phase V), whilst the Tolblr 12_2. Numbt.,. ojid,·ulijiaIJI,· fragmrtrt~ r«ordcd from JrQlld-rollt'CtrJ and dry-s,rw IIsSfmh/agrs importance of domestic pigs It!! SI,,-ri.·s lIud by pl'II5/.'. is at its highest during pe­ riod IV, where their remains Spttin IV V TotiJl " '" are almost as frequent as Apodnnu!'/,\Ius sp. ~~ 2 , Mu~ muscutus houS(' moust' 1 sheep and goat. In terms of Lrpus c~rrsis CiJpe h4tw 1 wild game. the only species d. ,\ldlllvrQ C~T/StS ?honey badger/utel 1 present in substantial num­ Canidae dog famil)" 3 9 3 16 bers is the gazelle which, on d. VulpN sp. sm",11 fo:. 1 , 1 , d. Vul~ wlp6 ?fo:. 1 , the basis of overall size and rl"lrssp. c., 1 on hom-core morphology of cf.I'lllllh~rll Ifo ?hon 1 1 the few fragments recovered, Equidae horse/wild ass/donh')' , , 18 96 is likely to be the gnitred ga­ 5,/s f. domestic pig 7 18 149 55 230 Ccn'id;l" d<.'Cr , , zelle, Gazella sllbglltt/lrosa. ?Cl'r"id,,(' ?dL'('r Figure 12.1 shows lhat tht· Crn'lIs tlOpJrIlS roo deer , , remains of gazelle arc the &Ssp. CiJltll' , 13 9 69 second most frequent mam­ Gou-I/Il sp. S<17.elll' 5 <0 n "7 '0" 139 d. Gou-I/Il sp. ?ga7.e1l1' 3 3 mal recovered from phase III CQl'ril f. dornt'Stir goo' 3 19 22 11 79 deposits, representing >30 d. Cllprll f. domest;c ?goal , "20 9 <0 11 52 per cent of all major mam­ Ol'fS f. dOml'Stic sheep 9 65 <9 31' mal fragments, and also d. Ol"s f. domeslll:­ ?sha-p I , , <0 3 '''' " similar in frequency to cat­ CiJprine sht.--ep/goat 133 69 52 "339 sheeplgoat Iga7.('lh:­ " I "3 , 13 lie and pig in period V. Larg(' mammal I "1 A separate and argu­ d. HrllT/11l 1t'IlCOPS'S ?bamac1(' goose 1 I ably more representative d. Antl1ropoll!rs ",rgo ?dcmoisdl., crane 1 1 method of calculating the P/rroc/(s sp. sand grouse , <0 relative importance of spe~ Columbidae Piscon Idove famil}' 1 1 d. CoIl/mbll livjo ?rock dove 3 , des through time is by us­ COrl'll§ roTllX L raven 1 ing minimum number of individual (MNI) counts. Te:studo sp. lorlo;S(' This method reduces the bias Amphibi'ln of using fragment counts by TotiJl 37S 290 391 1426 only including bones, or " fragments of bone, which

418 Diet, Economy and Status

NISP (t-bin m~m.millls) cannot be counted more than once. Figure J2.2 shows '00 ...... the percentage frequency of the three most common .5«,1._ taxa as represented by their MNI counts. Rather com­ 00 A ...... ~." fortingly. this method of calculation shows an al­ 00 ~ X e.,- most identical pattern of the relative importance of ". • ~ each species at Tell Brak through time to that noted 00 " using raw identifiable specimen counts (N1SP: Fig. M 12.1). Caprines (i.e. sheep and goats) arc once again , very common from phase U deposits. Gazelle are rhu~ 111 again most common in phase JU and pig arc now the most frequent species represented in phase IV. Figure l2..1. Frequcmcy oftile mai" mammals by pllQSt' The remains of caprines have thus far not been based Oil the /Il1mber ofide"tifiable skeletal pariS (NISP). separaled in any analyses. Changes in the relative proportions of sheep to goats may. however, pro­ 'k MNI b)' phne 13 s..., __ vide important information in attempting to under­ '00 .~." stand the economic priorities and goals of ancient .. X e.,- and modern pastoralist communities. Figure 12.3 shows the relative proportions of sheep and goat

fragments based on the lotal number of identifiable •• 00 specimens. Although the relative importanceof sheep as against goat is similar for all periods, with the :!--~~_-_-,,_. ---"o::-_'_[l~ values remaining more or less constant, data from __ phase III may indicate a slight rise in the importance rhu.IU Ph..l~\' of goat at this time. An almost identical pattern is presented when considering calculations of relative Figure 12.2. Per cellt l,resellce oftile 11Iree most proportions ofsheep and goat bones from their MNI commoulaxa as rtpre~,,'ed by tlleir MNI COll/lts. counts (Fig. 12.4). Although a general emphasis on sheep and goat may indicate an economic focus to­ ISP fCiliprinel wards wool and hair production (see discussion be­ '00 low), more subtle changes in their relative proportions, compared to one another, rna)' suggest additional activities. Higher proportions ofsheep over goat will be found, for example, where herding decisions are moti\rated b)' interest in energy maximization (Redding 1981). An increase in the importance of goats may be equated with a rise in the imparlance , of milk production. Alternatively. climatic or envi· ronmental factors may also playa role. For example. Figure 123. Per cellt pnst.,lce ofslleep alld goat fragmellts over·grazing, increased aridity (or a combination of based 011 th... Ill"",,"ofidentifiable skdeta1114rts (NISP). these and other factors) may result in the increased importance of goats over sheep. MNI (Cillprinel Comparisolls betweell trenches '001 All the conclusions proposed thus far are based on 00 the assumption thai the material from different trenches and periods are affected by a similar range •• of taphonomic factors, and that small sample size is not a limiting or biasing factor. Combining data of similar date from different excavation trenches may in fact mask real differences in, for example, modes , ofoccupation, disposal and subsequent preservational factors occurring at different locations on the tell at Figure 12.4. Per cenll,resellc£ ofsheep and goat Po"es the same time. In the case of trenches HSl, HS6 and as rtprl!Sellled by Ihe-ir MNJ cou"ts.

419 Chapter 12

". HN, direct comparisons of the relative frequency of taxa could be made, since material from each repre~ sented a single distinct period. For the remaining trenches, however, where similarly phased material was recovered, checks were needed in order to test whether the simple period-based conclusions out~ lined above are not compromised by differences be­ tween trenches. Although data sets from a number ,-I-L-- of trenches are too small for any meaningful conclu­ Sus f. domesti( Bovid Caprovid sions to be drawn, useful observations made on data­ sets of >50 fragments, namely assemblages from Figure 12.5. Per celli presel/ce ofmail1 domesticates /Iy trenches 1-153, H54 and I-IS5, phase IV, are outlined. Irench for phase IV (NISP). belo\\'. Figure 12.5 shows the relative frequency of pig, cattle and sheep!goat remains recovered from phase ". o HSJ IV deposits from I-IS3, H54 and I-IS5. As can be clearly OJ e• ''''IISS seen, values for each taxa plotted by individual trench are extremely similar, indicating that overall species '" frequency for this period is not seriously compro­ mised by differences in vertebrate assemblages be­ tween excavation areas. Slight differences do exist, however, when considering cattle and gazelle re~ mains, for example (Fig. 12.6). In this case it can be Su. f. domnltc 80vid Caprovid seen that the bones of cattle are poorly represented. and gazelle remains are wholly absent from trench Figure 12.6. Per celli presence ofmaill mal/llllais by HS5. trench for pllllse JV (N JSP). If we consider assemblages dated from phase III from the remaining trenches (HL, HF1, HF2, HS2 and 1-154), only HS2 contains >50 fragments (in this ,. case 183). Comparisons with the small HS4 assem­ • blage, only 39 fragments, once again show little dif­ • ference in relative frequenc)' of the main domestic , ., animals, and a higher frequency of gazelle remains in HS2. • On the basis of these simple comparisons be­ tween excavated trenches, it would seem that there • , , , 0 , , c " arc few major differences between larger assemblages from the same period, in terms of the relative fre­ Figure 12.7. Caprovid age al death (phase IV) based 011 100tl1 wear. (After PaY/Ie 1973.) quencies of the major mammal species represented. As a consequence, it seems reasonable to assume that the major differe.nces in the relative imparlance '00 of certain of these taxa through time, particularly • sheep!goat, gazelle and pig, noted above. in Figures 12.1-12.2, are of genuine significance.

Age al death data • Due to the restricted size of the assemblages contain­ ing elements, particularly mandibles and teeth, which could be used to reconstruct meaningful kill-off pat­ Adult terns, limited information for temporal comparisons is available. Both sheep/goat and pig teeth were Figure 12.8. Pig age at death (phase IV) based on lootll recovered in sufficient numbers from phase IV de­ wear. posits, however, to enable kill-off profiles to be es-

420 Diet, Economy and Status

8

6 % 4

2

0 Il)~S' " Mandible wear stage

Figure 12.9. Pig (phase IV) mandible wear stagts. (After Grant 1981.) tablished. Figure 12.7 shows the pattern created for absence of individuals showing wear stage scores of sheep/goat tooth wearand eruption data (after Payne between 4-6 and 11-16 suggests that animals were 1973). It shows that although a wide range of ages killed at particular times of the year. This assump­ arc represented in phase IV (from category C-l), tion relies upon the fact that the animals were born significant cuJling ofsheep and goats occurs between seasonally at approximately the same time, an as­ stages E-F (i.e. bch\'cen 3-4 years of age). In addi­ sumption that probably holds true for temperate tion, older, more mature animals (categories H-I) Europe but may not be appropriate in Upper Meso­ were also present. This kill·off pattern indicates that potamia. Whatever the case, SUCkling pigs and ten~ thcre was a premium for the 'growing-on' ofyounger der young pork were certainly the favoured meat of sheep. well beyond the point where full carcass size many of the inhabitants of this part of the site. at ,,,,ould have been attained. This pattern is suggestive least, during phase IV. of an emphasis on the production of wool rather than animals killed primarily for meat, since adult Skeletal element distriblltio" animals of 3+ years would have produced multiple The bones of many animals recovered from archaeo­ wool clips prior to their slaughter (see discussion logical siles are frequently the waste from a wide below). range of human activities. Ignoring for now the vast The numerous pig mandibles recovered from problems associated with mixing of deposits and the phase IV deposits also show a wide range of ages at presence of residual material, most urban assem­ which the animals were slaughtered (Fig. 12.8). Un­ blages represent a mixture of primary and second­ like cattle and sheep. pigs were kept principally for ary butchery waste, domestic household refuse, as their primary products (i.e. meat). although lard and well as waste from industrial and craft activities. hide were also important. Their high fecundity makes The relative frequencies of various skeletal elements them ideal meat producers, able to withstand regu­ within an assemblage, together with their spatial lar culling of young individuals. Their ability to pro­ distribution through various context types. can pro­ duce large litters means that plentiful supplies of vide important and detailed evidence regarding some pork could be guaranteed. As a result pigs were of these activities. For example, a wide range ofskel­ usually killed prior to full maturation, before the age etal elements within an assemblage may indicate of three years, and such is certainly the general pat­ that live animals were brought onto the site to be tern during phase IV at Tell Brak. slaughtered and butchered. Alternatively the absence In contrast with the remains of sheep and goats, of certain carcass components, such as heads or ter­ the vast majority of pigs fTOm period IV were killed minal limb elements, may imply that slaughter and prior to reaching skeletal maturity, with over 40 per primary butchery were occurring elsewhere. cenl slaughtered at a very young age. However, if A preponderance of the major meat-bearing we consider the mandibular wear stage data for pigs bones, such as scapulae, humeri, pelves, femora, tho­ in more detail (after Grant 1982), it is dear that dur· radc and lumbar vertebrae and ribs, generally indi­ ing phase IV distinct age categories are dying or cates the presence of domestic or household waste. being selected for slaughter: neonatal/newborn, ju­ Minor meat-bearing elements such as radii and ul­ venile and early subadult animals (Fig. 12.9). The nae, and tibiae and cervical vertebrae. are also asso-

421 Chapter 12

"""""'" ~ rrwodiblt ....."""""'",bIO ON ON N N M' MI -- M1/M2 1\11/1\12 '"' 'U ,U MJ MJ hum..",s hu...... rus

r.>

m<"lacarpal mcla~a'P"l IIb,a libia

aSlra~lus ast,as,,'Ull melalal'!O.ll mdal.ors.ol ptwlan\ ...... ~ --~ 0 .. 100 0 " .. OJ .. 100 Figure 12.10. Phase II caprovid elemerrts (MNI). Figure 12.11. Pllase III caprovid elemellls (MNI).

nuno:hbll'"""""'" m;and,bIeo"""""'" ON 0" N N MI MI M1/l'.12 M1/M2 M2 1>12 MJ MJ humc",s hum..",s radius radius

mct.oca'P"l mo::t:lc"'P"1

libi" lIb... MtnI~lU$ Mlrag"lus

~laUl'!O.ll metal.ll~1 pNl"n~ ...... ~ 0 OJ .. 100 0 " OJ .. '00 Figure 12.12. Pllase IV caprovid efeme'lts (MNl). Figure 12.13. Phase V caprovid elemellts (MNIJ. dated with household refuse, although these are usu­ podials, particularly ofsheep and smaller mammals, ally considered to be cuts of lower quality. There­ and their associated phalanges were often left at­ fore, differences in the proportions of major and tached to the hides. Thus, a preponderance of minor meat-bearing elements may also provide evi­ metapodials and phalanges in an assemblage may dence of socio-economic status. be a good indication of the presenceoftanner's waste. Fresh hides and horns, removed from the car­ Skulls of sheep-sized and smalJer animals were some­ cass soon after slaughter, were transported in bulk times left attached to the hides, and were only re­ to the tanner, the heads being passed on to the moved during the early stages of hide preparation. hornworker. Terminal limb elements such as meta- These are obviously very simplistic models, and

422 Diet, Economy and Status

the real picture at any site is likely to have been far more complex, particularly when considering addi­ tional important taphonomic factors such as differ­ -,- ential preservation. The possible routes by which bones may be deposited within urban stratigraphy are many and varied. As a result, it would be unu­ sual in mosl instances to be able to define with cer­ , II tainty all the activities represented by a single T assemblage. However, when dealing with a number '" --,- of assemblages from diverse locations and periods T within a large urban centre, as we are in this in­ -'- stance, it is possible to recognize some general pat­ ou terns, from which useful conclusions may be drawn. ~ Figures 12.10-12.13 show the relative abundance ~ of recorded skeletal elements of sheep and goat for each period. Once again, the comparison of pooled . data between periods assumes that there are little Ph.J.SC'1I" Pluw III differences between different t'renches and conlext types of the same period. In this case, the largest Figure 12.14. Box plot ofsllet!p astragaills, greatest collections ofsheepI goat remains came from trenches laterallenglll leU) measurement by pllase. where mostly single periods were represented. Thus comparisons of data by period also mainly repre­ ,,~------~ sents comparisons by trench. What is immediately obvious from the data is that there are striking dif­ ferences in the representation of skeletal elements through time. Deposits from periods IJI and IV ap­ " pear to be very similar in that they arc dominated by clements from the head (mandible and teeth, par­ ticularly in phase III), as well as major and minor meat-bearing bones, such as humerus, radius and ,'» tibia. In contrast, deposits from phases IJ and V are characterized by fewer mandible fragments and re­ duced numbers of major meat-bearing bones, such as humerus. Interestingly, the mosl frequent elements o for both these phases are astragali. Lower limb ele­ ments, such as metapodials, are much less abundant ML ---' in all periods. N~ lit ~ 15 , Although the evidence from all periods appears Ph.J.SC'1I Pluw III PIusr IV Ph..~ \' to reflect a mixture of carcass exploitation and dis­ posal, higher proportions of major meat-bearing Figure 12.15. Box plot ofslJet!p 1IIIIIIeTUS, widtll ofdistal bones in deposits from phases III and IV may sug­ condyle (BY) mcasuremt!llt by pllase. gest the waste to be more indicative of household or consumption refuse. The lower proportions of lower used to explore whether local improvements in hus­ limb elements throughout may reflect the presence bandry practices were under way, Or whether new of 'dressed' carcasses, where the feet and probably varieties were introduced. Only the remains ofsheep the skin were removed as pari of the primary butch­ were available in sufficient numbers throughout all ery. periods to allow meaningful comparisons to be made of changes in their possible size and shape. SlIeep/goat biometry Figures 12.14-12.15 show a series of box-plots Changes in height and general body conformation of single length and breadth measurements from a ofdomestic animals can provide additional infonna­ range of skeletal elements for sheep. Despite the fact tion regarding differing pattems ofanimal husbandr)' that sample size is somewhat small for most periods, through time. The presentation of such data can be the largest and smallest specimens of sheep appear

423 Chapter 12

Jl. [,hase v \6 Q Phase IV o goat • I'naS<.·1I1 \4 )( sheep x 22 of I'haS<.']I , 12 20 ,. IS o o 0 U " "'10 ... " o 00 , , :t I.- .' 8 12 IO+-~-~-~~-~-~~_~~,- 6 +------,-----r---,------, -, 27 :!:9 31 33 35 37 39 4\ 30 35 40 45 50 BT " GLl Figure 12.16. Sllcep III/merus biometry. Figwe 12.20. Slieep alld goat plialanges, phase 1/, biometry.

I PhaSt' V Q I'haSl'IV \6 28 • phase III .. I'haS<'! II o goat 28 \4 )( sheep o o ~ , o-" \2 o x n o ~o 0 "'10 Xj' x 20 • x 28 28 30 32 36 8 Bd " 6 +------,-----r---,-----, Figure 12.17. Sheep tibia biometry. 30 35 40 45 GLl

I I'haS<.'V o Phase IV Figure 12.21. Sheep and goat plialangt'S, phase 1V, biometry. • Phase III i Phas..'11 J7 35 \. ~33 o goat ~Jl \4 x sheep

"", , \2 x 27 0 x )( 0 x)( x x 25+--~~-~--~--_-_--~• x 00 "'10 XX IS 20 :u 28 x " " Bd 8 Figure 12.18. Sheep astragalus biometry. 6 30 35 40 45 5(\ x Phase V GLl o Phase IV • Phase III Figure 12.22. Sheep alld goat plmlnllges. pllase V,/Iiomelry. + Phase U \6 ... Phase I 14 I I'hase V Q Phase IV , -, ." • 37 • Phase III \2 - ~ . •• ...<>. 4; , ... Phase II o • •...... "... ~J , - 35 • "'10 • .~. •; 4" , -- 33 • + •. , •• :i 31 ~ 8 • .;'\ ~ • , • 27 ., 6 +---,----,-----,------, "'" 5(\ 25 30 35 40 45 14 I' \' 20 28 GLl Bd " Figure 12.19. Sheep phalanges biometry. Figure 12.23. Coal astragailis biometry.

424 Diet, Economy and Status

to occur in periods 11 and IU respectively. Values for verse but the major food taxa belong to only two the astragalus and humerus in the subsequent peri­ families, the C)'prinidae or carp family, with numer­ ods IV and V appear to increase, although their ac­ ous important food species, and the Siluridae with tual ranges overlap considerably. If we consider the catfish Si/l/rlls Iriostegll5. These are still today the bivariate analyses of selected measurements, a simi­ major food fish available on local markets. In Sep­ lar pallern can be seen (Figs. 12.16-12.19). These data tember 1997 one of us (WVN) collected modern fish dearly show that the sheep from phase n are, with from Hasake market and prepared skeletons of the the exception of some outliers, much larger than major economic species for comparison. most from the other phases, and are certainly a dis­ The fact that fish remains have received little tinct group when compared to those from other attention thus far in archaeozoological reports from phases. Syrian sites results mainly from the insufficient re­ When considering the biometry of sheep and covery techniques employed. Early historic faunal goats, it is also dear that the relationship of size and assemblages with fish bones published to date are shape is particularly marked between phases II and hand-collected samples characterized by a small V (Figs. 12.20-12.22), perhaps indicating that a dif~ number of {ish remains. Their proportion of the total ferent variety of goat, more robust and stocky, is amount of identified remains ranges between 0.05 present in phase IV. This pattern is not evident, how­ per cent at Ihe second-millennium lie site of Tell ever, when considering astragalus measurements Sheikh Hamad (Becker 1991) and at third-millen­ (Fig. 12.23), although the size of goat, unlike sheep, nium Tell Halawa (Boessneck & von den Driesch appears to be relatively homogeneous through time. 1989) to 0.56 per cent at the second-millennium Be site of EI Qitar (Buitenhuis 1988). The sie\!ing cam­ The fish remains paigns carried out at Tell Brak account for the high proportion of fish bones which represent the best Tell Brak is situated 3 km west of the Jaghjagh stream, sample available thus far for the third and second about 3 km north of its confluence with the Wadi millennia of Syria. Radd. Some 40 km further downstream the Jaghjagh flows into the Habur river which is a tributary of the Tile material Euphrates. Critical reviews of the fish fauna from The number of fish remains collected during the the area of the Tigris-Euphrates basin have been 1994-96 seasons at Tell Brak totals 1276 fragments of published by Banister (1980) and Coad (1991; 1996), which 69 per cent were identifiable. Ninety per cent showing that for certain areas additional fieldwork of the hand-collected fish bones were identifiable: in is required and that systematic revisions of cerlain the 3.5 mm fraction this was 68 per cenl and in the 1 problematic taxa are needed. The ichthyofauna of mm fraction 67 per cent. The species lists are given the Habur river is relatively well-documented thanks separately for the bones from the 3.5 and 1 mOl to the recent surveys undertaken by Krupp & Sch­ samples, since the volumes from which they were neider (1991; in press). The Hahur river harbours at retrieved differ (Tables 12.3-12.5). Besides a taxo­ least 31 species of fish, four of which arc recent intro­ nomic identification, the bones were also used for a ductions. The ichthyofauna of the region is very di- size reconstruction of the fish. These fish lengths are expressed in em standard length (SL) which is the Table 12.3. Fis/l Sjlf!c1CS from hund·rollcclcd Ils;;<,mblllgl'~. distance fTOm the snout to the base of the tail. The Phase III Phase V standard lengths were obtained through direct com­ o o parison with modern specimens of known size. AClllllllllbrama man/rid o o ASflius lIorax o o Cyprillidae: More than 60 per cent of the identified BllrbllSl.'sociulIs o o &rbus lulcus o 1 fish remains belong to the cyprinid family, a taxon BIlrbu5 sp. o 8 that is represented by 19 species in the Habur. The C>,prinidae indct. 2 75 large number of species, and their similar osteology, Siluru5 triOSlegrl5 1 13 hamper identifications beyond the family level. Nev­ Myslus ,xlusius o o LiZll abll o o ertheless, it was possible to identify a number of Mll5laCl'1lrbrlu.~ maslllumbelu5 o o fragments to genus or species level. Forty-five skel­ Total identified 3 97 etal elements could be attributed 10 the genus Barbll5, Total indct 4 7 comprising mainly pharyngeal plates (18 specimens) Gund 10t",1 7 104 and the fused second and third vertebrae which arc

425 Chapter 12

eSOcillllS (120-130 cm total length) have Table 12.01. Fisll s/ltTi<'S from 1I'fl·sicVl'd r6idlll'S />3.5 mm fmc/iim). been found in a third-millennium BC Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV Phase V context at Tell Halawa (Boessneck & AcalllllObrallla marmid 0 0 0 0 0 von den Driesch 1989), and BarbllS tlsJlills ;>oral" 0 0 0 0 1 grypus has been reported from the site Barbus l'sori,rlls 0 0 0 0 3 Barb", IlItCllS 0 0 0 0 0 of Ibrahim's Garten (mid-second mil­ Barbus sp. 0 0 1 1 30 lennium BC) at Tell Munbaqa (Boess­ Cyprinidae indct. 0 5 7 25 211 neck & Petcrs 1988). BarbliS sp was Silurrls Iriostcglls 0 2 3 0 identified at the site of Kuppe (2200­ Mys/us pell/sills 0 0 1 0" 0 /.j;:n 11;'1/ 0 0 0 2 2 1900 be: Early Bronze Age IV) at Tell !\'Jastaumbel"s ma,/Gumbel,,> 0 0 0 0 2 Munbaqa (Boessncck & Peters 1988). Tota] idcnlificd 0 7 12 28 298 Taxa other than Barhlts have only been Tota] indcI , ]-i2 2 2 11 reported thus far from Syria in the Grand 101.11 2 9 39 I' much later Romano-Byzantino-islamic volume sic\'cd 10 >3.5 mm 240 487 1758 1261 1737'" LeIlC;sWS, fish boncs pt.'r 100 Htre 0.83 1.85 0.91 3.01 25.33 site of Apamea and include Capoeta, Cltolldrostoma regilt'" and Table 12.5. fish sJIt'des from u><:l-sir;~·d ri'Srdues (>1 mm-<.3.5 111m fmc/iml!. Aspilts I10rax (van Neer 1984).

Phase II Phase III Phase IV Phase V Si/lirliS triosteglts: Almost 10 per cent of the Acauthobmmu murmid 0 0 3 0 AS/,ills <'Omx 0 0 1 0 identified fish bones belong to this catfish BnrbllS <'SOI:illll.< 0 0 0 0 which can attain a totallcngth of marc than HllrbliS Ill/<""s 0 0 0 0 2m. The remains collected at Tell Brak are Barbus sp. 0 1 2 2 from individuals with a reconstructed stand­ Cyprinidac indct. 3 7 86 90 Silurlls trios/'Xlis 0 3 9 , ard Ienglh between 10-20 and 80-90 Col SL. Myslll;; pd/lsills 0 0 2 0 It is unclear whether this small average size U:a ubll 3 2 217 0 is reialed to the fishing techniques that failcd Maslarcml><:lus masl{/ccmbdlls 0 0 2 0 to capture larger specimens or if it renects Total idcntificd 13 322 98 ha~ Total indcl ,• 27 110 79 the effects of overfi$hing. This specie$ Grand lot.ll 10 40 432 In been reported previously in Syria from a \'olumc sic"cd to >1 mm 219 835 497 807 third millennium context at Tell Halawa fish bon£>S pc-r 100 lilre 1.75 3.23 22.13 9.79 (Boossneck & von den Driesch 1989) and f,am the Kuppe area (2200-1900 IIC Early part of the Webcrian apparatus (15 specimens). Five Bronze Age IV) at Tell Munbaqa (Boessneck & Pe­ first vertebrae, four dentaries, two operculars and a ters 1988). hyomandibular were also identifiable as Barhus. The reconstructed sizes of Barhus vary behveen 10-20 Mystlts pellisillS: This catfish species belonging to the and 40-50 cm SL. In addition to the generically iden­ Bagridae family is of little commercial value today tified specimens, four elements of barbel could be as a result of its small size (maximum length about identified to species. Barhus esocilllls is represented 25 cm). At Tell Brak the presence of this species is by three basioccipitals of small individuals 00-20 indicated by a pectoral spine, a dorsal pterygiophore cm SL), whereas the occurrence of Barbus Ill/ellS is and a c1eithrum from individuals measuring between indicated by a cleithrum of an individual measuring 15-20 and 20-30 cm SL. Mystlls peilisilis has been 20-30 cm SL reported previously from the Romano-Byzantino-!s­ Aspius vorax is represented by a fused second lamic site of Apamea, located along the Orontes (van and third vertebra of an individual measuring 40­ Neer 1984). 50 cm SL and by a dentary of a small individual (lO­ IS cm SL). Two pharyngeal plates and a basioccipi­ Liza abll: This species belongs to the mullet family tal indicate the presence of small (5-15 cm SL) Mugilidae which comprises mainly marine species, AmlltJlDbrama martllid. some of which enter estuaries or ascend rivers sea­ Cyprinids have been reported from all faunal sonally. Liza abll occurs mainly in freshwater and, assemblages in Syria that havc yielded fish remains. unlike thc other members of the family, is also able The number of specimens identified beyond family to reproduce in rivers. The species lives in the Habur level, however, is low. Two large specimens of Barbus river but is also found as far inland as the upper

416 Diet, Economy and Status

reaches of the Tigris river in Turkey (Geldiay & Bahk li3c)~ __ 1996). The maximum size of this fish is about 25 an. o .w._'"""'J:a> Remains of this species were mainly found in the O·\l_,..t- 1 mm sieve fraction (212 specimens). It is rare in the ,., .""­.,\~ 3.5 mm residue (four specimens) and totally absent in the hand-collected material. Almost 75 per cent of the remains are vertebrae (168 specimens) and 16 per cent (or 37 specimens) are dorsal and anal fin .. % ;~ spines. The other skeletal elements present arc five ., dorsal and two anal pterygiophores, three ventral fin spines, three basipterygia, three basioccipitals, an ~ , articular, a premaxilla, a hyomandibular, a pre­ opercular, and an opercular. The 185 bones that al­ • Ph~!>t' II lowed a size reconstruction indicate that the majority of the fish (73 per cent) measured between 10 and Figure 12.24. Fisll taxa through time, 20 cm SL, whereas the remaining 27 per cent were smaller than 10 em SL. second millennium (phase V) and comprise 396 iden­ More than 25 per cent of the identified fish tifiable bones. As a result of the relatively small num­ bones are from Lho abl/ but it should be underlined bers of bones for the earlier contexts it is not excluded that this high ratio results from their abundance in that chance fluctuations have influenced the propor­ one context ani)'. Ninety·three per cent of the re­ tions of the different taxa. The trend that appears mains rome from a 7Q-litre sediment sample sieved from Figure 12.24 (namely an increase through time on a 3.5 mm screen and ten litres of the same sedi­ in the importance of cyprinids and a decrease in the ment sieved at 1 mm. The sample was taken from contribution of the catfish and mullet) must, there­ pit-fill (A1143) in a surface level of trench HS3. This fore. be interpreted with caution. Could it be that the mullet occurs in low numbers in all the other investi­ obsen'ed changes are related to a phenomenon of gated contexts. over-fishing which may ha,'e affected the silurid to a larger extent than the other taxa? Mastncembe1us mnstaum/JeIIlS: The spiny eel is repre­ sented by three precaudal and one caudal vertebrae Fish biometry of individuals measuring between 20-30 and 40-50 A possible indicator of overfishing could be a size an SL. Because of their snake·like appearance, food decrease over time. In order to use the distribution laboos against maslacembclids occur in several ar­ of the reconstructed lengths of the fish found at Tell eas of their vast distribution in Asia and Africa. This Brak it is again necessary 10 correct for the different fish was no! consumed a few decades ago in Syria volumes Ihat were sieved in each conte>:1. The re­ (Beckmann 1962) but it now occurs regularly at the suitsof this exercise are given in Figures 12.25--12.26. fish market of Hasake. 11 should be underlined that the number of fragments on which the size reconstructions of Sill/filS Frequency offis" triosteglls arc based is low. A total of 60 elements was The fish identifications listed in Tables 12.3-12.5 have sufficiently \..'elJ·preserved to allow a reconstruction been used to calculate the relative importance of the of the standard length, but the bones are unevenly different taxa through time (Fig. 12.24). Calculations spread over the different phases (Fig. 12.25). The have been made in order to rorrect for the different size distribution given for phase V is based on 44 volumes sieved and, in addition, the extremely rich specimens and can be considered a good indicator of sample from the fiJI in HS3 has been kept separate. the fish captured, although the effect of differential No identifiable fish"emains were present from the preservation on the various size classes cannot be Early Uruk period (phase I). Only 13 identified speci­ quantified. For phases IV and III the number of ob­ mens were available from the Middle Uruk pcriod servations are limited to eight and six specimens (phase II) and from the Ninevite 5 period (phase 1Jl) respectively, whereas for phase II only two bones 25 such bones were prescnt. The later third-millen­ allowed a size reconstruction. nium material (phase IV) comprised 67 identifiable The high proportion of Ia.rge specimens dur­ specimens if the bones from context A1143 are not ing phase II is for this reason probably not signifi­ taken into account The richest samples belong to the cant. 11 is striking that in phases III and IV the majority

427 Chapter 12

• • Dill Dill ."l!l 1\' • ."• e' J ." ,~ •.. •.. ." , ~--'U;W'-'lllL.-~",~, , :o.JO JO..«I ~~ _ .1>-1'0 1tI-«I _ ,.. d' ~ ~ Sund••d l~ngth in on J~ngth ­ Sl.ond..d in em

Figure 12.25. Silurus triostegus biometry throllgh time. Figure 12.26. Cypri"idlle biometry through time.

of the catfish have a reconstructed standard length from the northern steppe region of the Habur, nu­ below 40 cm. Ln phase V the sizes vary between 10 merous contemporary and earlier assemblages have and 90 cm SL with a more or less even distribution been reported upon and stimulatingly synthesized between the size classes 10-20 and 60-70 cm. Speci­ by Zeder (1991; 1995; 1998b; 1999). Thus, archaeo­ mens larger than 70 cm are rare. The data available logical information indicates that by the third mil­ thus far do not allow us to document a possible shift lennium ac the northern steppe was increasingly in the average sizes of SilurIIs triosteglls. It is dear, densely settled, leading to the establishment and however, that the specimens were always of rather rapid growth of large urban centres. Here emerged small average size, never coming dose to the re­ an urban-based economic system organized by the ported maximum size of 2 m. state (Zeder 1999). Animal bone assemblages from a The size distributions of the Cyprinidae have range of sites in this region indicate that from the also been considered through time (Fig. 12.26). More fourth millennium IIC there was an emphasis on do­ bones are available that allow a size reconstruction mestic livestock, and more specifically a heavy reli­ than in Silllrlls triosteglls. Ninet)' and 286 such ele­ ance on caprine husbandry. This focus on caprine ments are present for phases IV and V respectively herding in the Habur basin may be linked to the but for the earlier phases the material is rare. Seven production of wool and hair for the expanding ur­ eyprinid bones from phase Ll and ten from phase III ban textile industry, which has been posited as a could be used for size reconstruction. From the graph reason for the expansion of settlement onto the vir­ it appears dearly that the majority of the captured gin pasturelands of the southern steppe during the eyprinids were between 10 and 30 em SL in all the third millennium IK (Zeder 1998b). Here, specialist considered phases. No clear shift occurs through pastoralists are thought to have stimulated a gradual time, and the few large specimens from phase II may transformation from an indigenous localized broad­ have distorted the picture as a result of small sample based economy into a uniform, controlled and highly size, whereas the high amount of eyprinids smaller specialized one. Since wool was the most easily stored than 10 cm SL in phase IV is due to their abundance sheep product it was the most suitable resource for in the 1mm fraction of the HS3 pit-fill (A 1143). controlled distribution. Thus control over this pro­ duction and distribution appears to have been ex­ Discussion tremely important (Zeder 1991). The limited data from the Tell Brak assemblage The animal bone assemblage from Tell Brak is not concerning the relative importance of caprine to other large in terms of numbers of identifiable fragments animals do not wholly support this general hypoth­ and, considering its broad temporal and spatial di­ esis. Although sheep and goat remains arc certainly versity, any conclusions and interpretations that are the most common domestic animal throughout the drawn have to be regarded with considerable cau­ sequence, it is clear that their importance, rather tion. Nevertheless, some interesting pattems in the than increasing, steadily declines between the fourth data may help to shed some light on broader ar­ and second millennia IIC (from >90 to <45 per cent). chaeological questions. Age at death data, however, suggest that the ani­ mals from the late third millennium BC were kept for Tile domestic economy their secondary products, probably wool. In fact it The data from Tell Brak are perhaps best considered has been postulated that a focus on a single Of limited in the context of information recovered from other range of age groups is likely to be most obvious where sites in the region. In terms of vertebrate remains specialized administrative and economic activities were

428 Diet. Economy and Status

pcrfonned (Zeder 1991). The remains of pig also tell an interesting story. In Zeder's ,ro sun·ey. pigs were found to have been important at a number of .. sites in the Habur basin, although .. their frequency rarely exceeded 20 .. per cent of any assemblage. .. Through the third millennium the relative importance of pig hus­ '" bandry declined at most sites in favour of caprine herding. This trend is not obsen·ed. however. at Tell Brak. Instead, pigs appear significantly to increase in impor­ tance during the late third millen­ nium I:lCwhere they reach between 40-50 per cent of the total assem- Figure 12.27. Wild alld dOll/estic ill II/all/lllal assemblages frOIll tile Habllr blage. Changes in theexploitation basil!. "ortllCTIl steppe (partly after Zeder 1998b). alld Tell Brak. of pigs and caprines can be ex- plained in a number of ways. and which focus upon considered as a supplementary resource. perhaps environmental. socio-cconomic and political factors. produced and used by lower-status residents of the In terms of purely dietar)' considerations, there town. Local production of pork may have conferred is no doubt that pigs provide the highest calorific an element of autonomy to individual groups or return. Their intensive large-scale keeping can be households, making pig4 raising undesirable in the severely constrained, however, by both ecological eyes of urban authorities wishing to retain broad and maintenance factors. Their high water require­ control over production and supply (Zeder 1998a). ments, poorly suited to semj-arid regions where This factor may help to explain the eventual taboo shade is limited. and an inability to utilize cellulose­ on pork consumption in the region (Diener &- Robkin rich pasture plants. rendering them often less re­ 1978). Pigs may have been an important and reliable warding than large nocks of sheep, mean that pigs resource in times when weaker political integration are best kept close to or within the settlement. In and control was the norm. becoming less important densely settled areas they are best kept in sties, sug­ when centralised control was established (Zeder gesting that swine-herding rna)' rarely have been a 1991). The apparent focus upon the consumption of large-scale regulated activity at sites in the Near East very young pigs may. however, indicate their im­ (Zeder 1998a). although there is considerable evi­ portance to the higher status!elite elements of soci­ dence for state-level exploitation of pigs in third­ ety at Tell Brak which were supplied by those of millennium south Mesopotamia (Matthews 1985). lower sodal rank.. Small-scale sty-based pig-keeping therefore most likely took place in smaller household units. Hlll/tillg wild mammals Several other sites provide further support for At the sites of the northern steppe surveyed by Zeder a possible socio-economic differentiation in swine­ (l998b). wild resources appear to have played little keeping. At AI Hiba in south Mesopotamia, Mudar part in the urban economics of the fourth millen­ (1982) suggests that pigs were more important in nium. Through the third millennium in the middle lower-status residential households than in an elite Habur there appears to have been a further decline temple district_ Closer to Brak, at Tell Leilan higher in the importance of wild game. specifically gazelle quantities of pigs. up to 60 per cent (a similarly high and onager. unlil by the mid-late third-millennium frequency to that from lale third 4 millennium depos­ exploitation of these species was negligible (Fig. its from Tell Brak) were found in a so-called workers 12.27). Data from Tell Brak. however. indicate that residential area. These representations have been in­ during the Ninevite 5 period remains of gazelle terpreted as differences in diet belween elite cle­ reached nearly 40 per cent of the total assemblage. ments of society and workers (Weiss et al. 1993). Interestingly. at Tell Kuran numerous bones of ga­ The smal1 4 scale keeping of pigs could thus be zelle. c. 200+ animals represented mostly by foot

429 Chapter 12

bones, were recovered from a late fourth-millennium fish tend to concentrate in shallow, bank-side areas deposit, in this case in a matrix approximately 5 an and they are then very vulnerable to predation. thick and no more than 1 m~. Their presence in such Growth rings on the vertebrae cannot be used to high frequencies at both sitessuggests that wild game verify this hypothesis since no modem reference was more abundant in densely settled rain-fed farm­ material is available from specimens captured at dif­ ing areas of the northern steppe (Zeder 1999) and ferent scasonsof the year. In addition, there are some also indicates that one particular species of wild game methodological problems inherent in the use of was extremel)' important to the inhabitants during growth increments for seasonality determination this period. (Carlson 1988; van Neer 1993). Similar to (or in contrast with) arguments pro­ posed for the high frequencies of pig remains, it Conclusions could be argued that the presence of wild game may renect the existence of a higher-status element of Although not great in number, the vertebrate re­ society. 11 has also been suggested that the degree to mains from the 1994-96 seasons of excavations at which wild resources were utilized could constitute Tell Brak have provided further important insights a direct measure of the effectiveness of the provi­ into the dynamics of economic, social and cultural sioning system in meeting distribution requirements. change in the northern steppe region of Mesopota­ In other words, the less effective a system the more mia through the fifth to second millennia Be. This pressure to supplement basic resources with game, study has partly corroborated conclusions drawn especially ubiquitous species that are easily collected from other wider syntheses within the region, and and caught (Zeder 1991). Whatever the reason, at also highlighted important differences between the Tel! Brak it is clear that the Ninevile 5 period is one vertebrate assemblages from Tell Brak and othercon­ of major transition, aspects of which are represented temporary sites. As already stressed, the sheer size in the vertebrate remains from the site. and scale of the settlement at Tell Brak means that any conclusions drawn from such small-scale sam~ Fish exploitatio" pies must be tentative indeed. Nevertheless, these From the data concerning the size classes of the fish data and interpretations prOVide a provisional basis taxa recovered, it is clear that fishing techniques on which future work can build. enabled the regular capture of small specimens. It is likely that nets with relatively small mesh size were Acknowledgements used. Such gear would have allowed the capture of the majority of the recorded taxa, although different Keith Dobney and Deborah Jaques express sincere types of nets may have been employed. The mullets thanks to Melinda Zeder for providing published live closer to the surface than the cyprinids whereas and unpublished information regarding work in the the spiny eels are typical bollom dwellers. Other !-:Iabur basin. The contribution of Keith Dobney was fishing gear such as baskets and hook and line may partially supported by a Bioarchaeology Research have been used as well, but there is little in the way Fellowship from the Wellcome Trust. The contribu­ of archaeological evidence for these clements. tion of Wim van Neer presents research results of In principle, fishing may have been practised the intcr-Unjversity Poles of Attraction Programme all year round but the best period must have been (Belgian State, Prime Minister's Office, Federal Of­ the spawning season in late spring. In that period fice for Scientific, Technical and Cultural Affairs).

430 References

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