The Impact of Satellite Transmission on American Sport

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1 The Impact of Satellite Transmission on

2 American Sport Economy in the 1970s and 80s

3 Yosuke Fujiwara 4 Japanese Olympic Committee 5 1-1-1, Jinnan Shibuya-ku Tokyo 150-8050 Japan 6 E-mail: [email protected] 7 8 The purpose of this study is to examine the role played by the technological development of 9 TV satellite transmissions on the rapid expansion of sport economy in the United States in the 10 1970s and 80s. The satellite transmission technology, especially the adoption of Ku-band 11 frequencies, created „superstations‟ and put an end to the exclusivity of the nationwide 12 land-line networks by the „Big Three‟ TV Networks. Thousands of isolated cable systems 13 managed to receive programmes from other areas of the country via these superstations due 14 to the creation of these satellite networks. Owing to the new networks, the number of the 15 nationally televised sports games/matches drastically increased, most of which used to be 16 only broadcast locally. Accordingly, the price of broadcast rights, the ad-boards, and 17 merchandising increased. In conclusion, the rapid expansion of the sport economy in the US 18 was caused by the technological innovation of satellite transmissions, and this process 19 occurred between approximately 1978 and 1984. 20 21 Running Title: Impact of Satellite Transmission on U.S. Sport Economy 22 Keywords: sports, satellite, television, network, economy 23 24 1. Introduction 25 The proliferation of television (TV) broadcasting undoubtedly had a strong influence on 26 sports. Some argue that the TV programming „commercialised‟ sports especially after the 27 financial success of the Olympic Games in Los Angeles in 1984. However, it is not clearly 28 explained why the development of TV changed sports, or how TV accelerated the 29 „commercialisation‟ of sports. In other words there is no explicit explanation about the 30 mechanisms between the development of TV and the transformation of sports. 31 This study focuses on the development of satellite transmission technology of TV signals to 32 explain the mechanisms of, and reasons how, television changed sports. The purpose of this 33 study is to examine how and why the development of satellite transmission technology, using 34 geostationary satellites in the 1970s and 80s, transformed the circulation of money flow and 35 brought a sudden expansion of the American sport economy. In this paper the case in the 36 United States is examined, where satellite technology was advanced in this period. The period 37 of the discussion range is approximately 1970 to 1990. 38

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1 2. Literature Review and Method 2 3 The author of this paper tried to review as many literature as possible the subject of which is 4 sport broadcasting, sports economy, satellite transmission, laws and statutes on TV and 5 communications in the US, from 1960 to 1990. For this purpose the electronic search engines 6 such as SPORTDiscus, Google Scholar, IEEE Xplore, Routledge Online, Taylor & Francis 7 Online, CiNii, New York Times Archives, and references of each paper were used. 8 As a result, the literature can be grouped into three categories: Firstly, the researches 9 focused on the analysis on the TV sports programming and its development and 10 transformation from historical, political, and sociological points of view, secondly, the 11 researches on the economic influence of TV broadcasting on sports, and thirdly, the 12 researches focusing either on the technological development or on the Federal 13 communication policies. 14 In the first group, some researchers such as Hayakawa (1961), Kawaguchi, S. (1990) and 15 Kawaguchi, T. (1995) focused on the analysis on the TV sports viewers and sports 16 programmes. Others, such as Bellamy, R.V. (1988), Kawaguchi, T. (1993), Nakamura (1995) 17 and Hashimoto, J. (2002) examined the development and transformation of sports 18 programming on television. 19 Andreff and Staudohar (2000), Hayakawa (2000), Siegfried J. & Zimbalist A. (2000), 20 Hoehn and Lancefield (2003), Nys (2007), McAllister (2010), and some others belong to the 21 second group. Among them, Gaustad (2000) analyses the effect of broadcasting on sports, but 22 he regards the digitalisation in the 1990s as the cause of the changes of sports by television, 23 but this approach fails to explain the change in the 1980s. 24 The third group includes Miya (1970), Carey (1980), Mizuike & Kinuhata (1980), Kano 25 (1986), Sloan (1986), Hubbard (1988), Hart (1997) and Livingston & Van Belle (2005). 26 Among them, Carey (1980) forecasts coming changes in the communication world, but he 27 focuses on satellite „broadcasting‟, not „transmission‟, combined with computer technology. 28 Livingston and Van Belle (2005) pay enough attention to the effects of the satellite 29 transmission, but their major interest lies not in sports but in live news coverage. 30 The research of the first group tends to take the increase of sports broadcasting hours and 31 revenues as a given condition and discuss its social and moral effects based on that condition. 32 The research belonging to the second group does not offer the link of TV technology as the 33 driving power for the economic development. Literature of the third group does not consider 34 the effect on sports. 35 In order for the purpose of this study to examine how and why the development of satellite 36 transmission technology brought a sudden expansion of the sport economy, a method was 37 taken to overlook the groups of literature and to clarify the relationship among these three 38 categories in concrete language, based on my actual experience and knowledge obtained as a 39 broadcaster of this period. 40

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1 3. The development of satellite transmission in North America 2 3.1. The early days 3 Satellite Transmission is the technology to send and receive audio and/or video signals by 4 means of a satellite orbiting the earth, and in particular, a TV‟s video and audio signals 5 (VandA). Almost all satellites used for VandA transmissions are geostationary*1) ones. 6 The first practical use of satellite transmission for live broadcasting was the Olympic 7 Games in Tokyo in October 1964 when the TV signal was transmitted from Japan to Los 8 Angeles via Syncom-3 satellite (Miya, 1970). However, the VandA occupied a large 9 frequency range, equivalent to 5000 telephone lines, and geostationary satellites were not 10 really „stationary‟ at the time, requiring fine tuning of the direction of the parabolic antenna 11 (often referred to as a „dish‟). It was not until the latter half of the 1970s that this technology 12 became a common tool for world broadcasters (Mizuike and Kinuhata, 1980). The number of 13 potential transponders for VandA transmissions for North America reached 120 by the end of 14 1976 (NASA, 1997), all of which were in C-band*2). 15 16 3.2. From land-line to Ku-band*3) 17 In the 1970s the TV programme distribution/contribution routes in the US totally depended 18 on American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)‟s land-lines, not satellite (Hubbard, 19 1988). The routes were composed in a hub-and-spoke format from New York City where the 20 headquarters of three big networks (NBC, CBS and ABC: commonly referred to as the 21 „Big-Three‟) were located, as Figure-1 22 shows. The Big-Three distributed their 23 programmes to their affiliate local stations 24 through these land-lines and also received 25 news and sport video materials through 26 these land-lines. New York City was the 27 hub of this system with a few exceptions 28 (Kanoh, 1986). The land-lines, before the 29 development of fibre-optics, were 30 composed of a mixture of coaxial cables 31 and terrestrial microwave links. 32 To examine the land-line structure from the end-users‟ side (i.e. local TV stations) at the 33 time, each station was connected only to New York City. No other connections existed. With 34 this set-up, there was no problem when material was sent to New York, be it news, sports, and 35 any other sort. However, once they wanted to send anything to another local station, 36 permission was needed from the parent network company in New York to send it via New 37 York City. Therefore, the local exchange of the visual material among local stations was very 38 difficult, and rare. 39 The only way to form local networks among the affiliates in the 1970s was to use the 40 C-band satellite transmissions. But C-band dishes were huge and usually located at

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1 specialised earth station sites hundreds of kilometres away from TV stations, not to mention 2 the comparatively expensive rates of transmission (Hubbard, 1988). 3 The first Ku-band compatible satellite, Canadian ANIK-B, was launched in 1978 (Telesat 4 Canada, 2001). The start of Ku-band transmission had totally overturned this traditional 5 bilateral contribution-distribution structure based on the land-line networks. The advantages 6 of Ku-band versus C-band were the antenna‟s size, price, set-up space, and permissions. 7 The Ku-band dish was much smaller (Telesat Canada was using a 2.3 metre dish in 1984) 8 and much cheaper compared to C-band, and was easily set it up in a backyard or in the car 9 park of a local TV station. There was also an institutional convenience for Ku-band: It did not 10 need the C-band station prior permission by the Federal Government for set up. It was these 11 advantages that suddenly enabled TV stations to mount a Ku-band dish on a van rooftop and 12 transmit from any location (Hubbard, 1988). Ku-band gave broadcasters a freedom they had 13 not experienced with C-band.*4) 14 15 3.3. The impacts of the introduction of Ku-band transmissions 16 In the United States, quite a few local UHF-TV stations were established in the 1960s, and 17 the number reached more than 500 in the early 1980s (Kanoh 1986). However, these local 18 stations were obliged to choose either to be an affiliate of the Big-Three or to remain as an 19 isolated local station, since there was no way to form regional networks because of the 20 structure of the land-lines. 21 Once Ku-band transmissions became available and feasible in the late 1970s, both 22 technically and financially, the formation of new networks via satellite among local stations 23 became technically possible. This new way of transmission had overthrown the traditional 24 order of the hub-and-spoke land-line network, and gave those local stations total freedom of 25 transmission choice. This new way also enabled „multi-lateral‟ transmissions, not 26 point-to-point, and once the signal was uplinked to the satellite, it was received at any point 27 in North America, as shown in Figure-2. 28 Now, all that was needed to receive/send 29 any signal from/to any place was a small 30 Ku-band dish in a backyard. This was a 31 revolution in networking. 32 In parallel with the advance of satellite 33 transmissions, cable-TV systems were 34 being established in the 1970s. Cable-TV 35 is a system to connect households in an 36 area to the TV station by cable, and to 37 send multi-channel programmes. 38 Cable-TV started in mountainous areas 39 in order to re-transmit over-the-air TV 40 signals, to then be spread throughout cities since it was too costly to lay cables over a long

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1 distance and not technically practical to send the signal to remote places in scarcely inhabited 2 rural areas with many amplifiers along the way. Therefore, cable-TV of the day was a series 3 of closed and isolated systems, not connected to any other systems, and only carried the 4 re-transmission of local over-the-air stations and the Big-Three‟s programmes. But once 5 satellite transmission became technically feasible and affordable, the exchange of 6 programmes and news material with the cable-TV systems in other parts of the country 7 became easy, and networking among cable operators came within their reach (Bellamy, 8 1988). 9 The policy change of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the late 1970s 10 also helped the development of cable-TV. Up until the early 1970s, FCC‟s policy had been 11 very restrictive of cable-TV operations. The importation of programmes from non-local 12 stations was prohibited. FCC‟s initial priority lay in the protection of small-town local TV 13 stations, and this policy prevented cable operators from going nationwide. In 1972 FCC 14 issued a new version of the Cable Television Report and Order, which lifted some of the 15 restrictions, including importing distant signals („leapfrogging‟). This was a breakthrough in 16 the expansion of nationwide networks. FCC also established the „Open Sky‟ policy in 1972 17 allowing any company to own and operate communication satellites (FCC, 1990). 18 19 3.4. Ted Turner, an intermediary between sports and TV technology 20 Ted Turner (Robert Edward Turner III, born November 19, 1938) was the owner of a local 21 TV station in Atlanta called WTCG. He was also a sportsman who had won sailing‟s 22 America‟s Cup in 1977 as well as the owner of Atlanta Braves baseball team. He was one of 23 the pioneers who had a solid understanding of the potential of satellite transmissions. Turner 24 built his own earth station and started to distribute WTCG‟s local programmes to other local 25 and cable stations all over the US through C-band satellite called K-1, in 1976. WTCG 26 changed its name to WTBS and widely known as Turner Broadcasting System (TBS). By 27 1980 it was fully operational, transmitting its own programmes, various films, and Atlanta 28 Braves home-games. Turner also started CNN in 1980, based in Atlanta, and was carried 29 across the US via satellite (Bellamy, 1988). By the late 1970s, media started to refer to these 30 stations, such as TBS, WGL in Chicago, and KTLA in Los Angeles, as „super stations‟ or 31 „superstations‟ (NY Times, March 3, 1979) . 32 By the mid-1980s cable systems became familiar with Ku-band transmissions. Once cable 33 systems broke out of regional isolation, they started to increase rapidly in number, and so did 34 cable-TV viewers. Cable-TV penetration in the US jumped from 9.8 million households in 35 1975 to 36.3 million in 1985 (Uozumi, 2007). For the national „networks‟, or the Big-Three, 36 this marked the end of an era; their monopoly came to an end in early 80s, with new-born 37 networks via satellites popping up across the country, providing coverage. 38 39 3.5. Transformation of sport broadcasting by satellite transmissions 40 The universal use of Ku-band transmissions drastically increased and widened the quantity

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1 and types of sports broadcasting. Sports were very attractive programmes for superstations 2 for three reasons*5): Firstly, there were a lot of non-broadcast games/matches already existing 3 with built-in supporters, or potential viewers, for each sport. Secondly, the production cost of 4 sport programmes per hour was much cheaper than that of news, drama, documentary, and 5 other types of programmes. Thirdly, sport events were free from copyright, unlike films. 6 Superstations sought out sports in which abundant games were regularly played, like Major 7 League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National 8 Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football. Both cable and local TV welcomed this 9 programming. 10 MLB had been broadcast by the Big-Three since the early days of TV history but the 11 Big-Three focused on the post-season games, expecting higher commercial revenue per hour. 12 Therefore, they showed as few as 16-25 regular season games, even though 26 teams (in 13 1980) played more than 2,100 games in a season (Bellamy, 1988). 14 Once cable systems started to join the national networks via satellites, quite a number of 15 regular season games, not taken by the Big-Three, were transmitted by superstations. TBS 16 broadcast about 120 Atlanta Braves games live each year via satellite, and the games were 17 carried by 4,152 cable systems in 50 states in 1982 (Taafe, 1982). Since TBS was included in 18 most of the cable systems‟ „basic service‟, Atlanta Braves games were watched all over the 19 United States. 20 Later, Madison Square Garden cable television network (MSG Network) in New York City 21 reached a 12-year broadcast agreement with the New York Yankees baseball team and started 22 to put 150 games exclusively on air excluding the games nationally televised by CBS (NY 23 Times: April 9, 1990). 24 In 1989, another cablecaster, Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN), 25 made an epoch deal. ESPN, an affiliate of the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), 26 agreed with MLB to broadcast 160 games each year for a four year term. ESPN was also 27 among the „basic service‟ of most of the cable operators and was watched nationally. 28 New York Times reported, “There is an extraordinary gain for a fan living in, say, the New 29 York metropolitan area: It is now possible to bring in about 600 games a year. But there is 30 also a catch: The fan must have cable TV.” (NY Times: April 9, 1990). Considering that CBS 31 only broadcast 16 of these 600 games, this figure explicitly shows how the tremendous 32 expansion of „televised‟ sports and 33 radical rise of cable systems was 34 helped by satellite transmissions.*6) 35 Among amateur sports, collegiate 36 football is the most popular in the US, 37 and ABC had broadcast college 38 football since 1966. But annual 39 broadcast games were only around 20, 40 even at the end of the 1970s.

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1 Once superstations managed to form national networks in the early 1980s, they 2 aggressively bought up college football rights. Table-1 shows the comparison of the broadcast 3 college football games in Chicago metropolitan area on the first Saturday in October in 1983 4 and in 1990. In 1983 only two games were shown by CBS and Chicago-based WGN. In 1990 5 two of the Big-Three and four cable channels broadcast 10 games in total. The total number 6 of college football games played in a season had been stable, and this proves the first wave of 7 expansion occurred between 1983 and 1990 (Clotfelter, 2011). 8 In order to specify the „watershed‟ more precisely, one must focus on the period in the 9 early 1980s. In one season each college played 11 games. Mawson and Bowler (1989) 10 conducted direct research by sending questionnaires to 105 Division-I college football teams 11 and received answers from 43 of them. According to the results, the average broadcast games 12 by school were 2.1 games in 1981, 2.9 in 1982, and 2.7 in 1983. In 1984 the average 13 broadcast games increased to 3.4, then 3.9 in 1985, and 4.1 in 1986. The average number of 14 broadcast games doubled during these five years. According to this research, 1984 seems to 15 be the watershed, and actually quite a number of cablecasters started college football shows 16 in this year. 17 The results of these studies show that the number of the games/matches broadcast on TV 18 started to climb in the early to mid-1980s, regardless of the sport being professional or 19 amateur, and it is also apparent that the opportunities for TV viewers had quickly widened as 20 games/matches played outside of their own areas/regions became available. In other words, 21 local sports events were „nationalised‟ by superstations during this period. 22 23 3.6. The transformation of the sports economy caused by the expansion of sports 24 broadcasting 25 The variety of sports programmes on TV was rapidly enlarged and the total broadcasting 26 hours increased as a consequence of the development of satellite transmission including the 27 introduction of Ku-band transmission. A New York Times columnist, in 1988, warned of a 28 new agreement between cable television and MLB, “baseball risks becoming just another TV show instead of a spectator sport.” (NY Times, December 11, 1988). The columnist had aptly recognized that the symptom of the transformation in sport was caused by a rapid expansion of the broadcast hours by cable systems. The transformation of sport was most remarkable in its economy. Figure-3 shows the broadcast rights fee paid to MLB and its teams from 1976 until 1993. In the 1970s, the rights fee remained stable, with an increase

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1 starting in 1980 when superstations began to enter the market (TBS started to transmit Atlanta 2 Braves games via satellite in this year). The amount and the increase of „Other TVs‟, mainly 3 superstations, surpassed that of the Big-Three, and this tendency continued throughout the 4 period and was accelerated when ESPN joined the race in 1990. Another remarkable point is 5 that the increase in „Other TVs‟ was the pulling force of the entire rights fees increase, and 6 the Big-Three followed. 7 Next, the tendency of the increase of the revenue of MLB teams is examined. As the 8 indicator of the total revenue, the level of the players‟ salary is used here. According to 9 research by Haupert (2010), in 1981 the average annual salary of the MLB players was 200 10 thousand dollars, but in 1986 it was doubled to 400 thousand dollars. The background of this 11 sharp increase was not only the television rights but also the introduction of a free-agent 12 system. In the late 1980s, the commissioner and some owners of the teams united and tried to 13 restrain the hike by not hiring free-agents, and for once the average salary levelled or even 14 declined. In the 1990s, the free-agent system was accepted by the owners and established and 15 the salary hike resumed. 16 This process can be more closely 17 examined by comparing four MLB 18 teams; Atlanta Braves, Chicago 19 Cubs, Seattle Mariners, and 20 Minnesota Twins. Figure-4 shows 21 the average annual salary of these 22 four teams from 1976 to 1989. In the 23 1970s there was no big difference 24 among these four teams. However, 25 the change started in 1980 when 26 TBS Atlanta and WGN Chicago 27 started to transmit Atlanta Braves 28 and Chicago Cubs games to all over the US, respectively. The total salary of Atlanta and 29 Chicago team players increased at a much quicker pace than the others, until 1986. On the 30 other hand, Seattle Mariners and Minnesota Twins, both based in the cities where 31 superstations did not exist, experienced a widened gap in salary, comparatively, until 1986. 32 This fact tells us that there was a distinctive difference in players‟ salary, or teams‟ revenue, 33 between the cities where superstations existed and those where they did not. This fact also 34 shows that the increase of the players‟ salary was not a general tendency for all teams caused 35 by the free-agent system but rather that it depended very much upon the existence of daring 36 superstations using satellite transmissions. 37 The same tendency is observed in college football. The broadcast rights fee was stable at 38 the level of 10 and 20 million dollars a year until 1977, and it started to increase in 1978, 39 jumping to 60 million in 1982 because of the new joint long-term contract by ABC and CBS 40 as well as the entry of TBS into NCAA football coverage (Zimbalist, 1999).

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1 The expansion of the broadcast also 2 brought the increase of the revenues 3 other than the broadcasting rights. 4 Figure-5 shows the annual total 5 revenue of the MLB and its teams, 6 excluding broadcast rights fee, from 7 1969 until 1988. This includes gate fee 8 (tickets), concessions sales and parking 9 revenues, billboards sales, 10 merchandising, and other revenues. 11 Between 1969 and 1973 the revenue 12 was stable and about 80% of it came from the gate fee. Between 1974 and 1982 the available 13 data cannot be found. Between 1983 and 1988 there is no breakdown of the revenue and just 14 shown as „other income‟. Even with these limitations it is apparent that there was a 15 significant increase in „other income‟ in 10 years between 1973 and 1983. The number of 16 MLB teams in 1969 was 24, and from 1972 till 1988 was 26 teams, and the increase of the 17 revenue far exceeds that of the number of the teams (Haupert, 2010). 18 The revenue includes ad-boards and merchandising goods utilising the images of the 19 players such as baseball cards. The hike of the value of these items seem to have pushed up 20 the income because the markets of the ad-boards and merchandising had been extended from 21 regional ones to national because of the nationwide television coverage through superstations 22 and cables. 23 These examinations on both professional and amateur sports in the US showed a clear 24 principle: Superstations which managed to create national networks utilising the full benefit 25 of the satellite transmission technology played a crucial role in the expansion of broadcast 26 rights fee and other revenues in the late 1970s to 1980s. 27 28 4. Conclusion 29 The driving power of the television‟s influence on sports in the United States was satellite 30 transmission technology. The development of the TV signal transmission, using geostationary 31 satellite and Ku-band, broke down the restrictions put in place by the traditional national 32 networking with land-lines, dominated by the Big-Three, and facilitated the creation of new 33 networks beyond cities, states, and even borders, via satellite. 34 Cable systems used this opportunity to end their isolation by taking remote signals of 35 various programmes. Some local stations delivered their programming to those cable systems 36 nationwide. Sport events were favoured because of the low per-hour production cost and 37 copyright-free status. 38 As a result, local sport games/matches spread nationwide, and the number and total hours 39 of televised sports games drastically increased. Accordingly, the broadcast rights fee of these 40 sports hiked, and so did the value of ad-boards and merchandising, since the number of the

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1 viewers, or virtual audience out of the stadia/gymnasia, also quickly expanded. This was the 2 mechanism which brought huge cash flow into sports from various sources. 3 In conclusion, the rapid expansion of sport economy in the United States was caused by the 4 technological innovation of satellite transmissions, and this process started and spread 5 nationwide in a very short period, approximately between 1978 and 1984. 6 7 Notes 8 *1. „Geostationary satellite‟ is a satellite revolving the earth on a circle orbit 35,786 kilometres above the 9 equator with the same angular velocity, so it looks as if it stays at the same point in the sky. 10 *2. „C-band‟ is the name for the frequencies between 4GHz and 8GHz, given by the Institute of Electrical 11 and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). In order to send/receive analogue signal of this frequency in a stable 12 manner, a huge parabolic antenna is required. For example, C-band transmitter of Mexico Olympic Games 13 in 1968 was 32 metres in diametre. 14 *3. „Ku-band‟ is a higher frequency band than C, between 12 and 18 GHz. Now in 2012 most of the 15 satellite broadcasting all over the world uses this frequency and the dish can be much smaller, as small as 16 30 cm in diametre for reception. 17 *4. The world broadcasters, at first, were not keen on using Ku-band, because theoretically, rainfall and 18 snow interfered with Ku-band frequency potentially weakening the signal. For this reason it was as late as 19 in 1989 when regular transmission by Ku-band started in Japan. 20 *5. These points are referred in and concluded from the following sources; “Senate Unit Kills Cable Sports 21 Curb”, NY Times, June 12, 1974, “Combination of Cable TV and Satellites Creates National 'Super 22 Stations'”, NY Times, November 28, 1977, and NHK (2008). 23 *6. NHK, Japan‟s public broadcaster, started MLB broadcast in 1989, about 160 games in a season. This 24 was enabled by the concentration of MLB games signals via satellite from all over the U.S. to NHK‟s 25 contracting earth station in New Jersey. Domestic games transmission also helped MLB to be international. 26 27 References 28 Andreff, W. and Staudohar, P.D. (2000) The evolving European model of professional sports finance. 29 Journal of Sports Economics, August 2000 vol. 1 no. 3: 257-276. 30 Auletta, Ken (2004) Media Man: Ted Turner's Improbable Empire. New York NY: W. W. Norton Limited. 31 Bellamy, R.V. (1988) Impact of the Television Marketplace on the Structure of Major League Baseball. 32 Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media Volume 32, Number 1, Winter 1988: 73-87 33 Carey, J.W.(1980) Changing Communications Technology and the Nature of the Audience. Journal of 34 Advertising, Vol. 9, No 2,1980: 3-9 35 Clotfelter, C.T. (2011) Big-Time Sports in American Universities. New York: Cambridge University Press. 36 Dalsat, Inc. (1984) NBC Ku-band Rain Study. January 9, 1984. 37 Gaustad, T.(2000) The Economics of Sports Programming. Nordicom Review, 2000: 101-113 38 Hart, D. Satellite Communications. August 1997 39 http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cis788-97/ftp/satellite_nets.pdf (Accessed on 23 November 2012). 40 Hashimoto, J. (2002) Contemporary Media-Sports. Sekai-shisosha, Kyoto. (in Japanese)

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1 Haupert, M.J. (2010) The Economic History of Major League Baseball. University of Wisconsin, MJ 2 Haupert - EH. Net Encyclopedia, http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/haupert.mlb (Accessed on March 24, 3 2013). 4 Hayakawa, T. (2000) The hike of TV rights and the reorganisation of broadcasting and communication 5 industries. Departmental Bulletin, Hitotsubashi University 2000: 30-41. (in Japanese) 6 Hayakawa, Y. (1961) Physical education and mass-communication. Taiikugaku Kenkyu 6(1): 33. (in 7 Japanese) 8 Hill, R. Baseball Chronology, http://www.baseballchronology.com/Baseball/ (Accessed on 17 April 2012). 9 Hoehn, T. and Lancefield, D. (2003) Broadcasting And Sport. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 19, 10 No. 4: 552-568. 11 Hubbard, S.(1988) The US revolution in television through the use of satellites. Broadcasting Convention, 12 IBC 1988, International Issue: 441 – 444. 13 Kanoh, T. (1986) Television Distribution Network Using Satellite System in America. the ITE Journal, 14 40(9): 843-847. (in Japanese) 15 Kawaguchi, T. (1993) Television and sports in post-war Japan. Departmental Bulletin, Hitotsubashi 16 University 1993: 12-15. (in Japanese) 17 Kawaguchi, T. (1995) Television era and sports. In Seki, H. and Karaki, K. (Eds.) For whom sports exist?. 18 Tokyo: Taishukan. (in Japanese) 19 Livingston, S. and Van Belle, D. (2005) The Effects of Satellite Technology on Newsgathering from 20 Remote Locations. Political Communication, 22: 45–62. 21 McAllister M.P. (2010) Hypercommercialism, Televisuality, and the Changing Nature of College Sports 22 Sponsorship. American Behavioral Scientist, 2010 53: 1476-1491. 23 Mawson L.M. and Bowler W.T. (1989) Effects of the 1984 Supreme Court Ruling on the Television 24 Revenues of NCAA Division I Football Programs. Journal of Sport Management, Volume 3, Issue 2, July: 25 79-89. 26 Miya, K. (1970) Television relaying by communication satellites. The ITE Journal, 24(9): 710-714. (in 27 Japanese) 28 Mizuike, T. & Kinuhata, K. (1980) International television traffic via INTELSAT satellite. The ITE Journal, 29 34(2): 129-134. (in Japanese) 30 Nakamura, T. (1995) The ways of looking at & thinking of sports media. Tokyo: Sobunkikaku. (in 31 Japanese) 32 NASA (1997) Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible. 33 http://history.nasa.gov/satcomhistory.html (accessed on 12/2/2012). 34 NHK (2008) Statement of Accounts for 2007. (in Japanese) 35 Nys, J. (2007) Trois aspects de l‟ économie du sport depuis les années 1960. In Tetart, P. (Eds.) Histoire du 36 sport en France, Volume 2. Vuibert: Paris, France. 37 Siegfried J. & Zimbalist A. (2000) Economics of Sports Facilities and Their Communities, The Journal of 38 Economic Perspectives, Vol 14-3: 95-114. 39 Sloan, C.A. (1986) Advanced Communication Satellite - The next generation of communication satellites. 40 IAMSLIC Conference Proceedings 1985: 191-198.

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1 Taafe, W. (1982) The USA is the home of the Braves, Sports Illustrated, Vol 57-6: 18-19. 2 Telesat Canada (2001) Application to Develop and Operate a C and Ku-band Fixed-Satellite Space Station 3 in the 118.7º WL Orbital Position, Volume I, March 15, 2001. Ottawa: Telesat Canada. 4 Turner, Ted (2009) Call Me Ted: The Autobiography of the Extraordinary Business Leader and Founder of 5 CNN. New York: Grand Central Publishing. 6 Uozumi, S. (2007) Legislative Accomplishment of the Access Rights in the U.S.: The 1972 FCC Rule and 7 the Cable Act of 1984. Doshisha American Studies Vol 43: 111-129. (in Japanese) 8 Watanabe, J. (1999) Sports and media. In Inoue, S. & Kameyama, Y. (Eds.) For those who study sport 9 culture. Kyoto: Sekai-shishosha. (in Japanese) 10 Zimbalist, A. (1999) Unpaid Professionals. NJ USA: Princeton University Press. 11 12 13 Name: Yosuke Fujiwara 14 Affiliation: Japanese Olympic Committee 15 Address: 1-1-1, Jinnan Shibuya-ku Tokyo 150-8050 Japan 16 Brief Biographical History: 17 1976 BA in Economics, The University of Tokyo 18 1976-2005 Journalist/Producer of NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation, 19 Japan‟s sole public network) 20 1996-2004 Member of Radio-Television Commission, International 21 Olympic Committee 22 2005-2008 Head of Broadcast Relations, Beijing Olympic Broadcasting Co. (Beijing, China) 23 2009- Executive Board Member, Japanese Olympic Committee 24 2011 MSc in Sports Science, Waseda University 25 Main Works: 26 Yosuke Fujiwara (1990) Underground video distribution by Catholic church in Poland. In 27 Yamamoto, H. (Eds.) Thus revolution crossed the borders, NHK Publishing, Tokyo. (in 28 Japanese) 29 Yosuke Fujiwara (2004) Olympic Games and broadcasting technology. Sports Science Journal, 30 54(5), 374-379. (in Japanese) 31 Yosuke Fujiwara (2008) What have Olympic Media brought to China?. Gaiko Forum, 21(8), 32 21-23. (in Japanese) 33 Yosuke Fujiwara (2009) Tokyo’s Olympic Bidding and its ripple effect, The Japan Economic 34 Research Institute Monthly Report, (375), 4-15. (in Japanese) 35 Membership in Learned Societies: 36 Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences 37 Japan Sports Law Association 38 The Japan Society for Studies in Journalism and Mass Communication

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