-1 A Publication 01 THEPLANE~ SOCIETV

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Board of Directors

CARL SAGAN BRUCE MURRAY President Vice President Director. Laboratory tor Planetary Professor of Planetary Studies, Cornefl University Science. California Institute of Technology LOUIS FRIEDMAN Executive Director HENRY TANNER California Institute THOMAS O. PAINE of Technology Former Administrator. NASA Chairman, National ' JOSEPH RYAN Commission on Space O'Melveny & Myers

Board of Advisors DIANE ACKERMAN JOHN M. LOGSDON poet and author Director. Space Policy Institute George Washington University ISAAC ASIMOV author HANS MARK Chancellor, or five days, August 23 to 27, as most popular feature was the Planetary RICHARD BERENDZEN University of Texas System President, American University Fthe Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Society store, which offered everything JAMES MICHENER JACOUES BLAMONT author steered Voyager 2 past Neptune and The from glitter pencils to T-shirts to space­ Scientific Consultant, Centre National d'Eludes Spatiales. MARVIN MINSKY Planetary Society hosted Planetfest '89, craft models. Artist Kim Poor set up his France Donner Professor of Science. Massachusetts Institute Pasadena became the center of the solar Novagraphics art gallery where people RAY BRADBURY of Technology poet and author PHI LIP MORRISON system. At least that's how it seemed to could watch space artists creating images ARTHUR C. CLARKE Institute Professor. Massachusetts Society staff and volunteers, who worked and buy copies of their work. author Institute of Technology

CORNELIS DE JAGER PAUL NEWMAN long and hard to make the Pasadena Plan­ JPL set up informative displays on their Professor of Space Research. actor The Astronomical Institute at etary Festival happen. From the opening upcoming missions and posted the latest Utrecht, The Netherlands BE RNARD M. OLIVER Chief, SET! Program, symposium on Wednesday to the "wrap released images from Voyager for close-up FRANK DRAKE NASNAmes Research Center Profe!>sor of Astronomy and party" on Sunday night, we worked, fret­ viewing. Several aerospace companies Astrophysics. University of SALLY RIDE California at Santa Cruz Director, California Space Institule, ted, partied and-with over 15,000 Planet­ brought exhibits of their latest projects, University of California, San Diego LEE A. DUBRIDGE fest guests--celebrated the completion of and the World Space Foundation hung a former presidential ROALD Z. SAGDEEV science advisor Institute for Space Research, Voyager 2's Grand Tour of the solar system. solar sail from the ceiling of the confer­ Academy of Sciences JOHN GARDNER olthe USSR The centerpiece of Planetfest '89 was ence center. founder. Common Cause HARRISON H, SCHMITT the "videowall": 16 high-resolution color Planetfest '89 was all this and much THEODORE M. HESBURGH former US Senator; NM President Emeritus. and former astronaut monitors linked together by computer to more, as you'll read on the following University of Notre Dame LEWIS THOMAS form one giant screen. There we broadcast pages. Planning Planetfest took a year and SHIRLEY M. HUFSTEDLER Chancellor. Memorial Sloan educator and jurist Kettering Cancer Center "Voyager Watch," featuring live images of a half. It all began under the direction of

GARRY E. HUNT JAMES VAN ALLEN Neptune, its rings and moons as they were film producer Claire Townsend, who laid space scientist, Professor of Physics. United Kingdom University of Iowa received at JPL. Nearly 5,000 people the foundation. When Claire left to begin joined us on Thursday, the night of closest law school, I took over as Director, and approach, and many hundreds spent the while I can't claim to have enjoyed every The Planetary Re{XJft (ISSN 0736-3680) is published six times yearly at the editorial offices of The Planetary Society. 65 North Catalina Avenue, entire night at the videowall, participating minute, Planetfest '89 certainly is some­ Pasadena, CA 91106, (818) 793-5100. It is available to members of The Planetary Society. Annual dues are $20 in the US, $25 in Canada, and in Voyager 2's historic last encounter. thing I'll never forget. $30 outside the US or Canada. The daily press briefings at JPL were I wish I could personally thank every­ Edito, CHARLENE M. ANDERSON Technical Editor, JAMES D. BURKE also piped into the videowall so that one who helped make Planetfest '89 possi­ Assista nt Editor; DONNA STEVENS Copy Editor. KARL STULL Planetfest attendees could hear the latest ble, but that would probably take the entire Editorial Assistant. DEIRDRE VON DORNUM Art Directo, BARBARA SMITH discoveries and analysis as they were an­ Planetary Report. People literally came nounced. During periods when the space­ from around the world- from Norway and Viewpoints expressed in columns or editorials are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent positions 01 The Planetary Society, its officers craft was performing experiments rather Australia, for example-to experience the or advisors. © 1989 by The Planetary Society. In Canada, Second Class Mail Registratoo Number 9567 than transmitting images, the video wall encounter and Planetfest, and we thank all played "The Best of Voyager," a specially of them for coming. prepared videotape of spacecraft images Will we do it again? I hope so, but not COVER: During early August 1989, the Great and computer graphics recapitulating the before we recover from this one! The Dark Spot of Neptune became a familiar sight many surprises and achievements of the Planetary Society will hold major public worldwide. ,Then, as Voyager 2 flew through the neptunian system, unexpected images mission. With live images, press an­ events at upcoming planetary encounters came fast and furious, including the highway­ nouncements and thrilling graphics, the -for example, when Magellan reaches like features on Triton, its bright south pole videowall set a quick pace for other Plan­ Venus next August-and no doubt some­ and possible volcanic features, and complete etfest activities. time we'll do a full-blown Planetfest rings around the planet. After the encounter, The Planetary Society threw a party for In organizing Planetfest we wanted to again. Keep reading The Planetary Voyager, and Chuck Berry serenaded the make sure that when people were ready to Report and watch for announcements of spacecraft on its way out of our solar system. take a break from the videowall, there Society activities. I hope to see you there. Photographs: JPUNASA, J. R. Rost and Dan MacMedan were plenty of things to see and do. The -Angela Brown, Planetfest '89 Director PLANETS AND POLITICS REFLECTIONS ON THE PRESIDENTIAL MOON-MARS INITIATIVE

BY CARL SAGAN illl! IIUiiiiililii In his capacity as Distinguished Visiting Scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Planetary Society President Carl Sagan recently shared his views of President George Bush's new space policy with JPL scientists, engineers and administrators. This article comprises brief excerpts from his talk. The full text of Sagan's address is now available as a pamphlet published by The Planetary Society. With "Planets and Politics" we are inaugurating a new pamphlet series to provide our members with in-depth background on space policy, history and scientific discovery. If you would like a copy of the pamphlet, please send $3.00 to: Pamphlets, The Planetary Society, 65 N. Catalina Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91106.

n July 20, 1989, in his speech mark­ lunar "base" means a large permanently humans landing on the planet Mars. Oing the 20th anniversary of the occupied facility. An outpost is unlikely Environmental issues are becoming Apollo 11 landing, President George to distract us from the main objective. A politically important worldwide. Any Bush gave the first authoritative re­ base may be a dead end. NASA Associ­ politician skeptical about the reality of sponse to President Mikhail Gor­ ate Administrator Frank Martin has the greenhouse effect on Earth can pro­ bachev's proposal that Americans and imagined an exercise in which you go to ductively contemplate the greenhouse Soviets go together to Mars. There he the space station for a year, then go effect on Venus. Early studies of ozono­ talked about manned missions to Mars down to the lunar outpost for a month, sphere depletion by chlorofluorocarbons and about going back to the Moon, "to and then back to the space station for a were based on research on Venus ' atmo­ stay." I applaud that speech as far as it year-in this way modeling the Earth­ sphere. The antiseptic martian surface is went. It had some omissions and defi­ Mars transit, the Mars surface excur­ what happens when your ozone goes ciencies- some of which perhaps are a sion, and then the Mars-Earth return. away. Nuclear winter was discovered by matter of perceived political necessity. Martin stressed that during this period it planetary scientists who worked on mar­ Some of the omissions: There was no would be essential to keep the Mars goal tian dust storms. Additional unexpected mention of robotic precursor missions constantly before the public. environmental dangers may be discov­ to Mars or to the Moon or to anywhere How do you keep that Mars goal con­ ered by studies of other planets. NASA else. I think that is simply a detail. Pres­ stantly before the public while you have could do a much better job in justifying ident Kennedy's May 1961, "We're go­ astronauts on the Moon? You go to planetary exploration by stressing its ing to the Moon," speech didn't men­ Mars with robots. There's a succession role in protecting our small world. tion Rangers , Lunar Orbiters or of missions. Not just rovers and sample NASA must embrace another con­ Surveyors. We are not going to set peo­ returns but penetrators and balloons and stituency if the grand long-term initia­ ple down on Mars without much more orbiters-a wide range of fully justified tive to send people to Mars is to become robotic exploration of the planet-for missions to Mars and elsewhere. a reality: the peace constituency. 1 safety reasons and to maximize scien­ If we are interested in exploring the would have been much happier with Mr. tific and other return. planets with humans, it's fair to ask us Bush's speech if it had included a sen­ There was no mention of the possi­ to compete- to justify why we want to tence that began something like: "I will bility that the design of space station or spend all this money in the face of so propose to Mr. Gorbachev that together heavy-lift vehicles needs to be recon­ many other pressing demands on the we . .. " The idea of the United States sidered in the light of this new goa\. discretionary federal budget. I believe and the Soviet Union engaged in a stir­ This follows in a very natural way from there are excellent arguments, but we ring, peaceful, high technology, long­ the Mars goal. If we are serious about have to make them. There are only two term goal of clear historical importance, the Mars goal, we want a space station sources for this money if we do not dip bringing the two nations together in a focused on long-duration spaceflight into taxes specifically earmarked for great enterprise, sealing the end of the both at zero-g and "spun up" for artifi­ other vital purposes. Since more than 50 Cold War, can justify the Mars initiative cial gravity. We need practice in "storm percent of non-earmarked taxes already to many people who are left untouched shelters" to protect interplanetary crews goes to the Department of Defense by quasi-religious arguments of the at times of violent solar flares. We need (DOD), the only sources for this money "because it is there" variety. to develop vehicle assembly skills in are either new taxes or the DOD budget. There is so much that can be done Earth orbit. These are the sorts of things We have all heard the President's view if these two nations work together. Polls . that should be the focus of the US space on taxes. That leaves the DOD budget. indicate that a properly prepared and station. But that's the main place that funds presented program would be supported There is no question that if we' re for all the other social issues must come by the American people. imagining a human mission to Mars in from. The key issue before NASA then In the long run, the binding up of the the 201Os, NASA needs intermediate is broadening its constituency-demon­ wounds on Earth and the exploration of milestones. The Moon is certainly there, strating to citizens not passionately fond Mars might go hand-in-hand, each ac­ it's only a few days distant, and it's a of spaceflight for its own sake that it is tivity aiding the other. The first voyage reasonable place to test things out. in their interest and in the national inter­ of men and women from our planet to To me a lunar "outpost" means a est that a set of slow steps extended over Mars is clearly the key step in transform­ small intermittently occupied facility; a a period of decades be organized toward ing us into a multi planet species. 0 I------~------===~- ----

The Planetary Society initiated Voy ­ ager Watch to involve its members and the public in the historic Grand Tour of the outer solar system, climaxed by the Neptune encounter. From Kennesaw, Georgia to Kuala Lumpur, more than 46,000 Planetary Society members re­ ceived invitations to local Voyager Watch activities, and everyone was in­ vited to join Society staff and advisors in Pasadena for Planetfest '89. With partial funding from the Norris Foundation, The Planetary Society de­ veloped Voyager Watch as an outreach program to educate and excite the public about planetary exploration and the dis­ covery of new worlds. The program had Voyager information packets, loaning outer planets; and more than a thousand three main components: distributing free out audiovisual materials on the Grand people attended a 24-hour Voyager Tour to science organizations and Watch in Ohio cosponsored by the As­ schools, and cosponsoring Voyager tronomy Club of Akron. ISU Tunes In Voyager Watch Watch events worldwide. From Georgia, Wes McCoy wrote The Voyager Watch packets were a that the "Cobb County Voyager Watch In a special international Voyager Watch hit. We've filled more than 4,000 orders, was a complete success despite pouring activity, The Planetary Society helped ar­ and many people asked for extras to be rain and intense lightning. Fourteen high range for images of the Neptune system sent to sons, daughters, siblings or col­ school science club students greeted at to be broadcast live to Strasbourg, France, leagues. About half of the requests came least 420 Voyager Watch participants site of this year's session of the Interna­ from teachers who planned to use the in­ from 11 different Georgia counties . . .. tional Space University. (The ISU is a formation packets in the classroom. nonprofit, interdisciplinary institution de­ Among several overseas requests was signed to educate the world's future space one from a Leningrad member who pe­ -professionals.) riodically gives talks for schoolchildren. More than a thousand people gathered As one teacher said, "Who knows, per­ in the city's grand new conference and haps we'll stimulate some dreams of be­ music center on the evening of August 25. ing a human solar system explorer." William J. Kosmann of JPL and Mikhail Each information packet included a Marov of Moscow's Institute of Applied reservation form for borrowing special Mathematics were on hand to provide audiovisual materials: the videotape The false color commentary as views from Voyager ap­ Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus and The in this picture peared line by line on a giant television Grand Tour, a slide and audiotape set of Neptune screen. Strange cloud bands and spots on developed by The Planetary Society for highlights details of cloud Neptune were revealed, and though the Voyager Watch. Al Hibbs, the "Voice of structures and program ended before highest-resolution Voyager" through all the planetary en­ gives an images of Triton came in, the audience counters, narrates the 40-slide show. indication of their altitude. was enthralled. The most satisfying aspect of Voy - Highest-altitude Afterward Nina Uche, a Nigerian ager Watch was the chance it gave features have a journalist and student at ISU, and James members of The Planetary Society and pinkish tinge. Screening out Logan, the University's provost, led a general public to meet others who the ultraviolet discussion by four people who had all shared their excitement for planetary enabled Voyager experienced space travel: Oleg Atkov of exploration. And thousands took advan­ 2' s wide-angle the' USSR; Jean-Louis Chretien and Patrick camera to look tage of that opportunity, at events rang­ deep into the Baudry of France; and Bruce McCandless ing from small star parties to all-night atmosphere at of the US. Neptune vigils. To name a few such the Great Dark By the end of the evening all who at­ events: hundreds watched Triton at Tri­ Spot and other lower-altitude tended, including the ISU faculty and its ton-that is, the Cernan Space Center regions, which 125 students from 26 nations, knew they of Triton College, River Grove, Illinois; appear dark had shared a once-in-a-lifetime adventure. members in Dublin, Ireland met in blue. -James D. Burke, Technical Editor Phoenix Park to train telescopes on the Image: JPUNASA The Neptune encounter and Planetfest '89 activities were the perfect occasion for the dedication of The Planetary So­ ciety's international headquarters build­ ing, which we now own, and for thank­ ing our members, who donated $250,000 for the down payment. Our monthly payment, which now goes to­ ward equity, is roughly the same amount that we used to pay in rent. The building is a Craftsman classic, the work of the renowned architectural team of Charles and Henry Greene. Built in 1903, the same year the Wright brothers first demonstrated that craft heavier than air could fly, the Society's headquarters building has been witness to several generations of rapid teclmo­ logical change, as Pasadena has be­ got officially under way. Gathering The students set up an inspired refresh­ come the center of US planetary sci­ members and guests around the hearth, ment stand, selling MOON pies, MARS ence. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory we unveiled five plaques containing bars, and a punch we called the Pan and California Institute of Technology nearly 1,500 names of members who Galactic Gargle Blaster!" are within a few minutes of our offices. donated $100 or more to the Interna­ Voyager Watch owes its success to the Members and staff alike think this tional Headquarters Building Fund. many Planetary Society members who house is a fitting place to carryon the [Note: we still have a substantial mort­ participated. To quote one final letter: work of supporting the exploration of gage and room for many more donors "It has been great! And now we have the cosmos and the search for extrater­ if you would like your name added to Magellan and Calileo to look forward restrial intelligence. our honor roiL] And then the party to!" -Susan Lendroth, Manager of The formal dedication took place on moved outside, where refreshment ta­ Events and Communications August 23, the day before Planetfest bles were set up so that members could meet and talk about things planetary in the afternoon sunshine (and perhaps bask in the glow of home ownership). Meanwhile, latecomers continued to line up on the front porch to sign the guest register. Everyone was encour­ aged to roam around the house, either on their own or guided by staff mem­ bers, who like to point out the spring­ loaded secret door in the paneling of the finance and personnel office. Soci­ ety President Carl Sagan and Vice Pres­ ident Bruce Murray were on hand to greet members from all over the US and around the world. Throughout August and September we have had visitors drop in, some to view the plaque with their name, others just to see where our work is conduct­ ed. House tours are popular, as are vis­ its to the sales department with the many items available to members at discount prices. Work is back to normal now that Planetfest '89 and the Nep­ tune encounter are over, but the wel­ come mat is still out for members who may be in the Pasadena area. We'll be happy to show you the secret door. -Tim Lynch, Director of Programs and Development 5 For Planetary Society President Carl Sagan and Vice President Bruce Murray it has become a tradition, on the eve of a plane­ tary encounter, to invite representatives of the artistic, political and academic communities for a discussion of science and dis­ covery and their meaning, beyond the realm of the specialist,for humankind. Thefirst such symposium, "Mars and the Mind of Man, " brought together novelist Arthur C. Clarke, New York Times science editor Walter Sullivan and poet and novelist Ray Bradbury as Mariner 9 orbited the Red Planet. Other panelsfol­ lowed upon Voyager I 's encounter with Jupiter in 1979 and Sat­ urn in 1980, and Voyager 2' s encounter with Uranus in 1986. Then on August 23, 1989---about 53 hours before Voyager 2's closest approach to Neptune-Sagan and Murray were joined by William Goetzmann of the University of Texas at Austin, a distin­ guished historian of exploration , and Ed Stone, Voyager Project Scientist, before an audience of2,000 at the Pasadena Civic Au­ ditorium. Here we reprint a sampling of their talks on Voyager's final planetary encounter. - Karl Stull, Copy Editor

Carl Sagan talking about the origin of life per se. to me that such a picture can have a very Tonight it is my job to praise, to extol, But many of the steps happening in the powerful influence on our understand­ to celebrate the astonishing triumph of atmosphere of Titan today are the kinds ing of ourselves. the Voyager mission. This is high tech­ of first chemical steps that occurred in The two Voyager spacecraft, which nology at its best. the early history of the Earth at the time were not only managed but physically It is rocket technology that launches of the origin of life, some 4 billion years constructed at the Jet Propulsion Labo­ Voyager to the planets and ultimately to ago. ratory, came in on time, on cost, and the stars. It is nuclear technology that After Voyager 2 passes Neptune, it vastly exceeding the design specifica­ provides the power source. In fact, it's will encounter no more planets as far as tions of the manufacturers. They were not just any old radioisotope-it's pluto­ we know. But it is by no means the end guaranteed only to work out to Saturn in nium that powers the Voyager space­ of the Voyager mission. There is an ex­ 1980 and 1981. Well, here it is 1989, craft. Precisely the same technology traordinary opportunity coming up a few and both spacecraft are working phe­ used for the apparatus of nuclear war, months from now, and that is for one or nomenally well. Voyager uses for historic, praiseworthy, both Voyager spacecraft to look back at The engineers are getting smarter exploratory goals that harm no one. the solar system and photograph the faster than the spacecraft is getting Even America's adversaries admire and stupid. And so, the spacecraft is able to respect Voyager. We have here much to be do things in the Neptune system it was proud of. I think it's a great pity the unable to do in the Uranus, Saturn and I will not run through the multitude of engineers responsible for Jupiter systems. I think it's a great pity discoveries that Voyager has made in its this spacecraft are not that the engineers responsible for this exploration of 50 worlds. But let me just better known. I mean known spacecraft are not better known. I mean mention two areas in which Voyager has persona"y-thelr names known personally-their names known. played a fundamental role. Think of known. They should be on They should be on the postage stamps. how central they are to our understand­ the postage stamps. Think of how useful that would be in a ing of where we come from. society concerned about generating One set of findings, coming from -Car/Sagan enough scientists and engineers to stay studies of moons and ring systems, is competitive internationally. the idea that worlds are destroyed- not From here on, the job of exploration once but many times-destroyed by planets against the background stars. of the solar system is much more fo­ cometary impact and then reformed You can imagine Jupiter a few pixels in cused: It is to gain detailed understand­ from the debris. size, Saturn slightly elongate because ing of worlds of particular interest. One The other has to do with the abun­ the rings will give that aspect. Then of the most exciting prospects, called for dance of organic chemistry in the outer maybe over here on the other side of the in speeches in the last two years by the solar system. Voyager has, particularly Sun will be a little red dot, and that'll be President of the Soviet Union and the at Titan, revealed a world in which or­ Mars. And a slightly yellowish dot and President of the United States, is send­ ganic molecules are being made today at that will be Venus. And there between ing human beings to the planet Mars. enormous rates. Temperatures are, of them a little blue dot- that'll be us. The Soviets have explicitly called on course, so low that liquid water is not a That's all we are from Neptune- a blue the United States to join them in the ex­ 6 commonplace on Titan, so we are not dot. That's home. That's Earth. It seems ploration of Mars with robots and ma- chines. The Soviets have adopted the pressures. But it was accumulated as essentially come and go in a few days ' program of The Planetary Society. Now ice. The giant planets formed far from time. A surprisingly active atmosphere there is just one small remaining step. the Sun where water was frozen and for having such a feeble energy source. And that is for the United States to rec­ therefore could be easily accumulated to We have found that there is indeed a ognize that this grand program should make giant planets. The most remote complete ring around Neptune. This from the beginning be international, in­ planets formed so far from the Sun that ring is so faint that when a star goes be­ volving the Europeans, the Japanese and hind it, no more than 2 percent of the the Soviets . I hope the first human foot­ starlight is occulted. From Earth it was falls on Mars come soon-maybe 2010, [A Voyager encounter I just not measurable. Even in Voyager 2015,2020. The Voyager spacecraft will provides a snapshot of the images it's just barely measurable. Right then still be sending their information whole scientific process of next to it is one of the new moons which back to Earth. So if I'm still around, I discovery-years of activity Voyager has discovered. It's likely that look forward to the concatenation of hu­ compressed into a matter of a moon has something to do with that ring mans on Mars and the Voyager space­ week or even a few days. being where it is. Perhaps it's a shep­ craft entering the interstellar medium -EdSfone herd moon. We believe narrow rings re­ sometime in the first or second decade quire some sort of shepherding mecha­ of the 21 st century-the beginning of nism-that is, bodies in orbit inside and the third millennium. outside of each ring . .. there was a lot of methane, and Ed Stone methane, which is natural gas, absorbs William Goetzmann Those of us who have been involved the red sunlight so the reflected sunlight I'm the historian here. My specialty is with the Voyager Project have been ex­ looks blue-green. So the colors--even not Neptune; I've written on the history ceedingly fortunate. One thing I've no­ the colors-are telling us that we are of exploration, and I've come to con­ ticed about these encounters-this is seeing planets which differ from Earth clude that exploration is a social and now the sixth-two with Jupiter, two because of the conditions under which cultural process. It's hard to get pictures with Saturn, one with Uranus, and now they formed. of processes. But let me take you back Neptune-it provides a snapshot of the In Voyager' s images of Neptune, we in time to give you some idea that there whole scientific process of discovery­ discovered a large, dark spot, which is are precedents for what we are seeing years of activity compressed into a mat­ just a bit darker than the blue-green col­ today. ter of a week or even a few days. And or of the planet. That spot is about the In anticipation of the transit of Venus that is really an incredible experience. size of the Earth. Further south we across the face of the Sun in 1769, there Another interesting aspect is that ev­ found a smaller dark spot with a nice were 151 observers with varying kinds eryone can sit in their living room and, white cloud at its center. They look like of instruments watching from 78 sta­ essentially at the same time, share in the huge hurricane-like storm systems. tions around the world, under all sorts of discoveries that the scientists and engi­ Now all this dynamic activity is a sur­ conditions from the decks of ships on neers are making. prise because winds require energy rolling seas to remote stations with The project started in 1972. One of - some source of energy to drive them. primitive instruments, as the scientific those names that Carl was mentioning, The amount of energy available to drive world prepared to watch the planet on who should be remembered, is Bud the wind system on Neptune is only its mysterious parade across the life-giv­ Schurmeier, now retired [from JPL; he about 1/20th of that available at Jupiter ing Sun. heads up the Society'S Mars Balloon to drive its Great Red Spot. Yet at Nep­ To give you some idea of the intense guide-rope design team] who as project tune we fmd a Great Dark Spot, we find American interest in the transit of manager oversaw the design of the a small dark spot, we find clouds, which Venus, David Rittenhouse of Philadel- spacecraft, which was so essential to the ability. of subsequent generations of en­ gineers to extend Voyager's reach. The spacecraft design was such that we have Low-level tlightover been able to extend it by a factor of nine Triton isa beyond its original design capability. computer­ Quite a remarkable tribute, not only to generated effect: In a Schurmeier and his team but to the cur­ process rent generation of engineers who called photo­ learned how to take advantage of all the clinometry, the computer capability that was built into it so clev­ scans the erly 15 years ago. amount of Voyager returned images of Jupiter, light in every partot a Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Even planetary Uranus and Neptune, which are rather image to make small compared to Jupiter and Saturn, an elevation map,andso are four times the diameter of the Earth. infers shape We believe buried deep inside of these from shading. giant planets there is perhaps an object Geometric about the size of the Earth- somewhat reprojection provides the more massive- made of rocky material low angle ot and a lot of icy material, which is melt­ view. ed because of the great temperatures and Image: JPUNASA phia intercepted a lens destined for John Winthrop at Harvard, who was also go­ ing to view Venus. He used it to make his own powerful telescope, working day and night for the great event. June 3, 1769 found him ready, lying prone in a muddy field just outside of Philadel­ phia, propped up by an assistant, every muscle tense, his eyes fastened to the telescope. Then, just as Venus made its appearance on the edge of the Sun's disc, he signaled contact and promptly fell into a dead faint out of sheer excite­ ment. Lucky man, his swoon lasted six minutes, so he came to just in time to record the planet's disappearance from the Sun's face. Exploration is a special searching ac­ characterizing a tremendous range of behind Modernism were quantum me­ tivity invented by humans perhaps ecologies. Here the great figure of the chanics, Heisenberg's uncertainty prin­ 40,000 years ago, as evidenced by those age was the father of modem geography, ciple, relativity theory and Freud's dis­ first daring people who crossed over the Alexander von Humboldt, a scientific covery of the subconscious. Modernism landbridge from Asia to North America. adventurer who braved the tangled jun­ engendered a Third Great Age of Dis­ It was not an automatic reflex, else all gles and vampire bats and electric eels covery and made new heroes of explo­ that could stun a horse. (He found out ration: Yuri Gagarin; John Glenn; and that electric eels could stun a horse after Neil Armstrong, who with Buzz Aldrin Then, just as Venus made its he tested it out on himself.) All this ac­ first set foot on the Moon, marking the appearance on the edge of tivity in the 18th and 19th centuries cre­ fantastic end of a journey contemplated the Sun's disc, he signaled ated a romantic, adventurous, scientific­ by dreamers for centuries. contact and promptly fell based Second Great Age of Discovery, The downside of Modernism has into a dead faint out of whose key figures were, besides Hum­ been a dangerous absorption with self sheer excitement. boldt, Captain James Cook, who charted and a total relativizing of values, creat­ the Pacific, and Charles Darwin, who ing what Tom Wolfe has called "the me -William Goetzmann made sense out of the world's infinitely generation." varied species. If for no other reason, it's because of As a result of scientific revolutions, this bleak prospect that we need C haL­ cultures would embrace exploration. A and these two great dramatic ages of Lenger and Viking and Voyager. They great many people stayed home in discovery, a third intellectual paradigm represent our curiosity and even respect Siberia, and we know that not all later began to appear. It would be called for the world outside ourselves, and a cultures embraced exploration. For ex­ Modernism. The scientific innovations distraction from the destructive potential ample, during the Ming dynasty the neo-Confucianists made a conscious ef­ fort to stop Chinese exploration and, for that matter, contact with the outside world. Documentable exploring activity ap­ pears to have taken place in three great ages-each one stimulated by the dis­ covery of a new scientific paradigm. The first of these, called by historians the Great Age of Discovery, was the age in which Columbus and Magellan are key figures. The motive for far-flung oceanic exploration in that age was os­ tensibly to out-flank the Islamic control of trade routes to Cathay, but it was also stimulated by the rediscovery of ancient geographical knowledge. In the latter 17th century-the age of Newton and Locke and others-a new age of discovery began to take shape, based on much more sophisticated sci­ ence that mapped the circumference of the Earth and began to track the solar system with some precision. Naturalists and mapmakers went forth over the 8 whole Earth collecting and mapping and and other planetary missions], and there would have been no Uranus or Neptune encounters. That almost hap­ l pened. The same society that could do something as extraordinary as Voyager almost walked away from it. That's the flip-side of the democratic system: that we can decide to be mediocre. We have the freedom of choice, and we exercise this throughout our society. Voyager survived. And through five presidents, eight Congresses, this achievement has gone on. And that's really a lesson on what we can do as a people if we so choose. On July 20, 1989 President Bush fi­ of the deadly atomic sublime. Instead, Bruce Murray nally gave a new destination for Ameri­ through these vehicles, which are exten­ Voyager at Neptune, surprisingly, had cans in space. This goal of a return to sions of ourselves, we have opened up a its origin in May 1961: That's when the Moon and on to Mars was a criti­ new environment, which may well enlist John F. Kennedy gave his Apollo cally important step. Without that, we the enthusiasms of all the nations of speech, which was a Cold War response Earth. to the stunning Soviet success with With respect to Voyager and other Sputnik, and with Yuri Gagarin, the first A proper role for humans in space probes, all we have to offer, I man in space. He made what turns out space is exploration, not think, is hope and the healthy-minded to be a brilliant decision to commit the driving a truck. The tragedy curiosity that enables a civilized people US to a muscle-flexing endeavor, tech­ of Challenger was that to welcome the future and continue to nologically, but one that was positive, we killed seven brave and search for, and absorb and make use of, open and full of real achievement­ admirable people trying to the new and novel. both personal and scientific. launch a communications As we reach out to the solar system, When the US was in that business of satellite. We ought we demonstrate belief in ourselves. In a exploring space with men, we also had to face that. chance universe, we bet on a chance that gotten into the business of exploring -Bruce Murray the new galactic knowledge may be the space with robots. With one exception salvation of the Earth. Far beyond the all the probes that have flown to plan­ planets we may well find the inspiration ets, including Voyager, were begun be­ that sustains our civilization, that has fore or while there were astronauts on were doomed to a permanent medi­ room for many cultures, including the the Moon. Voyager-originally, the ocrity as a spacefaring nation. Thirteen culture of theoretical science. Mariner-Jupiter-Saturn mission-was billion dollars, which is the NASA bud­ approved in 1972. Only the Pioneer get now, wouldn't make any difference Venus mission was started later and if we didn't have a place to go. completed. A proper role for humans in space is Voyager 2 is out there performing exploration, not driving a truck. The better than we had ever intended or ex­ truck driving is okay as a part of it. The pected. It's radioing the data back to a tragedy of Challenger was that we society that's completely changed. killed seven brave and admirable peo­ A distinct boundary Many things are better, some not so ple trying to launch a communications separates the good. It keeps on going, setting the satellite. We ought to face that. We terrains of standards for us. We should hope to do ought to be honest with ourselves as Triton: the brighter, hemi­ as extraordinary a thing in the future. people. We lived a fantasy. We paid a spheric ice cap I want to remind you of something. price, both in life and in our capacity to turns abruptly Just eight years ago in the late summer, do new things. into the darker terrain with its early fall of 1981, there was an attempt But we have an opportunity for re­ highway-like to readjust the priorities of the federal birth and renewal. I believe that the features. Visible government. David Stockman, who Bush proposal is very serious. There's in the bright was head of OMB [Office of Manage­ going to be debate for several years terrain are dozens of dark ment and Budget] under Reagan, was over it. We will, I hope, come out with smudges, per­ trying to implement in a logical way an international program that's broadly haps indicating the priorities which were going to be supported in the United States and rep­ airborne materi­ als spewed from imposed. resents a new level of US interaction active fumaroles There was a serious budget proposal with the rest of the world. We have the (volcanic vents debated in Washington that would have opportunity. We also have the capacity in the crust) and carried to the not only killed Magel/an, not only to become simply a consumer nation northeast by killed Calileo, but it also would have and mortgage ourselves to the Japanese winds. descoped the DSN [Deep Space Net­ and go down the tubes. All these things Image: JPUNASA work, whose antennas track Voyager are possible. 0 9 l

For one bright night of Planetfest '89, sounds and sights of Earth to whatever artists-Robert McCall of the United Planetary Society people traded the at­ civilization might encounter the space­ States and Andrei Sokolov of the Soviet tire and accoutrements of work for ball craft on their never-ending journeys Union-recalled the inspiration they gowns and black ties at a gala dinner through the galaxy. have drawn from Voyager, as did writers celebrating Voyager. (However, at least The breadth of appreciation and af­ Patrick Moore from the United King­ one engineer, Society Executive Direc­ fection for Voyager was reflected in the dom and Robert Forward of the US. tor Louis Friedman, was seen to be diversity of guests who accepted The Gene Roddenberry, creator of "Star wearing his calculator watch.) Over 400 Planetary Society's invitation to cele­ Trek," once again showed his support people packed the Athenaeum of the brate the mission with us. The current for the space program and The Planetary California Institute of Technology to en­ NASA Administrator, Richard Truly, Society. joy good food and to reminisce about and two former agency heads, Thomas A contingent of astronauts, including the doughty little spacecraft that have Paine and James Fletcher, mingled with Buzz Aldrin, added glamour to the occa­ now completed the first exploration of a large contingent of Society volunteers sion. Four past and present Voyager Pro­ the outer planets. who were taking a break from their ex­ ject Managers-Bud Schurmeier, John It was a night to remember and for hausting festival duties. Also on hand Casani, Ek Davis and Norm Haynes­ remembering. Society President and were the number two through five rank­ joined Project Scientist Ed Stone in Voyager imaging team member Carl ing NASA officials and the President of remembering some of the stories behind Sagan described the highlights and Caltech. The leaders of the three main Voyager's accomplishments. significance of the Voyager odyssey. Soviet space agencies-Valery Bar­ Leaders of industry, scholars, mem­ Voyager has recorded so many "firsts" sukov of the Vernadsky Institute, Roald bers of Congress, members of the New in its 12-year adventure, there can nev­ Kremnev of Glavkosmos and Alec Millennium Committee of The Plane­ er be another mission like it. The initial Galeev of the Space Research Institute tary Society and many other friends reconnaissance of the solar system­ - joined in saluting Voyager with past joined us in this salute to Voyager, even except for Pluto--is complete. Directors of the Jet Propulsion Labora­ as the spacecraft were carrying the best Artist and Society Consultant Jon tory William Pickering and Bruce Mur­ wishes of Earth out to the universe. Lomberg told of the development of the ray and present Director Lew Allen. -Charlene M. Anderson, Director of Voyager record, which is carrying the Two of the world 's leading space Publications

NearlY 2,000 Planetfest enthusiasts a description of the television system, make the first close-up images of the crowded into the exhibition hall of the which delivered some of the best im­ lunar surface. But designing the instru­ Pasadena Center on August 26, 1989 ages to date of Mars' diminutive moon ment was only the beginning. They had to hear five Soviet space scientists Phobos. to persuade the bureaucrats that such a describe the Mars and Phobos data Margarita Naraeva of Glavkosmos device could have been produced by a acquired by the Phobos 2 spacecraft. (the space engineering organization) couple of independents who were, in Alexander Zakharov, Project Sci­ delighted the crowd with a tale of indi- . effect, working out of a garage. They entist for Phobos and Scientific Secre­ vidual enterprise. As young and rather were successful, and so was Luna 9. tary of the Space Research Institute, led obscure engineers, she and a colleague For the Phobos mission Naraeva off with an overview of the mission, worked on their own to develop a scan­ worked on the termoskan instrument, a from launch to its premature end in ning instrument that would eventually scanning radiometer that produced March 1989. He described the orbital geometry and the principal experiments aboard. He also mentioned some inter­ esting solar observations sent back by Valles Marineris, Phobos 2. spanning nearly Vasily Moroz, head of the planetary a fifth of the martian globe, science department of the Space Re­ was imaged by search Institute, discussed the overall the termoskan. objectives of the Mars measurements, The light and dark shading which included readings from the Sovi­ represents et/French instrument called the ISM. differences in This scanning instrument, a novel in­ heat radiated from the surface, frared spectrometer, acquired important with the lightest information about both the surface and areas being atmosphere of Mars. hottest. Boris Zhukov, key member of the I~ : MlJrg.rlta HartJeVB, 10 Phobos television team, followed with GlBvkosmos rimanbekov Togrul to Michael Car­ roll's glinting Particle Beam at Pho­ bos. Curious onlookers kneeled to get a better view into Richard Murry's Star Base Colony of Condradonn, a three­ dimensional glimpse of what it might be like to live in a city of alien spires The International Space Art Show at and pearl-like minarets. Planetfest '89 was a marvelous celebra­ Exploration of the universe is a sub­ tion of humankind's first chapter of ject of study for artists as well as scien­ planetary exploration. Thousands of tists. Art can communicate the wonder visitors strolled quietly through the dis­ at the heart of science. The imagination play of more than a hundred paintings, has the power to take us where our exploring far beyond Earth's bound­ spacecraft have yet to go, to envision aries, from the exuberant, splashy the myriad possibilities of other worlds. Galaxy Metamorphosis diptych by Na- For astronomical artists, Planetfest '89 was a time to gain vision for future work and to excite the public about space exploration through completed works. Planetfest attracted artists from around the world, including nine from the Soviet Union who were brought over through the efforts of The Plane­ tary Society and the International Asso­ ciation for the Astronomical Arts (IAAA) and the generosity of the Soros Foundation. The show represented a wide range of styles, from the compelling realism of John R. Foster to the fantastic imaginings of Beth Avary and V. A. Myagkov. Mark Mercury's Moon Pic­ nic offered a wry look at the recreation­ al side of space, with fully suited astro­ thermal-infrared images of the surface Following the presentation, ques­ nauts enjoying an old-fashioned picnic of Mars at higher resolution than even tions from the audience were handled and a game of catch. Andrei Sokolov's the Mars Observer instrument will be in a very open style, with a free give study of the Mississippi River Basin as able to acquire. (For more on the ter­ and take on such general-interest topics seen from the Soyuz spacecraft was ac­ moskan, see page 22 of the July/August as the Soviet attitude toward piloted companied by working sketches that il­ 1989 Planetary Report.) spaceflight and the US shuttle program. luminated the creative process. Leonid Ksanfomaliti from the Space This forum was one of the first occa­ The response to the art show was Research Institute completed the panel. sions for person-to-person, two-way overwhelmingly positive. Visitors lined He described the KRFM experiment, a communication between an American up next to Dennis Davidson's evocative multichannel filter spectrometer cover­ lay audience and Soviet scientists. I moonscapes to have their pictures tak­ ing wavelengths from the ultraviolet to hope it will prove a step toward a much en. The artists and their work were the infrared. The KRFM studied the broader dialog between scientists and covered by three national television martian surface and atmosphere and also an interested public in both countries. networks as well as by several local observed Phobos. -Bruce Murray, Vice President newspapers and television stations. Anyone interested in another show­ ing can see the traveling exhibit at San Diego's Reuben H. Fleet Space Theater or, in 1991, at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museum. The International Space Art Show was part of a program of workshops and exhibitions jointly sponsored by The Planetary Society, the IAAA and the Union of Artists of the USSR. Called "Dialogues: Communication through the Art of the Cosmos," this program began in 1987 when the Sovi­ et Union invited a number of IAAA members to travel there and exhibit their work. -Deirdre von Dornum, Editorial Assistant 11 by Clark R. Chapman

Never before have human beings sent "highway interchange"? And the "black were poised 10 kilometers (6 miles) an explorer so far to study a new place. mushroom"? And the "cantaloupe" ter­ over some of the dark streaks. At the Voyager's fmal encounter, at our plane­ rain? This is a frigid world at 37 kelvins very least, in Soderblom's estimation, tary system's periphery, was destined to (minus 236 degrees Celsius). Out in the they were active within the last century, boost our knowledge more than any realm of comets, how can it be so de­ as this hemisphere of Triton has been previous planetary encounter. Nearer void of impact craters? slowly approaching its summer. planets had been scrutinized through As in previous encounters, Voyager telescopes or visited by precursor geologists had to consider the possibili­ Results Keep Coming probes. But distant Neptune, not even ty that an apparently dead, frozen moon Voyager scientists have only skimmed known to exist until the last century, re­ remains geologically active to this day, the cream from the data received dur­ mained a tiny, fuzzy blob in our largest despite the lack of a plausible internal ing the few short days of the August telescopes. Voyager's swingby, 12 source of energy. Just after the en­ encounter. As the reporters were leav­ years after its launch, was our first counter Larry Soderblom of the US ing Pasadena on Monday, August 28, chance to study that dimly lit world Geological Survey told astonished re­ plasma wave and infrared data from en­ close up. Since the rare Grand Tour porters that he thought Triton's geysers counter night, which had been stored alignment of Jupiter and Saturn has were still active. They might have been on Voyager's digital tape recorder, were passed, gravity assists to the outer solar erupting as Voyager watched: Clouds still crossing the four "light-hours" system won't be feasible again for many years. Voyager's studies of Nep­ tune may be the last in our lifetime. There were new moons, rings, ring arcs within rings, ethereal cloud fea­ tures (casting shadows!), an unexpect­ edly skewed magnetic field- this was a magnificent fmal opportunity for com­ parative planetology.

Triton: Star of the Show There were no oceans of liquid nitro­ gen. Nor was there appreciable global haze to shield this large moon from our view, as Saturn's Titan was hidden by its Qrganic smog. Atmosphere there was, including haze layers, clouds (volcanic plumes?) and - hard to believe-wind streaks remi­ niscent of Mars. All this weather was present despite Triton's minimal baro­ metric pressure, which is only a hun­ dred-thousandth of sea-level pressure on Earth. Once again, a new world's geol­ ogy seemed to defy description, let alone interpretation. Geologists do their science through ·analogy with features they already un­ derstand. They drew parallels with Mars, Ganymede, Enceladus, Ariel, Mi­ ABOVE: The "black mushroom" is one of three irregularly shaped, bright-bordered spots in this image of Triton, showing an expanse of randa and many other bodies, but the about 1,000 kilometers (600 miles). pictures on these pages tell the true sto­ RIGHT: The Great Dark Spot was snapped in a "close up" just 45 hours ry: Triton is unique, and it will take before Voyager 2' s closest approach to Neptune. The ethereal beauty of years before its complex geology is un­ the storm is highlighted by the intricate wispy structure of the adjacent 12 derstood. What can we make of the cirrus-like clouds. Images: JPUNASA back to Earth. The radio science team ter encounter, and so was Enceladus at tist to see Voyager's first image of a had not yet received its 992 pounds of Saturn (see July/August Planetary Re­ neptunian ring arc. He was on the mid­ l magnetic tape from the Canberra track­ port). After the Uranus encounter Ariel night shift, watching the monitors in ing station by the end of Tuesday's and remarkable Miranda amazed scien­ Building 264 at the Jet Propulsion Lab­ "final" press conference, where re­ tists again, and now Triton has done it oratory (JPL) on Friday, August 11. He searchers tried to summarize Voyager's too. Planetary geologists have yet to awakened colleagues in the middle of discoveries. see Pluto (perhaps Triton's twin). It's the night, one of whom came in with a Many new results will appear in the safe to say, with CRAF/Cassini on the bottle of champagne. "thirty-day report" in Science magazine horizon, that asteroids and comets may The two ring arcs announced to the late this year, and still more will be an­ yet astonish us. press later that day were faint. A week nounced at a December geophysics after the press release, the ring scien­ meeting. But the real work of under­ Arcs or Rings? tists had not confirmed the existence of standing Voyager's observations of the The neptunian mystery of "ring arcs" the inner arc. They were up against a outermost solar system will take years. was a special target in the design of deadline for specifying camera-point­ When the Voyager science teams Voyager's encounter sequences. In the ing parameters for the "retargetable" were selected in the mid-1970s, only early 1980s astronomers noted that just ring-arc pictures. (Voyager's picture­ one geologist was included. The outer before Neptune passed in front of a taking schedule had long been frozen, solar system, after all, consisted of "gas star, the star would blink out. The but flexibility remained to change the bag" planets, interesting only to physi­ blinkouts were seen only rarely, and not camera's aim as new targets were dis­ cists, astronomers and cosmochemists. in pairs as required by the geometry of covered during the fmal weeks.) They Planetary satellites were frozen rocks of a ring: If a star seems to pass into a decided to home in on what appeared to little importance, or so we thought then. ring, it must pass out again too. As­ be three discrete arcs that were all That all changed in 1979 when the tronomers couldn't decide if Neptune stretched out in the same orbit. two Voyagers flew by Jupiter. Add-on was surrounded by moonlets, or quite As the images later revealed, Nep­ Voyager geologists still resist accepting what. Finally they settled on ring arcs, tune has complete rings after all. They how easy it is for interesting things to or incomplete rings, as the most likely are not as splendid as Saturn's rings, happen in the frigid outer solar system, explanation. Theories emerged to ac­ nor as dense as the uranian rings where water and water ice play the count for why ring particles might (which explains the sporadic ground­ roles of lava and terrestrial rock. 10 and bunch up into discrete clumps. based observations: Neptune's rings are Europa were shockers during the Jupi- Mark Showalter was the lucky scien- too tenuous, except at "arc" segments,

ABOVE: This remarkable view of Neptune's cirrus-like clouds is the first good picture of cloud shadows on any of the outer planets. The cloud streaks are between 50 and 200 kilometers (30 to 130 miles) long. From measurement of shadow widths and consideration of the Sun's direction, scientists estimate the height of the clouds above the lower cloud deck to be about 50 kilometers. Image: JPUNASA 13 ------_.

to block starlight). Still Neptune has a encounter was right? None of them Neptune's second moon, Nereid, unique ring sheet extending inward was. One theory, for example, required wasn't discovered until 1949, and that from the gap between the two brightest the presence of a large neptunian moon took one of the world's largest tele­ rings most of the way toward the plan­ in a tilted orbit, but no such moon ex­ scopes. (Voyager did not pass near et. Preliminary analyses suggest that ists. Voyager has proven that planetary enough to Nereid to reveal much: It is a the seemingly faint sheet is composed rings-once thought to be unique to medium-dark object about 350 kilome­ of larger particles than the more visible Saturn-commonly encircle planets, ters, or 220 miles, across.) Before the rings. but physicists are only beginning to un­ encounter, scientists knew that dark While the three targeted ring arcs derstand the processes that mold them. satellites hundreds of kilometers across proved to be parts of a complete ring, could still be lurking near Neptune, un­ the question remains as to why ring New Moons and Few Moons detected from the ground. particles sometimes clump into arcs. Voyager could hardly not have found at In mid-July Voyager spotted 1989 Which of the theories published before least some new neptunian companions. Nl. JPL engineers programmed some

ABOVE: To show even the two most prominent rings, it was necessary to overexpose Neptune's crescent. The clumping of material into "ring arcs" is clearly visible, while there is just a hint of a third ring between the two main ones. RIGHT: The surprisingly nonspherical moon 1989 N1 bears a large crater-the result of a nearly world-shattering impact-and hints of smaller impacts. Discovered in early July by Voyager, 1989 N1 measures about 400 kilometers (250 miles) across, displacing Nereid as the second-largest moon of the neptunian system. Images: JPUNASA

14 retargetable frames to study the new have wiped out the dinosaurs on Earth about the early history of the solar sys­ moon, a black object that proved to be 65 million years ago. Only six new tem, may have been the slowest of the larger than Nereid and surprisingly ir­ moons had been announced by the final planets to be built up by accretion of l regular in shape. A large crater testified press conference, somewhat fewer than small bodies (planetesimals) and gas. If to a long-ago collision that nearly shat­ Project Scientist Ed Stone originally so, we would expect it to be surrounded tered the moon. As one Voyager scien­ predicted. However, some objects seen by much left-over debris. That is why tist remarked, "Nl is a survivor." in the images had been relegated to the its few moons and rather meager ring Other new moons sighted as the back burner during all the encounter system are a bit of a surprise. spacecraft closed in were disparagingly excitement; perhaps more moons are in During the encounter scientists tossed termed "rocks." Even so, the second the works. around the idea that Triton cleared out Voyager-discovered moon is an egg­ many of the moons. This suggestion shaped body having about 10,000 times Triton: A Loose Cannon? comes out of the possibility that Triton the mass of the projectile thought to Neptune, under the prevailing theory was captured long ago from an indepen­ dent orbit around the Sun after crashing into an earlier neptunian moon. Such a collision would explain Triton's pecu­ liar orbit, which carries it around Nep­ tune in the "wrong" direction compared with all other large moons. After the collision Triton's orbit around Neptune LEFT: The "highway intersection" on Triton bears some resem­ would at first have been very elongated; blance to icy features on other then tidal forces would have begun to outer-planet moons, such as circularize the orbit. Uranus' Ariel. But most of Triton 's topography is new to us For a billion years Triton would have and its origin mysterious. Despite been dragged through any pre-existing the vaguely circular structures satellite system. Tides would have heat­ seen here, Triton is notable for its virtual lack of impact craters. ed Triton's interior, keeping its surface Resolution in this image shows geologically active. This scenario, with details down to 2.5 kilometers Triton as a system-sweeping, hot-bel­ (1.6 miles). lied marauder, has gained enough BELOW: This "frozen lake " on standing that some theorists are now Triton is about 250 kilometers (150 miles) across. On a world surprised that even the six new satel­ where water ice (perhaps mixed lites remain, and in nicely flat, circular with ammonia) acts like rock, orbits, at that. fluid water is the analog of lava. The multiple layers of this terrain There are many mysteries to be ana­ resemble terrestrial volcanic lyzed in the coming months and years. craters known as calderas. As for the impact crater within the lake, it is one of the largest detected The Great Eye of Neptune anywhere on this crater-poor The central and most beautiful part of moon. Images: JPUNASA the neptunian system is the planet it­ self. Early expectations that its deep at­ mosphere would show a wealth of de­ tail for measuring its winds proved false. Beyond the four spots that had been charted for weeks, few other cloud features stayed put long enough. Neptune's great "eye" (the Great Dark Spot) and associated currents glide around with surprising ease and rapidi­ ty, throwing into question our theories about the comparative importance of sunlight and internally generated heat for driving planetary meteorology. Many instruments probed through Neptune's cloud layers and mapped out the planet's oddly tilted and offset mag­ netosphere. But the implications of all these measurements await more defini­ tive reduction of the data. For now, we can await Voyager's swan song, when it looks back toward the Sun next spring and photographs our whole solar sys­ tem before it sails out into the cosmos.

Clark R. Chapman will resume his "News and Reviews" column in the next issue. 15 On the Saturday evening of Planet­ times. "Throughout human history," he writer: "On Mercury you had the little fest, a constellation of some of the said, "almost every civilization has had a tiny people; on Jupiter you had the big, brightest stars in science fiction assem­ golden age that they looked back to. And fat ones. They all did about the same bled for a panel discussion, for which it the way people won arguments over thing. They came to Earth to steal our was my pleasure to serve as moderator. what was true was to find the oldest text. women and our water." Robert L. Forward talked about sev­ Today, it's hard for us to conceive of it He described himself as an optimist, eral concepts now only proposed in that way. If you want to find out what's yet he presented the panel's gloomiest physics journals that, if true, would rev­ true, you find the latest review paper on forecast: "I think the ozone layer's in olutionize our societies. "Space warps the topic." trouble. I think that acid rain is probably and time machines," he said, "are al­ He told the audience that we should going to kill off most of the green stuff lowed by the general theory of relativi­ get out into space where there are infi­ on the Earth. But what makes me an op­ ty." He proposed using matter/antimatter nite resources that can make the whole timist is that I think that a few people rockets for space travel. planet wealthy. will survive and then maybe they'll have Gregory Benford remarked that The Larry Niven said, "The most danger­ the sense to do things right." Planetary Society is "one of the few ous thing you can see ahead of you is the The other writers were generally more groups in the world which you can truly falling level of education in this country." optimistic. Robert Forward seemed to say has the future in its bones, when He also drew attention to the specula­ capture the majority view when he said, there are many, it seems to me, that have tions of novelist Greg Bear, who says "There's no reason---except that we pre­ the past in their bones." that 50 years from now our descendants fer to use our money in other ways-that He suggested that we are at the end of will not be recognizably human. There we can't go to the Moon now, and go to the era of chemical exploration of the are "so many advances coming that it's Mars now, and go visit Triton a few solar system and offered nuclear propul­ just all going to change. I find this scary decades from now. Our future is really sion as the next step. because I can see some of it going on limited by our will and our desire and David Brin saw fusion rather than fis­ now." our imagination- a little bit. All we sion as the wave of the future for rock­ Frederik Pohl remarked on the need to do is get busy, and we can ex­ ets. He also reflected on a remarkable changes he has seen in ideas about ex­ plore the universe." -Thomas R. Mc­ change in human attitudes in modern traterrestrials during his decades as a Donough, SET! Coordinator

An international symposium of space J un Nis himura, Director General of ward, noting that political changes in leaders made a fitting conclusion for Japan's Institute of Space and Aeronau­ the USSR will have a major effect in Planetfest. The audience of 1,500 peo­ tical Science, outlined an ambitious defining mission planning in the next 'ple heard representatives from the Japanese plan for planetary exploration. decade. He emphasized that the world 's leading space agencies give Their new launch vehicle, being readied prospect of international cooperation their perspectives on the future of plan­ for a test flight next year, will inject a was an important factor in Soviet deci­ etary exploration. payload on a lunar swingby trajectory. A sions about which missions to fly as The discussion of international coop­ mission to put surface penetrators on well as the scope of missions. The eration was noteworthy, because these the Moon could be launched as early as Phobos and Mars '94 missions have leaders will have a great deal to do with 1995. Japan is studying a surface-pene­ planning any joint missions for the next trator mission to Venus for the same decade and beyond. Also of particular time period and a comet sample-return interest to Planetary Society members mission for the early 21 st century. (those who have been following our de­ J acques Blamont, chief scientist of RIGHT: Triton was velopment of the Mars Balloon guide­ France's Centre National d'Etudes Spa­ perhaps the most­ anticipated Voyager rope) were the several references to the tiales, was provocative as always. He of­ target since the use of balloons for exploring Mars and fered for discussion the idea that Mars saturnian moon Venus by the Soviet, French and could be used as a "toxic waste dump" Titan. And still the reality surpassed Japanese representatives. or as a site for many activities we are expectation when Carl Sagan, President of The Plane­ afraid to carry out on Earth (for exam­ Triton disclosed its tary Society, welcomed the audience ple, in genetic engineering). Carl Sagan, exotic, and appar­ entlyactive, terrain and invited them to look ahead to a in rebuttal, stressed our obligation not to to Voyager 2. resurgence and greater internationaliza­ make the same mistakes on other worlds FAR RIGHT: Within tion of planetary exploration. He noted that we've made on this one. the great expanse of the interest in human exploration of Vasily Moroz, head of the planetary Neptune's southern Mars as a major American/Soviet goal science department of the USSR's hemisphere, "D2" is one of three smaller and, supporting that goal, the robotic Space Research Institute, described am­ siblings of the Great missions now under study in all space- bitious Soviet plans for Mars explo­ Dark Spot. 16 faring countries. ration from the Mars '94 mission on- Images: JPUNASA supervisors and staff at every Planetfest venue-at the Planetary Society store, speakers' forum, film festival, exhibits and registration. Some enlisted to work for a four-hour tour, some were there all day for three days. The Planetfest crowds were enor­ mous, and the most demanding job of the entire festival was a stint in the Plan­ etary Society store. Workers assigned to that area would come back from their shifts with a glazed look, and everyone immediately knew they had been in "the We were a tireless and dedicated black hole for volunteers"-so named force of about 140 volunteers coping because the more people we sent to the with crowds that topped 15,000. We store, the more it seemed to need. And started with the House Dedication on yet many volunteers stayed on past their Wednesday and didn't stop until after assigned time and even came back the the Wrap Party on Sunday. next day. Where did all this support come from? Thursday, many stayed all night to Several weeks prior to Planetfest '89 all help with Voyager Watch through Nep­ California members from San Luis Obis­ tune closest approach, and they were away from the hectic crowd, became a po to San Diego were mailed informa­ back again Friday morning. This Thurs­ very welcome retreat. Here volunteers tion about the events and given the op­ day night bunch started a wall of "volun­ returned from their work assignments, portunity to volunteer for all kinds of teer space art" that just kept getting big­ rested their tired bodies, perhaps added jobs, from security guards to projection­ ger, and zanier, as the weekend drew on. to the art wall and helped consume as ists. Some chose a particular area of in­ Commented one volunteer art critic, "It's many as 14 pizzas a day. terest, and others asked to be assigned like Doonesbury with brain damage." Visitors to our room included many where most needed. Volunteers served as The volunteer room, upstairs and from The Planetary Society's Volunteer Network, and so I had a chance to meet some "old friends" in person for the first each had more than a dozen nations taken as a joint mission with the Euro­ time. Many had come just to attend participating. pean Space Agency. Planetfest but ended up volunteering; we Geoffrey Briggs, Director of NASA's Lew Allen, Director of the Jet Pro­ welcomed fellow volunteers from as far Solar System Exploration Division, pulsion Laboratory, looked "Beyond away as West Germany, Australia and spoke with great optimism about Ameri­ Neptune" in terms of distance as well as the USSR. ca's return to planetary expluration, with time, and talked about the search for It was wonderful to have so many Magellan on its way to a 1990 en­ planets around other stars. He character­ spontaneous volunteers, willing to put in counter at Venus, and with Galileo and ized the search for planets around other a few hours. As one volunteer from Mars Observer scheduled for launch. stars as a key component, along with in­ Canada said, "When you have volun­ While supporting greater international vestigations of our own solar system, in teers coming out of the woodwork, then cooperation in principle, Briggs did not understanding the nature and evolution you know you really have something." make reference to specific missions, ex­ of planetary systems. -Louis D. Fried­ -Marshalle Wells, Volunteer Coordi - cept for Cassini, which is being under- man, Executive Director nator ------.------~ Questions FACTINOS Saturn's moon Titan may not be entire­ ~ ly covered with an ethane ocean, as ~ . some scientists have suggested, but , might have some dry land or icy sur­ face. Researchers at the California ~ / Institute of Technology and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory found variabili­ ties in Titan's surface by bouncing v Answers radar echoes off the moon in June 1989. "Titan is the most interesting, and the most difficult, radar target in the solar system," said Duane O. Muhlman, leader of the research group. He also said, "The surface may resemble oceans and continents, but this is pure speculation." -from the California Institute of I'm fascinated with the prospect of presenting the eerie sounds of Technology viewing movies or videos of Mars' Jupiter and Saturn. If there were a o surface complete with sound. I'm strong scientific requirement for Now arsenic has been added to the poi­ talking about crystal clear pic­ adding sound to the mission, it sonous brew that makes up the atmo­ tures, not the ghost-like television could surely be included. The spheres of Jupiter and Saturn. Keith S. pictures we saw from Apollo 11. Is amount of information that is sent Noll of the University of Arizona re­ such a thing possible? Is it too ex­ back is a very valuable resource. ports that he and his colleagues found pensive? Are there plans for video We have to justify every bit, so arsine gas (AsH3) in the atmospheres cameras like this on any of the up­ sound would compete with the of these gas giants. coming Mars or Venus missions? video, engineering status and all The researchers detected only traces -James L. Beeler, New York, other desirable measurements. of arsine-O.3 to 1.1 parts per billion New York -G. EDWARD DANIELSON, (ppb) in Jupiter and 0.7 to 2.7 ppb in California Institute of Technology Saturn. Although these amounts seem Yes, what you propose is possible. miniscule, they are really quite large. But the lighting conditions, along What if the sensor tail [or Arsenic is only the eighth element and with how much dust is on the lens, "SNAKE" from the Mars balloon] the heaviest detected so far in the two will govern whether you get "crystal becomes snagged under or be­ planets. Noll says the measured quanti­ clear" pictures. The addition of tween a pile of rocks on Mars? ties give insights into the chemistry sound would allow us to use a com­ How would it unsnag itself? and dynamics of the deep atmospheres mercial camera design. There are -Jordan S. Katz, Washington, that can't be studied any other way. several camera designs being dis­ DC -from Sky & Telescope cussed for future Mars missions. o Some of them are included on the We are designing the guide-rope for One of Saturn's strangest-looking rover payloads, some are on instru­ the Mars balloon so that it is as moons is Iapetus, icy-bright on one ment packages connected to bal­ snag-free as possible and testing that side but mysteriously dark on the other. loons and some are designed to take design under many different types of Now Edward A. Cloutis of the Uni­ pictures from orbits. Cameras de­ surface conditions. A design that is versity of Alberta in Edmonton says signed for Venus are not that mature. stiff but somewhat flexible seems to spectral measurements of the dark side We haven't started developing the work very well. This permits the resemble those of tar sands on Earth. technology for our electronics to SNAKE to go across or around ar­ After studying tar sand samples from survive at these very hot tempera­ eas where it might become snagged. northwestern Alberta, Cloutis reported tures [about 900 degrees Fahren­ In wind, it's possible that if the bal­ that the best match for the dark-side heit]. loon sinks too close to the ground spectrum of Iapetus is a mixture of 90 The Mars Observer camera will the SNAKE could become snagged. percent clay and 10 percent coal tar take still pictures from a spacecraft In a later calm, the buoyancy of the representing organic material. Still, orbiting Mars at an average altitude balloon would unsnag the guide­ neither the clay/coal tar mixture nor the of about 360 kilometers (230 miles). rope. However, this is an extremely tar sand provides a perfect spectral To my knowledge, no video/sound risky situation and the mission is match for Iapetus' dark stuff. An iron­ cameras are being planned on any designed to avoid it by either not substituted clay "seems to be a neces­ future mission. The Voyagers, how­ having the balloon sink too close to sary component," according to Cloutis, ever, did record magnetospheric the ground or not letting the guide­ and some amount of a highly polymer­ vibrations in the audio frequency rope snag. ized hydrocarbon improves the spectral range, and the late Fred Scarf of -LOUIS D. FRIEDMAN, The match. 18 TRW produced phonograph records Planetary Society -from Science News by Louis D. Friedman

WASHINGTON, DC-Final congres­ missions-to Mercury, Venus, Mars zation gives the scientists a greater say sional action on the NASA appropria­ and the Moon-which he said Soviet in future missions. Whether the plan tion for fiscal year 1990 came in space authorities were planning for the works in practice remains to be seen. September. Included in the bill was a next two decades. He also described a One mission that seems more con­ new start for the Comet Rendezvous Mars '94 mission somewhat smaller crete than most-because it has been Asteroid Flyby (CRAF)/Cassini. A than the one previously planned. It still described by many officials in many number of organizations that worked included the Mars balloon (on which forums- is Mars '94, although it has on its behalf ought to be congratulated. The Planetary Society is working with been scaled back. The smaller design Foremost is NASA, which staunchly the French space agency) and small lowers the cost and shortens the sched­ supported the mission through all the meteorological stations, but there was ule. debates. Lennard Fisk and others in the to be no rover and no large lander. Fol­ The Mars balloon, being put aboard Office of Space Science and Applica­ lowing Mars '94, Barsukov said, there Mars '94 by the French space agency tions presented the arguments for would be a sample-return mission to (CNES), remains the centerpiece of the CRAF/Cassini extremely well. Mars. In addition, he listed a 1998 mis­ mission. The balloon will survey large The scientists and engineers who sion to Venus with penetrators and a regions of Mars at low altitude, developed and will carry out the two 2002 or 2003 mission to orbit Mercury. stabilized in its flight by an instrument­ missions also deserve congratulations, He also told of Soviet planning for a bearing guide-rope that is being de­ especially project personnel Tobias human-occupied lunar base. signed by The Planetary Society. High Owen of the State University of New Barsukov's presentation surprised above in its twelve-hour orbit, the York and Marcia Neugebauer of the Jet American scientists and seemed to sur­ Phobos-type spacecraft will relay com­ Propulsion Laboratory, and project prise many of the Soviets who had munications from the Mars balloon. manager Ron Draper of the Jet Propul­ accompanied him to the conference. Also planned is a communications link sion Laboratory. The list of missions was not so much between the Soviet Mars balloon and Many groups, and notably The Plan­ an approved plan but more a list of can­ the American Mars Observer. It is now etary Society, conducted both public in­ didate studies that might be approved a major element of mission planning formation and grassroots campaigns. in the future. and should help greatly in the search Particularly effective were the Division To some extent, the inconsistency in for future lander and rover exploration for Planetary Sciences of the American statements on mission planning reflects sites. Astronomical Society and the National uncertainty resulting from democratic Three Soviet space officials- Bar­ Space Society (and their political ac­ reforms in the Soviet Union. Pere­ sukov, Alex Galeev, Director of the tion arm Spacecause). The latter joined stroika and the reorganization of gov­ Space Research Institute, and Roald YIIith us in a combined effort. We wish ernment ministries have called previous Kremnev, Director of the Babakin Cen­ to thank all our members throughout plans into question. Moreover, the ter of Glavkosmos-presented the de­ the country who wrote letters and greater openness in Soviet policy dis­ scription of Mars '94 during the AIAA made phone calls on behalf of CRAF/ cussions enables different groups to conference and at a Mars balloon tech­ Cassini in response to our mailings and advocate missions and present them as nical review with The Planetary Soci­ announcements. plans, although they are only proposals. ety and CNES. However, final project This style of debate is analogous to approval awaits an overall review of MOSCOW AND PASADENA-In what goes on in various NASA and Na­ Mars exploration and completion of an . recent forums, various Soviet space of­ tional Academy of Sciences planning official plan for the next decade. While ficials have spoken about planning for meetings. Mars '94 is regarded as a certainty, it planetary exploration in rather surpris­ Another interesting example of per­ can only be approved as part of the ing terms. One such presentation was estroika, mentioned by several officials, "national Mars program," which is one given at the meeting of the American is the "reversing" of the money flow element in a 14-point science and tech­ Institute of Aeronautics and Astronau­ between science and industry. In prior nology plan ordered by the Supreme tics (AIAA), held in August at the Jet years, industry received money for Soviet. The process is not unlike the Propulsion Laboratory, by Valery Bar­ space missions and then contracted Moon/Mars initiative proposed by sukov, Director of the Vernadsky Insti­ with the Soviet Academy of Sciences President Bush; which is now being tute (he is also the leader of the US/ for support on these missions. It ap­ developed by NASA into a plan for USSR group implementing the space pears that now the Academy will be implementation. cooperation agreement in planetary ex­ awarded money for space missions and ploration). will then contract with industry to build Louis D. Friedman is the Executive Barsukov described a series of new the spacecraft. In theory, this reorgani- Director of The Planetary Society. 19 by Kate Robinett

To part with a Voyager encounter is difficult. Having been carried on the wings of discovery to witness a becom­ ing, the unveiling of a beauty that tran­ scends all that we call familiar. To have been a welcomer of worlds ... How can one soften the reentry from such heights? A party, a celebration. Food. Many of us had forgotten to eat. Who could eat when the universe was being unfurled? Tables heavily laden with dol mas, baklava, roast beef. Our taste buds, seemingly in hibernation during the encounter, suddenly awak­ ened. As did our ears. Encounters, though exhausting, leave you acutely sensitive to the bizarre, the unexplained: our vision, in every sense, and that the Chuck Berry where only a few days legacy of Voyager is hope. before Dan Quayle had stood? What For many in the crowd of 2,000, the strange physical law could account for On the Sunday after encounter, The work of a decade or more was coming this? Why, of course, the interstellar Planetary Society threw a "wrap party" to an end. For everyone it was a time to record that Voyager carries on its crest at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory mall, consider the end of an era. This prose includes Berry's "Johnny B. Goode." ~ith all members of the Voyager Project poem by Kate Robinett gives some idea Only now it was "Voyager Be Good." invited as our honored guests. The cele­ of what that was like. "I've got to get a picture of this!" bration was produced for The Planetary A surprise appearance by Chuck The same hands that only days before Society by Ann Druyan and Geoff Berry blew away any possibility of post­ had grasped the first images of Triton Haines-Stiles. encounter letdown. "Go, Voyager, go," now captured on film another strange Huge helpings of good Armenian sang the legendary rock 'n' roller, adapt­ sight: Famous scientists dancing on food (thanks to planetary favorite Burg­ ing "Johnny B. Goode," his contribution the steps of Building 180. Were we to er Continental), along with some Dix­ to the music on the Voyager interstellar harness this momentum ... ieland music and good old rock 'n' roll, record, as staid scientists boogied. The fuel of the future is joy. put everyone in the mood to celebrate. As a final tribute, The Planetary Soci­ And as we laughed and ate and But mixed in, too, was a tumult of ety presented a brass medal to each of danced and engaged in a myriad of rec­ impressions and feelings about the the men and women of the Voyager Pro­ ollections and revelations, our little Neptune encounter ... ject, so that in years to come they can Voyager continued on with the serious Society President Carl Sagan bade remember with pride not only the business of nudging the heavens to farewell to the Voyagers for us all. His achievements of Voyager but the endur­ awaken the stars. benediction, televised in the US, Japan, ing gratitude and admiration of our the Soviet Union and around the world, members worldwide. -Karl Stull, Kate Robinett is a member of the Voy­ 20 reminded us that the Voyagers extended Copy Editor ager Mission Planning Office. ------:------=---~------

by Carl Sagan

Every human culture has rites of passage. They mark the transition from one stage of life to another. We are gath­ ered here to celebrate Voyager's rite of passage. A machine designed, built and operated here at the Jet Propulsion Lab­ oratory has broken free of the Sun's Columbus. term, benign, visionary, high-technology gravity, explored most of the worlds of Voyager left a planet blighted and im­ endeavors as Voyager, can we not use the solar system and is now on its way periled by nuclear weapons, climatic our technological gifts and long-term to the great dark ocean of interstellar change, poverty and injustice. The vision to put this planet right? space. It carries a phonograph record of species that launched her was a danger Perhaps the Neptune flyby marks not greetings, pictures and the world's great to itself. But Voyager has given us a stir­ just Voyager's rite of passage, but the music to any beings who might en­ ring cosmic perspective. We have seen beginning of our own: the binding up of counter it there. evidence of the destruction and reconsti­ the peoples and nations and generations The men and women responsible are tution of worlds. We have witnessed the to take care of one another, to cherish gathered here. You are heroes of human early building blocks of life assembling the Earth and bravely to venture forth accomplishment. Your deeds will be re­ themselves. But we have found not a -in the footsteps of Voyager-to the membered in the history books. Our re­ trace, not a hint, of life itself. Voyager planets and the stars. mote descendants may live on some of reminds us of the rarity and precious­ the remote worlds first revealed to us by ness of what our planet holds, of our Carl Sagan of Cornell is Distinguished Voyager. If so, they will look back on responsibility to preserve life on Earth. Visiting Scientist at JPL and a member you as we look back on Christopher If we are capable of such grand, long- of the Voyager Imaging Team.

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305 Apollo - photograph of Earth, full disk (16"x20" laser print) $ 8.00 13501 Shutlle Prints - Nine wonderfu l 15571 TPS Sweatshirt - silver 308 Earth at Night (23"x35" poster) $ 6.00 views of the shutt le 50% po lyester/50% cotton blend (S"x10" laser prints) $ 10.00 S M L XL $ 21.00 310 Earthprint - photograph of North America (S"x1 0" laser print) 4.00 PRICE (IN 15581 TPS Sweatshirt - navy blue $ N':,"Se"ERR Other Items DOlLARS) us 50% polyester/50% cotton blend 315 Earthrise - photograph of Earth from S M L XL $ 21.00 the Moon (16"x20" laser print) $ 8.00 505 An Explorer's Guide to Mars (color map of Mars - 26"x40") $ 5.00 550 TPS Bullon - blue with logo $ 1.00 321 Uranus Encounter - 4 pictures of Uranus and its moons $ 4.50 560 The Voyager Spacecraft 555 Starwatcher's Decoder Set $ 35.00 Paper model $ 14.00 322 Jupiter - photograph of sou thern 564 Fannypack - silver &black $ 13.00 515 The Planetary Society Logo - hemisphere (16"x20" laser print) $ 8.00 15651 Coffee Mug - The Planetary Society bookmark (6"x2") dark blue, light blue, whi te 323 Mars - landscape from Viking (2 for $150) $ 1.00 Orbiter (16"x20" laser print) $ 8.00 (specify color) (each) $ 8.00 516 We're Saving Space for You - (set of 3) $ 21.00 324 The New Explorers bookmark (6"x2") 16701 The Planetary Society (22"x34" poster) $ 7.00 (2 for $150) 1.00 $ Cloisonne Pin - gold lettering 325 Other Worlds (23"x35" poster) $ 7.00 15201 Exploring the Universe on black background. $ 4.00 1990 Calendar 8.00 13261 Mars, the Red Planet $ 16741 Gliller Pencils in a Tube 1990 Calendar 15231 Galileo T-Shirt- The Planetary Society logo $ 5.00 . 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~------~.. ------LANDMANNALAUGER- William Hartmann painted this landscape during the US/USSR Space Art Exchange Workshop in Iceland, sponsored by The Planetary Society. "The scene reminded me of the young Earth, in the first one or two billion years, before there were any plants in the landscape, " he says. "Without plants, there are beautiful and intricate patterns of erosion. It's strange to see Earth with abundant flowing water but no plant cover. " William K. Hartmann is a planetary scientist and space artist who lives and works in Tucson, Arizona. He is currently working on a book about the US/USSR Space Art Exchange.

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