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Nationalism in Popular Culture: Critical Discourse Studies on American and Indonesian Films

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Nationalism in Popular Culture: Critical Discourse Studies on American and Indonesian Films Asian Journal of Media and Communication E-ISSN: 2579-6119, P-ISSN: 2579-6100 Volume 4, Number 1, April 2020 Nationalism in Popular Culture: Critical Discourse Studies on American and Indonesian Films Herman Felania, Ida Rochani Adib, Ratno Lukitoc aDoctoral Program of American Studies, Gadjah Mada University, [email protected] bProfessor of American Studies, Gadjah Mada University cProfessor of Law, Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Kalijaga Abstract Many scholars have alarmed the rise of new extreme nationalism in many countries which is actively promoted by some important national and international leaders. This paper examines the discourses of nationalism in popular culture and compares them with the nationalism ideas as promoted by those political leaders. Assuming that popular culture represents the bedrock belief of the society, this study has investigated the ideology of nationalism in 10 American and 10 Indonesian films applying the discourse historical approach from Ruth Wodak and Martin Reisigl. This study has identified nine features of nationalism in American films, i.e. us against them, saving life of Americans versus taking life of enemies, individual versus institutional hero, hero as common people, anti war narratives, individual versus national interest, absence of governmental supports, white as the dominant, and superpower. While six main features of nationalism in Indonesian films are against poverty, against foreign power, against corruption, sacrifice and service for the nation, imagination as a nation, and developing the nation. This study concludes that the discourse of nationalism in American and Indonesian films do not in line with the nationalism ideas as proposed by the politicians or the government. While the politicians are campaigning new hostile nationalism, popular cultures are promoting nationalism with individual freedom and equality, striving for prosperity, and fighting poverty. Keywords: Discourse-Historical Approach; nationalism; new nationalism; popular culture; American film; Indonesian film. 1. Introduction Donald Trump’s victory in the 2016 American presidential election using nationalism issue for The discourse of nationalism has again his campaign (Bonikowski, 2019; Ehmsen & become a popular issue in today’s global political Scharenberg, 2016; Elving, 2018; Rachman, world. Ehmsen & Scharenberg (2016) in a 2018; Whitehead, Perry & Baker, 2018). Another report for the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation in phenomena that show the growing wave of neo- 2016 stated that “right-wing nationalist nationalism are demonstrated by the leaders in populism continues to rise throughout the Russia, Britain, Poland, India, Turkey, Western world”. One indication of the rise of Philippines, China, Japan, and Hungary new nationalism in international politics was 1 Volume 4, Number 1, April 2020, 1-13 (Detrow, 2016; Hirsh, 2016; Kolstø & Nationalism has actually been predicted Blakkisrud, 2016; Poonam, 2020; Postel-Vinay, to be diminished and declining by most experts 2017; Tenold, 2018). Detrow (2016) mentioned (Armstrong, 1982; Gellner, 1983; Hobsbawm, some leaders who clearly show statements and 2000; Kedouri, 1961; Kedouri, 1970; Smith, attitudes as neo-nationalists, including Nigel 1999; Tamir, 1993) and would be replaced by Farage, chair of the UK Independent Party, and liberalism and globalization (Fukuyama, 1992; Boris Johnson who led the Brexit movement; Ohmae, 1995; Tamir, 1993). Calhoun (1997) Marine Le Pen, leader of the French right-wing stated that nationalism has been declared as the party, who supported restrictions of Muslim past and only attracts the attention of the world immigrants from Syria in France; and Viktor when conflicts occur between nations. From the Orban, the Hungarian Prime Minister, who built point of view of Marxism, the future is “to be a wall to restrict the entry of immigrants. Hirsh nationless as was classless and religionless” (2016) explained these global politics as ‘the new (Gellner, 1983). In relation to this projection, nationalist are taking over’, in which movement Harari argued that the future of the world is a against globalization and internationalism in globalized empire ruled by elites from multiple Europe and America using the pretext of ethnicities. Europe, which was the birthplace of strengthening national economy and restricting a nation-state in the late 18th century, at the end the flow of immigration. of the 21st century has become the ‘cemetery’ of the nation-states (Brubaker, 2009). The rise of new nationalism is also triggered by the global pandemic outbreak. The However, the facts show that the end of surprising spread of the corona virus disease nationalism is still far at sight. Formulations and (Covid-19), starting in Wuhan, China in predictions which propose that nationalism has November 2019, has affected more than 200 or will weaken in the modern and global countries and territories. Legrain (2020) said that contexts need to be reviewed problematically. the Covid-19 outbreak was a ‘gift’ for ‘nativist Instead of weakening and disappearing, nationalists’ and ‘protectionists’ who restricted nationalism continues to show extraordinary the movement of people and goods in the form power. Nationalism seems to be the most of travel bans, visa restrictions, and export and successful political ideology in human history import restrictions which could ultimately lead and the most powerful political force (Calhoun, to the death of globalization. At the time of the 1997). plague, various countries adopted policies to Some questions may rise from this new protect their respective countries and set aside awakening of nationalism. Does nationalism international interests (Kirschbaum, King & really promote hostility of a nation against Bernhard, 2020; Rudd, 2020; Vogel, 2020). other? Is xenophobia a main feature of Vogel (2020) stated that the worse impact of the nationalism? Does the discourse of nationalism epidemic is the loss of international from the politicians represent or reflect the spirit philanthropy and the strengthening of of nationalism of the communities or laypersons nationalism which only thinks of the interests of of the nation? This paper is dealing with the each country. Mark Lawrence Schrad (in discourse of nationalism from particular nations, Politico, 2020) mentioned that Covid-19 namely Indonesia and America, as represented pandemic has led to a new form of patriotism. in the popular texts, especially films. In doing Responding this global trend, Nigel Farage so, this paper applies critical perspectives, stated that ‘we are all nationalist now’ especially from the theory of ideology, trying to (Kirschbaum et al., 2020). look at the discourse of nationalism as a very 2 Herman Felani, Ida Rochani Adi & Ratno Lukito, Nationalism in Popular Culture: Critical Discourse Studies on American and Indonesian Films important ideological arena of the nation-state. in Europe using the CDS approach. Reisigl (in Film could be considered as the most Flowerdew & Richardson, 2018: 47) stated that sophisticated cultural product that can develop the Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) and spread very quickly (Celli, 2011). Turner considers discourse analysis not just to be a (2006: 3) argued that “film is a social practice for method of language analysis, but also a its makers and its audience; in its narratives and multidimensional project incorporating theories meanings we can locate evidence of the ways in and methods, methodology and empirically which our culture makes sense of itself”. based research practices that yield concrete social applications. The Discourse-Historical This paper defines ideology from the Approach does not just look at the historical cultural perspective. In this perspective, popular dimensions of discourses, but is more culture should be considered as representing the extensively concerned with the particular areas zeitgeist of our contemporary epoch. According of discourse studies such as discourse and to Storey (2015), “popular culture is simply discrimination, discourse and politics, discourse culture that is widely favored or well-liked by and identity, discourse and history, etc. many people”. Meanwhile, van Dijk (2006) stated that: “Ideologies have both social and In critical discourse analysis, film is cognitive properties which need to be accounted considered as text. In this notion, text analysis is for in integrated theory. Cognitively, ideologies related to the meaning and form of the given are a special kind of social belief systems, stored text. Fairclough (1995: 58) argued: “Analysis of in long-term memory. socially as well as text needs to be multisemiotic analysis in the cognitively, these ideological belief systems are case of the press and television, including socially shared by the members of specific social analysis of photographic images, layout and groups, or ideological communities”. Those overall visual organization of pages, and analysis definitions show the association of popular of film and sound effects. A key issue is how culture with the ideology of the given society, these other semiotic modalities interact with both are shared by the community and have language in producing meanings, and how such broad social and cultural influences. Nachbar & interactions define different aesthetics for Lause (1992: 21) with their concept of ‘house of different media”. Thus, in analyzing films using popular culture’ stated that human daily life is critical discourse analysis, it is necessary
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