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A National Capital Choking in Water an Analysis on the Flooding Problem in Jakarta Utara

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A National Capital Choking in Water an Analysis on the Flooding Problem in Jakarta Utara UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM A national capital choking in water An analysis on the flooding problem in Jakarta Utara Written by: Alexander J. van Dorssen 10253890 Supervisor: Dr. Dennis Arnold Date: 20th of June 2014 Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! Preface This bachelor thesis is the final part of my bachelor Future Planet Studies at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. The bachelor program focuses on changes that are necessary to achieve an environmentally and socially accountable society in the future. The flooding problem in Jakarta Utara is a prime example of a societal problem that needs urgent solving. Having lived in South East Asia for over 10 years, Jakarta Utara presented the perfect study field for me to utilize my academic capabilities that I have gained during my three-year bachelor program. ! ! ! 2! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! Abstract Situated naturally in a low-lying floodplain, Jakarta Utara has always had a history of flooding events. Recent anthropogenic developments, however, have lead to a significant increase in flooding events, the worst of which being in February 2007. The poor people of Jakarta Utara were the worst affected during this flood who mainly reside in the Kecamatan’s Penjaringan and Cilincing. This is mainly due to the fact that they primarily reside in slums along rivers and coastal regions that are particularly vulnerable to flooding. In that same year in November, Jakarta Utara was also confronted by flooding from the sea when a high tide over-topped the sea wall causing high waters up to 1.5m without any rainfall occurring. This was primarily caused by increased land subsidence. To solve the current flooding problems in Jakarta Utara a consortium of Dutch companies have put forward a substantial coastal defence initiative, the NCICD program, which aims to provide a solution for the long- term protection of Jakarta Utara against flooding from the sea by means of building a giant sea wall. However, the complex governance and decentralised decision making in Indonesia hamper the realisation of the program. In addition, the program poses significant challenges to be financed, as the central government does not provide much financial backing and leaves most of the financial sponsoring to the private sector. The urban poor of Jakarta Utara benefit from the NCICD program through increased job opportunities and flood safety. However, the NCICD program does not provide sufficient housing accommodation for the urban poor of Jakarta Utara, as most of the reclaimed land will be sold for profit to developers and richer Indonesians to finance the construction of the sea wall. ! ! ! 3! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! Content Preface 2 Abstract 3 Content 4 1. Introduction 6 1.1 Historical Background 6 1.2 Problem Definition 7 1.3 Context 8 1.4 Research Questions 11 2. Research Methods 12 2.1 Data Collection the 2007 Flooding Problems in Jakarta Utara 12 2.2 Data Collection Dutch Mitigation Strategies 12 3. Theoretical Framework 13 3.1 Social Resilience Theory 13 3.2 Urban Poor Definition 14 4. The 2007 Flooding Problems in Jakarta Utara 15 4.1 General Overview 15 4.2 The six Kecamatan’s of Jakarta Utara 20 4.2.1 Penjaringan 20 4.2.2 Pademangan 20 4.2.3 Tanjung Priok 21 4.2.4 Koja 21 4.2.5 Kelapa Gading 22 4.2.6 Cilincing 22 4.3 A New Type of Flooding in Jakarta Utara 23 4.4 Social Resilience to the Flooding Problem in Jakarta Utara 25 5. Dutch Mitigation Strategies 28 5.1 The Dutch Approach 28 5.2 The NCICD Initiative 29 5.2.1 Urgent Matters 29 5.2.2 Urban Design and Land Reclamation 31 5.2.3 Water Management 32 5.2.4 Social-Economical Aspects and Housing 33 5.2.5 Mobility and Infrastructure 34 5.3 Critique 34 ! ! ! 4! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! 6. Discussion 36 6.1 Decentralisation in Indonesia 36 6.2 Financial Aspects of the NCICD Initiative 37 6.3 Building Resilience for the Urban Poor of Jakarta Utara 38 7. Conclusion 40 Acknowledgements 41 Abbreviations 42 References 43 _____________________________________________________________________ ! ! ! 5! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! 1. Introduction 1.1 Historical Background Due to its naturally flood-prone location and seasonal rainfall intensity, Jakarta has had a long history of coastal and riverine flooding (Ward et al., 2013). The earliest historical records of flooding in Jakarta were found to be from the 5th century AD. Hindu settlers established a trading port in the 5th century AD, which was later named Sunda Kelapa, along the mouth of a river of what is now Jakarta Utara (Steinberg, 2007). The strategic position between the mouth of the river and the Java Sea provided excellent trade opportunities for the settlers. The volcanic soil and sufficient precipitation made the area also agriculturally productive (Cybriwsky & Ford, 2001). However, the settlement was vulnerable to flooding as it was situated in a low-lying river basin with an average elevation of just seven metres (Abidin et al., 2009). An inscription dated from 403 AD tells the story of the digging of an 11km long canal to protect the settlement against flooding (Anggara, 2014). During the Age of Discovery, the Portuguese were the first to trade with Sunda Kelapa. In the 17th century, the Dutch East Indian Trading Company (VOC) largely demolished the established settlements and rebuilt it as Batavia. Instead, they constructed fortified headquarters and warehouses to fulfil their commercial ventures (Cybriwsky & Ford, 2001). To combat the flooding problem the Dutch dug a network of canals much like a geometric matrix that characterises many Dutch cities. Governor General Jan Pieterszoon Coen dreamt that Batavia would one day become the “Amsterdam of the tropics” (Anggara, 2014). Of the many uses that these canals provided, it also served as a solid waste dump of the city, which resulted in widespread outbreaks of malaria (Steinberg, 2007). Batavia remained under Dutch control until December 1949 when it was renamed to Jakarta and became the capital of independent Indonesia (Cybriwsky & Ford, 2001). Since then, Jakarta has undergone massive expansion southwards and into the low-lying areas west and east of the city. The centralisation of the economy during the Suharto regime (1967-1998) drove many low-income Indonesians to the capital (Kurniawati, 2009). Mass-urbanisation ensured that its population ballooned from a mere 0.87 million in 1949 to roughly 9.5 million in 2010 (Firman, 2011). This period also saw the expansion of ‘Kampungs’ in Jakarta: clustered informal settlements severely prone to flooding that are mostly inhabited by the urban poor. It is estimated that 60% of Jakarta urban population currently reside in Kampungs (Steinberg, 2007). ! ! ! 6! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! 1.2 Problem Definition Jakarta changed dramatically during recent decades of rapid economic growth and is simultaneously being shaped in two directions. On the one hand, it is an increasing prosperous modern city with a growing presence in the global economy. On the other hand, Jakarta is confronted with the negative effects of a fast growing population and challenges of providing for poor urban settlers (Cybriwsky & Ford, 2001). With an estimated population in 2011 of approximately 9.5 million people, Jakarta is by far the largest city in South East Asia (Firman, 2011). As of 2011, the metropolitan area of Jakarta, “Jabodetabek”, has a population of almost 28 million, making it one of the largest urban agglomerations in the world (Firman, 2011). Jakarta is a city of extraordinary contrasts between unrelenting poverty and extreme wealth and prosperity. Even though flooding in Jakarta dates back nearly 1600 years, the flooding problems of the last two decades have been at an unprecedented scale. The displacement of 432.000 people in the DKI Jakarta during the flooding of 2007 shows how vulnerable the informal poor communities are to flooding. The flood of 2007 affected 70% of the DKI Jakarta (Daerah Khusus Ibukota) and killed 48 people (Kondisi Banjir, 2007). Although many laws and regulations are in place to deal with the flooding problems in Jakarta, the implementation and law-enforcement is severely lacking (Ward et al., 2013). Firman et al. (2011) state that Jakarta lacks an agency to manage the laws and regulations that are put forward by the government. There is a lack of planning across policy sectors. The Coordinating Body for Jakarta Metropolitan Region Development (BKSP) for example, is tasked to monitor development in the metropolitan region of Jakarta. However, the BKSP has no authority over implementation, which makes it powerless in coordinating development programs (Ward et al., 2013). The flooding problem is at its worst in Northern Jakarta “Jakarta Utara”. Here, the flooding comes from two directions: from the sea and from water accumulation in drainage systems and rivers (Steinberg, 2007). Potential sea level-rise, high tides and land subsidence are at the heart of the flooding related problems from the sea. In some areas in Jakarta Utara, subsidence rates are between 20-25 centimetres a year (Abidin et al., 2009). The accumulation of water in drainage systems and rivers in Jakarta Utara is partly natural and partly man-made. The wet season runs from December to May with the most intense rainfall occurring during the months of January and February (Brinkman & Hartman, 2008). Past flooding problems in Jakarta Utara, most often occurred during these months. High intensity short rainfall storms cause quick accumulation of water along the Ciliwung River and other distributary canals that flow into the Jakarta Bay (Brinkman & Hartman, 2008). Along these water canals and ! ! ! 7! Flooding in Jakarta Utara ! coastal areas, the majority of the city’s urban poor illegally reside, often living in poorly built houses (Wagemaker et al., 2011).
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